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Farming according to the Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 

1595 
Dali Nikolaishvili1*, Davit Sartania2, Avtandil Ujmajuridze3 

Abstract 

This article describes the economic situation, particularly the tradition of Georgian farming culture, in 

southwestern part of Georgia, concurred by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century and called Gurjistan Vilayet 

by the Ottomans. Gurjistan Vilayet covered a significant area of southwestern Georgia, with only a tiny part being 

a part of Georgia and the remained territory being a part of the Republic of Turkey, the legal successor of the 

Ottoman Empire. The study is mainly based on the Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet. In the study's course, the 

geographical objects (villages, sites of ancient villages, sowing areas, etc.) given by the Defter were identified, 

systematized, and classified and a GIS database and relevant maps were developed. The objects plotted on the 

map were identified by comparing with other sources used to identify the types and amounts of taxes set by the 

Ottoman for the population, group them thematically, and draw a picture of the region's economic potential. It 

was found that the Georgian economic tradition was solid and sustainably profitable, but the Ottoman ideological 

press had a particular effect on it. 

Keywords: Gurjistan Vilayet, Liva, Nahiyah, Ottoman Defters, 16th century, Farming 

Introduction 

Following the conquest of the southwestern part of Georgia by the Ottomans in the 16th century, a 

new administrative-territorial unit - “Gurjistan Vilayet” was formed, where Islamization and gradual 

eradication of the remnants of Georgian culture started. However, this process was slow and gradual. 

The first change made by the Ottomans in the occupied territories was the introduction of the Ottoman 

tax system, which was based on religious discrimination. In particular, the Christians paid higher taxes 

than the Muslims. This supported the substitution of the Christian faith in Islam, which was dangerous 

for the traditional Georgian culture. When the forced transformation of the traditional Georgian culture 

started in the area, how it developed and which areas it covered is an essential issue of a scientific study. 

Studying this issue through scarce, old Georgian sources is virtually impossible. Consequently, the old 

Ottoman documents are an irreplaceable source. The most important of them is the population census 

books.  

“The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet”, dated 1595, is the first document translated and published 

in Georgian, which describes the political, socio-economic, and cultural situation of this newly 

conquered territory of Georgia. The Grand Defter was a subject of interest to many scholars [1-6]. 

However, because of its diversity and information value, many interesting novelties are still found in 

the document. 

Study Area 

As per the Defter of 1595, Gurjistan Vilayet was divided into 8 Livas and 28 Nahiyah. These Livas 

are: Akhaltsikhe, Khertvisi, Akhalkalaki, Chrdili, Potskhovi, Petre, Didi-Artaani and Panak. According 

to the map compiled by Al. Aslanikashvili [7], there were 9 Livas and 37 Nahiyahs in Gurjistan Vilayet, 

although the Defter says that Oltisi Liva inscription was made sometime later [1], i.e., it does not belong 

to the Defter of 1595.  

The area of Gurjistan Vilayet was 11 791 km2 (excluding Oltisi Liva) [8]. The Livas of Gurjistan 

Vilayet occupied utterly different areas due to their different natural conditions. After all, the borders 

between the Livas were fixed with mountain systems and river valleys. The biggest (Akhaltsikhe) Liva 

was almost four times bigger than the smallest (Potskhovi) Liva. There were five big Livas in the 

Vilayet: Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Didi Artaani, Chrdili, and Panak, while the area of 3 other Livas 

(Petre, Khertvisi, and Potskhovi) was less than 950 km2.  

 
1 Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, Department of Geography; 3, Ilia 

Chavchavadze Ave; Tbilisi, 0128, Georgia,  
2 Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Museum of TSU; 1 Ilia Chavchavadze Ave; Tbilisi, 0128, Georgia 
3 Ivane Javakhishvili Center; 33, Tsinamdzgvrishvili Str; Tbilisi, 0112, Georgia  

* Corresponding author: dali.nikolaishvili@tsu.ge 

 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

Methods and Materials 

The study is based on the Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 1595, prepared by the Ottoman 

Empire, translated from Turkish to Georgian, and published in 1941 by S. Jikia. The Turkish original 

of the Grand Defter of Gurjistan (hereinafter "The Defter") was written on 490 quite large pages and is 

preserved at the Korneli Kekelidze Georgian National Center of Manuscripts [Fund # 478]. The 

document gives extremely rich and diversified data about the social-economic situation of then-time 

Georgia, regarding which S. Jikia, the translator and researcher of the Defter wrote: "The feudal 

Ottoman Empire, owing to unequal forces, succeeded in isolating it from Georgia, which had the 

economic riches and traditions of the high culture of the many-century-long history of Georgia" [1]. 

"The map of Gurjistan Vilayet" [7], different-scale (1:100,000; 1:50,000) Soviet topographic maps, 

maps in the old verst system (scales: 1 inch: 5 versts and 1 inch: 10 versts), 3-dimensional Google Earth 

geo-images were also used as primary sources.  

The paper relies on the agricultural data given in the "Defter", mainly the information related to 

farming, which tells us about the kinds of crops the people of the region grew and the geography and 

intensity of the crops. Defter's data are compared with the latest data, including the ethnographic studies 

of the 20th century. The study used comparative, semantic, quantitative, and retrospective mapping 

methods. 

Results and Discussion 

General features of agriculture. Regarding “The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet” of 1595, Sh. 

Lomsadze wrote: "It shows us enslaved people deprived of all rights and grouped by villages and cities; 

the heads of the families who are referred to by their names and patronymics (as it was common in 

Turkey) ... the sites of ancient villages and cities, desolate and "empty of Rayah (peasant)" [8]. 

Furthermore, Defter gives a picture: almost 1/3 of the villages are deserted. 

As per our calculations, there were 1070 objects named in the Vilayet (excluding Oltisi Liva), but 

only 726 of them had permanent residents, while the rest of the locations were deserted, i.e., were sites 

of ancient villages. The agricultural lands in these villages were used by the people from the surrounding 

villages who therefore paid relevant agricultural taxes. It is of these taxes; these villages were included 

in the Defter. Presumably, the Vilayet had many more sites of ancient villages abandoned entirely by 

their permanent inhabitants and by the farmers from the neighbouring villages, who would cultivate the 

abandoned land to gain harvest. Such state of affairs indeed impacted Vilayet's economy, as the statistics 

from Defter show.  

The residents of Gurjistan Vilayet paid 64 different types of taxes, including 55 agricultural and nine 

non-agricultural taxes. Akhaltsikhe and Didi Artaani Livas paid the highest taxes, and the minor taxes 

were paid by Petre Liva (Fig. 1).  

The Vilayet paid 9 391 732 akçe (the chief monetary unit of the Ottoman Empire and neighbouring 

countries in 14th-19th centuries). The biggest Livas paid the highest taxes. Namely, the first three biggest 

Livas were: Akhaltsikhe (paying 2 942 868 akçe), Didi Artaani (paying 1 458 612 akçe) and 

Akhalkalaki (paying 1 120 480 akçe) Livas. Petre Liva paid the lowest tax (475,305 akçe). 

 

 

Figure 1. Total taxes according to Livas (%) 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

The situation will be the opposite if calculating the total taxes by homesteads. On average, the 

population of Vilayet paid 593 akçe per homestead. Petre Liva was charged with a maximum tax (1657 

akçe), and Didi Artaani Liva paid the minimum tax (340 akçe), the former paying a five times higher 

tax than the latter meaning that virtually, the inhabitants of Didi Artaani Nahiyah must have had higher 

incomes. This is logical since Petre Nahiyah was already relatively depopulated by then, and most sites 

of ancient villages of all Vilayet were found on its territory (Fig. 2). At the same time, the situation in 

Didi Artaani Liva was “calmer”, and this figure was close to the average value of the Vilayet. 

There was no significant difference between the amounts and types of agricultural and non-

agricultural taxes in different Livas (Fig. 3). The average difference for the non-agricultural tax was 

8.8%. There is a more considerable difference in different Nahiyahs and villages. All over the Vilayet, 

the maximum (56.0%) non-agricultural taxes were paid by Panaskerti Nahiyah of Panak Liva, while 

Petre Nahiyah of Petre Liva paid the minimum (2.9%) taxes. 

  

Gurjistan Vilayet  Petre Liva Didi Artaani Liva 

  Agricultural taxes Non-agricultural taxes 

8.8 % 5.0 % 13.4 % 

Figure 2. Share of villages and ancient villages in Gurjistan Vilayet (%) 

Figure 3. Agricultural and non-agricultural taxes 

1.8 % 
Livestock Advanced branches 

1.4 % 6.4 % 

92.2 

% 

Lilvestock 

Advanced 

branches 

 

2.5 % 

26.6 

% 

70.9 

% 

Farmi

ng 

Farming 

Gurjistan Vilayet  
 

Estate in Mzvare 

Nahiyah Livestock 

Farming 

19.7 

% 

Patara Alabala 

78.5 

% 

Advanced 

branches 

 

Figure 4. Branch structure Gurjistan Vilayet 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

There is an even greater disproportion between the villages. Across the Vilayet, the maximum 

(46.2%) non-agricultural taxes were paid by village Gura of Mzvare Nahiyah of Didi Artaani Liva. This 

was due to two circumstances: 1) the village had many (133) households, with their majority being 

Christians who were consequently charged with higher non-agricultural taxes (hispenje, murahasie), 

i.e., non-agricultural taxes. They account for the largest share (39%) of total taxes; 2) low tax on grain 

(wheat, barley), just 3600 akçe. This is a meager tax for the village for so many homesteads. For 

comparison, take village Zanazgomi with only 13 households paying the same tax (3600 akçe) on grain 

as big village Gura with many homesteads used to pay. At the same time, we would note that such a big 

difference in taxes between these two villages evidences a big difference in the incomes of the two. 

Village Zanazgomi had a much higher income, i.e., the natural conditions in this village were most 

favourable to grow grain. 

 

Several agricultural branches were developed in Gurjistan Vilayet. The taxes in farming were much 

higher than in cattle-breeding (Fig. 4), with 92% and 8% specific weight ratios. This ratio varied more 

or less across the Livas, Nahiyahs, and villages, particularly differentiating between the villages. For 

example, in one of the estates of Mzvare Nahiyah of Didi Artaani Liva [“Defter”, p. 405, #3], the share 

of cattle-breeding was almost 27%. The situation is similar in village Patara Alabala of the same 

Nahiyah where the share of cattle-breeding was much higher than the average value of the Vilayet. 

Grain-growing was the most developed branch all over Gurjistan Vilayet. A total of 5,954,870 akçe 

that is almost 64% of the total tax and 86% of the agricultural tax was paid by the Vilayet. The highest 

tax (2,025,492 akçe) was paid by Akhaltsikhe Liva, which accounted for more than 1/3 of the relevant 

Vilayet tax. Didi Artaani Liva ranked second (with 923,986 akçe). Both of these Livas paid almost ½ 

of the total tax. Petre Liva was charged with the least tax (50,750 akçe). 

However, a homestead-based calculation gave a completely different picture. The highest tax on 

cereals per household was paid by Petre Liva (1450 akçe), with all other Livas felling much behind it. 

This tax was the least (341 akçe) in Didi Artaani Liva. Such a significant imbalance with the primary 

agricultural crop is the sign of the different economic standing of the population. In this respect, Petre 

Liva was in the most unfavourable situation.  

As is clear from the taxes, the people grew four cereal varieties: wheat, barley, rye and millet. 

Essential cereals were wheat and barley. The total wheat tax was 2,994,912 akçe, and the barley tax 

was 2,635,172 akçe. These crops were grown in all Livas and Nahiyahs (Fig. 5). 

As already mentioned, the highest was the wheat tax amounting to 2,994,912 akçe, i.e., ½ of the 

cereal tax. The cereal tax was exceptionally high (908,332 akçe) in Akhaltsikhe Liva, accounting for 

almost 1/3 of the Vilayet wheat tax. This tax was similarly high in Didi Artaani (523,130 akçe) and 

Akhalkalaki (377,610 akçe) Livas. The aggregate data of all three Livas are over 60% of all Vilayet 

taxes. Thus, the given Livas were the principal wheat “producers”. Petre Liva paid the least tax (24,000 

akçe). The forested Nahiyah of Didi Artaani Liva paid the highest tax (227,000 akçe). It was followed 

by Akşehir Nahiyah of Akhalkalaki Liva (221,110 akçe). With this tax too, none of Nahiyahs of 

Akhaltsikhe Liva is ahead of others what is easy to explain: Akhaltsikhe Liva occupied a large area and 

Figure 5. Taxes on wheat according to Livas (Akçe) 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

was administratively divided into many (8) units so that the total value was distributed among those 

units. 

The second leading crop was barley. A total of 2,635,172 akçe, i.e., more than 44% of cereal tax was 

levied. At the same time, alongside barley, wheat accounted for the largest share of the grain tax (almost 

95%) in Gurjistan Vilayet. Like wheat, barley was grown in all Livas and Nahiyahs (Fig. 6). The highest 

barley tax was paid by Akhaltsikhe Liva (more than 1/3 of the barley tax of the Liva). With this tax too, 

Didi Artaani Liva ranked second (397,776 akçe), Khertvisi Liva ranked third (305,120 akçe), and Petre 

Liva paid the least tax (26,000 akçe). However, with this value, the latter exceeded the corresponding 

wheat tax. Of Gurjistan Vilayet, Petre Liva was the only one where the barley tax was higher than the 

wheat tax. The situation was completely different with the total barley tax per homestead, where Petre 

Liva paid the maximum tax per household (743 akçe), and Didi Artaani Liva paid the minimum tax 

(111 akçe). 

As evidenced by tax amounts, Rye and millet must have been much less critical. This is evidenced 

by the fact that the sum of taxes on two cereal varieties paid by the Liva was less than the taxes paid by 

individual Nahiyahs (Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Didi Artaani and Khertvisi) on wheat. A total of 

230,936 akçe was paid as a rye tax by the whole Vilayet. An exceptionally high tax (116,600 akçe) was 

paid by Akhaltsikhe Liva, which was more than ½ of the total rye tax of the Vilayet. This was an 

exceptionally high value. As proof of this, it may be said that this tax was almost three times higher 

than that of Akhalkalaki Liva (41,320 akçe), ranking second. Akhalkalaki (39.8 akçe) and Khertvisi 

(39.3 akçe) Livas paid the highest tax per household, and Artaani Liva paid the least tax (0.9 akçe). The 

least common cereal was millet, and a total of 93,850 akçe was levied on it, making only 1.5% of all 

cereal taxes. As millet was the least common crop, Didi Artaani and Chrdili Livas did not pay any tax. 

This tax was minimal for Petre, and Akhalkalaki Livas and not all Nahiyahs of other Livas paid it. 

Akhaltsikhe Liva paid the highest tax (67,620 akçe), making up more than 72% of the total rye tax. All 

Nahiyahs in the said Liva paid this tax, with Ude Nahiyah paying the highest tax. The tax was also high 

(16,400 akçe) in Panak Liva.  

Several studies were used to establish that Georgia is located in the geographical area where wheat 

crops were cultivated, as evidenced by six endemic wheat species and their varieties found in Georgia 

[10-12]. A unique role in this respect was played by historical Meskheti or the region where Gurjistan 

Vilayet was located for some time. The people widely used such cereals as wheat and barley until the 

mid-twentieth century [13]. Alongside the endemic wheat varieties, more than 50 botanical forms of 

barley are found in Georgia [14]. The fact of wheat and barley species and their varieties having 

survived to the industrialization epoch proves their great importance for Georgian farmers, and “The 

Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet” clearly proves its importance.  

They also grew legumes in Gurjistan Vilayet. The legumes, alongside the cereals, played an essential 

role in the agricultural life of the Georgians. Legumes are known to be rich in proteins and to be very 

important for living organisms. In Georgia, “in the past, people traditionally did not eat meat every day, 

and fasting prohibitions of the Christian religion played quite an important role in it. Therefore, the 

deficit of meat proteins in human food was compensated by the products rich in legume proteins and 

nitrogenous substances” [15]. Thus, legumes have been known in Georgia since ancient times. A total 

tax of 26 755 akçe was levied on the legumes in Gurjistan Valayet. This is a meagre figure compared 

Figure 6. Taxes on barley according to Livas (Akçe) 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

to the cereal tax. At the same time, only 3 Livas was charged with legume tax: Akhaltsikhe (24,965 

akçe), Panak (120 akçe) and Khertvisi (1690 akçe).  

Defter shows that three legume varieties were grown to Gurjistan Vilayet: peas, lentils and broad 

beans. Peas (accounting for 43% of total tax on legumes) and lentils (35%) must have been widely 

spread. Only the residents of Akhaltsikhe Liva paid taxes on broad beans. The highest tax on all three 

legume varieties was paid by Ude Nahiyah of Akhaltsikhe Liva, accounting for almost 1/3 of the tax on 

legumes in Akhaltsikhe Liva. Villages paid exceptionally high taxes: Uraveli and Tskordza, paying 2.5-

3 times higher legume taxes than other villages.  

Flax must have been another critical agricultural crop. Except for Petre and Panak Livas, all of its 

Livas was taxed. The total tax amounted to 23,294 akçe. Exceptionally high tax on flax (11,550 akçe) 

was paid by Akhaltsikhe Liva, making almost ½ of its total taxes. At the same time, flax must have 

been a widely spread crop in Liva as all Nahiyahs paid its tax. The maximum tax (250 akçe) of villages 

was paid by village Kvemo Pamaji of Chrdili Nahie of the same Liva. Flax tax was similarly high in 

Akhalkalaki Liva (4408 akçe).  

Vegetable-growing was one of the most advanced branches in Gurjistan Vilayet, as evidenced by the 

size of its total tax and the vast majority of villages paying it (Fig. 7). The population of the Vilayet 

paid a total of 84,731 akçe on vegetables accounting for more than 1/5 of the total taxes on farming 

(except cereals), which was quite a significant value. The vegetable patch tax must have been even 

higher. In particular, two more taxes should be added to this value: 1) the tax levied on sowing areas 

(57,330 akçe), which obviously refers to arable lands, i.e., vegetable patches and orchards, and 2) tax 

levied on fruits and vegetables (4811 akçe), which makes it impossible to determine the exact share of 

vegetables, but we can probably assume tax of ½-½ per each. This means that the share of vegetable-

growing and gardening was taxed by a total of 142 261 akçe, i.e., making more than 1/3 of the total 

taxes on farming (excluding cereals). 

As M. Svanidze wrote, based on the nineteenth-century data, alongside vegetables and watermelons, 

they grow pumpkins, dill, cabbage, melons, celery, garlic, mint, carrots, coriander, savoury, beets, 

onions, etc. all over the Principality of Samtskhe [4]. It is not excluded that the listed products were the 

region's traditional crops and were grown even in the 16th century.  

The highest tax on vegetables and watermelons was paid by Akhaltsikhe Liva (28,127 akçe), 

accounting for almost 1/4 of total taxes on vegetables in the Vilayet. It was followed by Didi Artaani 

Liva (18,221 akçe). Elsewhere, the maximum vegetable tax alone was 9000 akçe. Of the Nahiyahs, the 

highest tax (8024 akçe) was paid by the forested Nahiyah of Didi Artaani Liva. All over the Vilayet, 

the vegetable tax averaged 6.7 akçe per household. Petre Liva paid the highest (14.3 akçe) tax, and 

Panaki Liva paid the least tax (3.8 akçe).  

The vegetable tax was levied in fact on every village. The only exceptions are a tiny village with 2 

or 3 households or estates, where not all taxes were enlisted. Consequently, it may be said that 

vegetable-growing was common everywhere, although it seems that it was not equally developed 

Figure 7. Some land taxes (excluding wheat) 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

everywhere and hardly survived at the devastated locations, where the Ottoman officials had not even 

mentioned it. The highest taxes were paid by some villages, with the first three villages of Klde of 

Mzvare Nahiyah of Akhaltsikhe Liva (790 akçe), village Okami of Akshehir Nahiyah of Akhalkalaki 

Liva (600 akçe) and village Panakis Rabati of Panak Nahiyah of Panak Liva (534 akçe). It is noteworthy 

that these villages are not large, with some households of 20-38. Therefore, per household tax was high 

(15-30 akçe). An opposite picture is seen in some other villages with more households where the 

vegetable tax is much lower, e.g., the villages of Panak Nahiyah of Panak Liva: Bariq (with 42 

households paying vegetable tax of 150 akçe), villages Zemo Arsenak and Shua Arsenak (with 138 

households paying 242 akçe) and village Kotik (with 40 households paying 150 akçe).  

Viticulture and fruit-growing must have been one of the most advanced branches in Gurjistan 

Vilayet, as evidenced by several circumstances, primarily the taxes on fruit, vineyards and must. The 

highest land tax (almost ½ of all taxes), excluding cereals, was a must. The fruit and vineyard tax 

proportions were much lower. 

Vineyard tax was levied in 3 Livas and made 1951 akçe. The maximum tax was paid by Akhaltsikhe 

Liva (871akçe) and Panak Liva (550 akçe). Khertvisi Liva ranked the third (410 akçe). All three of 

these Livas accounted for 95% of the vineyard tax. It is also interesting to note that the vineyard grew 

in the Livas located farther south, i.e., where today the local people do not grow vines. Such Livas are 

Akhalkalaki and Potskhovi. In proof, we cite the relevant data from "Meskhetian Chronicles of the 

Psalter", the same as "Meskhetian Chronicles" (16th century). There is also a reference where the village 

of Oloda, located in the southwestern part of modern Akhalkalaki Plateau, is mentioned. It was located 

at a 1900-1940 m above sea level. The document states that in addition to fruit-growing and cattle-

breeding, viticulture was also developed in the area [16]. This is confirmed by later sources as well: 

"According to Ballas, in 1895, there were only ten vineyards of 3 dessiatines in Akhaltsikhe Province" 

[17]. Another interesting fact is that Didi Artaani Liva located even further south was charged vineyard 

tax. These issues need further in-depth study.  

A higher (20 395 akçe) than the vineyard tax was levied on fruit. Akhaltsikhe and Khertvisi Livas 

had to pay the highest taxes (16 046 and 2075 akçe, respectively), although Akhaltsikhe Liva was still 

leading, paying 8-9 and even several tens of times higher tax than other Livas. Exceptionally high taxes 

were paid by Atskuri (3930 akçe), Chacharaki (3350 akçe) and Mzvare (2430 akçe) Nahiyahs.  

Interestingly, must (the grape of fruit juice) was similarly high in Akhaltsikhe and Khertvisi Livas. 

Two Livas: Didi Artaani and Panak did not pay fruit tax. The latter is of particular interest since the 

Liva paid vineyard tax and must, but not fruit tax. These evidences the intensive development of 

viticulture in the region. 

Gurjistan Vilayet paid 179,540 akçe as must. This tax varied a lot across the area (Fig. 8). The Livas 

in the northern and southern parts of the Vilayet paid the taxes, while the Livas in the central part were 

not taxed. Only 2 Livas (Didi Artaani and Oltisi) paid this tax. 3 Livas (Akhaltsikhe, Khertvisi, Panak) 

were charged with the highest tax, with Akhaltsikhe Liva ranking the first, paying 90 440 akçe. This 

tax for Akhaltsikhe Liva was twice as much as Khertvisi Liva, which ranked second. It was these 3 

Livas paying the significant proportion of must (92%). 

Conclusion 

Figure 8. Taxes on must according to Livas 



Nikolaishvili et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 1-9 

Farming was a leading branch in Gurjistan Vilayet, according to the analysis of statistical data given 

in the Defter evidence. Where grain-growing was particularly important, Grain-growing was more or 

less common in all Livas and Nahiyahs. There were two other advanced agricultural branches in the 

area: fruit-growing and vegetable-growing. Vegetable-growing seemed to be developed all over the 

region, particularly in Akhaltsikhe and Didi Artaani Livas. An exception was Petre Liva, who was 

depopulated that diminished many agricultural sectors. Fruit-growing and viticulture were developed 

in all Livas, but showed more imbalance. Fruit-growing and viticulture were particularly well developed 

in Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki and Khertvisi Livas.  

It is known that farming has always been the essential branch of Georgian agriculture. The data of 

the Defter evidence that farming in southwestern Georgia, which the Ottomans conquered by the end 

of the 16th century, was a pretty well-developed field of agriculture. The Defter evidence that although 

the conquest of the region reduced the population and hampered the region's development, it did not 

harm the Georgian agricultural traditions, as evidenced by the region's diverse and highly productive 

cereals and legumes. The data of the Defter also evidence relatively well-developed viticulture in the 

given region, proving that the Georgians firmly maintained this traditional branch. 

Competing interests 

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 

Authors’ contribution 

All authors contributed to the final version of the manuscript. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors cordially thank the Shota Rustaveli Science Foundation for support, under whose 

financial aid it became possible to accomplish the present work within the project “Mapping and to 

analyze Georgian cultural heritage of south-west Georgia according to old Turkish Population census 

books”, Grant #HE-18-448, 26.07.2018). The authors also cordially thank members of the project, 

especially Manana Kvetenadze, who fulfilled calculations of taxes. 

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