







































Using Choral Reading with Students with Exceptionalities to Improve Reading Fluency 

 

Reading is one of the requirements that enhances individuals’ ability of adaptation to social 

life and fulfilment of their needs (Kodal & Akyol, 2018). From engendering listening and 

speaking skills in very young children, to the shepherding of young learners toward “beginning” 

reading and writing, educators use what they know to assist in the emergence of capable and 

enthusiastic readers. Individuals use the reading skills learned from childhood to engage in the 

active process that builds new learning by combining new information with current knowledge 

(Mokhtari, Neel, Kaiser, & Le, 2015) and hopefully, a path of enjoyment throughout one’s 

lifespan.  

Kodel and Akyol (2018), who describe the five basic elements of reading as sound 

awareness, phonemic awareness, word recognition, reading comprehension, and fluent reading, 

agree that reading fluency contributes significantly to the reading success of learners of all ages. 

Students with varying abilities, including students with exceptionalities, increasingly receive a 

majority of their reading instruction in general classrooms (Schmidt, Rozendal, & Greeman, 

2002), making the adoption of effective teaching methodologies to ensure that all students make 

adequate progress in all academic areas especially crucial. Increasingly, teachers of striving 

readers have come to realize that a foundational problem for learners is the ability to read sight 

words, decode words, and read phrases and sentences automatically and rapidly (Ming & Dkes, 

2008). These skills are crucial for learning content at all education levels, including primary, 

intermediate, middle grades, and secondary, the significance of which will have a resounding 

impact on future learning and academic achievement, particularly among students with 

exceptionalities (Rasinski & Young, 2017).  How these skills may be achieved for students with 

exceptionalities through choral reading is the topic of this paper. 

In my preparation program to become a general educator, I was taught the primacy of 

reading for increased academic achievement of all children. At least 18 hours of reading courses 

were required in my undergraduate program, which included literacy development, relevant 

practica, and special education courses that drew me into the world of exceptionality, dyslexia, 

and the full array of perceptual and conceptual disabilities and corresponding etiologies, 

including the evidence-based teaching practices that were most effective with children with 

exceptionalities. Providing specialized learning experiences to students with disabilities became 

my goal as a general education teacher, and, gradually realizing my heart as a special educator, I 

obtained a Master’s degree in special education. I spent the majority of my teaching years as a 

special education teacher, learning disabilities learning specialist, and speech and language 

specialist. Throughout my teaching career, I found myself engaged in teaching reading to all my 

students. It wasn’t, however, until I began supervising student teachers in a preservice special 

education preparation program during my doctoral program in curriculum and instruction, that I 

began to read about use of choral reading in my supervisee’s reflections - and the success, albeit 

anecdotal, that they were having with their reluctant readers, most of whom exhibited or were 

diagnosed with some form of specific learning disability - as an intervention for students 

receiving specialized reading instruction. It seems reasonable now, as a preparer of special 

education teachers, to reinvestigate the possibilities afforded by choral reading as an 

intervention for students with exceptionalities. As the literature that follows will reveal, choral 

reading has remained a vehicle for helping striving readers increase reading fluency and may 

play a role in today’s classrooms in building reading proficiency among students with 

exceptionalities.  

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Strategies Addressing Fluency Difficulties 

In the United States, a significant number of learners struggle to achieve fluency in 

reading (Rasinski & Young, 2017). More than an academic frill, fluency is a necessary requisite 

for acquisition of critical reading skills, including increased rate of reading comprehension, word 

recognition, and academic achievement among both striving (Block, 2019) readers and students 

with exceptionalities (Begency, Levy, & Field, 2017; Feldman, Feighan, Kirtcheva, & Heeren, 

2012; Guerin & Murphy, 2015; Mehigan, 2020; Merimee, 2017; Park, Kiely, Brownell, & 

Benedict, 2019; Vaughn, Solis, Miciak, Taylor, & Fletcher, 2016; Wood, 2020). Fluent reading,                                                                                                         

recognized as reading words correctly, fast, and automatically without additional effort (Kodan 

& Akyol, 2018; Rasinski & Young, 2017), is related to many aspects of reading. It includes both 

word recognition and vocalization. Additionally, it is determined by oral reading, a skill many 

striving readers feel reluctant to try. Reading fluency requires skills such as expression, clarity, 

accuracy, and speed.  

Two instructional strategies for improving fluency, silent reading and Round Robin 

Reading (RRR) have not led to increased reading fluency as practitioners have traditionally 

expected (Vaughn, Solis, Miciak, Taylor, & Fletcher, 2016). Silent reading cannot provide the 

teacher with an accurate accounting of what meaning the learner is gleaning and the requirement 

to read aloud to classmates as in Round Robin Reading, can put striving readers and those with 

exceptionalities in a stressful position by displaying their disfluent reading skills in front of 

others. As Hasbrouck (2007) avers: 

When children read too slowly or haltingly, the text devolves into a broken 

string of words and/or phrases; it's a struggle just to remember what's been read, 

much less extract its meaning. So it's important that teachers determine if their 

students' fluency is at a level appropriate for their grade. If not, how should it be 

developed? If a student is appropriately fluent for her grade level, how does a 

teacher help maintain that student's fluency? And, how does a teacher make 

these determinations? (p. 2).                                                                     

Repeated reading, the re-reading of short, meaningful paragraphs until student reaches a 

satisfactory level of fluency, has also been used to assist both striving and accomplished readers 

alike. During this activity, the accomplished reader begins by reading text orally to the striving 

reader, and then the striving reader reads the text aloud. The good reader corrects the mistakes 

when the other vocalizes the text. In this way, striving readers develop both fluent reading and 

comprehension skills (Mutia, 2018; Paige, 2011; Rohmah, 2019). While this “parroting” process 

may prove successful for some learners, as in Round Robin Reading, it also can make striving 

readers and those with exceptionalities uneasy by putting their disfluent reading skills on full 

display. The student is still reading solo before a more accomplished reader and unprotected 

from criticism, no matter how constructive it is or how gently it is offered. The purpose of any 

strategy should be to encourage reading and the enjoyment that comes from it. When an 

emergent or striving reader’s confidence is disrupted, it could lead to uneven skill achievement 

making reading a seemingly unattainable goal (Paige, 2011). Helping younger students develop 

proficiency in word recognition, reading fluency, and ultimately comprehension, while using 

whole class strategies that aim to create a meaningful context for inclusive literacy education, 

may lead to greater reading success.                                                                                                       

 Choral reading, a reading strategy that involves two or more students reading a passage in 

unison, where striving readers following the reading model provided by more proficient readers 

in a group, has long been recognized as a vehicle for improving fluency among students with 

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exceptionalities (Kodal, & Akyol, 2018). This instructional strategy, which is the topic of this 

paper, provides the interpersonal modeling needed by learners with exceptionalities, while 

providing a safe space for internalization of fluency skills to occur.                                                                   

Conceptual Framework                                                                                                                

 The conceptual intricacies of choral reading, an instructional strategy for improving 

reading fluency, may be explained through a theoretical framework based on the work of 

Vygotsky (1978) and Wertsch (1985; 1991). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 

is often applied to educational phenomena to explain the gains that students (and adults) are able 

to cognitively achieve when engaged in learning with a more knowledgeable other, who takes on 

a modeling role. Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of socio-cultural learning hold that learning takes 

place on two cognitive planes – the interpersonal and intrapersonal planes of cognition. The 

interpersonal plane of cognition is characterized by a verbal interchange between two or more 

individuals. An example would include two individuals having a conversation where information 

is exchanged while both are engaged in active listening. The intrapersonal plane of cognition is 

characterized as the process of “internal” learning, when new understanding is gained as a result 

of verbalized information that is intercepted, internally mediated and manipulated, and 

eventually given meaning. It is here where and Vygotsky’s (1978) and Wertsch’s (1991) theories 

intersect. Wertsch (1985) posited that learners use cultural or mediational tools in gaining 

understanding. These tools shape both social (i.e., interpersonal) and individual (i.e., 

intrapersonal) processes. Appropriating these processes is language and/or “voice.” When 

applied to the process of choral reading, we can postulate that both interpersonal and 

intrapersonal planes of cognition are taking place. During choral reading, students of varying 

reading abilities are engaging in a social, yet simultaneously personal, level of oral reading. Oral 

reading, embodied as interpersonal speech happens during the initial phase, followed by 

intrapersonal speech, where the mind manipulates and mediates the speech intercepted by the 

learner. The social nature of oral, or choral reading, therefore, can provide a mediational means 

that can shape the social and individual processes that are receptive to reading fluency.                                                                                                                      

Unique Struggles for Students with Exceptionalities                                                                   

 The variables that affect a learner’s acquisition of language pose significantly higher 

challenges to students with exceptionalities, particularly those with specific auditory and/or 

verbal disabilities, as well as those lacking integrity in the areas of auditory comprehension, 

auditory memory, auditory discrimination, sequencing, and/or closure, and phonemic awareness. 

These difficulties manifest in the classroom in the learner experiencing difficulty in 

comprehending oral directions, putting meaning to stories read to him/her and developing sound-

symbol relationships, a critical prerequisite for beginning readers. Children with specific learning 

disabilities that affect language development and usage cannot read what they are unable to sense 

and perceive. The result is interruption in reading fluency, frequently observed as slow, labored, 

and staccato-like decoding, and comprehension difficulties. As Stevens, Walker, and Vaughn 

(2016) remind us, “When word recognition is slow and labored, cognitive load is occupied at the 

expense of understanding text” (p. 1).                                                                                    

 Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2005) provide a biological explanation for reading fluency 

difficulty as related to dyslexia, which they describe as a “disorder within the language system 

and more specifically within a particular subcomponent of that system, phonological processing” 

(p. 1). They refer to magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, as providing evidence of a 

neurobiological “signature” for dyslexia, specifically a disruption of two left hemisphere 

posterior brain systems, one parieto-temporal, the other occipito-temporal. They cite evidence 

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging


that indicates that the left occipito-temporal system is responsible for the development of fluent 

(automatic) reading (p. 1), a key component in the development of reading comprehension. Low 

auditory memory, particularly among students with dyslexia, compromises the student’s ability 

to answer comprehension questions, grasp a selection’s main idea, and sequence events – skills 

associated with higher order thinking and inferential thinking (Torgesen & Hudson, 2006). 

Effective central auditory processing skills are needed for learners to recall details in oral and 

written verbal assignments, draw inferences from what has been read, and grasp the meaning of 

written material before the read to the end of a sentence, paragraph, or chapter. Combined with 

low visual memory, visual sequencing, and visual closure, central auditory processing difficulties 

often lead to the learner’s inability to recognize and pair letters with sounds and blend sounds 

into words, negatively impacting his/her ability to read, either silently or aloud. When a learner is 

unable to recall a symbol, sound, or word he has just seen, reading orally or silently becomes a 

monumental task, leading to disturbances in revisualization which affect spelling and writing in 

addition to reading (Reutzel, 2015). In the absence of auditory and/or visual integrity, auditory 

and visual processing generally is compromised, affecting not only phonemic awareness and 

acquisition, but reading fluency as well. For children with exceptionalities, other variables that 

compromise reading fluency, including environments in which learners have not received 

appropriate reading instruction, feel unsafe to take risks, or experience a climate of distrust, 

unfairness and non-acceptance of mistakes, only exacerbate their challenges and often lead to 

reading avoidance due to unsuccessful reading performance (Damico et al., 2009).                                                                                                                        

Choral Reading for Students with Exceptionalities                                                                     

 For students with exceptionalities who are striving readers, the benefits of choral reading 

may be even greater than for their typically developing peers (Merimee, 2017). Authors agree 

that choral reading increases reading fluency among culturally and linguistically diverse learners 

as well as those with exceptionalities (Paige, 2011; Raddi, 2018; Rasinski & Young, 2017; 

Turner, 2010, 2012), and the evidence appears to be growing internationally (Itani, 2017; Kodal 

& Akyol, 2018; Mutia, 2018; Nasution, Zulkarnain, & Suhariyanti, 2020; Rohmah, 2019). For 

students who are culturally or linguistically diverse, choral reading provides opportunities for 

learners to benefit from modeling by a more knowledgeable other (Vygotsky, 1978). Choral 

reading strategies appear to work well for increasing fluency among culturally and linguistically 

diverse learners, along with initial instruction in English, highly contextualized experiences, 

varied opportunities for practice, and peer assisted learning strategies. For students with 

exceptionalities engaged in choral reading, peer-assisted modeling provides a scaffold for 

learning word identification, pacing, intonation, expression, and prosody. The choral reading 

context provides reassurance and creates a safe space for learners to try, learn, and develop many 

of the skills essential for successful reading. What a child with an exceptionality can achieve 

with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner during choral reading, surpasses what 

the child can achieve on his or her own. As a result, aver Vadasy, Sanders, and Peyton (2005), 

students with exceptionalities approximate the skill of decoding as modeled by others.                                                                                            

 Further, Rasinski (2017) posits that, along with modeling fluent reading, choral reading 

can guide the development of appropriate fluency instruction in the classroom, particularly for 

those with exceptionalities. Hasbrouck (2006) affirms that choral reading group members may be 

teachers, parents, students, or others, stating that “it is possible that the lowest performing 

students may have difficulty keeping up with even a moderate pace. However, they can follow 

along, participating when they can, and still hear the text being read accurately and with good 

pacing and phrasing” in choral reading (p. 3). In choral reading, typically all students read the 

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file://///insight/search%253fq=Timothy%20Rasinski
file://///insight/search%253fq=Chase%20Young


same text aloud – in unison - in the presence of the teacher, who serves as their model. At the 

end of the activity, the teacher provides feedback to students in terms of vocalization, reading 

speed, and prosody (Raddi, 2018). According to Richards (2000), for example, prosodic cues 

such as those provided in a choral reading activity during a study by Rasinski, Padak, Linek, & 

Sturtevant (1994), gave students a way to hold onto grammar patterns – a critical skill for 

students with exceptionalities - and concluded that this skill was necessary for fluent oral reading 

to occur.  Choral reading, asserts Hodges (2015) is successful when students not only are able to 

identify their own deficiencies, but recognize what they are doing correctly.                                      

Choral Reading Benefits                                                                                                          

 Carbo (2007) contends that choral reading promotes appreciation for literature, increased 

interest in - and enjoyment of – reading. Choral reading strategies are recognized as improving 

reading fluency by positively influencing reading ability among secondary and middle grades 

students by expanding vocabulary, sight word recognition, and decoding skills (Faver, 2009; 

Guerin & Murphy, 2015, Paige, & Magpuri-Lavell, 2014). Adolescents may be more reluctant to 

engage in choral reading initially, but soon discover that there is a prosody and rhythm to choral 

reading that are akin to recitation of song lyrics in a variety of music genres (Harris, Marchand-

Martella, & Martella, 2000). Jennings, Caldwell, and Lerner (2014) assert “because students find 

choral reading enjoyable, they willingly practice the word recognition that helps them to give a 

polished performance” (p.213). If students enjoy choral reading they might have more 

motivation when they are reading, and this is very important for striving readers and those with 

exceptionalities. Providing students with an activity that gives them the satisfaction of delivering 

a “well-rehearsed, expressive rendition" (p. 213) is especially significant for those with learning 

disabilities. 

  Choral reading has been observed to have benefits beyond increasing reading fluency in 

the area of classroom management (Haydon, Border, Embury, & Clarke, 2009) as well as 

reaching striving readers with emotional and behavioral disorders (McDaniel, Duchaine, & 

Jolivette, 2010). Poetry reading, for example, when used as a conduit for choral reading, is 

especially helpful to readers, including adolescents with disabilities, due to its dual effect as 

stimulant and equalizer (Hodges, 2016). Poetry may serve as an appropriate vehicle for 

incorporating choral reading in the curriculum, making it possible for all students, including 

students with exceptionalities and students who are culturally and linguistically diverse, to reap 

the benefits of this reading strategy. Specifically, learners with exceptionalities and diverse 

learners can gain a sense of visual control, especially through orally reading poetry, where there 

are just a few words on a line with ample white space.                                                      

 Additionally, poems are often predictable, through rhythm, a rhyming pattern, or a 

repeated phrased. Predictability is an immense boost to a student with a disability, for whom 

learning is anything but predictable. The teacher should choose a poem that is appropriate for all 

instructional reading and interest levels before engaging students in a lively conversation 

regarding the poem (i.e., anticipatory set). Electronic or paper copies of the poem should be 

provided to all students and then read aloud while students listen. The teacher should read with 

all the expression, sound effects, or movement that the poem evokes. Prosody (patterns of stress 

or intonation) and body language are important elements of the reading and provide interest and 

motivation for learners with exceptionalities. The poem should be read a second time – slowly – 

while students follow along using a larger visual, such as a Promethean Board. The reading 

speed can be gradually increased depending on the reaction of the students. When students 

appear to feel comfortable with the words and movements, the teacher can elicit volunteers to 

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begin reciting the poem themselves. Solo reading should only be given to those who volunteer. 

If no one appears to be ready to read alone, allow each line to be read by two or more 

individuals in the class or group (i.e., choral reading). Students can practice reading the poem or 

section of the poem with assigned parts (i.e., rereading), especially if it will be performed for 

others. These steps in the choral reading process can be followed by simple naming questions, 

followed by increasingly more complex or inferential questions that encompass cognitive skills 

associated with sequencing, predicting, forming conclusions, thinking metaphorically, 

analyzing, and generalizing to other mediums.                                                                   

Conclusion                                                                                                                                     

 In the U.S. and globally, students are exposed to increasingly higher reading demands, 

making effective comprehension of a variety of academic texts and topics across content areas 

an expectation, and accurate and automatic word recognition, prosody, and reading fluency a 

necessity (Stevens, Walker, & Vaughn, 2016). For those students who transition from the 

elementary grades to middle and secondary grades as fluent readers, when they encounter new 

syntax, vocabulary, and divergent meanings, most, if not all, will typically navigate these new 

learnings successfully. For students with exceptionalities who are not fluent readers, however, 

the stakes are even higher and the challenge to gain meaning from what they read will be that 

much greater. Students with exceptionalities often find it challenging to reach a level of word 

recognition automaticity and when word recognition is laborious and their energy is largely 

expended on decoding, reading fluency is compromised. Thus, fluent reading is critical for 

students to be able to pivot their attention from the decoding process to comprehension of text. 

This is important not only for the understanding of academic text, but for personal reading 

enjoyment and the motivation to become a lifelong reader as well.                                 

 Choral reading has been found to be an effective method to improve reading fluency of 

learners with exceptionalities (Kodal & Akyol, 2018; Mutia, 2018; Paige, 2011; Rohmah, 

2019). This strategy is wholly consistent with the underpinnings of ZPD, or Zone of Proximal 

Development (1978) and Vygotsky’s principles of socio-cultural learning in that learners with 

exceptionalities who engage with more able reading peers can approximate decoding with the 

help of a model that can scaffold future learning. The difference between what students can do 

without help and what they can do with help is brought to the fore during either peer assisted or 

teacher-led choral reading. In addition to having a positive impact on the development of word 

recognition, reading comprehension skills, and academic achievement, this strategy has the 

potential to encourage peer interaction, provide opportunities for improved reading 

comprehension, and increase overall academic achievement for all readers, including those with 

exceptionalities (Raddi, 2018).                                                                                        

 Hasbrouck (2006) reminds us that reading fluency is not a singular skill necessary for 

successful reading and educators will continue having ongoing debates about which strategies 

most effectively increase reading success. Questions regarding repeated reading, round robin, or 

reading the same or several different passages that have much of the same vocabulary, do not 

negate the need for fluency practice, particularly how it affects reading comprehension, 

academic achievement, and reading enjoyment. In the classroom setting, choral reading may 

just provide the exhilarating mix of listening, vocalizing, and motivation that today’s students 

with exceptionalities both need and deserve.                                                                               

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