







































Georgian Geographical Journal 

 

Analysis of Spontaneous Exodynamic 

Processes in the Dghviora River Basin 

Taking into Consideration the Perspectives 

of the Shovi-Glola (Georgia) Tourist 

Agglomeration 
Merab Gongadze1,* , George Lominadze1 , George Khomeriki1

 George Kavlashvili2  
1 TSU, Vakhushti Bagrationi Institute of Geography, Tbilisi, Georgia 
* Corresponding author: merabgogazde@yahoo.com 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction 

The Racha region covers the upper part of the Rioni River basin, from the Tvishi Narrows to the crest 

of the Central Caucasus. This includes the entire ethnographic Racha and partly the northwestern 

section of Samachablo (the headwaters of the Jejora River). The area covers an area 100 km in length 

and 50 km in width, and the depth of the vertical incision ranges from 500 to 1200 m. Absolute heights 

vary from 350 m (Tvishi Narrows) to 3780 m (Pasi Mountain). The region is distinguished by a complex 

and diverse geological and geomorphological structure, as the entire stratigraphic spectrum, starting 

with Palaeozoic crystalline rocks and ending with Quaternary alluvium, is exposed here, and the 

complexity of the relief is conditioned by the large amplitudes of the absolute and relative heights of its 

surrounding ridges and the genesis and morphology of the related relief landforms. Fragmented by 

Rioni and its tributaries, the cavity is bounded in the northeast by the southern slope of the main 

Caucasus Range, in the northwest by the Lechkhumi Ridge (Mt. Samertskhle, 3560 m) and its 

southwestern branches, and in the southeastern border by the Racha Ridge (Mt. Khikhamta, 2240 m). 

The Dghviora River is also a left tributary of Chanchakhi, the left tributary of the upper waist of Rioni, 

which originates on the northern slope of the Shoda-Kedela ridge, parallel to the Central Caucasus. The 

rocks forming the valley-Jurky and Lower Cretaceous shales, clay shales, sandstones, limestones, and 

Quaternary deluvial, proluvial and partially alluvial layers, together with the slopes of the valley, 

inclination of its bed and climatic conditions, are the main factors for the creation of exodynamic 

processes: mountain torrents, rock avalanches, stone falls, and debris cones. The material coming from 

Dghviora and its parallel valleys flows into the Chanchakhi valley and forms a large debris cone near 

Georgian Geographical Journal, 2024, 4(1) 26-34 

© The Author(s) 2024 

 
This article is an open access article distributed under 

the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons 

Attribution (CC BY) licence 

(https://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/). 

DOI: 

https://journals.4science.ge/index.php/GGJ 

Abstract 

River Dghviora originates from the much-modified cirque of the vanished 

glacier on the northern slope of the Shoda-Kedela mountain range, parallel to 

the Central Caucasus. The glacial and erosive-glacial relief of the nival zone 

is developed here, with clearly defined troughs, moraines, individual erratic 

boulders. At relatively low hypsometric levels, alpine and subalpine 

landscapes are represented. The building rocks of the valley, along with the 

slope of its bed and climatic conditions, are the main factors of the formation 

and development of exodynamic processes. The material coming from 

Dghviora river, and its parallel valleys flows into the Chanchakhi valley and 

forms a large withdrawal cone at the confluence, on which the village of Glola 

is built. From here, destructive mudflows arise during heavy rains, because of 

which this and other settlements are damaged. In July 2020, because of heavy 

rains, due to the overflow of Rioni, Chanchakhi, its abovementioned and other 

tributaries, destructive mudflows were formed, which destroyed the 

infrastructure, highways and bridges of the villages of region Zemo Racha. 

The purpose of the article is to analyse the mechanism of occurrence of natural 

processes and to assess their impact on the tourist agglomeration of Shovi-

Glola, as well as to predict the further development of these processes as much 

as possible and to present preventive measures. 

Keywords: Exodynamic processes; rockslides; mudflows; threats to 

tourism 

Citation: Gongadze, M.; Lominadze, G.; 

Khomeriki, G.; Kavlashvili, G. Analysis of 

Spontaneous Exodynamic Processes in the 

Dghviora River Basin Taking into 

Consideration the Perspectives of Shovi-

Glola (Georgia) Tourist Agglomeration. 
Georgian Geographical Journal 2024, 

4(1), 26-34. 

https://doi.org/10.52340/ggj.2024.04.01.04 
 

Received: 9 December 2023 

Revised: 1 February 2024 
Accepted: 5 April 2024 

Published: 1 June 2024 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

27 
 

the estuary. The Dghviora valley originates from the highly deformed cirque of the vanished glacier, 

where alluvial centers have appeared. From here, destructive mudflows arise during heavy rains, 

because of which the village of Glola and other settlements are damaged. In July 2020, because of heavy 

rains, due to the overflow of Rioni, Chanchakhi, its abovementioned and other tributaries, destructive 

mudflows were formed, which destroyed the infrastructure, highways and bridges of the villages of 

Zemo (Upper) Racha (Tsereteli, 1965). 

Spontaneous Exodynamic Processes in the Dghviora River Basin 

The Chanchakhi River basin is located on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus. The glacial and 

erosive-glacial relief of the nival belt is developed here, with clearly defined troughs, moraines, and 

individual erratic blocks. At relatively low hypsometric levels, alpine and subalpine landscapes are 

represented. The depth of erosive dissection is more than 1000 m in some places, and the inclination of 

the slopes is 40-600. The absolute height of the highest peak of the Shoda-Kedela range, Shoda, is 3609 

m. This high-elevation, deep-valley, erosional-denudation terrain developed on Jurassic and Lower 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. The presence of relatively mild forms of the relief relates to the erosive 

processes occurring in the Liassic, strongly dislocated micaceous sandstones and with the erosion 

processes occurring in the shale clays. The shape of the valleys is mostly V-shaped, and where clay 

shales dominate, the rivers form glacial-carved valleys (Tsereteli, 1965). At relatively low altitudes, 

denudation relief occurs with the active development of mudflows and landslide events. In the Lower 

Cretaceous sediments, intense tectonic movements produced folded structures. It is dominated by young 

and old faults of three latitudinal directions, which are complicated by paraclases and rupture 

dislocations of different directions, which are well defined in the terrain. The geological formations on 

the northern wing of the Upper Racha syncline are mainly composed of thick-layered marls of Upper 

Jurassic age, carbonate shales, and interlayers of limestones. Quaternary eluvial, deluvian, colluvial, 

alluvial, Proluvian and fluvioglacial layers form relatively young sediments (Fig. 1). 

The upper part of the Chanchakhi River from the left side joins the Dghviora River, whose basin is 

very peculiar and at the same time typical in terms of the manifestation of natural exodynamic processes 

in Upper Racha and in the Caucasus (Map oh mudflow hazards in Transcaucasus and Dagestan, 1989; 

Cernomorets, 2006; Dokukin et al., 2015). There are two channels near the mouth of the Dghviora 

River—old and new—developed later. The river originates from the northern slope of the Shoda-Kedela 

ridge near the summit at an altitude of 2640 m above sea level. The head of the river is a bursiform 

valley bounded by steep (60-700) slopes, which is probably a deformed glacial cirque (Figs. 2 and 3). 

Tectonic and rock lithology are among the most important factors influencing the relief of a valley 

(Adamia & Gujabidze, 2004; Tsereteli et al., 1985; Ovsyuchenko et al., 2011; Arefev et al., 2006). 

Figure 1. The head section of Dgviora river in the Chanchakhi basin. Source: Google Earth 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

28 
 

According to the tectonic division into districts of Georgia, Lower Cretaceous clay shales and marly 

shales are intensively folded here. In the sandstone and limestone distribution zone, the relief is sharply 

dissected and represented by steep ridge and scarp slopes. 

The area of the river basin does not exceed 6 km2, the length is 5 km, and the average slope of the 

riverbed varies between 15-170 in the middle and lower parts (Fig. 3). Fluvioglacial, proluvial and 

partially alluvial sediments accumulate in the riverbed in different layers. As a result, mudslides, 

landslides, rock avalanches, and snow avalanches are actively occurring here. 

Figure 2. Scheme of the main geomorphological elements of the Chanchakhi river basin (Georgia, south slope of the 

Greater Caucasus range): 1. Old glacial cirque, 2. Moraine sediments, 3. Fragment of Old Trog 4. Wide erosive area 5. 

Relatively stable slopes, 6. Alluvial fan (cone), 7. Terrace-step of polygenetic origin 8. False terraces along the right side of 

the Dghviora river channel. Source: Google Earth 

Figure 3. Profile along the Dgviora river gally 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

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The Dghviora River basin developed because of a complex combination of erosive-denudational, 

glacial, tectonic, and climatic factors and lithological features of the basin-forming rocks. At the head 

of the river, there is a deep fault in the northeastern direction, which is complicated by numerous local 

faults in different directions, which significantly weakens the strength and stability of the rocky rocks 

against depletion, denudation and erosion (Abutidze et al., 2010). Additionally, a clearly defined cirque 

is formed here, which is followed by a small trough of a tub-like shape below. Over time, its area 

decreases, which is related to the erosive processes of the river, particularly reverse erosion. This 

process gradually consumes the rest of the trough. It should be noted that the Holocene layers slightly 

below the cirque moraine layers are probably preserved. 

According to the 2010 report of the National Environment Agency of Georgia (Abutidze et al., 2010), 

fossilized ice masses appear under loose sediments, which weakens the stability of the ground when 

thawing in warm weather, which becomes a contributing factor to the formation of mud flows. Below 

the trough, on a 50-600 inclined slope made of eroded rocks, large boulders can be found, the mass of 

which in some cases reaches tens of tons. Interestingly, at the bottom of the abovementioned steep 

slope, two water streams join and episodically; due to rock avalanches from above, impounded lakes 

appear in the valley. As a result of their breakthrough by the accumulated water, mud-flow torrents are 

released. After the confluence of the watercourses, the riverbed is continuously covered with depleted 

material. In the middle of the river, both slopes of the narrow gorge are erosive-denudational at 1 km 

and consist of Lower Cretaceous shale clays and marly clays, which are also among the main sources 

of mud-flow streams (Fig. 2). Further down, in the direction of the flow of the river, almost to the 

confluence, at 3 km, both. The slopes of the valley are covered with thick dark coniferous forest and 

are practically free from erosion. The right bank of the river is bordered by a 35-40 m wide 

pseudoterrace made of colluvial and fluvioglacial material, which consists of several steps. Its height 

Figure 4. The head and bed of the Dghviora river 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

30 
 

varies from 3-4 m to 8-10 m. It occupies insignificant areas on the left bank of the river (Fig. 3). The 

thickness of the deposited mass in the bed itself should be at least 12-20 m. 

Two streams, which flow from the steep and weathered slopes of the Shoda-Kedela Ridge, join each 

other in the upper part of the river and form the main stream of the Dghviora River (Fig. 4). 

Disintegrated material, mainly in large fractions, falls from the head, and slopes accumulate there, 

periodically blocking the flow of the river and temporarily creating lakes. Over time, this natural dam 

is breached by excess water, and a torrent is formed. The width of the river floodplain reaches 50-60 m 

in this section, and the inclination of the bed is 15-200. The accumulated material consists of several 

fractions: single large boulders of 1.5-2 m in size, small boulders of 20-30%, and small pebbles of up 

to 70%. 

In its new bed, at 1.2 km upstream of the confluence with Chanchakhi, riv. Dghviora has cut its 

accumulation material in several places. The bottom of one of the trenches (height 1,717 m above sea 

level, thickness 120 cm, width 250 cm) begins with a sand fraction (less than 0.5 cm), which occupies 

15% of the trench volume. Then, a slightly larger fraction of less than 5 cm (12%) was observed. These 

layers are as follows: 5-10 cm fraction - 9%; 10-20 cm fraction - 12%; 20-35 cm fraction - 20%; and 

15 cm layer with 10 cm interlayers of pebbles, sand and clay - 12%, fine gravel coarse material or less 

processed 35-50 cm - 20% (Figure 5). 

In the middle of the river, 120 m above the bridge, a granulometric polygon (20 m²) was set up to 

record the horizontal distribution of the solid sediment fractions of the river. The polygon consists of 

the following fractions: 0.5 m thick sand, clay and fine pebbles—25%, 5 cm thick sand fraction—13%, 

5-10 cm sand and gravel fraction—11%, 10-20 cm thick sandy-pebble layer with inclusions of 15-20 

cm boulders—10%, 20-35 cm thick boulders—8%, 35-50 cm thick boulders—11%, and 70 cm thick 

boulders—22% (Fig. 6). 

At the estuary of the Chanchakhi River, the Dghviora River has created a powerful extraction cone, 

the length of which reaches 700 m, and the width reaches 60-70 m. As a result of the washing of the 

alluvial-proluvial layers of the cone by the riv. Chanchakhi, a 6-7 m high bare plateau escarpment was 

formed, where the structure of the material is clearly visible. Boulders from 0.4 m to 1.0-1.4 m long are 

clearly visible here. Their amount ranges from 10-15%, and the remaining mass (55-60%) is made up 

of clayey and marly shale with a sandy filler, as well as a pebble-gravel fraction (20-25%). The surface 

of the extraction cone is covered with large and medium-sized boulders. While passing the catastrophic 

floods, the material from the Dghviora River completely or partially blocks the bed of the Chanchakhi 

Figure 5. Typical composition sediments on the right bank of river Dghviora 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

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River. As a result, the right bank of the river is intensively washed away, where a 10-12 m high and 50-

60 m long exposure was formed. Rough moraine material appears here. The size of the boulders varies 

from 0.4-0.7 m to 1.8-2.5 m. 

The Dghviora River, at the confluence of the Chanchakhi River, creates a modern powerful detrital 

cone. Today, two beds are marked on its surface: one old and the other partially artificially expanded. 

The new confluence of the Dghviora River has moved at 450 m from the location of the old confluence 

with the Chanchakhi River. The expansion of the new bed occurred after the event when, in the early 

2010s, a catastrophic mud flow with a volume of 2 million m³ passed through the Dghviora River basin, 

which damaged residential houses and other buildings. The new riverbed begins 700 m above the old 

mouth. The bottom of the old bed along its entire length was quite quickly covered by perennial 

vegetation, a circumstance to be considered for the safety of the village of Glola. With a 2-3% 

reproducibility, only one branch of the estuary cannot deal with the catastrophic flow when passing 

extreme runoff. However, the flow may enter the surrounding coniferous forest and lose energy. It is 

necessary to clear the bottom of the old branch of the river from dense vegetation to a length of 600 m 

to ensure the maximum permeability of the flood flow. The modern detrital fan of the Dghviora River 

is joined to a lower 2 km long inclined terrace step of polygenetic origin on which the village of Glola 

is located. The terrace is Quaternary in age, and the relatively plain areas surrounding Glola are also 

Quaternary in age, apart from the bedrock outcrops. Therefore, it is not surprising that in highly 

mountainous, highly fragmented terrain, people choose more comfortable, relatively flat terrain for 

settlement. 

Changes in the Dghviora riverbed have saved the important village of Glola from the ever-increasing 

threat of mudslides. Before the relocation, the continuously cultivated bed of the Dghviora River passed 

through its territory. 

The village is located on the southern slope of the main watershed of the Caucasus, 25 km from Oni, 

at an average of 1,275 meters above sea level; it opens to the west to the Rioni valley, and the other 

three sides are surrounded by mountains covered with coniferous forests. Notably, this area is an 

important section of the northern border zone of Georgia (Fig. 7). 

According to the classification by Jaoshvili (1996), Glola belongs to the seventh type of rural 

settlement in Georgia, which brings together small settlements scattered on mountain slopes that feature 

extensive agriculture, mainly based on animal farming. Such settlements often develop into 

agglomerated layouts, with Glola and Shovi also forming this kind of agglomeration. 

Glola is a historical village – sources link an episode of its history with Queen Tamar. Vakhushti 

Batonishvili also provides a brief description of Glola (Vakhushti, 1973). The past importance of the 

village was mainly related to its location. For a long time, it represented a crossroad in the Middle Ages 

where caravan routes from Georgia’s lowland and Lower Racha passed on their way to Upper Racha 

Figure 6. Granulometric polygon in the bed of Dghviora river 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

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and Svaneti, as well as to Ossetia through Mamisoni, Notsara and other crossings on the Caucasus. This 

gave Glola—in particular, its lower roadside part, Saglolo—the role of a traffic distributor. 

Starting in the nineteenth century and along with changing trade routes, Glola largely lost its function 

as a transport hub. Instead, with the development of the Shovi resort, Glola acquired the function of the 

resort's economic hinterland, along with its traditional agricultural role. Shovi is a climate and 

balneological resort located adjacent to Glola village at 1,520-1,565 meters above the sea in the 

Chanchakhi River valley, with a pulmonological, allergic and gastroenterological healing profile, 

healthy air and picturesque landscape that proved very popular between the 1920s and 1980s. 

(Sharashenidze, 1940). Since the 1990s, the situation has changed—the Shovi resort has lost its social 

purpose (healthcare for workers), and the state could no longer finance it, leading to a decline in both 

the resort and Glola village. The depopulation processes characteristic of Racha villages also developed 

here. Between the 2002 and 2014 state censuses, the population of Glola decreased by 27.5% to 279 

residents. 

In recent years, signs of revitalization of Shovi have appeared with its adaptation to the conditions of 

the market economy, activation of the process of commercialization of resort activities and resulting 

revival of health tourism, which has also been reflected in Glola - the village reacquired the function of 

providing accommodation for vacationers in the Shovi area. In addition to private apartments for rent, 

several family hotels (guesthouses) operate here, and a very comfortable and relatively expensive 

($120/night) tourist cottage has opened. Activities serving tourism in the resort area—trade, supply, 

services, and transportation—have been stimulated. It is important for local prospects that Glola also 

features its own resources for tourism development – a healthy mountain climate (Gavasheli, 1978), 

coniferous forests, mountain trails for trekking and horseback riding tours, "Glola boulders" – granite 

moraine formations included in the “Red Book of Georgia” – as well as mineral waters and remains of 

cultural heritage. 

Some authors writing about problems in rural areas consider the development of new, additional 

functions—e.g., industry, communications, energy, and tourism—for these locations to be one of the 

most effective means of stopping their depopulation and ensuring support (Delgado, 2019). In this 

regard, Glola can improve the services of the Shovi resort (in case of its restoration after the disaster of 

August 2023) and develop its own recreational activities, especially if we take into account the launch 

of the Gomi-Oni Road in the near future. 

Conclusion 

Along with natural factors, human agricultural activity plays an important role in the changes in the 

environment of Racha, which is manifested in the cultivation of agricultural lands (ploughing the slopes 

in accordance with the slopes, cutting down forests and growing annual crops in their place, etc.) and, 

as a result, soil damage (Salukvadze, 2022). Accordingly, agricultural activity in this zone has both 

extensive and intensive growth prospects. Natural exodynamic processes pose a constant threat to the 

Figure 7. Rural agglomeration Glola-Shovi, emerging as a tourism cluster. In the center of the image, you can see the 

result of the shifting of the bed of river Dghviora to the east, which saved the settled part of village Glola from the danger 

of a catastrophic mudflow. Source: Google Earth 



Gongadze et al. 2024 4(1) 

33 
 

regional communications and tourist infrastructure of the village of Glola. The prospects for tourism, 

including international tourism, in this dynamic, natural environment are directly related to ensuring 

security. Accordingly, for the prediction of environmental threats, regulation and protection measures 

against natural disasters have become even more important. Thus, to stop the critical decrease in the 

population in Glola and the surrounding area, it is necessary to activate tourism, which in turn requires 

ensuring the safety of the environment. Accordingly, for the prediction of environmental threats, 

regulation and protection measures against natural disasters have become even more important, and a 

positive and successful example of this is the change in the bed of the Dghviora River. To ensure the 

high security of the village of Glola and the surrounding area, it is necessary to clear the bottom of the 

old branch of the river from dense vegetation to a length of 600 m so that the flood flow can pass 

unhindered. It is also necessary to install an early warning system for natural processes at the headwaters 

of the Dghviora River (Tsreteli et al., 2018). 

The 2023 Shovi disaster revealed high risks of natural hazards in this area and serious consequences 

for resort businesses, such as the failure to consider them. On August 3, at approximately 4:00 p.m., a 

glacial mudflow descended on the territory of the Shovi resort, resulting in the destruction of its built-

up area and casualties—the tragedy claimed the lives of 32 people. The main area of the resort was 

covered by sediment, the total volume of which, according to initial calculations, reached one million 

m3. Cottages built in a manner that neglected natural risks near the banks of the Bubistskali River were 

destroyed, and the very existence of the resort came under question. 

Competing interests 

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 

Authors’ contributions 

M.G. and G.L. conceived of the presented idea and wrote the manuscript. G.K. performed the analytic 

calculations and created the maps and design. G.K. contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the 

results and the writing of the manuscript. All authors provided critical feedback and helped shape the 

research, analysis and manuscript. 

ORCID iD 

Merab Gongadze :https://orcid.org/0009-0006-7905-2525 

George Lominadze https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0630-2739 

George Khomeriki https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7264-4348 

George Kavlashvili https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5171-043X 

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