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Geodeterminism: Truth or Illusion? 
Tinatin Ratiani1 

Abstract 

The paper is about geographical determinism (geodeterminism), allegedly a foundation of geopolitics. According 

to this doctrine, the development of society depends on the geographical environment. This paper is divided into 

three parts. The first part is devoted to an historical overview of geodeterminism and the difference between 

geodeterminism and geopolitics. The views of ancient Greek philosophers, Middle Eastern scholars, and 

mediaeval European thinkers are discussed. In the second part, geodeterminism is presented as a genuine 

phenomenon, and various arguments and examples are given to prove it. In contrast, the third part is devoted to 

reasoning, based on which geodeterminism can be perceived as an illusion. The last part is the conclusion, which 

summarises the topics discussed above and formulates some concluding remarks. The paper is framed within a 

methodological framework. It is based on qualitative research methods, which enabled an in-depth analysis of the 

information surrounding the research question. In particular, content analysis was used. The research relies on 

both primary and secondary sources. The paper is largely based on various books, articles, and studies that have 

made it possible to find an answer to the research question, which served to determine whether geodeterminism 

is true or is it just an illusion? 

Keywords: Geodeterminism (Geographic determinism), Geopolitics, Geographical theory. 

Introduction 

At its most general definition, geographic determinism, or geodeterminism, is the doctrine that the 

natural environment is responsible for all human actions. The development of society depends on the 

natural environment. In other words, in a deterministic view of struggle and survival, people are not 

free to make their own choices, and their achievements must be explained as the result of natural 

conditions. [1] The development or backwardness of this or that country is determined by the 

geographical conditions in which it is located. According to geodеterminists, the landscape mosaic is a 

peculiar matrix when humanity is predetermined. [2] 

Although deterministic arguments have always been contested, they have long dominated and 

provided a means of accounting for and hierarchically ranking cultural, political, and economic 

differences between people and places. 

 

Historical roots of geodeterminism 

It should be noted that geographical determinism has deep roots. It originated in ancient Greece and 

then spread throughout Europe and the world. As far back as the ancient Greek philosophers 

Hippocrates and Polybius, they thought that people who live in hot climates are sluggish. This is the 

reason why they cannot form a developed society. Furthermore, as for the people living in cold climates, 

all their energy is directed towards maintaining their physical existence, so they cannot create anything 

of value either. The formation of civilizations is possible only in moderate climatic conditions, where a 

favourable natural environment is present. 

Herodotus strongly supported the idea that "all history must be treated geographically, and all 

geography must be treated historically." This idea from Herodotus was an implicit recognition. He 

observed that geography was the physical background and arena where historical events occurred. 

The visions of Plato and Aristotle, who were the first to connect the geographical environment with 

politics, are worth noting. Plato believed the political regime suitable for mountainous countries is a 

democracy, and autocracy is suitable for states with plain terrain. According to Aristotle, a republic is 

the best form of government for small countries. For large countries, it is a monarchy; for vast countries, 

it is an empire (tyranny). 

As for the Middle Ages, during this period, geodeterminism was overshadowed by religious 

doctrines that sought a religious explanation for the facts, but after some time, Arab scientists appeared 

who extended their views to the geodeterministic ideas proposed by the Ancient Greeks. Al-Masud 

 
1  Undergraduate student of the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences (International Relations), Ivane 

Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia, E-mail: tinatin.ratiani918@sps.tsu.ge 



Ratiani et al. Georgian Geographical Journal 2023, Vol.3 (1) 

from the Arab world deserves a special mention. He proposed a new world division into 14 climatic 

regions in 985. He also described human activities in hot and temperate climates, indicating the 

importance of climate to human activities. [3] 

 Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun must be singled out from the Arab world as well. Ibn Khaldun was the 

last Arab scholar contributing to the mediaeval deterministic concept. In 1377, he wrote the book 

"Muqaddimah", which begins with a discussion of man's physical environment and influence, as well 

as the characteristics of man related to his culture or lifestyle rather than the environment [4]. 

Geodeterminism was gaining ground in Europe as well. The 16th-century French scientist Jean 

Bodin, the founder of the state sovereignty concept, provides essential information about geographical 

determinism. According to Jean Bodin, the geographical environment influences people's characters. 

He claimed that the best conditions for the existence of people are created in the temperate zone, 

between 40 and 50 degrees of north latitude. It is precise because strong states were formed and 

developed here, and the inhabitants of this region were distinguished by their outstanding military 

leadership, trade, etc. Therefore, the strength of individual states depends on the influence of the 

surrounding belt [5]. 

The most significant representative of geographical determinism, Frenchman Montesquieu, should 

be noted. In 1748, the French educator published the fruit of 30 years of his work, the well-known 

"Spirit of the Laws" (De l'esprit des lois), whose 17 books were devoted to the influence of climate, the 

customs of individual peoples, and the forms of state organisation. 

We should also remember that geographical determinism was the basis for geopolitics. The term 

geopolitics was introduced at the beginning of the 20th century by the Swedish scientist Rudolf Kjellén. 

However, geopolitics as a scientific concept dates back to the 19th century, when Friedrich Ratzel and 

Rudolf Kjellén published their works. It should be noted that geopolitics did not emerge on bare soil, 

and geographical determinism is often considered its predecessor [6]. Nevertheless, is geographical 

determinism geopolitics? 

We will see many similarities if we start to research and analyze the issue by comparing geographical 

determinism and classical geopolitics. Classical geopolitical thinkers such as Halford Mackinder and 

Friedrich Ratzel saw geography as a critical factor determining the rise and fall of great powers 

throughout history. Mackinder, for example, argued that the world was divided into two central regions: 

the Eurasian "Heartland", dominated by Russia, and the "Rimland" around it, controlled by various 

naval powers such as Britain and the United States. He believed that a state that controlled the Heartland 

would have a natural advantage in dominating the rest of the world due to its central location and 

resources [7]. 

As for Ratzel, he considered the state to be a living organism. According to his thinking, like every 

living organism, the state is born, grows, reaches adulthood, and then dies (ceases to exist). By the 

state's growth, he meant the territorial expansion of the state at the expense of small and weak 

neighbouring political entities. States, like living beings, must create a living environment. Therefore, 

territorial expansion and conquest wars are permissible and logical events [8]. According to classical 

geopolitics, it turns out that any political event, for example, war, is caused by natural-geographical 

laws and not by the decisions of political leaders. In other words, classical geopolitics practically ignores 

the idea that space is a social construction [9]. 

Nowadays, being guided by classical geopolitics is wrong because we face a different geopolitical 

reality. That is why modern geopolitics was formed. Modern geopolitics has evolved in response to the 

changing global landscape and the emergence of new geopolitical actors and challenges. Modern 

geopolitics is characterised by a broader range of analysis, including the role of non-state actors such 

as multinational corporations, NGOs, and terrorist groups, and the impact of globalisation, climate 

change, and technological advances on the international system. Modern geopolitics also includes more 

diverse theoretical perspectives, including feminist, postcolonial, and critical approaches that challenge 

classical geopolitics' traditional assumptions and power structures [10]. 

The main difference between classical and modern geopolitics is their focus and theoretical 

orientation; classical geopolitics emphasises state power and territorial control. In contrast, modern 

geopolitics emphasises the complexity and interconnectedness of the global system. Geopolitics is not 

the same as geographic determinism. However, it is based on the assumption that geography determines 

the limits and opportunities in international politics: states can realise their geopolitical opportunities or 



Ratiani et al. Georgian Geographical Journal 2023, Vol.3 (1) 

become victims of their geopolitical situation. One of the main objectives of grand strategy is to exploit 

one's advantage and the weaknesses of one's opponent. 

Finally, when the historical roots of geodeterminism and its independence from geopolitics have 

already been clearly identified, we can discuss the truth of geographic determinism itself, which will be 

proven with specific examples. 

 

Geodeterminism– truth                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

Nicholas Spykman once wrote that "ministers come and go, even dictators die, but mountain ranges 

stand unperturbed" [11]. Because of their persistence, Spykman considered geographical conditions—

the physical realities that state face—crucial to international relations and politics." Geography does not 

argue; it just is" [12]. If we start the study of the issue from the deep past, we will be sure that the 

geographical environment and location have always been given priority. This geographical factor has 

changed over time. For example, rivers were the most critical geographical factor for ancient 

civilizations such as ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China. Only those civilizations that arose 

near rivers were often flourishing [13]. 

After the era of river civilizations, there was the age of maritime civilizations, when those countries 

with access to the sea reached the highest point of advancement. Greece, Carthage, Rome, Byzantium 

- these great empires must thank their geographical location for going down in history as the greatest 

expansionists. Furthermore, as for great geographical discoveries, those countries with a favourable 

location towards the ocean were promoted, the creation of the colonial empires of Portugal, Spain, 

England and others and the making of the most important geographical discoveries for humankind was 

ensured by the geographical factor. 

American naval strategist Alfred T. Mahan had interesting opinions on the strength of naval states. 

He wrote the book "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" (1890), arguing that national prosperity 

and power depended on control of the world's sea lanes. In his opinion, only that country can become a 

leader in political and economic life, which occupies a leading position at sea: "Whoever rules the waves 

rules the world "[14].  

Climate should also become an advantage for the states. When discussing geographical advantages, 

it is impossible to leave out Russia, which has been saved by the climate more than once. During the 

Second World War, the cold Russian winter had disastrous results for Nazi Germany. The lack of frost-

resistant military equipment and appropriate clothing caused the Wehrmacht to fail. These and many 

other historical examples show that geography is crucial in the fight against the adversary. 

In addition, geographical location can also affect the economic well-being of a country. For example, 

we can consider the Gulf countries (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, and 

Qatar - these countries have the largest oil reserves in the region), whose economic development is 

wholly based on the oil extracted from the Persian Gulf (in case of Qatar instead of oil prevails gas). 

Although the share of oil supplied from the Middle East in the world market has somewhat decreased 

in recent years, as new deposits have been discovered (in Venezuela, Canada, Angola, Kazakhstan, 

etc.), the Middle East still holds more than half of the world's oil reserves, at the same time, it is of 

higher quality. Table 1 shows the oil reserves and the share of their extraction worldwide. It should be 

noted that the revenue produced from the oil extracted and exported by the Gulf countries accounts for 

more than 50% of the economies of these countries [15]. 

                    Table 1. Oil reserves and production of the Gulf countries.2 

Countries Oil reserves 

(billion tons) 

2020 

Share of world oil 

reserves (%) 

2020 

Oil production 

(Million metric 

tons) 

2020 

Share of world oil 

production (%) 

2020 

Saudi Arabia 40,9 17,2 519,6 12.5 

Iran 21,7 9,1 142,7 3.4 

 
2 Source: BP, Statistical Review of World energy, 2021 https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-

sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-full-report.pdf 

https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-full-report.pdf
https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-full-report.pdf


Ratiani et al. Georgian Geographical Journal 2023, Vol.3 (1) 

Iraq 19,6 8,4 202,0 4.9 

Kuwait 14,0 5,9 130,1 3.1 

The United 

Arab Emirates 

13,0 5,6 165,6 4.0 

Qatar 2,6 1,5 75,9 1.8 

Oman 0,7 0,3 46,1 1.1 

 

The success and prosperity of countries depend on the climatic zone in which they are located. If we 

draw a map of the wealthiest economies, we can see that almost all the rich countries are in non-tropical 

zones (with the exception of Hong Kong and Singapore). Countries far from the equator have better 

economies than countries around them. 

 

 
Figure 1. GDP per capita (GDP PC) for each country plotted as a function of its geographic latitude. 

The analysis is done based on the climatic zones shown in Figure 1. The tropic zone is the zone 

between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer (between 24°N and 24°S). Zones located 

between 24°N and 40°N and between 24°N and 40°N form the subtropics, and zones located at latitudes 

greater than 40°N form the temperate zone. These three zones each share one-third of the Earth's surface  

(the tropical zone is 35% of the world's surface, the subtropical zone is 33% of the world's surface, and 

the temperate zone is 32% of the world's surface). Subsequently, for each country, GDP, GDP per capita 

(GDP PC), population, surface area, and geographic latitude were extracted from the World Data Bank. 

Depending on its latitude, each country is assigned a climatic zone. Only countries with a population of 

more than 1 million are analyzed. The data used is from 2018. 

The surface of the world is almost evenly distributed between different climatic zones. However, 

48% of the world's population is located in the tropics, but less than 15% of the world's GDP is generated 

from it. Almost 60% of the world's GDP is generated in the subtropics. According to World Bank data, 

except for Singapore ($64,580 per capita GDP) and Hong Kong ($48,675 per capita GDP), no countries 

in the tropics have a per capita GDP above $20,000. In a deeper analysis, we note that there is a big 

difference between countries with access to sea transport and countries surrounded by land in the 

tropics. Those both tropical and landlocked are among the poorest economies in the world, such as the 

Central African Republic, Zimbabwe, Bolivia, Niger, Zambia, etc. 

This difference between the north and south is also observed on the continents. In Latin America, 

the correlation between latitude and GDP PC is undisputed. Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile have the 

most southerly coordinates and the region's highest GDP per capita. 



Ratiani et al. Georgian Geographical Journal 2023, Vol.3 (1) 

The same thing happens when we consider the African continent. Although the entire continent has 

historically been associated with the poorest area on Earth, the wealthiest countries are located at its 

southern and northern latitudes: South Africa and the Maghreb, two zones located in the subtropical 

parts of Africa. 

European countries are shown as the graph descends to higher degrees of latitude (45° to 65°). 

Switzerland wins the race with the highest GDP PC (Luxembourg has a higher GDP PC but is not 

included in this analysis due to its small population) [16]. 

Assessing and analyzing the economic situation of countries in different climate zones allows us to 

believe in geographical determinism, which undoubtedly affects the development or underdevelopment 

of countries and societies, their financial promotion or backwardness. Nevertheless, it is also 

noteworthy that in the 21st century, in the era of globalization, one can overcome geographical factors, 

be it climate, natural resources or others and transform the environment to get the most out of it. 

 

Geodeterminism – illusion 

The territory, climate, resources, landscape and soil layer affect social development because people 

use various natural resources to produce material goods. The broader the scope of their economic 

activity, the more actively they use these resources. As a result, the sphere of direct interaction between 

people and nature is undergoing changes and expansion, which means that the role of the geographical 

environment in social life is increasing. 

Although primitive people mainly used living resources (plants and animals) and made work tools 

from natural resources (stone and wood), in the later stages of historical development, the importance 

of mineral and energy resources increased, and the geography of human activity expanded dramatically. 

At the same time, the difficulty of work was constantly increasing due to geographical factors. A man 

had to exist in a friendly environment and harsh, life-threatening natural conditions. 

Thus, the temperate climate, fertile soil, and optimal moisture allowed abundant harvests with 

relatively low labour costs. Before the 21st century, man's economic and social condition was more 

dependent on the natural environment than now, when humankind's economic and technological 

capabilities are higher. 

Today, when humanity is approaching the highest point of development, its economic growth 

collides with the natural limits of the geographical environment, which is very limited in size and 

resources. Studies have shown that the number of raw materials consumed in the 21st century is equal 

to that consumed throughout history [17]. If the economic growth rate is the same in the coming 

decades, industrial production may increase two to three times, leading to additional demand for natural 

resources. It turns out that man himself creates the environment in which he lives. This means more 

roads, railways, canals, various constructions, etc. The category of people who deny the existence of 

geographical determinism believes that, at present, man is the leading figure in changing the 

geographical environment and not the other way around. 

Nowadays, man completely transforms the environment for his benefit, although in some cases, we 

may not even realize that what is good now may be wrong in the future. Around 400 BCE, Plato 

discussed soil erosion around Athens and lamented that the once fertile area was left without soil. 

Human influence on the physical environment causes the latter to change. However, the main thing is 

that if these changes are not calculated in advance, their effect can be damaging for the people 

themselves [18]. 

Criticism of geodeterminism and the opinion that it is only a theory, and practically an illusion, is 

not new. According to Martin Glassner, this had to do with the fact that experiments and evidence never 

supported determinism. Hence, mild criticism from the 1920s became more intense and severe in the 

late 1930s and 1950s, and the term "determinism" could be said to have acquired an almost insulting 

and derogatory meaning. Therefore, geographical determinism, widespread before the mid-20th 

century, became insignificant in academic geographical studies. The biggest reason for this change is 

the increase in humans' constructive and alternative power over the natural environment through the 

technologies they have developed [19]. 

The fact that geographical determinism is not justified and man can overcome environmental factors 

is clearly seen in the example of Japan. Japan has very few mineral deposits and largely depends on 



Ratiani et al. Georgian Geographical Journal 2023, Vol.3 (1) 

imports to meet demand. They succeeded and built a thriving economy based on technological expertise 

and innovative culture. Japan also refutes the basic thesis of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, according to 

which countries are oriented to produce those products in which they have a comparative advantage 

[20]. 

However, despite the above, are we still prisoners of geography? Although geography can influence 

a country's political and economic trajectory, it is not the only factor determining its success or failure. 

A country's culture, political system and human capital also play an essential role in determining its 

destiny. 

Therefore, while geography may be a constraint or an opportunity, it is not necessarily deterministic. 

People and nations can take steps to overcome geographic limitations, so geography is not destiny, and 

the prescription that the strong stay strong and the weak are doomed to be forever weak is false. 

Geography is not "fixed," as Kaplan writes, but unstable.[21] 

Thus, it is crucial to recognize that physical geography is not fixed. Technology advancements such 

as air travel and the Internet have made distance and physical barriers less critical. Therefore, 

technological progress or human intervention can overcome the complexity of this or that landscape in 

which societies will have the opportunity to develop. 

 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, presenting geographic determinism as truth or illusion is wrong. Many examples have 

confirmed the truth of geographical determinism. At the beginning of the work, the purpose of analysing 

the views of the geodeterminism theoretical school were to convince the reader of the validity of this 

theory. 

However, on the other hand, we must emphasize that the proponents of geographical determinism 

needed to understand human capabilities and adequately see the influence of the geographical 

environment in all aspects of public life. Their goal was to explain the level of human development by 

environmental conditions. The followers of these doctrines were partly right, based on the fact that 

nature can significantly influence man, but not all aspects of life can be controlled by nature. It is 

impossible that only nature forms a person or, on the contrary, only a person - nature. 

Based on inventions and knowledge, technological progress and modern society began to influence 

and change natural factors more intensively. This was unimaginable for geographical determinists of 

the 19th century, so in this case, their criticism will not be justified. 

In the end, geodeterminism is not at all a field of illusion. Abundant practical examples confirm it, 

but in the 21st century, it is clear that man appears as a transformer of the geographical environment. 

However, an approach that considers the possibilities of human transformation of the earth and 

recognizes human influence on the earth could only be formed by passing through certain stages, one 

of which is geographical determinism. We could not immediately recognize the power of man, it was 

necessary to slowly conclude other theories, according to which the main actors on earth are people, 

and they can even change the natural environment. 

 

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