












































Georgia Journal of Literacy 
2024, Vol. 46(2), pp. 50–64 
https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.166 
ISSN: 2833-7611 

   
Teaching Tips 

   
 

 

CONTACT Dr. Adam C. Whitaker, Instructional Designer, Elevate Achievement Educational Services, Atlanta, GA; 
email elevateachievement@gmail.com. 
 

Teaching Vocabulary in Meaningful and 
Memorable Ways: Explicit Instruction in the 
English Classroom 
 
Adam C. Whitaker  
Elevate Achievement Educational Services, Atlanta, GA 

 
ABSTRACT 

This article discusses the importance of facilitating explicit vocabulary instruction in 
the English Language Arts (ELA) classroom. Vocabulary research on best practices 
suggests that explicit instruction can potentially increase student learning outcomes. 
The discussion begins with research on effective instruction, identifying words to 
teach, and ends by providing practical strategies that can be used in the ELA 
classroom. 

KEYWORDS 

direct vocabulary 
instruction; 
explicit 
vocabulary 
instruction; 
vocabulary 
pedagogy 

 
As a storyteller, words are my endless supply of inspiration, my palette of splendid 
colors, my toolbox filled with everything I need. Words are . . . the shyness of a 
fawn’s breath, the sobbing at a pet’s death, the last cracker in the box, the gloriously 
tailed fox, the sweet fullness of cantaloupe, the faith it takes to have hope, the bridge 
that crosses every sea, the steppingstones to you from me. (Fresch & Harrison, 
2020, pp. x–xi) 

 
resch and Harrison (2020) assert that words are a powerful tool used by storytellers. Words 
can inspire. Words can illustrate ideas. Words can articulate complex emotions and 
dispositions. But, most of all, words can serve as connectors between people. During my 

time as an English Language Arts (ELA) teacher at the middle and high school levels, my students 
struggled with academic vocabulary. I wanted, better yet, I needed to devise a plan to support 
students in learning academic vocabulary in meaningful and memorable (Allen, 2007) ways. Like 
the storyteller mentioned above, I wanted my students to realize the dynamic and eloquent 
potential that words possess. More importantly, I wanted to: (a) build my students’ academic 
vocabulary, and (b) engage them in explicit vocabulary instruction to develop their vocabulary 
knowledge.  

During my secondary school experiences, vocabulary instruction was facilitated in the 
following fashion: On Mondays, we read and copied definitions of vocabulary words on notebook 
paper. On Tuesdays, we were to use each word in a sentence. On Wednesdays and Thursdays, the 
words lingered awkwardly on the outskirts of the chalkboard. And on Fridays, we completed an 
oral spelling test of all the words. Then, something odd happened; the words returned to the 
dictionary from whence they came. To a great degree, these mundane and low-engagement 
instructional approaches enabled me to become adept at copying words from scuffed dictionaries. 
However, to deliver rich, meaningful, and effective vocabulary instruction, teachers must adopt 

F 

mailto:elevateachievement@gmail.com


Whitaker 51 
 

   
 

multiple dynamic activities. Students will benefit more from rigorous and repetitious instruction 
than from haphazardly studying hundreds of words from simple lists and definition charts. 

In this article, I describe intentional, meaningful, and explicit strategies for teaching 
vocabulary that can catalyze effective instruction. This article discusses the classroom context of 
my work, defines memorable and meaningful vocabulary instruction, explains how to identify 
vocabulary words, and provides a depiction of explicit vocabulary instruction in action. 
 
Classroom Context 
One of the primary considerations in developing a process for vocabulary instruction required me 
to consider the students in my classroom. As an 18-year educator, I have worked in some 
challenging Title 1 schools in Texas. Most of the students I served were multiple years below grade 
level, they struggled with academic vocabulary, they were culturally and linguistically diverse, 
and, on average, at least 40% of my students each year were considered multilingual learners. 
Because of the diverse composition of my classroom, I wanted to provide meaningful and 
memorable (Allen, 2007) vocabulary instruction that pushed students to do more than copy words 
and definitions from dictionaries. Throughout my teaching career, I developed research-based 
assignments to build students’ vocabulary knowledge and skills. In this paper, I discuss a few of 
these strategies and how they can be leveraged in the ELA classroom. 
 
Meaning and Memorable Vocabulary Instruction 
According to Allen (2007), current vocabulary instruction practices are ineffective. She maintained 
that in some classrooms, vocabulary instruction consists of students copying words from the 
dictionary and writing sentences with selected words. Allen further explained that students need 
memorable and meaningful approaches to vocabulary instruction that involve more than just giving 
students word lists. Additionally, Scott et al. (2008) explain that students’ ability to use vocabulary 
in their writing does not happen without intentional vocabulary instruction.  
 Lane and Allen (2010) postulate that direct vocabulary instruction is needed as an everyday 
literacy practice. The authors maintain that students do not come to school with adequate 
vocabulary knowledge and for students from diverse backgrounds, there is a difference in 
vocabulary knowledge. Lane and Allen further explain that the vocabulary knowledge gap will 
continue to expand for students who lack adequate vocabulary knowledge. Ford-Connors and 
Paratore (2015) agreed with the claim that vocabulary knowledge is an important part of literacy 
development. They stated, 

If young people are to succeed in a world that is dominated by ever-changing digital 
technologies, and accordingly new literacies, and ever-growing competition in a 
global economy, they will need to acquire and maintain high levels of literacy skill 
and analytical ability. (p. 50) 
Some scholars articulated the importance of vocabulary instruction for reading 

comprehension and writing development (e.g., Elleman et al., 2019; Harmon & Wood, 2018). 
Harmon and Wood (2018) discussed that vocabulary instruction is vital for reading 
comprehension. To build students’ vocabulary, the authors suggest pre-teaching key academic 
words before reading a text and providing assignments where students use new vocabulary in 
writing activities. Alternatively, Elleman et al. (2019) stated that vocabulary instruction is 
significant for overall language development, and there is a positive relationship between 
vocabulary instruction and building students writing capacity. When teachers provide students 



52 Georgia Journal of Literacy 46(2)  
 

   
 

with the opportunity to use new vocabulary in writing essays and persuasive paragraphs, these 
practices have the potential to increase reading comprehension and writing skills. They further 
reported that when children better understand oral and written discourse, they can better express 
their experiences and thoughts in conversations and writing. Conversely, Fresch and Harrison 
(2020) argue that vocabulary development is important for both reading and writing. The 
researchers suggest that teachers must face the challenge of teaching students vocabulary words 
they will need to be effective readers and writers. They advocate for using vocabulary instruction 
to empower students’ knowledge of words in different and engaging ways. 
 
Identifying Words to Teach 

Other researchers (Fisher & Frey, 2014; McKeown et al., 2012; Quigley & Coleman, 2019) 
documented the significance of teaching tiers of vocabulary, and they submit that this intentional 
approach can potentially increase learning outcomes. McKeown et al. (2012) reported that tier 1 
words are words used in everyday speech (i.e., book, girl, sad, talk), tier 2 words are general 
academic words that appear in informational, technical, and literary texts (i.e. exacerbate, 
uproarious, exotic, robust), and tier 3 words are domain-specific words and are specific to a domain 
or field of study (i.e. quadratic formula, waning crescent, linear plot, colonialism). The authors 
further claim that tier 2 words have a wider application for reading a variety of texts. Thus, tier 2 
words should be a primary target for vocabulary instruction.  

Fisher and Frey (2014) acknowledge the benefit of providing direct instruction of tier 2 
vocabulary words. In their paper, the authors reviewed the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 
in Reading and Language Arts and suggested that for students to meet the cognitive level of these 
standards, students will need extensive practice with words. They stated, “Clearly, the architects 
of the standards wanted to ensure that students learn a lot of words and phrases and know how to 
mobilize this knowledge as they read and write” (p. 595). Even though Texas has not adopted the 
CCSS, there is an explicit focus on building students’ vocabulary knowledge and skills as indicated 
by the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). Similarly, Quigley and Coleman (2019) 
assert that students should receive instruction for both tier 2 and tier 3 words as students will be 
unfamiliar with academic and domain-specific vocabulary. They also advance that these tiers of 
words should be carefully selected and aligned to vocabulary instructional strategies across all 
content disciplines. 
 
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction in Action  
The initial step in developing vocabulary instruction for my classroom involved selecting tier 2 
vocabulary from Levine’s (1994) Vocabulary for the High School Student. The words featured in 
this text are words my students would encounter on the State of Texas Assessment of Academic 
Readiness (STAAR). Additionally, Levine’s work is considered a seminal resource in vocabulary 
instruction, and the words selected from the book continue to appear on district, state, and national 
tests (i.e., NWEA, Accuplacer, Advance Placement). 

Equally important, I leveraged the TEKS to identify vocabulary standards students must 
master as they matriculate through high school. Table 1 provides the TEKS aligned to my explicit 
instruction process. 
  



Whitaker 53 
 

   
 

Table 1: Vocabulary Standards 

Grade-Level Focus Standard 

9th Grade Dictionary Skills 

Use print or digital resources such as glossaries 
or technical dictionaries to clarify and validate 
understanding of the precise and appropriate 
meaning of technical or discipline-based 
vocabulary. 

9th Grade Context Clues Analyze context to distinguish between the 
denotative and connotative meanings of words. 

Note. Most of my experience has been at the middle and high school levels. I have used this 
instructional process for grades eighth through tenth. I used ninth-grade standards to show 
how the strategies I will describe align to one of the grade levels I have taught. 

After the standards were identified, the following components were unpacked for each 
standard: (1) standard content vocabulary (tier 3 vocabulary) and (2) verbs. The standard 
vocabulary was identified because it was important to understand the content terms that students 
needed to know to master the standard. Meanwhile, identifying the verbs in the standard was 
essential to ensure that the vocabulary activities were aligned with the cognitive level of the TEKS. 

Next, mastery objectives or learning targets were created for each standard to capture the 
vocabulary skills and knowledge students were expected to master. Laidlaw-Almaguer (2012) and 
Moore et al. (2015) insist that beginning with academic standards is one of the first steps to 
planning assignments for students. Moore et al. (2015) described that “Learning targets drive what 
is taught, to include all activities, assignments, and assessments that occur during lessons and 
units” (p. 9). In this vein, unpacking standards was vital for developing instruction for vocabulary 
standards students needed to master on formative and summative assessments. 
 
The Vocabulary Process 

Day 1: Working with Context Clues. For 36 weeks, 18 weeks per semester, students 
engaged with explicit vocabulary instruction. Five words were selected each week, with one bonus 
word per week. On day one, students were introduced to five vocabulary words through a Do Now 
(Lemov et al., 2016) entitled, Working with Context Clues. Research scholars advised that building 
both definitional and contextual information about words is an efficient strategy for building 
student vocabulary knowledge (McKeown, 2019; Wright & Cervetti, 2017). According to Lemov 
et al. (2016), a Do Now can be used to review content from a recent lesson or for students to 
practice with standards they have mastered. Using a Do Now to develop vocabulary skills provided 
students an opportunity for repetitive practice by using context clues to determine the meaning of 
unknown words.  

The Working with Context Clues assignment required students to read each sentence and 
put a box around the context clues. Then, students determined the definition and wrote it in their 
own words (see Figure 1). Students were given five minutes to complete the Do Now and the 
answers were reviewed using whole class instruction. If the class did not identify the correct 
definition of the word, they were given the option to use the dictionary to determine the meaning. 
It was required for students to answer at least four of the context clues questions. The bonus word 
was not covered in class. Instead, students were required to identify the context clues and 
determine the word’s meaning on their own in preparation for the assessment at the end of the 
week. 



54 Georgia Journal of Literacy 46(2)  
 

   
 

Figure 1: Working with Context Clues 

 
 
After the Do Now was reviewed with the class, students wrote the vocabulary words on index 
cards. On the front side of the index card, students wrote the words, and then on the back side of 
the card, students wrote the definition in their own words. In some cases, students provided a visual 
representation connected to the vocabulary word (see Figure 2). Each student was issued a 2-inch 
binder ring to attach their vocabulary words. The purpose of this strategy was for students to build 
a study tool to support them in learning the vocabulary words of the week. Alternatively, if students 
had access to technology, programs like Quizlet or Padlet were used to create note cards as well. 

Research on best practices in vocabulary instruction suggests that providing students 
opportunities to analyze context clues, discuss the meaning of words, engage with new words in 
different contexts, and assess student word learning are efficient routines to build students’ 
vocabulary knowledge (Pennsylvania Training and Technical Network, 2021). Interestingly, Ford-
Connors and Paratore (2015) synthesized qualitative research on increasing the vocabulary 
knowledge of young adolescents. One of the strategies discussed in their work was using context 
clues to build students’ word knowledge. The authors emphasized that teaching students how to 
use context clues can support students at various levels in learning new words. 
  



Whitaker 55 
 

   
 

Figure 2: Vocabulary Note Cards 

 

Day 2: Working with Synonyms and Antonyms. On day two, students completed the 
assignment entitled, Working with Synonyms and Antonyms. Students identified both synonyms 
and antonyms for the vocabulary words and created an original sentence with the synonym for 
each word of the week (see Figure 3). 
  



56 Georgia Journal of Literacy 46(2)  
 

   
 

Figure 3: Working with Synonyms and Antonyms 

 

The instructional approach of connecting vocabulary words to synonyms and antonyms is 
aligned with the work of Dorothy Frayer. Frayer and colleagues (1969) developed the Frayer 
Model to support students in learning about key concepts. The model consists of defining a term, 
identifying the characteristics of the term, and providing examples and non-examples. Examples 
or synonyms of the word support students in using words with the same definition. In contrast, 
antonyms or non-examples support students in understanding what the word is not. 

In the same way, other researchers (Crosson & Lesaux, 2013; Phillips et al., 2008) 
advanced the notion that using synonyms is an effective approach for building student word 
knowledge. Beach et al. (2015) described the various methods a U.S. History teacher used to enact 
vocabulary instruction in his self–contained special education class. The authors suggest that 
providing instruction that challenges students to identify synonyms and use them in sentences can 
serve as a scaffold to build students’ vocabulary knowledge. Blachowicz and Fisher (2004) 



Whitaker 57 
 

   
 

explained that synonym webs, feature analysis, and teaching students’ antonyms help them set 
clear parameters in meaning and understanding how the dimensions or features of words differ. 
 

Day 3: Work with Personal Connections. On day three, students were required to make 
personal connections with the words of the week. Students identified an object, person, or 
profession connected to the vocabulary word (see Figure 4). Then, students wrote a sentence with 
the word using one of the previously mentioned connections. Shanahan (2005) described that 
integrating real-life examples connected to vocabulary words supports students in making 
connections with words. Bromley (2007) found that one way for students to learn new words is to 
make associations. He further explains that students can learn new words because of the 
connections made with their schema. Comparably, Faulkner (2010) reported the benefits of 
increasing students’ usability of vocabulary words in persuasive writing. The authors discovered 
that “when students’ brains are actively engaged in discussion, discovering, and demonstrating, 
then the words and their representative meanings become more permanent, visible, and 
understandable” (p. 114). 
 
Figure 4: Working with Personal Connections 

 



58 Georgia Journal of Literacy 46(2)  
 

   
 

Kelley et al. (2010) also reiterated the value of making personal connections to target 
vocabulary words. The researchers stated that to “maximize student attachment and vocabulary 
growth, students need to be personally connected” (p. 12). They further insisted that for students 
to build personal connections with vocabulary words, they need to engage with topics and texts 
that reflect their world. Overall, research shows that connecting vocabulary instruction to students’ 
schema through real-life examples (Shanahan, 2005), personal association and connections 
(Bromley, 2007), and persuasive writing (Kelley et al., 2010) has the potential to build students’ 
word knowledge. 
 
Independent Practice 

After students were exposed to the instruction during class time, it was essential for students to 
practice with vocabulary for homework to further cement their word learning. Wilson (2017) 
expressed that after students appear to understand the new material they should be allowed to apply 
or practice using the new information. Therefore, students were given the option to choose an 
assignment from a vocabulary menu (see Figure 5) to practice with the new vocabulary words they 
were learning in class. Vocabulary assignments were assigned based on ability and interest. The 
assignments provided for students included but were not limited to the Vocabulary Comic Strip 
(see Figure 6), Vocabulary Cinquain (see Figure 7), and Vocabulary Padlet (see Figure 8). 

To complete the Vocabulary Comic Strip, students created a fictional story with the 
vocabulary words for the week. Then, students created the original comic strip on construction or 
white paper 8.5 by 11 inches. The Vocabulary Cinquain assignment required students to create a 
five-line poem. At the top of the poem, students wrote the vocabulary word. On line one, students 
wrote a synonym for the vocabulary word. On line two, students wrote two words that described 
the word with the word in the center. On line three, students identified three professions that 
connected with the word. On line four, students wrote a sentence with the word, and on line five, 
students wrote an antonym for the word. To complete the Vocabulary Padlet, students created four 
cards. One card for each word of the week. On the first card, students created a voice note 
pronouncing and spelling a word. Secondly, students created a card with a visual representation 
and sentence connected to a word. On the third card, students wrote the etymology, past tense, and 
synonym of a word. On the last card, students wrote the meaning, antonym, and sentence for a 
word.  

Shostak (2002) and Bromley (2007) stated that students need multiple exposures to a word 
to build their word knowledge. Harmon et al. (2010) echoed this sentiment and asserted that “it 
takes meaningful encounters with word meanings in a variety of contexts for students to internalize 
word knowledge” (p. 106). As a result, the vocabulary instruction in my class converged around 
providing students multiple exposures to practice with new vocabulary and meaningful encounters 
that aligned with their schema. 
  



Whitaker 59 
 

   
 

Figure 5: Vocabulary Assignment Menu 

 

  



60 Georgia Journal of Literacy 46(2)  
 

   
 

Figure 6: Vocabulary Comic Strip  

 
  



Whitaker 61 
 

   
 

Figure 7: Vocabulary Cinquain Strategy  

 
 
Figure 8: Vocabulary Padlet  

 

Assessment  

Throughout the week, the context clues (Day 1), synonyms and antonyms (Day 2), and personal 
connections (Day 3) served as formative assessments to monitor students’ vocabulary learning. 
Moreover, the independent practice activities were designed to prepare students for the vocabulary 
test at the end of the week. On Friday, students were given a vocabulary assessment. Students were 
required to spell and use the words in a sentence in the correct context. Meanwhile, if students 
wanted to earn extra credit on the assessment, they were required to spell the bonus word correctly 
and use it in a sentence (see Figure 9). The purpose of the assessment was for students to use the 



62 Georgia Journal of Literacy 46(2)  
 

   
 

words in a sentence in the correct context and demonstrate a deeper level of thinking and 
understanding about the words of the week that extended beyond memorization and matching 
(Moore, 2014). 
 
Figure 9: Vocabulary Assessment 

 

Conclusion 
Ultimately, this article does not cover the countless possibilities for facilitating explicit vocabulary 
instruction. Many of our students come to school and do not have the academic vocabulary needed 
to read and comprehend complex texts. Our students need vocabulary instruction that is 
meaningful and memorable (Allen, 2007). When teachers engage in explicit instruction, students 
will begin to use words to articulate complex emotions. They will begin to express critical thoughts 
and reflections filled with language that befits their ideas. But, most of all, students will begin to 
understand that they can use words: to inspire others, to inspire themselves, and to express their 
dreams for today and the future. 
 
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Blachowicz, C. L., & Fisher, P. (2004). Vocabulary lessons. Educational Leadership, 61(6), 66–
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Bromley, K. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary 
instruction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 50(7), 528–537. https://doi.org/10.15
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Crosson, A. C., & Lesaux, N. K. (2013). Does knowledge of connectives play a unique role in the 
reading comprehension of English learners and English‐only students? Journal of Research 
in Reading, 36(3), 241–260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2011.01501.x 

Elleman, A. M., Oslund, E. L., Griffin, N. M., & Myers, K. E. (2019). A review of middle school 
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594–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1258 

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Fresch, M. J., & Harrison, D. L. (2020). Empowering students’ knowledge of vocabulary: Learning 
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Pennsylvania Training and Technical Assistance Network. (2021). Effective strategies for teaching 
academic vocabulary. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. https://www.pattan.net/Publi
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instruction. Reading Improvement, 45(2), 62–68. 

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instruction that impacts text comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2), 203–226. 
https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.163 

 
Received: July 9, 2024 | Accepted: October 27, 2024 | Published: November 15, 2024 

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https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED612217
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https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.163

	Classroom Context
	Meaning and Memorable Vocabulary Instruction
	Identifying Words to Teach
	Explicit Vocabulary Instruction in Action
	Table 1: Vocabulary Standards
	The Vocabulary Process
	Figure 1: Working with Context Clues
	Figure 2: Vocabulary Note Cards
	Figure 3: Working with Synonyms and Antonyms
	Figure 4: Working with Personal Connections

	Independent Practice
	Figure 5: Vocabulary Assignment Menu
	Figure 6: Vocabulary Comic Strip
	Figure 7: Vocabulary Cinquain Strategy
	Figure 8: Vocabulary Padlet

	Assessment
	Figure 9: Vocabulary Assessment


	Conclusion
	References

