







































 Georgian Geographical Journal  
 
 

3D Model of Morphostructure of the 

Crystalline Basement of the Georgian 

Caucasus 
Levan Basheleishvili1 , Giorgi Beridze1* , Badri Gogia2  
1
Al. Janelidze Institute of Geology of Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, 

Tbilisi, Georgia 
2 

RMG Gold/Copper, Tbilisi, Georgia
 

* Corresponding author: 

giorgi.beridzegeolinst@gmail.com 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction 

In the structure of the upper part of the Earth's crust of the Caucasus, one of the main structural and 

tectonic elements is its crystalline basement, which was formed by the processes of pre-Alpine 

tectono-magmatic cycles and in the modern structure represents a rigid basement for the thick, mainly 

Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary, volcanogenic, and volcanogenic-sedimentary deposits. 

Georgia is a part of the Caucasus, which represents a complicated polycyclic geological structure 

involving mountain fold systems of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and adjacent foredeeps and 

intermountain troughs. Paleomagnetic and paleo kinematic, as well as traditional geological data 

(character of sedimentation and magmatism, geology and age of ophiolites, paleoclimatic and 

paleogeographic data), indicate that with a typical oceanic crust, which separates the Afro-Arabian 

and Eurasian continental plates, in the geological past relatively small continental or subcontinental 

plates (terranes) were situated, having diverse geodynamic nature and characterized by specific 

lithologic-stratigraphic section and magmatic, metamorphic, and structural features (Gamkrelidze, 

1997). During the Late Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Early Mesozoic times, these terranes experienced 

horizontal displacement in different directions within the oceanic area of Proto-Paleo- and Mesotethys 

(Neotethys) and underwent mutual accretion and ultimately joined the Eurasian continent. In the 

Caucasian segment of the Mediterranean mobile belt, the Greater Caucasian, Black Sea-Central 

Transcaucasian, Baibut-Sevanian, and Iran-Afghanian terranes, which in geological past represented 

island arcs or microcontinents, are identified. In terms of modern basis, they represent accretionary 

terranes of the first order separated by trustworthy or supposed ophiolite sutures of different ages. 

Terranes of the first order, in their turn, consist of a great number of subterranes delimited as a rule by 

deep faults (Gamkrelidze, 1997).  

The territory of Georgia covers the southern part of the Greater Caucasian terrane, the Black Sea-

Central Transcaucasian terrane, and the northern part of the Baiburt-Sevanian terrane (Somkhito-

Karabakh subterrane). Each of these units is characterized by distinctive rocks that were formed under 

different geodynamic conditions (Gamkrelidze & Shengelia, 2005). 

 Recently, using U-Pb LA-ICP-MS dating of zircons, the ages of their constituent metamorphites 

and granitoids have been established. In particular, within the exposed part of the Greater Caucasian 

Georgian Geographical Journal, 2024, 4(2) 4-13 

© The Author(s) 2024 

 
This article is an open access article distributed under 

the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons 

Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// 

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 

DOI: 

https://journals.4science.ge/index.php/GGJ 

Abstract 

Thus, for the first time for Georgia and the region, a plasticine model of 

the morphotectonics of the crystalline basement was created on a 

horizontal scale of 1:500 000 m and a vertical scale of 1: 200 000, which 

contributed to a clear visualization of the morphostructure of one of the 

main structural-tectonic elements of the upper part of the Caucasus crust 

within Georgia. The technique for reproducing the plasticine model of 

the morphology of the relief of a crystalline basement consists in 

removing the mass of plasticine that corresponded to a thick sedimentary 

cover below the zero mark, and above this mark, on the contrary, in 

building up to the required height. As a result, the obtained model clearly 

shows the modern picture of the relief morphology of the crystalline 

basement, and its mosaic-block structure. 

Keywords: Georgia, crystalline basement, structural geology, 3D 

model 

Citation: Basheleishvili, L.; Beridze, G.; 

Gogia, B. 3D Model of Morphostructure of 

the Crystalline Basement of the Georgian 
Caucasus. 

Georgian Geographical Journal 2024, 

4(2). 4-13. 
https://doi.org/10.52340/ggj.2024.04.02.01 



Basheleishvili et al. 2024, Vol.4(2) 

 
terrane (in the Main Range zone of the Greater Caucasus) based on the study of the in situ zircons 

from metamorphozed and granitoid rocks the following figures were obtained: 1) 626±2 and 627±19 

million years, which corresponds to the earliest – Cadomian (Late Precambrian) stage of regional 

metamorphism, 2) 461±5.3 million years and 457±12 million years, which corresponds to the 

Caledonian (late Early Paleozoic - early Late Paleozoic) stage of regional metamophism, 3) figures 

454±9, 468±5 and 471.7±4.6 million years obtained for granitoid rocks corresponds to Caledonian 

tectogenesis, 4) figures: 312.5±4 and 317.0±8.3 million years correspond to regressive regional 

associated with Late Variscan (Late Paleozoic) tectogenesi,s and 5) figures: 309±8, 310.9, 325±4 Ma, 

311±5.9 and 357±5.9 Ma, corresponding to the formation of synmetamorphic Late Variscan 

granitoids. These data are in good agreement with geological and petrological data for the Greater 

Caucasus (Gamkrelidze et al., 2020). 

Within the exposed part of the Black Sea-Central Transcaucasian terrane – in the Dzirula crystalline 

massif, five genetic and age-types of zircons are distinguished: 1) detrital zircon >1200 Ma; 2) zircon 

formed presumably at the Grenville stage of regional metamorphism - 1000- 800 Ma; 3) zircon 

developed during the crystallization of quartz-diorite orthogneisses - 650-540 Ma (Baikalian stage); 

zircon 4) formed presumably during the crystallization of tonalite-granitic series - 530-500 Ma (Late 

Baikalian stage of regional metamorphism) and 5) zircon formed during the crystallization of Late 

Variscan granitoids and also under the impact of high-temperature fluids over pre-Late Variscan rocks 

– 330-310 Ma (Gamkrelidze et.al., 2011).  

In the Khrami crystalline massif of the same terrane, the results of age determination of 26 zircon 

crystals from the Late Variscan potassic granitoids by U-Pb LA-ICP MS dating show the mean age 

325.6±2.3 Ma covering the interval 319-332±6 Ma. Only in one case, in the crystal core, the 

hereditary age 931±6 Ma is determined, which presumably corresponds to the Grenville stage of 

regional metamorphism of the Neoproterozoic gneiss-migmatite complex (Tediashvili, 2013).  

In the Loki crystalline massif of the Baiburt-Sevanian terrane (in the Somkhito-Karabakh 

subterrane), U-Pb zircon age of gneissose quartzdiorites is 370±59-35 Ma (Bartnitsky et al., 1992; 

Vashakidze, 1999; Vashakidze, 2000), but K-Ar age of granitoids is 327±6 Ma (Vashakidze, 2000; 

Dudauri et. al., 1999). These data confirm without a doubt that quartz diorites are pre-Late Variscan 

(Late Devonian) and granites are Late Variscan formations.  

On the surface, rocks of the crystalline basement are exposed in the form of salients at different 

hypsometric levels (the central zone of uplift of the crystalline core of the Greater Caucasus 3500-

5000 m (Fig. 2), Dzirula-1000 m, Loki, and Khrami 1200-1300 m massifs). In the rest of the territory, 

the crystalline basement is buried under thick Meso-Cenozoic sediments. According to the available 

literature data (Gudzhabidze & Gamkrelidze, 2009; Gamkrelidze et al., 2013), the crystalline 

basement is dissected by latitudinal, meridional, and diagonal faults, which create a picture of its 

mosaic-block structure. Its individual sections are located at different hypsometric levels, where the 

surface of the basement is located above sea level at a maximum altitude of 5000 m, and below this 

level it is maximum at a depth of 12000-14000 m (Fig. 3).  

  



 Basheleishvili et al 2024, Vol.4(2) 

 
 

 
 

Figure.1. Active seismic faults of the territory of Georgia



 Basheleishvili et al 2024, Vol.4(2) 

 
 

 

Figure.2. Pass subzone of the Greater Caucasus Main range zone - maximum uplift mark of crystalline substrate from the 

sea level. Dashed line indicates the Main Thrust zone. 

 

 
 

Figure. 3. Guria trough – one of the most subsided areas of the crystalline substrate – 9000 m [22] 

Methodology for creating a model 

To implement the 3D model, plasticine bars were taken as the main material, and after melting it 

into a pre-prepared container, a volumetric plasticine briquette with parameters 60 cm - 10 cm - 110 

cm was obtained, where the upper horizontal surface corresponded to zero isohypsum, i.e., sea level. 

A tectonic map of Georgia was drawn on this surface at a scale of 1:500,000 (Gamkrelidze et al., 

2013). Then, because of the analysis of numerous geological and geophysical profiles of the territory 



Basheleishvili et al. 2024, Vol.4(2) 

 
of Georgia, the modern morphology of the crystalline basement was reconstructed where below the 

zero isohypsum, part of the material that corresponded to the sedimentary cover was removed. 

Further, in some areas where the substrate rises above the zero isohypsum, it was necessary to 

complete the construction according to the existing geological and tectonic maps (Gudzhabidze & 

Gamkrelidze, 2009; Gamkrelidze et al., 2013) on which surface outcrops of crystalline rocks are 

recorded in the area of the Central uplift of the Main Range of the Greater Caucasus, Dzirula, Khrami, 

Loki, and Gveleti massifs. As a result, a picture of the modern morphology of the surface of the 

crystalline basement was obtained, the vertical scale of which corresponds to 1:200,000. Analyzing 

numerous literary data on geological and geophysical structure in the form of many profiles, 

unfortunately, we have to note significant discrepancies between some authors in the interpretation of 

data on the deep structure, which raises doubts about the choice of an optimally objective profile 

(Gamkrelidze et al., 2013a; Krasnopevtsova, 1966; Gamkrelidze, 1976; Terekhov, 1979; Basentsyan 

et al., 1981; Gamkrelidze, 1984; Yusupkhodzaev et al., 1986; Basheleishvili, 1987; Ioseliani et al., 

1989; Philip et al., 1989; Banks et al., 1997; Nadareishvili, 2002; Pangani et al., 2003; Basheleishili & 

Kloshvili 2004; Kundadze et al., 2005; Gamkrelidze et al., 2013b, JMauvilly et al., 2016; Gusmeo et 

al., 2021; Mosar et. al., 2022; Gamkrelidze et. al., 2024; Cavazza, et al., 2024) We gave preference to 

those profiles that were compiled based on geological data. Lithological-sedimentary, stratigraphic, 

and thickness data 

 

Morphostructure of the crystalline basement 

The formation of the modern morphostructure of the crystalline basement within Georgia is largely 

determined by a fault network of latitudinal, meridional, and diagonal strike, covering different depths 

of the Earth's crust. Analysis of the lithofacies and thickness of the sedimentary cover developed 

within their boundaries indicates their autonomous and inversional nature of development. 

Subsequently, when constructing a model of the surface of the crystalline substrate, we removed the 

entire mass of the sedimentary cover (Fig. 4).  

As is known, faults in the Earth's crust often change their character with depth and become gentler, 

representing thrusts and nappes. The model we constructed reflects the modern hypsometric position 

of the basement surface. The most elevated area is the area of the Main Range of the Greater 

Caucasus, from 2000 m to 5000 m. From the south, the marked structure is limited mainly by the 

Main Caucasian Thrust, the plane of which dips at an angle of 50-60. The total vertical amplitude of 

this thrust is more than 16 km and can be traced throughout the entire stretch. Only to the west of the 

city of Sokhumi does the amplitude decrease to 8-10 km. This thrust is the southern border of the 

Greater Caucasus terrane and the northern border of the Black Sea-Central Transcaucasian terrane. 

This kind of subsidence also appears further south, in the zone of the Gebi-Lagodekhi fault, where the 

depth of the basement subsidence is 10-12 km.  

Within the Georgian block, the crystalline basement is also located at different hypsometric levels, 

but within its limits, meridional and submeridional faults predominate (Gudzhabidze & Gamkrelidze, 

2009). Five blocks are distinguished in the western Colchis subsidence zone. Of these, the most 

submerged part (10-12 km) is in the Ochamchire-Kulevi block. In the eastern direction, the basement 

rises stepwise, and around the Dzirula salient, it reaches the surface at around +1000 m. Following to 

the east, within the Kura depression, the basement again sinks stepwise through listric faults 

(Basheleishvili 1993; Basheleishvili, 1999), and around the Middle Kura depression (in the 

Dedoplistskaro area) it plunges to a maximum depth of 12-14 km.  

Within the Adjara-Trialeti zone, the basement is quite dissected. This is especially clearly expressed 

in the latitudinal structures, but at the same time, a meridional zonality emerges (Gamkrelidze, 

1976). Its western and eastern parts are immersed at the lowest levels (12-14 km), and the 

central part rises to zero value, and above this area within the Adjara-Trialeti corresponds to 

the Transcaucasian transverse elevation of the northwestern strike. This refers to the Trialeti 

Cordillera or the Peli–Uriuli uplift.  

The crystalline basement within the Javakheti highlands is located higher, where, in 

addition to the surface outcrops of the Loki and Khrami massifs, at an altitude of 1200-1300 

m above sea level, a dive of up to 3000-4000 m is noted. 



 Basheleishvili et al 2024, Vol.4(2) 

 
 

 

 

 
 

Figure. 4. 3D Model of Morphostructure of the Crystalline Basement within Georgia (plasticine); Scale: horizontal 1: 500000, vertical 1:200 000 

(https://obsidian4d.nira.app/a/ca9QqJCcTx22s4Js-1cknQ/1) 

  

https://obsidian4d.nira.app/a/ca9QqJCcTx22s4Js-1cknQ/1


 Basheleishvili et al 2024, Vol.4(2) 

 
 

 

 

Figure. 5. 3D Model of Morphostructure of the Crystalline Basement within Georgia



Basheleishvili et al. 2024, Vol.4(2) 
 

 

Conclusion 

Thus, for the first time for Georgia and the region, a plasticine model of the morphotectonics of the 

crystalline basement was created on a horizontal scale of 1:500,000 and a vertical scale of 1:200,000, 

which contributed to a clear visualization of the morphostructure of one of the main structural-

tectonic elements of the upper part of the Caucasus crust within Georgia. The technique for 

reproducing the plasticine model of the morphology of the relief of a crystalline basement consists of 

removing the mass of plasticine that corresponded to a thick sedimentary cover below the zero mark 

and, above this mark, on the contrary, building up to the required height. As a result, the resulting 

model clearly shows the modern picture of the morphology of the relief of the crystalline basement 

and its mosaic-block structure. 

Competing interests 

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 

Authors’ contribution 

L.B., G. B., and B.G. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of 

the results and to the writing of the manuscript. 

 

Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to thank Mrs. Tamar Tsutsunava, director of the Alexandre Janelidze 

Institute of Geology, for the financial support of the work. 

ORCID iD 

Levan Basheleishvili https://orcid.org/ 0009-0002-6286-7710 

Giorgi Beridze https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9573-8600 

Badri Gogia https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9686-6363 

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