







































Georgian Geographical Journal 

 

Development History of the Migaria 

Massif Karst Terrain 

Zaza Lezhava1* , Kukuri Tsikarishvili1 , Nana Bolashvili1 ,              

Tamari Tolordava1 , Irakli Avkopashvili1 , George 

Gaprindashvili1,2 , Roman Kumladze1,2 , Andrei Nosenko1 , 

Nino Chikhradze3 , Lasha Asanidze1  
1
Vakhushti Bagrationi Institute of Geography, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State 

University, Tbilisi, Georgia 

2 Department of Geology, LEPL National Environmental Agency, Tbilisi, Georgia 
3
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia 

*Corresponding author: zazalezhava@gmail.com 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction 

Georgia is a mountainous country located in the Caucasus region, between Russia, Turkey, Armenia, 

and Azerbaijan. As found in many countries in the world, Georgia is home to multiple, widespread karst 

massifs with well-developed karst areas and their associated landforms (Asanidze et al., 2017a; 

Asanidze et al., 2019; Lezhava et al., 2020; Lezhava et al., 2021). Different types of karst and 

pseudokarst features exist in abundance, due to the tectonic influences, nature of the bedrock, geologic 

structure, and hydrological complexity of the area (Tintilozov, 1976; Maruashvili, 1971). 

The Migaria limestone massif is part of the medium and high mountain karst in western Georgia 

(Tintilozov, 1976; Lezhava et al., 2022). It is on the southern slope of the Samegrelo (Egrisi) range, 

between the Khobistskali and Tekhuri river gorges (Maruashvili, 1964; Gergedava, 1968; Gergedava, 

Georgian Geographical Journal, 2024, 4(2) 22-29 

© The Author(s) 2024 

 
This article is an open access article distributed under 

the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons 

Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// 

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 

DOI: 

https://journals.4science.ge/index.php/GGJ 

Abstract 

On the basis of many years of field, experimental and laboratory (dye tracing, 

laboratory study of bedrocks, data analysis of geological sections, etc.) studies and 

analysis of available literary sources, the history of karst terrain development was 

restored on the Migaria limestone massif. Based on the mentioned materials, it can be 

said that the karstification on the Migaria limestone massif took place throughout the 

Pliocene and partially in the Upper Miocene, and therefore, the beginning of the 

formation of the karst terrain can be considered the entire Pliocene and possibly the 

Upper Miocene as well. The Rhodanian orogeny phase (after the Middle Pliocene, 

during the Cuialnic era), which was continued into the Wallachian orophase, led to a 

new uplift of the Caucasus, followed by the activation of karst processes on the surface 

and underground. New orogenic movements of the Early Pleistocene enhanced the 

splitting of limestone suites and the activity of karst formation processes. The same 

period should be related to the formation of caves (Shurubumu, Koko, Khuru, etc.) 

developed in the gorges of the rivers of Khobistskali, Ochkhomuri and their 

tributaries, namely, the transition from the phreatic to the vadose period and their 

further development. Thus, it can be said that the formation of the karst cavities of the 

Migaria massif occurred mainly before the Pleistocene or in the Lower Pleistocene. 

In the post-glacial period, along with karst processes, rockfalls, landslides, and 

mudflows played an important role in the change of the terrain of the study area, as 

indicated by the displaced boulders of volcanic origin of the Bajocian age (tuff 

sandstone) distributed in the gorges of the Khobistskali River and its tributaries, as 

well as on the terrace steps and verified by our laboratory tests. The bedrocks are 

found in the upper reaches of the Khobistskali River and thay are brought as a result 

of powerful landslide-mudflow processes. In the last stage of the modern 

geomorphological cycle, surface and underground karst forms are actively modified 

by the flows of melted snow and rain water. 

Keywords: Karst, Cave, Limestone massif, Georgia 

Citation: Lezhava, Z.; Tsikarishvili, K.; 
Bolashvili, N.; Tolordava, T.; 

Avkopashvili, I.; Gaprindashvili, G.; 

Kumladze, R.; Nosenko, A.; Chikhradze, 
N.; Asanidze, L. Development History of 

the Migaria Massif Karst Terrain. 
Georgian Geographical Journal 2024, 

4(2). 22-29 
https://doi.org/10.52340/ggj.2024.04.02.03 

mailto:zazalezhava@gmail.com


Lezhava et al. 2024 4(2) 

23 
 

1989; Tatashidze et al., 2009; Bolashvili et al., 2017; Asanidze et al., 2019; Lezhava et al., 2022). 

Administratively, the massif is located within the limits of Chkhorotsku and Martvili municipalities 

(Fig. 1). 

 
Figure 1. Location of the Migaria massif on the general map of Georgia 

 

The massif is separated from other areas by deep gorges: in the north and west it is represented by the 

gorge of the Khobistskali River, and to the east by the gorge of the Tekhuri River; to the south it borders 

the wide depression of the Ochkhomuri River, the left tributary of the Khobisskali River. The maximum 

stretch of territory within the mentioned borders is 17 km from west to east, and it reaches 6-7 km from 

north to south. The massif covers a surface area of approximately 100 km2, with karst phenomena 

developing on an area of about 62 km2. 

The crest of the massif reaches its maximum height in the east (2025 m. - Peak Migaria; 1980 m. - 

Peak Jvari) and gradually lowers to the west, in the direction of Otsindale village, up to 650 m. These 

peaks are separated by deep saddle-like recesses. The northern slope of the massif, which descends into 

the valleys of Khobistskali and its left tributary, is characterized by steep cliffs. 

To the west of Peak Jvari, the massif's tectonic zone is made up of two anticlinal hills that are parallel 

to each other. These hills surround a system of unfilled hollows that have formed in a synclinal structure 

that is 8 km long and 3 km wide (Maruashvili, 1964). 

As a result, a big part of the Migaria massif is made up of a synclinal structure. In the middle of this 

structure is a closed basin made mostly of Barremian rocks. Their lowest points are located at a height 

of 900-1000 m above sea level and are represented by sinkholes, ponors, and underground forms 

(mainly, wells and shafts). The hollow divides into several secondary hollows, each with its own karst 

genesis.  Among them, the Tsipuria hollow is notable for its size (length 5.5-6 km, width 2.5 km) and 

it occupies the western part of the unified hollow. We refer to the system of single hollows mentioned 

above as the Tsipuria hollow. It is much smaller than the Tsipuria hollow and is located northwest of 

the Tsipuria basin. It is made up of Barremian (Urgonian facies) limestones and is closed off from the 

Tsipuria basin (Fig. 2). 



Lezhava et al. 2024 4(2) 

24 
 

 
Figure 2. Geology of the Migaria limestone massif (Gudjabidze, 2003) 

 

The hill of the monoclinic structure is on the southern slope of the Migaria massif. It is connected to 

and sticks to the Tsipuria synclinal core, which is made of Urgonian facies (Barremian) rocks from the 

Migaria massif (Maruashvili, 1963; Maruashvili, 1973; Gorzohon et al., 2004; Lezhava et al., 2015; 

Lezhava et al., 2022). It is built with Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene-Eocene limestones, and from 

west to east, its height increases from 1000 m to 1200-1300 m. The mentioned hill is separated from 

the high syncline massif by dry ravines and uvalas and is fragmented by the gorges of the Ochkhomuri 

River and its tributaries (Atamana, Vau, Khuru, etc.) (Fig. 3). 

 

 
Figure 3. Block diagram of the Migaria limestone massif (Tabidze, 1966) 

 

There are many karst sinkholes in the Tsipuria synclinal hollow, on the anticlinal hills that surround 

it, and on the tops of Migaria and Jvari peaks. There are also Corrie surfaces to be found. With its high 

energy level (2000 m) and other helpful factors, the terrain supports the active flow of karst processes. 

This creates caves, wells, shafts, and abysses underground in the core of the massif. The theoretical 

depth of massif karstification and penetration here is 1500-1600 m. 

 

 

 



Lezhava et al. 2024 4(2) 

25 
 

Methods and Materials 

The work employs field, experimental, and laboratory research methods. In the research process, the 

study of existing cartographic and geological material was carried out as well as the field 

geomorphological and karst-speleological large-scale survey of the territory. In order to study the terrain 

and identify the karst features, an unmanned aerial vehicle (Phantom 4) was used. We identified the 

composition of the displaced boulder  by laboratory examination of its fragment sample, which allowed 

us to identifie the place of the boulder's break off and, accordingly, the distance of its displacement. We 

identified the movement routes of underground karst waters and discharge areas using the dye tracing 

(indicator test) method. It was found that there is a shared karst-hydrological system called the 

Deidzakhi hydrogeological system and separate flows of fissure-karst water. 

Results and discussions 

It is difficult to argue about the formation of karst cavities in ancient times, especially when the region 

has been uplifted several thousand meters from its original location and has also been exposed to 

exodynamic agents for a long time. The development of the karst terrain took place against the 

background of the geological development of the study area and the formation of the terrain in general 

(Maruashvili, 1963; Tintilozov, 1976; Lezhava et al., 2019a). It can be said that on the Migaria 

limestone massif, as well as on the massifs of the karst sone of western Georgia (Lezhava et al., 2019b; 

Lezhava et al., 2019c; Asanidze et al., 2021), karst formation and the formation of karst terrain begin 

in the Upper Miocene-Lower Pliocene, when the Attic phase of the orogenesis caused a significant 

uplift of the study area and, accordingly, intensive washing of the surface (Edilashvili & Gudjabidze, 

1954; Tsagareli & Astakhov, 1971).  
This process was further influenced and activated in the Late Sarmatian period, in particular, in the 

Meotian and Pontic centuries, which is confirmed by the faunistically dated (Meotian-Pontic) 

Samegrelo (Odishi) foothill sediments washed off from the southern slope of the Caucasus, represented 

mainly by limestone conglomerates. In the Cimmerian (Middle Pliocene), as a result of the sea abrasive 

action on the southern slope of the Migaria massif (also the Gaucha massif), the Cimmerian Sea abrasion 

flatland is developed, known as the Tarzen-Otsindale flat surface (level) and currently presented at 700-

750 m a.s.l. So, the Migaria massif went up 700 meters after the Cimmerian transgression. This means 

that by the end of the Tertiary period (Upper Sarmatian age), the massif was at least 1300 meters a.s.l. 

(Maruashvili, 1964). But if we take into account the denudation processes (Lezhava et al., 2019d; 

Lezhava et al., 2021), which followed the differentiated uplift and which should have caused its 

lowering, then it would be much higher. Therefore, it can be said that the uplift of the Migaria massif 

and the phase of continental development should have been started at a rather distant moment in the 

Tertiary period, and it is logical that already in the Upper Sarmatian age, when large-grained molasses 

(in particular, limestone conglomerates) began to accumulate in the Transcaucasian highlands, Migaria 

was hypsometrically on the border of hilly and medium-mountainous terrain (Maruashvili, 1964). Based 

on the above, karstification on the Migaria massif took place throughout the Pliocene and possibly in 

the upper Miocene as well, and therefore, the mentioned period can be considered as the beginning of 

the formation of the karst terrain. 

The Rhodanian orophase (after the Middle Pliocene, during the Cuialnic era) caused a new uplift of 

the Caucasus (along with the Migaria massif), which was followed by the activation of karst processes 

both on the surface and in the underground (Tintilozov, 1976). It was during this phase that the modern 

structures of Georgia's folded mountain system were fully formed. This process continued during the 

Wallachian orophase, which happened at the start of the Quaternary period, between the Cuialnic and 

Chaudian eras (Tsagareli & Astakhov, 1971). 

By our assumption, these phases should be connected with the formation of the Migaria deep fault, 

other fault dislocations, and block tectonics of the entire Migaria massif, as a result of which karstified 

rocks acquire collector properties. Among the disjunctive dislocations identified for today, the Migaria 

fault, which passes between the Jvari and Migaria mountains and extends from the northeast to the 

southwest, is noteworthy surface (Edilashvili & Gudjabidze, 1954). As a result of faulting, the 

Barremian, Aptian, and Albian-Cenomanian suites are shorn, and they reach the porphyritic suite. The 

mentioned fault should create a kind of barrier and make it difficult for the underground karst waters 



Lezhava et al. 2024 4(2) 

26 
 

formed in the eastern half of the massif to move westward (representing the watershed of the Deidzakhi 

hydrogeological basin), which is also confirmed by the indicator tests we have conducted.  
In the mentioned period, along with an important uplift of the study area, destructive processes were 

revived-weathering and denudation intensified, as well as deep erosion of rivers. As a result of the latter, 

the area was intensively fragmented. Karst processes have intensified. They formed both surface and 

underground karst features. Based on the mutual comparison of the levels developed in the Khuru and 

Ochkhomuri river gorges, L. Maruashvili (1964) indicates the 3-4 intermittent uplifts of the Migaria 

massif in the recent geological past (in the Middle and Upper Quaternary). The area's periodic upward 

movement also led to the formation of caves at various hypsometric levels. 

It seems that the evolution of karst cavities, like other limestone massifs of Georgia (Asanidze et al., 

2017b; Asanidze et al., 2017c; Asanidze et al., 2017d), was closely related to the action of pressurized 

waters in the early stage of their development. In the karst cavities of the Migaria massif, clear traces 

of the mechanical and chemical impact of these waters have been preserved so far (smoothed, levelled 

and perforated surfaces, ceiling corries, rounded arches, deaf pockets and niches). Even today, 

pressurized water plays an active role in the formation of karst cavities (Shurubumu, Ko, Khuru, and 

other caves) and their systems. 

Early Pleistocene (Pasadena phase) new orogenic movements enhanced the fissuring of limestone 

suites and, therefore, the activity of karst formation processes. Further evolution of the river network 

and karst cavities along with it takes place. Before the Middle Pleistocene, L. Maruashvili (1964, 1971) 

indicated different directions of the rivers of the Migaria massif. In particular, the Ochkhomuri River 

joined the Tekhura River and the Skurcha River joined the Khobistskali River, and the Khobistskali 

River flowed through the bed of the current Shiksha River. In the middle Pleistocene (Old Euxine-

Uzunlan-Karangat time) the uplift of the southern slope of the Caucasus continues, which naturally 

affected the activity of groundwater movement and the development of caves. Based on the correlation 

of the terrace levels, L. Maruashvili (1964) indicates the uplift at the height of 130-140 meters of the 

Migaria massif after the Riss era, which should be connected with the formation of the modern gorges 

of the Ochkhomuri, Skurcha, Tekhuri, and Khobistskali rivers. The formation of caves (Shurubumu, 

Koko, Khuru, etc.) developed in the gorges of the Khobisskali and Ochkhomuri rivers and their 

tributaries should be related to the same period; in particular, the transition from the phreatic to the 

vadose period and exposure to daylight. Thus, it can be said that the formation of the karst cavities of 

the Migaria massif occurred mainly before the Pleistocene or in the Lower Pleistocene.  

On the southern monoclinal slope of the Migaria massif, the widespread depressions devoid of 

constant flow - "dead gorges" - seem to have been developed before the last uplift of the massif, which 

caused the lowering of the karst drainage level. After the deep shifting of the hydro-network, many 

caves remained completely without water, and in some areas, where there was a significant mass of 

water moving in depth along the crack, groundwater has produced caves at lower levels and in some 

cases reached the level of the main river. Based on the results of the indicator tests we did on the Migaria 

massif, we can say that the different conditions that led to the formation of caves in the study area 

showed that separate water streams were formed. In addition, in the modern stage, individual karst 

caves, shafts, wells and channels of vaucluse springs, formed in the early stages, were united into a 

single karst aquifer system of "Deidzakhi", which is still impenetrable to humans and within which the 

development of karst cavities is yet underway (Fig. 4). 

 

 
Figure 4. Deidzakhi vaucluses. a) Deidzakhi karst streams during the flooding period. b) The junction of the Deidzakhi karst 

streams with the Khobistskali River (UAV-Phantom 4 images) 



Lezhava et al. 2024 4(2) 

27 
 

In the post-glacial period, rockslides, landslides, and mudflows played an important role in the change 

of the terrain of the study area, together with karst processes. This period (in the Upper Quarternary) 

should be related to a landslide of grandiose size (more than 1 km wide) that developed on the southern 

slope of the Migaria massif in the vicinity of the village of Doberazen. Individual areas of the mentioned 

landslide continue to periodically activate. In general, landslides, rock avalanches, and rockfalls are 

common events in other parts of the southern slope of the Migaria massif as well. Here, together with 

the landslide events in Tertiary clays and marls, the limestones are also destroyed and lead to the 

occurrence of rock avalanches and rockfalls. To the mentioned period should be related developed in 

the Khobistskali river gorge the landslides, rock avalanches and mudslides and huge displaced boulders 

brought by the latter to the gorges of the Khobistskali River and its tributaries. One of these displaced 

boulders (its mass reaches 150-160 tons) was observed by us on the first terrace level above the left 

floodplain of the Khobistrskali River, at a height of 2-3 m above the river level (298 m a.s.l.), in the 

distribution zone of the Lower Cretaceous carbonate rocks (limestones), (Fig. 5). 

 

 
Figure 5. Deidzakhi displaced boulder in the Khobistskali river gorge 

 

      As a result of the laboratory examination of the sample fragment from the boulder, it was identified 

that it is a volcanic, fine-grained tuff sandstone of Bajocian age, the bedrocks of which are found in the 

upper reaches of the Khobistskali River, 4-5 km from the current location of the boulder (it extends for 

two tens of km in the upper reaches of the Khobistskali River). So, the Deidzakhi boulder was brought 

to the direction of the Khobistskali riverbed in the limestone distribution zone, at least from 4-5 km. 

Based on the mentioned fact, we can assume that in the upper reaches of the Khobistskali River, as a 

result of a landslide, rock avalanche, or their combination, caused by a strong earthquake, the river bed 

was completely blocked and a lake appeared; after the accumulation of water mass, its sudden 

breakthrough took place, and a strong stone-muddy mudflow caused the distribution of boulders and 

mudflow material on the bed and slopes of the Khobistskali River and its tributaries. In this regard, it is 

particularly noteworthy the lower part of the Gvalashara river gorge (the right tributary of the 

Khobistskali River, Lugela vicinities) flowing through the Middle Jurassic-Bajocian porphyritic rocks, 

where the mass of individual smoothed boulders scattered over the flattened right level of the gorge 

reaches several tens of tons. We observed boulders of similar size in the gorges of other tributaries of 

the upper stream of the Khobistskali River. In the same period, the lower level of the Shurubumu cave 

system should have been filled up with rock avalanches and mudflow materials. It seems that during 

the mentioned period, some of the karst cavities developed in the Migaria massif collapsed and were 

partially or completely filled with boulders and debris material, or were blocked as a result of the 



Lezhava et al. 2024 4(2) 

28 
 

tectonic activity of the region. Based on the study of the karst cavities detected so far on the Migaria 

massif, it can be said that the conditions of their conception and evolution in relation to the peculiarities 

and the hydrological regime of the terrain considerably differ from the contemporary conditions. 

Namely, the evolution of cavities seems to have been more intense in the past, as indicated by the 

morphological-morphometric indicators of karst cavities, as well as  corridors, halls, etc. Currently, 

surface and underground karst features are actively modeled by melting snow and rain water flows. 

Conclusion 

It is worth noting that according to the scientists (Edilashvili & Gudjabidze, 1954; Maruashvili, 1971; 

Tintilozov, 1976), the leveled surface  (Tarzen-Otsindale step) with the height of 700-750 m a.s.l. 

belongs to the step formed as a result of the abrasive action of the Cimmerian Sea at the end of the 

Tertiary period. Therefore, it seems that after the Cimmerian transgression, the Migaria massif 

experienced an uplift of 700 meters. From this, we can conclude that at the end of the Tertiary period, 

the massif reached at least 1300 m a.s.l. Based on the above mentioned, the uplift of the Migaria massif 

and the phase of continental development should have started at a distant moment of the Tertiary period 

(Attic phase), and already in the Upper Sarmatian age, when large-grained molasses (in particular, 

limestone conglomerates in the mountainous area of Odishi) began to accumulate in the Transcaucasian 

intermountains, the hypsometric evolution of Migaria should have crossed the edge of the hilly and 

medium mountainous terrain. Thus, we can conclude that the erosion on the Migaria massif took place 

throughout the Pliocene and possibly in the Upper Miocene as well. 
 

Competing interests 

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 

Authors’ contribution 

L.Z. wrote the manuscript. T.K. B.N. T.T. A.I. G.G. K.R. N.A. A.L. helped to assist general review of 

the manuscript. C.N. did text and language editing. All authors provided critical feedback and helped 

shape the research, analysis, and manuscript. 

 

ORCID iD 

Zaza Lezhava  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6236-5174 

Kukuri Tsikarishvili  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5791-9286 

Nana Bolashvili  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9854-2614 

Tamar Tolordava  https://orcid.org/0009-0006-8179-2434 

Irakli Avkopashvili  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6749-1735 

George Gaprindashvili  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6869-9477 

Roman Kumladze  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7577-3695  

Nino Chikhradze  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8832-2084 

Lasha Asanidze  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7687-4212 

 

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