







































Georgian Geographical Journal 

 

Geographical Area of Meskheti According 

to the Ottoman Records of the XVI-XIX 

Centuries 
Dali Nikolaishvili1* , Davit Sartania2  Nikoloz Meskhishvili2 

Ana Arsenashvili1  
1
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia 

2 
Museum of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

 

*Corresponding author: arsenashviliani@gmail.com  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction 

Ottoman defters of the Middle Ages (XVI-XIX centuries) contain valuable information not only about 

the social-economic situation of the Ottomans but also about the countries conquered by them. In these 

defters, a certain part of the territory of Georgia is described, which is quite a large area. Within 

Meskheti, it includes not only the territories of modern (Samtskhe, Javakheti, Adjara), but also the 

territories of historical Georgia (Artan, Erusheti, Klarjeti, Kola, Tao, Shavsheti), the basins of the upper 

Mtkvari and the middle Chorokhi rivers and their tributaries.  

According to the defters, a certain part of the works was dedicated to the research of the territories 

conquered by the Ottomans (Jikia, 1958; Nikolaishvili et al., 2021; Shashikadze, 2006; Shengelia, 1960; 

Svanidze, 1984), However, this issue has not yet been fully studied and analyzed. The issue of the 

territorial coverage of political/administrative units of different ranks depicted in the defters is 

particularly unclear. The low level of study of the mentioned issue is due not only to the fact that only 

a small part of these documents has been translated into Georgian today but also to the fact that these 

documents have not been studied in various aspects, even from a geographical point of view. With a 

few exceptions (Aslanikashvili, 1953; NikolaiShvili et al., 2021), nor were they fully mapped 

cartographically. Due to these reasons, the geographical area of the political/administrative units 

depicted in the books and the tendency of their transformation over time are unknown. And if this area 

is determined, it will give us the opportunity to: 

▪ To avoid the mistake of considering different administrative units, which have the same name 

in different periods of time, as the same territory. An example of this is the province of 

Gurjistan, which in the records of 1574 and 1595, with some exceptions, includes a different 

territory.  

▪ To carry out a social-economic analysis of different administrative units, on the one hand, by 

comparing the conquered territories and, on the other hand, the unconquered Georgian parts, in 

Georgian Geographical Journal, 2024, 4(2) 75-83 

© The Author(s) 2024 

 
This article is an open access article distributed under 

the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons 

Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// 

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 

DOI: 

https://journals.4science.ge/index.php/GGJ 

Abstract 

A certain part of the territory of Georgia was described in the Ottoman Defters 

of the Middle Ages. This is quite a large territory, which includes not only 

modern, but also historical Georgia. The aim of the research is the geo-

informational cartography of the Georgian cultural heritage according to the 

Ottoman Defters of the XVI-XIX centuries and showing the geographical area 

that was described in these recors. From this point of view, 9 defters were 

processed and analyzed. As research has shown, these defters include the 

territories of Georgia that the Ottomans: 1) only conquered and tributed; 2) it 

was conquered and could not be fully preserved and today it is in modern 

Georgia and 3) it was conquered and it is still within the borders of Turkey. 

Some parts of the depicted areas in the defters covering each other’s. Their 

detection is important for studying the dynamics of social-economical, 

traditional natural management, onomastic and a number of other issues. 

However, the territorial overlaps are not so large. For example, the defters of 

1574 and 1595, both of which describe the province of Gurjistan, coincide 

only in a small fragment. The 1574 defter of big Artaan liva territorially 

coincides with the 1595 big Artaan and Fanak liva. 

Keywords: Ottoman records, historical Georgia, Meskheti, Gurjistani  

Citation: Nikolaishvili, D.; Sartania, D.; 
Meskhishvili, N.; Arsenashvili, A. 

Geographical area of Meskheti according to 

the Ottoman records of the XVI-XIX 
centuries. Georgian Geographical Journal 
2024, 4(2). 75-83 

https://doi.org/10.52340/ggj.2024.04.02.09 



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

76 
 

order to make possible a retrospective analysis of the unified situation of the settlement of the 

Georgian nation. 

▪ To determine the dynamic change of the Georgian substrate through the study of traditional 

natural management, toponymical, anthroponymical and a number of other issues, i.e. the 

process of transition to the "Ottoman rule" or, on the contrary, the process of preserving the 

Georgian substrate. 

Therefore, it is very important to determine the territorial coverage of the political/administrative units 

recorded in the Ottoman records. The present work deals with this problematic issue. 

The aim of the research is to determine the geographical area described by the Georgian translations 

of the Ottoman records of the 16th and 19th centuries. 

Methods and Materials 

The main research method is retrospective cartography and comparative geographical analysis by 

using GIS technologies. Accordingly, the data in the databases were identified, systematized, and 

classified, and a GIS database was created. Identification of objects was carried out on the basis of 

mutual agreement with other sources, for which comparative, semantic, retrospective cartography, and 

other methods of research were used. A field-expeditional research was also conducted within the 

borders of modern Georgia (Adjara, Samtskhe-Javakheti) and the Republic of Turkey (Artvini and 

Artaan provinces). The field research was mainly based on surveys and questionnaires of the local 

population. 

Obviously, field research could not be carried out completely on the entire studying area because it 

required a lot of time and money. Therefore, the field work was carried out on such a scale that a modern 

picture of the facts recorded in the old defters could be presented in general terms. The fact that a 

significant part of the data is kept in archival funds of other countries (Russia, Turkey, Romania, 

Bulgaria and others) with limited access, so this fact also created some difficulty. 

The object of our research was 9 Ottoman defters: 

1. Grand and Short Defters of Ajara Liva of 1566-1574. 

2. The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 1574. 

3. The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 1595. 

4. The Grand Defter of Artanudji of 1595. 

5. Jaba Defter of Childir Vilayet of 1694-1732. 

6. Grand Defter of Tbilisi Vilayet of 1728. 

7. Defter of Shavsheti of 1835-1836. 

8. Defter of Machakheli (Crdili Vilayet) of 1836. 

9. Defter of Satleli Liva (Crdili Vilayet) of 1836. 

 

In the Ottoman defters are recorded just conquered territories by the Ottomans, because conquered 

territories were described in order to impose taxes on them. Naturally, this conquest did not happen all 

at once. The Ottomans had separated Georgia from some side or part of it, and then Georgia had taken 

some of them back. During the years, these territories were lost again with new invasions. Due to the 

frequent change of the political owner, it is impossible to restore an exact sequence picture. Because 

Defters depicted exact moments, it became possible to present a general picture for certain periods of 

time.  

 As the analysis and comparison of historiographic works and Ottoman defters had shown, according 

to the Ottoman power, the territory of Georgia can be divided into three parts, namely, the territories 

that the Ottomans: 1) marched and conquered (but did not manage to completely conque)r. Their 

political subjugation lasted for a certain period. Such is the wester,e largest part of Georgia); 2) They 

were conquered for a certain period of time, but they could not keep i,t and today it is within the borders 

of modern Georgia. Such is Eastern Georgi,a and 3) conquered and incorporated these territories (such 

is the largest part of southwestern Georgia in the basin of the Mtkvari and Chorokhi rivers). 

The Ottoman influence was less on the territories that were directly separated from Georgia, which 

was not conquered by the Ottomans. This mainly concerns the northern part of Samtskhe-Saatabago 

(Samtskhe, the northern part of Javakheti, Adjara, Shavsheti, Klarjeti), which is within the borders of 

modern Georgia. As for the rest of Samtskhe-Saatabago, located further south (Kola, Artaan, Erusheti, 

Artanuji, etc.), the Ottoman influence was much more here (Nikolaishvili et. al., 2021). 

Our research includes the territory of Meskheti, incorporated by the Ottomans. Part of this territory is 

located in modern Georgia, and another part is in Turkey.  



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

77 
 

From the historiography, it is known that within Meskheti were located: Artaani, Erusheti, Klarjeti, 

Oltisi, Samtskhe, Speri, Tao, Potskhovi, Shavsheti, Javakheti, and others. But there are also parts whose 

territorial affiliation is debatable and needs some clarification, for example, Borjomi Valley, Kaikuli, 

and Chaneti. 

Ivane Javakhishvili wrote that Georgia consisted of several "countries", whose names and borders had 

been changed over time, which was the result of political-national growth, but still there were 

permanent, native borders of each country. We investigate only those borders and territory that are 

included in the "permanent" borders of Meskheti. According to the latest studies, the "permanent" 

borders of Meskheti include: Soeri (upper river of Chorokhi), Tao (middle river of Chorokhi with right 

and left tributaries: Parkhalistskali, Tortomi, Oltis), Klarjet-Shavsheti and Adjara (lower river of 

Chorokhi), Kola, Artaani, Erusheti, Javakheti (incl. Ninotsminda, Akhalkalaki, Aspindze 

municipalities), Samtskhe and Potskhovi valleys (incl. Akhaltsikhe and Adigeni municipalities), Tori 

(Borjomi municipality) and others. (Abashidze et al., 2014). 

According to the Ottoman defters of 1728, Tori, so Borjomi valley, is in Gori Liva, although it, 

together with Shida Kartli, did not experience the same long-term influence of Ottoman rule as 

Samtskhe and other parts of Georgia conquered by the Ottomans. But it is also known that the border 

of South Georgia started from Tashiskar and extended to the south. It is the same with the modern 

administrative division. Therefore, it was included in our research. 

Chaneti, also known as Lazeti, was a bordering region of Meskheti. Politically, in a certain period, he 

was included in its area. Lazeti became one of the first incorporated parts of Georgia by the Ottomans. 

Moreover, if we trust Vakhushti Bagrationi, Meskheti extended to the borders of Chaneti (Vakhushti 

Bagrationi, 1941). We find a similar opinion in many scientific works. Therefore, it could not be 

included in our research. 

Adjara was also a part of Meskheti, but Batumi and Kobuleti sides were not included in it. Today, 

Kobuleti is a part of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, although in the Middle Ages this area was 

part of the Guria, which was captured by the Ottomans. The population was converted to Islam and 

seperated from Guria. 

Kayikuli is mentioned in historical sources as Abotsi. It is reported in the defters of 1728. Due to the 

change of the political situation, it sometimes belonged to Kartli and sometimes to Meskheti. Ivane 

Javakhishvili had mentioned that Kaikuli was in Meskheti, but he also noticed that it was in the south 

of Javakheti. There was a community located between Meskheti and Kvemo Kartli, and sometimes it 

belonged to Meskheti, but often, in particular, in the XVII-XVIII centuries, it was within the borders of 

Kvemo Kartli. (Javakhishvili, 1998). However, there are different opinions; in particular, V. Nozadze 

marked that Kaikuli was in Meskheti (Nozadze, 1989). As for Pavle Ingorokva, when he discusses the 

issue of the territorial dispute between Georgia and Armenia, he says that Abotsi (the same as Kaikuli) 

belongs to Georgia and adds that Abotsi is geographically located between the districts of Meskheti and 

Bambak [Ingoroqva, manuscript]. 

Here, we should emphasize one important physical-geographic circumstance (Nikolaishvili et al., 

2021). Historically, it is known that Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli are bordered by an important 

orographic barrier—the Javakheti ridge. Today, the northern part of the Javakheti ridge, which is located 

in Georgia, is a main orographic border. Therefore, due to orographic conditions, Abotsi belongs more 

to Kvemo Kartli than to Javakheti. 

Based on the above, the geographical area of our research is limited to the historical territory of 

Meskheti, or the "natural border", which was spread from Tashiskar to Karnukalaki, but did not include 

Kaikul (Abots), Chanet (Lazet), nor Batumi and Kobuleti. 

Results 

According to the "defters of the Province of Gurjistan" of 1574 and 1595, the province of Gurjistan 

included the basins of the upper Mtkvari and the middle of the Chorokhi rivers. In particular, the right 

side of Chorokhi with tributaries (Oltissistskal, Banisstskal, Bardusstskal, Sevriststskal, Torthomistskal, 

Artanujitsskal). The upper part of Mtkvari was surrounded by the vilayet on both sides. According to 

the "defters of the Province of Gurjistan" in 1574, the province of Gurjistan was divided into 4 parts: 

Artanuji, Great Artaan, Tortomi and Oltis. A total of 19 Nahie were united in the vilayet. According to 

the 1595 "defters of the Province of Gurjistan", there are 9 livas and 41 Nahie named in the province, 

although S. Jikhia also writes that Oltis Liwa is a later inscription (The Grand Defter of Gurjistan 

Vilayet of 1595, 1941), i.e. It does not belong to the 1595 register. 



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

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Figure 1. Georgian Geographical Journal 

Figure 2. Geographical area of Meskheti according to Ottoman defters (XVI-XIX centuries)  



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

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The mutual comparison of administrative units showed us that the province of Gurjistan, according to 

the 1574 and 1595 records, did not have the same territorial coverage, and only on a small fragment 

they coincided territorially (pic. 1): Didi Artaani Liva of the 1574 record (districts: Mzvare, Mishe, 

Sheti, Kiamkhisi, Fanaki, Fanaskert) territorially coincides with the 1595 Livas of Didi Artaan 

(Nahiyes: Mzvare, Tgiani, Shiti) and Fanak (Nahiyes: Kiamkhisi, Fanak, Fanaskerti) (Table 1). This 

means that in the 20-year period, there was more division of administrative units—didi artan liwa was 

divided into Didi artaan and fanak livas—but there was no more division of lower-ranking 

administrative units—nahiyes. The total area of this contiguous territory was 3353 square meters. It's 

not a big area. If we compare modern Georgia, it is slightly larger than the municipality of Mestia. 

As for the "Short (Ijmal) Defter of Childir Vilayet" (XVI century) and "Jaba Defter", the available 

information about the administrative arrangement of the Vilayet is very scarce. The reason for this is 

that it is compiled based on a big database and contains brief information. It should be determined for 

which large books they are compiled. According to the current sources, it is impossible to give an exact 

answer to this question. Moreover, there are later inscriptions in defter, which the Georgian translators 

date from 1590 to 1622 ("Ijm. David.", p. 5). We can only make assumptions, namely, the Ottoman 

notebooks of the same period are connected to each other, and the data entered in the short notebooks 

should not belong to one notebook. Obviously, it is difficult to generalize this to all Ottoman books, 

although it is confirmed by the books we have. What gives us the opportunity to say that? First of all, 

the "Short (Ijmal) Defter of Chrdili Province" and "Short Defter" include villages from 1595 and the 

extensive Defter of Livy of Zemo Adjara (Tab. 2). 

Table 2. Compliance of some villages according to different defters  

Short list of Childir Vilayet 1595 Great defters of the Province 

of Gurjistan 

Wide defters of Zemo Adjara 

Villages Sum of taxes Villages Sum of taxes Villages Sum of taxes 

Table 1. Administrative arrangement of provinces of Georgia According to the records of 1574 and 1595 

 
Livas Nahiye 

Big Artaani * 

Mzvare * 

Mishe * 

Chrdili * 

Kiamkhisi * 

Fanaki * 

Panaskerti * 

Tortomi 

Tortomi 

Kudrusuri 

Pertegreki 

Oltisi 

Anzavi 

Bardisi 

Gobi 

Marsasori 

Mzvari 

Chrdili 

Artanudji 

Artanudji 

Ishkhani 

Taoskari 

Khacheni 

livas Nahiye 

Big Artaani * 

Mzvare * 

Tkiani * 

Chrdili * 

Fanak * 

Kiamkhisi * 

Fanak * 

Panaskerti * 

Akhalkalaki 

Akshehiri 

Tmogvi 

Nialisyure 

Akhaltsikhe 

Aspindza 

Atskuri 

Mzvare 

Okroscikhe 

Otskhi 

Ude 

Kvabliani 

Chrdili 

Djadjaraki 

Petre 
Petre 

Kashveti 

Potskhovi 
Mzvare 

Chrdili 

Chrdili 

Mgeltsikhe 

Kanarbeli 

Djanbazi 

Khertvisi 

Buzmareti 

Forest Djavakheti 

Khertvisi 

Matches are marked with an asterisk (*) 

 



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

80 
 

Zarzma 11 600 Sersem(?) 11 600   

Tsaghveri 15 200 Tsaghveri 15 200   

Samda Sakhuri 13 000 Samzisokhevi 13 000   

Handakiri/Hakidi 30 000 ? 30 000   

Ghordjomi 29 999   Ghordjomi 2999 * 

Dabagha akhra 15 000   Big Adjara 15 000 

Doskho 15 002   Potskho 15 002 

Alme 29 999   Alme 2 999 * 

* – probably, we have to deal with incorrect data collection 

 

"Jaba defter of the chrdili Province" 1694-1732. It is a different type of document from the large 

(extensive) and short records, which records the changes in the lands (Khasi, Ziameti, Timari) granted 

by the Sultan. All material is arranged by geographical point, not chronologically. There is information 

about the following lives of Akhaltsikhe Sapasha (Chrdili Province): Artanuji, Akhaltsikhe, 

Akhalkalaki, Adjara, Great Artaan, Small Artaan, Mamirvan, Oltis, Livana, Fanak, Potskhovi, 

Fertekreki, Chrdili (Childiri), Shavsheti, and Khertvisi. Moreover, Peter's Liva is not verified in the 

Chrdili Vilayet. This is explained by the fact that with the truce of 1639, this area (from Kvishkheti to 

Atskuri, i.e. Borjomi valley) no longer belongs to Ottomans and is still part of the Kartli Kingdom 

["Jaba Davtar", p. 81]. 

It is interesting how to belong the small Artaani to the province of Livy, i.e., the Chrdili of Kola. This 

issue is unclear due to the fact that the same nahiyas (Khojevan, Sheti, Mzvare) of the mentioned Livy, 

often with the same villages, are included in both defters of Chrdili and Karsi. This strange case wasn’t 

considered a chancellery mistake by Abuladze. the "double" affiliation is also confirmed by the report 

of Katib Chelebi ("Jaba Davtari", p. 72). Today it is very difficult to explain how the same 

administrative unit was managed by different governorates. Today it is very difficult to explain how the 

same administrative unit was managed by different governorates. This issue can be resolved by finding 

new records; however, in our case, the territorial affiliation of the small Artaan Liv, or Kola, was 

determined by the Chrdili province. 

According to the big defter (XVI century) of the Upper Adjara Liva, this one included almost the 

entire basin of Achariskali (middle and upper parts). Administratively, it was divided into two nahiye: 

Zemo and Kvemo Adjara. The territory of Liva mostly coincides with the borders of modern 

administrative units (Shuakhevi and Khulo municipalities), although there are differences between 

them. In particular, the eastern border of Liva had passed on the top of the Arsian ridge, and the upper 

part of Kvabliani and Ghrmanistskali did not enter within the border. (as well as modern Adjara) 

(Nikolaishvili & Sartania, 2011). 

Even in the short story of Adjara Liva (XVI century) there are only reports about the nahiyes of Kvemo 

and Kvemo Adjara. It seems that, territorially, it coincides with the data of the extensive defter of Livy 

of Upper Adjara. 

According to the 1728 "Tbilisi Vilayeti Big Defter", the territory of the vilayet was quite extensive 

and included almost the entire territory of present-day eastern Georgia, except Kakheti. The western 

parts of modern Azerbaijan and the northern parts of Armenia also entered the mentioned vilayet. This 

makes us think that the defter describes the whole Kartli at that time. 

The issue about the name of the vilayet is also interesting. The Ottoman name "Gurjistan" meant the 

whole of Georgia, and that's what they called the territories they conquered as well.    

Since by the 18th century there was already an administrative unit under the name of the province of 

Gurjistan, the newly joined territory (Kartli) could not be given the same name due to its large territorial 

coverage because it could not be merged with it. That’s why the newly conquered territory (Kartli) was 

separated as an administrative unit, and its name comes from its important center (city) - Tbilisi. 

From the administrative point of view, Tbilisi Vilayet was divided into 5 livas (Table 3). From here, 

only 2 nahiye of Gori Liva came into Meskheti: Petre and Gujarati. A comparison with the 1595 

"Gurjistan Vilayet defter" showed us that during the 16th-18th centuries, certain changes occurred in 

the administrative arrangement of the territory of Georgia conquered by the Ottomans, in particular, in 

the 16th century, the Borjomi Valley had a higher administrative status and was included in the 

Georgian Vilayet under the status of Peter's Liva. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Borjomi 

valley (already with the status of 2 nahiyes) was included in the Gori Liva of Tbilisi Vilayet, although 

the territory of the nahiyes did not change. Defter of Petre and Kashveti nahiyes of 1574 corresponds 

to Davtri Petre and Gujarat nahiyes of 1728. 



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

81 
 

It should also be noted that, according to the 1728 decree, the exact determination of the territory and 

intra-territorial division of the vilayet turned out to be quite difficult since there are many inaccuracies 

in it. A more detailed study of the issue is necessary. 

Table 3. Administrative Unites of Tbilisi Vilayet, 1728 

Livas Nahiyas 

Tbilisi Tbilisi, Avlabri, Sabaratiano, Dmanisi, Baidar, Kaikuli 

Gori Satsitsiano, Mukhran, Saamilakhvro, Shavi Aragvi and Ksni Eristavi, Trialeti, Petre, Gomareti, 

Gujarati 

Somkhiti Armenia, Tashir, Fanbak 

Akhcha kali Akhcha kali 

Kazaki Anchi, Javad, Ahsabad, Terki 

 

Today, it is very difficult to determine why the Borjomi valley was transferred from one province to 

another. This is a matter for the future, but some consideration can be given to moving it to a lower 

administrative status. 

It is known from historiography that from the 16th century to the 18th century, Borjomi Valley was 

gradually almost completely deserted. Part of the population died in the fight against the invaders, and 

part of them moved to other parts of Georgia. Georgian material cultural monuments were significantly 

destroyed; the economy was disrupted. This is discussed in many scientific works (Abuladze, 1983; 

Berdzenishvili, 1985; Kudjadze, 1969; Makalatia, 1957). Therefore, the cancellation of Peter's Livy 

should have been a completely logical decision. 

Today, it is very difficult to determine why the Borjomi valley was transferred from one province to 

another. This is a matter for the future, but some consideration can be given to moving it to a lower 

administrative status. 

It is known from historiography that from the 16th century to the 18th century, Borjomi Valley was 

gradually almost completely deserted. Part of the population died in the fight against the invaders, and 

part of them moved to other parts of Georgia. Georgian material cultural monuments were significantly 

destroyed, and the economy was disrupted. This is discussed in many scientific works (Abuladze, 1983; 

Berdzenishvili, 1985; Kudjadze, 1969; Makalatia, 1957). Therefore, the cancellation of Peter's Livy 

should have been a completely logical decision. 

Conclusion 

As it is clear from the above-mentioned differences, the territorial similarities are not so small, but not 

many. Here it is important to find out which defters match each other—long or short notebooks. It is 

much more informative, matching according to extensive definitions, which gives us an opportunity to 

discuss several social-economical and onomastical features in a dynamic perspective. According to 

extensive data, we have territorial matching in the following geographical areas: Didi Artaan, Fanak, 

Petre, and Machakhli Livas. Because this coincidence includes different historical-geographical 

provinces (Artaani, Tori, Machakhela), it also gives us the possibility to find similarities and differences 

between these provinces. However, it is also clear that these provinces have different areas. The borders 

of big Artaani and Fanak are the largest areas (3432 km2), where according to the 1595 register, there 

are 200 villages and 86 villages. Petres Liva has a relatively small area (944 km2), where we see only 

8 villages and 41 villages. The area of Machakhli Liva is much smaller, although according to the 1835 

register, the number of villages is more here (21 villages). 

Despite the small area of territorial coincidences, it provides a good opportunity to discuss the 

onomastic and social-economic situation from a dynamic perspective. If we compare the matching 

geographical area by the decades of 1574 and 1595, we will see an interesting picture. In 1574, there 

were 120 families in this area; between them, 114 were Christians and 6 were Muslims, and after 20 

years, this picture changed significantly: the total number of families decreased to 36, and 34 of them 

were Christians and 2 were Muslims. What caused the population decline is difficult to say. However, 

the economic structure has not changed. The population had continued to grow agricultural crops 

(wheat, barley, millet, etc.) as before. Despite the decrease in population, it is strange that taxes have 

increased slightly. This side in 1574 used to pay 380 akhchas, but in 1595 it was increased to 500 

akhchas. The reason for this could be inflation or increased taxes to accelerate the process of 

Islamization.  

Because we do not have a territorial overlap according to the above-mentioned defters, and it is 

difficult to talk about the change of the demographical and economic picture, but the general trend 



Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 

82 
 

would be clear: it is an indicator of the irreversible process of the transition of the confessional issue 

from Christianity to Islam, which was also a factor in reducing the consciousness of ethnic belonging. 

Competing interests 

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 

Authors’ contribution 

D.S. and N. M. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the 

results and to the writing of the manuscript. were involved in planning and supervised the work. A.A. 

and D. N. performed the analytic calculations. A.A. translated this paper from Georgian into English. 

D.N. took the lead in writing the manuscript. All authors provided critical feedback and helped shape 

the research, analysis, and manuscript. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors cordially thank the Shota Rustaveli Science Foundation for support, under whose 

financial aid it became possible to accomplish the present work within the project “Mapping and to 

analyze Georgian cultural heritage of south-west Georgia according to old Turkish Population census 

books”, Grant #HE-18-448, 26.07.2018). The authors also cordially thank members of the project 

(Avtandil Ujmajuridze, Darejan Kirtadze, Manana Kvetenadze, Tedo Gorgodze). The authors also 

thank Zaza Shashikadze for translating some parts of these documents and sharing this data. 

Funding 

This research [#HE-18-448] has been supported by Shota Rustaveli Science Foundation  

ORCID iD 

Dali Nikolaishvili  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6540-3682  

Davit Sartania  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5248-2801 

Ana Arsenashvili  https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3859-2437 

 

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