




































Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 10-23 

 

Demographic Issues of Social-Economic Development of Eastern 

Georgia: Population as a Demographic Potential 
Giorgi Khomeriki1*, Giorgi Meladze1, Nana Nadareishvili1, Mzia Tutberidze1, Nana 

Kvirkvelia1, Sofiko Dzhvarsheishvili1, Givi Tavadze1, Marina Bokeria 

Abstract 

The policy of stimulating regional development is based on local potential, one of the main components of which 

is population: its number, nature of reproduction, structure, and social-economic conditions (employment, 

standard of living, and so on).The present research aimed to study the issues of Georgia's demographic potential: 

population dynamics, natural movement, migration, gender and age structure, labour force, and standard of living 

of the population. The study of the demographic potential of Georgia is a long-term task of the authors, the first 

geographical object of which is the study area of the present article - eastern Georgia and, in particular, the regions 

of Kakheti, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Kvemo Kartli (not including Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia, but including self-

governing city Rustavi) and Shida Kartli. The research adopts a geographical approach, focusing on a unified 

vision of the issue, and studies regional differences. The research results outline the demographic situation in the 

study area and the modern trends that reflect the peculiarities of the demographic potential of eastern Georgia. 

These include the following: a) the decline in the absolute number of population has slowed down in the last 

decade due to reduced emigration; b) according to the latest statistics, in eastern Georgia as a whole, natural 

increase is negative (-0.4 percent), but higher than the national average (-1.1%);  c) the process of population 

ageing in eastern Georgia has been generally outlined, the dynamics of which are different between the regions - 

in Kvemo Kartli, due to the relatively high natural increase, it is developing relatively slowly than in other regions; 

d) the share of women in gender structure is reduced (50.9 percent) compared to the country's average rate (52.3 

percent), while in Mtskheta-Mtianeti, contrary to the general rule, The share of men exceeds that of women; d) 

Georgians make up 75 percent of the ethnic structure of the study region, followed by Azerbaijanis (19.7 percent), 

the principal part of the latter concentrated in Kvemo Kartli, which, in, turn, determines a number of peculiarities 

of the demographic behaviour of the population in this region; e) a large part of the population of eastern Georgia 

is mostly employed in traditional, non-commercial and partly commercial agriculture, due to which a higher share 

of self-employed (41.6 percent) was registered in the study area compared to the average in the country (31.9 

percent); f) unemployment (18 percent of the economically  active population), low income and low purchasing 

power remain the main social-economic issues. In the last decade, as in the whole of Georgia, signs of 

improvement were noted in the social-economic situation in the study area, though the COVID-19 pandemic 

partially slowed this trend. 

Keywords: Demographic potential, population, child-woman rate, gender-age pyramid, labour force, unemployment rate, share of self-

employed 

Introduction 

The tremendous political and social-economic changes at the end of the 20th century caused changes 

in the nature of demographic processes in Georgia. The following negative tendencies were revealed: 

reduction of population numbers, the outflow of employable citizens, the ageing of the population, the 

reduction of the labour force, the deterioration of social conditions, etc. The demographic potential of 

the country was weakened, which adversely affected its development. 

Demographic problems are a constant focus of interest for demographers, economists, and 

professionals in human geography. However, their focus is on individual issues, whereas the 

significance and the diverse nature of the issues require constant study. The present study aims to review 

the issues of Georgia's demographic potential with a geographical approach and places a focus on 

studying regional differences. 

For the authors, eastern Georgia is the first geographical object of study in the demographic potential 

of the country. This includes the following regions of Georgia: Kakheti, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Kvemo 

Kartli, and Shida Kartli. The research omits the capital, Tbilisi, located in the eastern part of Georgia. 

The primary reason for excluding Tbilisi from the present study area is its social, economic, and political 

                                                           
1 Department of Human Geography, Vakhushti Bagrationi Institute of Geography, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State 

University, Tbilisi, Georgia.  

* Corresponding author: giorgi.khomeriki@tsu.ge 

 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

conditions and functions, which result in unique demographic characteristics. Therefore, the 

demographic potential of Tbilisi should be analysed separately. 

The demographic potential of the individual regions is, first and foremost, influenced by the country's 

general political and economic situation. The demographic habits of the regions in question are also 

significantly influenced by the following social and geographic circumstances peculiar to this part of 

Georgia: 

-Distance from the coastline and marine-related economic activities. 

-Proximity to Tbilisi - the capital of the country and the main economic centre, located in the 

geographical centre of eastern Georgia. The study area is closely related to the city through economic, 

political and cultural ties and is directly influenced by it. 

-Favourable international economic-geographical location. The study area is bordered by three of 

Georgia's four neighbour states - Azerbaijan, Armenia and Russia - and is crossed by important north-

south and east-west international overland highways. 

It should also be noted that a significant portion of Shida Kartli - encompassed by the study area - is 

occupied by the Russian Federation and is a zone of constant tension. Internally displaced persons and 

families from this zone are mainly settled in different parts of eastern Georgia, mainly in Shida Kartli.  

The influences of these circumstances affect the relevant data for the demographic potential of the 

study area. 

Dynamics of population number  

During the last 31 years (1990-2021), the total population of eastern Georgia has decreased by 27.0%, 

which is 4.3 percent lower than the nationwide indicator. The population decline affected all regions of 

eastern Georgia, especially Kakheti, where the population has decreased by one third. There was also a 

significant decrease in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti [1] and Kvemo Kartli regions (23.6 per cent and 28.4 per 

cent, respectively). Rustavi is located in the latter (Kvemo Kartli region). Rustavi is the second-largest 

city in eastern Georgia, after Tbilisi. Until the 1990s, Rustavi was a robust industrial centre in the 

country—the central hub of metallurgy, important chemical and construction materials enterprises, and 

other industrial branches. According to 1990 census data, the city had a population of 161.6 thousand 

people.As a result of a prolonged decline in economic activity, by 2021, the population of Rustavi 

decreased by 19.5% - to 130.1 thousand. A deterioration in socio-economic circumstances mainly 

caused the mentioned decline. In Shida Kartli, the population decreased by one fifth (Table 1). The 

observed facts are mainly conditioned by large-scale emigration processes and negative tendencies in 

the natural movement of the population. 

Table 1. Dynamics of the absolute number of populations in 1990-20212 

Regions Y e a r s 

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 

Kakheti 442.9 432.7 369.8 341.6 329.2 318.8 310.1 309.6 

Mtskheta-

Mtianeti 

122.3 124.9 113.7 108.9 92.5 94.1 93.3 93.4 

Kvemo 

Kartli 

611.1 592.4 472.0 440.8 422.8 425.2 434.2 437.3 

Shida 

Kartli 

323.0 325.8 290.6 274.7 266.0 262.9 255.1 254.1 

Eastern 

Georgia 

1499.3 1475.7 1246.1 1166 1110.5 1101.1 1092.8 1094.4 

Georgia 5424.4 4742.3 4116.8 3917.0 3799.8 3721.9 3716.9 3728.6 

The change in the population over the considered period was not the same in all regions. To analyse 

this issue, we will use the formula for calculating the average annual change in the population, which 

is as follows: 

∆S = 2 × (St – S0) / K × (St + S0) 

                                                           
2 Here and further, data are without population of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali regions since 1995. (Source: National Statistics 

Office of Georgia – Geostat). 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

where: 

∆S - is the average annual change in the number of population (percentage). 

S0 - is the population number at the beginning of the period. 

St - is the population number by the end of the period. 

K - is the length of the period (years). 

 According to calculations, the average annual rate of change in the population was negative in all 

regions in 1990-2000 and 2000-2010 (Table 2). 

In 1990-2000, the Kvemo Kartli region was distinguished by exceptionally high negative rates (-2.57 

per cent) (Fig 1). In 2000-2010, the lowest rate (-2.06 per cent) was observed in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti 

region. In the latter, during the mentioned period, significant changes in the population were caused by 

the Resolution №4173 of December 20, 2006, of the Parliament of Georgia, according to which the 

villages of Mtskheta Municipality were annexed to Tbilisi, such as Akhaldaba, Gldani, Agaraki, 

Didgori, Dighomi, Tkhinvali, Zurgovana, Dzveli Vedzisi, Telovani and the settlement of Zahesi. As a 

result of the Russian-Georgian war in August 2008, more than 9,000 refugees were settled in the 

Tserovani settlement, mainly from the Didi Liakhvi and Patara Liakhvi gorges-Akhalgori Municipality; 

Tserovani had a population of 6,433 people by 2015 [2]. In total, in 2010-2020, population growth was 

observed in Kvemo Kartli and Mtskheta-Mtianeti. 

 
Figure 2. The change in population number between 1990 and 2021 in the municipalities of eastern Georgia3 

                                                           
3 (Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data) 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

Table 2. Average annual change in number of population (percentage) 

Regions 1990-2000  2001-2010  2011-2020  

Kakheti -1.80 -1.16 -0.60 

Mtskheta-Mtianeti -0.73 -2.06 0.09 

Kvemo Kartli -2.57 -1.10 0.27 

Shida Kartli -1.06 -0.44 -0.42 

Eastern Georgia -1.84 -1.15 -0.16 

Georgia -2.74 -0.80 -0.22 

 

Natural movement 

During the analysis period (1990-2020), the rates of population natural movement (birth rate and 

mortality) deteriorated sharply in all regions. The birth rate level for 2020 reflected in the birth rate 

crude coefficient did not provide the superficial reproduction level of the population in any of the 

regions (the simple reproduction limit of this coefficient is 15 per mille). 

In 1990-2020, the birth rate crude coefficient was halved in Shida Kartli; it was significantly reduced 

in Mtskheta-Mtianeti (by 46.6 per cent) and Kvemo Kartli (by 40.4 per cent), and it was reduced by a 

third in Kakheti (Table 3). 

Table 3. Dynamics of natural movement coefficients of population in 1990-2020 (per mille)4 

Region Y e a r s 

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 

Crude birth rate coefficient 

Kakheti 17.5 12.1 10.8 10.8 13.0 16.4 12.4 

Mtskheta-

Mtianeti 

18.6 13.5 10.9 11.6 14.5 13.6 9.9 

Kvemo Kartli 21.3 11.2 13.8 13.6 16.3 16.6 12.7 

Shida Kartli 22.9 12.9 12.2 11.1 14.3 15.8 11.6 

Eastern Georgia 20.3 12.1 12.3 12.0 14.7 16.1 12.1 

Georgia 17.1 12.1 11.8 11.8 14.6 15.9 12.5 

Crude mortality coefficient 

Kakheti 11.6 12.1 13.3 14.2 16.2 15.6 14.7 

Mtskheta-

Mtianeti 

8.5 9.4 5.6 7.8 10.3 8.9 8.2 

Kvemo Kartli 6.8 5.8 8.7 9.1 11.2 10.4 11.2 

Shida Kartli 12.4 10.5 13.6 14.2 13.9 13.6 13.5 

Eastern Georgia 9.6 9.0 10.9 11.7 13.3 12.5 12.5 

Georgia 9.3 10.6 11.8 12.7 13.5 13.2 13.6 

Crude natural increase coefficient 

Kakheti 5.9 0.0 -2.5 -3.4 -3.2 0.8 -2.3 

Mtskheta-

Mtianeti 

10.0 4.1 5.4 3.8 4.2 4.7 1.7 

Kvemo Kartli 14.5 5.5 5.1 4.5 5.1 6.2 1.5 

Shida Kartli 10.6 2.5 -1.5 -3.1 0.4 2.2 -1.9 

Eastern Georgia 10.8 3.1 1.3 0.3 1.4 3.6 -0.4 

Georgia 7.7 1.6 0.0 -0.9 1.1 2.7 -1.1 

In case the current level of birth rate is maintained for a long time, each subsequent generation in the 

considered regions will be less than its predecessor one: in Mtskheta-Mtianeti - by 33.9 per cent, in 

Shida Kartli - by 22.5 per cent, in Kakheti - by 17.6 per cent, and in Kvemo Kartli - by 15.4 per cent. 

The birth rate crude coefficient is a rough indicator of the birth rate evaluation, which depends on 

the gender-age structure of the population. Unfortunately, we do not have data across the region to allow 

a more in-depth study of the birth rate process. Nevertheless, it still shows current general trends that 

need to be considered and taken into consideration. 

One solution to the current situation is to calculate the child-woman ratio, which shows the number 

of children aged 0-4 years per 1,000 women aged 15-49 years. Population censuses provide the 

information needed for this coefficient. 

                                                           
4 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

Calculations of the 1989 and 2014 population census data showed that between 1989 and 2014, the 

number of children aged 0-4 years per 1,000 women aged 15-49 was significantly reduced in all regions 

(Fig. 1). It should be noted that the child-woman ratio in Kvemo Kartli was traditionally high compared 

to others, which was due to a large number of Muslims in this region. At the same time, according to 

the latest population census data, during this period, the "child-woman ratio" is most reduced in Kvemo 

Kartli (from 434‰ to 316‰), thus bringing it closer to the level observed in the Kakheti region (310‰). 

 

Figure 3. Child-woman ratio according to the population census of 1989 and 2014 (per mille)5 

More or less, mortality rates in eastern Georgia more or less correspond to the general trend 

(excluding the Mtskheta-Mtianeti region), primarily reflected in the increase in crude mortality 

coefficients. According to the latest data (2020), the highest mortality rate was recorded in the Kakheti 

region, which was 1.1 points higher than Georgia's average (Table 3). The Shida Kartli mortality 

coefficient is close to the average country level. As for the Mtskheta-Mtianeti region, according to the 

available official data, the uneven change in the mortality coefficient, at first, is increasing. Then – a 

significant decrease is probably caused due to the shortcomings in the field of statistical accounting of 

deaths. This opinion is supported by the fact that the population of the mentioned region has a high rate 

of ageing. According to the 2014 population census, the share of the population aged 65 years and over 

was almost 17 per cent, contributing to the increase in the mortality coefficient. 

Birth rate and mortality trends are reflected in the natural increase of population, respectively. 

Despite the variability of the population natural increase coefficient in 1990-2020, the vector of natural 

increase was mainly directed towards the decline in the country, in general, and in the regions. 

According to the latest data, the mortality rate exceeded the birth rate in Kakheti and Shida Kartli, while 

the birth rates in Kvemo Kartli and Mtskheta-Mtianeti were slightly higher than the mortality rates. In 

Georgia, the considered figure was generally -1.1 per mille (Table 3), which is the lowest figure since 

1990. Due to the value of the population natural increase coefficient, depopulation is observed in the 

country. Among the regions of eastern Georgia, a slight positive natural increase was observed in 

Kvemo Kartli (1.5 per mille) and Mtskheta-Mtianeti (1.7 per mille). However, if we consider the 

shortcomings in the registration of the number of deaths in the latter, the positive natural increase 

observed in the region is less probable. 

Migration 

Migration processes play an essential role in changing the population. Unfortunately, compared to 

other indicators of current accounting, the accounting statistics of the latter was always distinguished 

by less accuracy and repeatedly was the subject of discussion for specialists [3;4;5;6;7;8].  

As a result of the complex social-economic situation in Georgia in the early 1990s, an unprecedented 

emigration wave peaked by the mid-1990s. Due to the decline in the functioning of state institutions 

during this period, the control and registration of migration processes turned out to be impossible for 

official services. The official migration statistics of that time unrealistically reflected the current 

situation. Famous specialist of population geography V. Jaoshvili wrote about the mentioned situation 

- "Today no one can even calculate the number of people, who left Georgia in recent years, but it can 

be said with certainty that their number is several hundred thousand" [9]. 

                                                           
5 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data 

370

351

434

360

393

345

310

303

316

293

308

288

0 100 200 300 400 500

Kakheti

Mtskheta-Mtianeti

Kvemo Kartli

Shida Kartli

Eastern Georgia

Georgia

2014 1989



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

Following the 2002 population census, to regulate the 1991-2001 migration registration, Geostat 

recalculated migration statistics data that was more or less in line with reality. The results of the 2014 

population census revealed the discrepancies caused by the shortcomings in the statistical registration 

of external migration. Geostat recalculated the external migration data between 1995 and 2011, and 

since 2012 the statistical data are based on the data of the Border Police of the Ministry of Internal 

Affairs, which is considered reliable. 

Despite some of the measures taken by Geostat, we do not have statistical information on migration 

processes at the regional level. Given the current situation, we are forced to use the indirect method of 

calculating migration, which is as follows: If we know the number of populations for January 1 of the 

adjacent years and the natural increase in population, it is possible to calculate the estimated number of 

migrations indirectly. 

Calculated per thousand inhabitants, in 2012-2019, a negative migration balance was observed across 

the country. A similar situation was observed in Kakheti and Shida Kartli (Table 4). 

Table 4. Dynamics of migration balance in 2012-2020 (per mille)6 

Region Y e a r s 

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 

Kakheti -3.9 -1.3 -4.5 -4.1 -5.3 -3.5 -5.9 -5.6 0.8 

Mtskheta-

Mtianeti 

-2.1 2.0 -5.6 -5.0 -5.7 -5.1 -7.2 -5.9 -1.2 

Kvemo Kartli -5.6 -0.9 -0.7 0.4 -1.0 0.6 -1.7 -0.9 5.7 

Shida Kartli -3.0 -0.9 -6.1 -6.1 -6.9 -5.4 -7.4 -7.5 -2.2 

Eastern 

Georgia 

-4.2 -0.8 -3.5 -2.9 -4.0 -2.5 -4.7 -4.2 1.9 

Georgia -5.8 -0.7 -1.8 -0.9 -2.2 -0.6 -2.9 -2.2 4.2 

 

In the rest of the regions, the migration balance was negative except for some years. In 2020, the 

negative rate of migration balance decreased in all regions, while in Kakheti and Kvemo Kartli the 

positive indicators were noted. The observed fact was mainly caused by the global spread of the Covid-

19 virus, due to the outflow of Georgian citizens from the country was sharply reduced. Also, some of 

those, who were abroad, were sent back [10]. In 2020, the positive migration balance was equal to 15.7 

thousand across the country, which was an unprecedented case. The observed fact was more or less 

reflected in the migration indicators of the regions. 

Gender-age structure of the population 

The demographic structure of the population of eastern Georgia is reflected in the 2014 gender-age 

pyramid presented in absolute values (Fig. 3). 

 
Figure 4. Distribution of the permanent population of eastern Georgia by gender and age in 20147 

                                                           
6 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data 
7 Source: Compiled according to the 2014 population census materials: https://www.geostat.ge/en 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

In the whole population of the region, males are slightly behind females by number; their share is 

49.1 per cent and 50.9 per cent, respectively (on average, males and females in Georgia are 47.7 per 

cent and 52.3 per cent, respectively). The number of males and females in rural areas is equal, while in 

the urban population, females outnumber males; females make up 52.5 per cent and males - 47.5 per 

cent. 

In general, the excess of females in the whole population is a natural phenomenon (due to the lower 

mortality rate compared to males) and is typical for almost all regions of eastern Georgia. The ratio of 

males and females in Kakheti is 49.0 per cent and 51.0 per cent, respectively, in Kvemo Kartli - 49.2 

per cent and 50.8 per cent, and in Shida Kartli - 48.7 per cent and 51.3 per cent. The exception is 

Mtskheta-Mtianeti, where males slightly outnumber females and amount to 50.4 per cent, while females 

amount to 49.6 per cent. 

Quantitative redundancy of females compared to males in the whole population is expressed by 

higher differences (their redundancy increases by general trend above the age of 20-25). However, due 

to complex economic conditions and unemployment, some females leave Georgia for employment 

abroad. This condition is reflected in the gender structure of the 15-64 age groups (Table 5). 

Table 5. Gender-age structure of the population of eastern Georgia and   its regions in 2014 (percentage)8 

Age 

group 

(year)  

T h e   s h a r e   o f   p o p u l a t i o n   i n   t h e   a g e   g r o u p s  

Eastern Georgia  R e g i o n s  

Kakheti  Mtskheta- 

Mtianeti   

Kvemo Kartli  Shida Kartli  

 

M.  F.  

 

M.  F.  

 

M.  F.  

 

M.  F.  

 

M.  F.  

0-14  19.2  53.3  46.7  17.8  53.4  46.6  17.0  52.9  47.1  21.1  53.7  46.3  18.4  52.5  47.5  

15-64  66.4  50.0  50.0  64.8  50.3  49.7  66.1  52.5  47.5  67.7  49.4  50.6  66.7  49.7  50.3  

65+  14.4  39.5  60.5  17.4  39.7  60.3  16.9  39.6  60.4  11.2  39.4  60.6  14.9  39.5  60.5  

Total  100.0  -  -  100.0  -  -  100.0  -  -  100.0  -  -  100.0  -  -  

 

In Kakheti and Mtskheta-Mtianeti, males outnumber females in the employable population, while 

females outnumber males in Kvemo and Shida Kartli. A relatively wide field of employment 

distinguishes Kartli regions, so the migration processes are relatively limited compared to other parts 

of Georgia (western or southern parts).   

Females over the age of 65 and older outnumber males by more than 20 per cent, generally 

determined by the male-female lifespan gap. 

The age structure of the entire population of eastern Georgia largely coincides with the Georgian 

average rates. The process of population ageing is taking place in different intensities in different 

country regions, which is reflected in the territorial differences of this indicator. 

There is a relatively young population in Kvemo Kartli. Here the ageing process is characterized by 

a slower pace, and as in Georgia, this region is characterized by the highest natural population growth; 

the population of Azerbaijani ethnicity, which makes up 41.8 per cent of the population of the region, 

still retains the traditions of the prominent families of the Muslim religion. The share of children and 

adolescents aged 0-14 in the total population is 21.1 per cent, and those aged 65 and older are 11.2 per 

cent. In the other regions, the ageing process is more pronounced. It is most intensively found in 

Kakheti, and Mtskheta-Mtianeti, where the 0-14 age group is 17.8 per cent and 17.0 per cent, 

respectively, and the share of the 65-year-old and older contingent is 17.4 per cent and 16.9 per cent, 

respectively. It is noteworthy that the percentage composition of the young and old generations is almost 

the same, which will further slowdown the reproduction of their population in the future. It is also 

noteworthy that the deepening of the ageing process is also reflected in labour resources - the share of 

people aged 45-65 years in the employed population will increase. Compared to these regions, the 

                                                           
8 Source: Table is compiled based on the 2014 population census data 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

population of Shida Kartli is ageing at a slower pace. Here, the share of the 0-14 age group is 18.4 per 

cent, and that of over 65 - is 14.9 per cent. 

The natural and mechanical decrease in the rural population leads to more significant ageing than the 

urban population; in eastern Georgia, the contingent over the age of 65 is 15.6 per cent of the rural 

population and 12.0 per cent of the urban population. 

Ethnic structure 

The social-economic problems of the first two decades of Georgia's independence caused some 

changes in the ethnic composition of the population of eastern Georgia. Unlike in western Georgia, its 

population has always been characterized by ethnic diversity. For centuries, by the will and decision of 

the authorities, various ethnic groups come from outside were settled. As in the rest of the territory of 

Georgia, they felt protected with the local tolerant population; they were settled on uninhabited, fertile 

land and engaged in agricultural activities. 

Georgians have always been the vast majority in eastern Georgia. Besides them, Azerbaijanis, 

Ossetians, Kists, Armenians, Russians, Yezidis, Ukrainians, Greeks, Assyrians and others lived here. 

The figures below clearly reflect their number and territorial differentiation in eastern Georgia (Table 

6). 

Table 6. Ethnic composition of the permanent population of eastern Georgia and its regions in 20149 

Ethnic 

Groups  

Population of eastern 

Georgia (total)  

Population of regions   

Kakheti  Mtskheta-

Mtianeti  

Kvemo  

Kartli  

Shida 

Kartli  

Thousand 

people  

Percentage  Percentage  Percentage  Percentage  Percentage  

In total  1100.1  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  

Georgian  827.4  75.2  85.2  94.5  51.2  94.6  

Azerbaijani  217.2  19.7  10.2  2.4  41.8  2.1  

Armenian  26.1  2.4  0.7  0.3  5.1  0.8  

Russian  5.6  0.5  0.6  0.3  0.6  0.3  

Ossetian  9.3  0.9  0.8  1.4  0.2  1.8  

Yezidi  0.9  0.1  0.2  0.1  0.1  0.0  

Ukrainian  0.9  0.1  0.1  0.1  0.1  0.1  

Kist  5.6  0.5  1.7  0.0  0.0  -  

Greek  2.4  0.2  0.0  0.1  0.5  0.1  

Assyrian  1.1  0.1  0.0  0.7  0.1  0.0  

Other  3.6  0.3  0.5  0.1  0.3  0.2  

The natural and mechanical decrease in population in 1990-2014 more or less reduced the absolute 

and percentage numbers of all ethnic groups living here. Along with employment in foreign countries, 

the emigration of non-Georgians was also motivated by settling in the historical homeland, and some 

cases, by receiving refugee status (severe political events in Shida Kartli caused a significant part of 

Ossetians to leave the country). 

Among the 2002 and 2014 population censuses, if the permanent population of Georgia decreased 

by 15.0 per cent, in eastern Georgia, it was equal to 18.1 per cent. The number of following ethnicities 

decreased the most: Greeks (by 71.9 per cent), Ossetians (by 63.6 per cent), Russians (by 57.3 per cent) 

and Armenians (by 34.2 per cent). The decrease in Azerbaijanis, Kists, and Ukrainians ranged from 17 

per cent to 21 per cent, Georgians - by 14.6 per cent and other ethnicities - by 11.5 per cent [11]. (The 

2002 and 2014 General Census materials). 

Among the regions of eastern Georgia, the most homogeneous population is found in Shida Kartli 

and Mtskheta-Mtianeti, where Georgians amount more than 94 per cent, while Kakheti and Kvemo 

Kartli are more multiethnic regions. A significant part of their population is composed of Azerbaijanis 

                                                           
9 Source:The table is compiled based on the 2014 population census data 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

-10.2 per cent and 41.8 per cent, respectively. Azerbaijanis, Greeks, Assyrians and Armenians live 

compactly in rural areas. 

In Kakheti, Shida Kartli and Mtskheta-Mtianeti, some of the ethnicities are being assimilated with 

Georgians, which is facilitated by mixed marriages. First of all, this refers to the Armenians and 

Ossetians, who settled there a long time ago and who live more or less scattered in cities or villages. To 

a certain extent, this circumstance also contributes to the quantitative reduction of the population of 

these ethnicities. Assimilation with Georgians does not take place in Kvemo Kartli. This is due to the 

compact settlement of non-Georgians (Azerbaijanians, Armenians, Greeks) and their religious and 

cultural difference from the Georgians.  

The ethnic composition of the population is different in urban and rural areas. The non-Georgian 

population is mainly engaged in agricultural activities; therefore, there is more ethnic diversity in rural 

areas than in cities. According to 2014 data, the share of Georgians in the urban population was 87.0 

per cent, in the rural population - 69.0 per cent. 

Labour force and standard of living  

 One of the essential components of demographic potential is labour resources as a productive force. 

Labour resources include the working-age employable population (men aged 16-65 and women aged 

16-60 in Georgia since 1996) and employed adults and retirees. Regarding labour resource involvement, 

statistics operate by indicators such as the economically active population (EAP) - employed and 

unemployed together or the labour force, which is less than labour resources. It became possible to 

present the actual picture of Georgia's economically active population or labour force and its structure 

after the methodological changes in the labour force calculation implemented in 2020. In particular, 

according to the new standard of the International Labour Organization, self-employed persons, who 

are not market-oriented and produce agricultural products mainly (more than 50 per cent) for their 

consumption, are no longer considered self-employed. Individuals with this status were re-qualified 

either in the unemployed category or outside the labour force [12]. 

  In 2020, the economically active population (EAP) or labour force in Eastern Georgia was 438.9 

thousand people, which was 28.8 per cent of the country's EAP. Kvemo Kartli is distinguished among 

the regions of the eastern part of Georgia in terms of the labour force and employment; Kakheti and 

Shida Kartli are behind it. Mtskheta-Mtianeti region is the smallest in terms of population, labour force, 

and employed number (Table 7). As a result of low natural increase and increased migration flows, in 

the last decade (2010-2020), the labour force in the regions of eastern Georgia decreased by 27.9%.  

Employed was 81.9 per cent of the labour force, of which 41.5 per cent was self-employed. Over the 

last decade, the number of self-employed has consistently exceeded the number of hiring. Since 2020 

(Table 7), the picture has changed in favour of hired (58.5%), due to the strengthening of the private 

sector and the new standard for the definition of "self-employed".  

Table 7. Distribution of 15+ population by economic activity in the regions of eastern Georgia in 2020 (thousand people)10 

Labour force 

indicators  

Kakheti  Mtskheta 

-Mtianeti  

Kvemo  

Kartli  

Shida 

Kartli  

Total eastern 

Georgia  

Georgia  

Total 15+ population   247.0  80.3  343.4  221.1  891.8  3018.5  

Labour force (Active 

population) total   

122.2  38.8  172.2  105.7  438.9  1523.7  

    Employed  109.5  31.7  133.9  84.6  359.7  1241.8  

Hired  57.1  21.8  77.9  53.1  209.9  845.3  

Self-employed  52.4  9.9  56.0  31.3  149.6  395.9  

Not-identified   0.0  0.0  0.0  0.2  0.2  0.7  

    Unemployed  12.7  7.1  38.2  21.1  79.1  281.9  

Population outside 

the labour force  

124.8  41.5  171.2  115.3  452.8  1494.8  

Unemployment rate, 

percentage  

10.4  18.3  22.2  20.0  18.0  18.5  

                                                           
10 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data www.geostat.ge 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

Labour force 

participation rate 

(Economic activity 

rate), percentage  

49.5  48.3  50.1  47.8  49,2  50.5  

Employment rate, 

percentage  

44.3  39.5  39.0  38.3  40,3  41.1  

Most self-employed people are engaged in agriculture, which is distinguished by low productivity. 

The distribution of employed in Georgia by sectors of the economy is unequal: 19.8 per cent are 

employed in agriculture, 15.1percent - in wholesale and retail trade, 11.7 per cent - in education, and 

11.4 per cent in the industry [13; 14]. The primary source of employment is the private sector, which 

amounts to 76.3 per cent of employed. The share of employed in the business sector in the considered 

regions varies between 23 per cent and 38 per cent [15]. It should be noted that the distribution of 

employed in the business sector according to the types of economic activities is similar in all four 

regions. The most significant number of employed falls in the following fields: wholesale and retail 

trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles, manufacturing, mining and quarrying [15]. We must 

take into account the fact that the 2020 data was marked by the Covid-19 pandemic, which had a 

significant impact on the labour market, significantly reducing economic activities such as 

entertainment and leisure, accommodation and food supply, transport and storage, wholesale and retail 

trade and tourism-related other fields. 

 The pandemic has exacerbated Georgia's most pressing social-economic problem over the years - 

unemployment. The average unemployment rate in eastern Georgia is 18.0 per cent, which is slightly 

lower than the country's average (18.5 per cent). The lowest rate in the region is in Kakheti, which 

traditionally has the lowest unemployment rate in Georgia (10.4 per cent), while the highest 

unemployment rate is in Kvemo Kartli (22.2 per cent) (Table 7). 

 As in the whole country, high unemployment rates are observed among young people aged 15–24 

(27.8 per cent) [16].This is explained because young people of the mentioned age prefer education. 

After completing their studies, they face two types of problems: the labour market's demand for the 

professions they have mastered is low, and their qualifications and work experience do not meet market 

demands [18]. There are some in-demand professions for which staff is not trained in Georgia. That is 

why people with higher education make up a third of the unemployed population [17]. This indicates a 

structural and qualitative imbalance between the supply and demand of the labour force when on the 

one hand, there is an excess labour force with inappropriate qualification and undemanded professions. 

On the other hand, there is a high demand for qualified professionals. Added to this is that the number 

of actual unemployed is significantly higher than the number of registered unemployed. 

The quality of use of the country's labour and economic potential, the population's standard of living, 

and social satisfaction significantly depend on the proper functioning of the labour market. In addition 

to employment and unemployment, the standard of living is reflected in indicators such as wages, 

incomes and expenditures, the share of the population below the absolute poverty line, the Gini 

coefficient, etc. 

 The average monthly nominal earnings of hired have increased by an average of 

5-6 per cent annually over the last decade [19]. In 2019, salaries in the regions of eastern Georgia 

ranged from 690 to 900 GEL, lagging behind the country's average rate (1,129.5 GEL) (Table 8). The 

average monthly salary of employees in the business sector was slightly higher than the total salary 

hired and was the highest in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti region (1,055 GEL). In recent years, according to 

the types of economic activities in Georgia, the highest salaries are in financial and insurance activities, 

professional, scientific and technical activities, administrative and support services. In eastern Georgia, 

the highest salaries are in the business sector, such as electricity, gas supply, mining and quarrying, and 

the processing industry [19].  

file:///G:/GGJ/2nd%20Issue/income/2volume/(https:/www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment)


Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

Table 8. Average Monthly Nominal Wages of Hired in the regions of eastern Georgia in 2010-2019 (GEL)11 

 

Years  

  

Kakheti  

  

Mtskheta- 

Mtianeti  

  

Kvemo  

Kartli  

  

Shida  

Kartli  

  

Georgia 

2010  339.7  432.6  509.1  358.2  597.6  

2013  430.8  658.2  637.5  485.9  773.1  

2016  531.2  765.9  711.1  585.1  940.0  

2019  690.2  901.9  851.4  707.2  1129.5  

For comparison, the subsistence minimum rates should be brought here: in 2020, the subsistence 

minimum for employable males was 197.0 GEL, and the average subsistence minimum for one average 

family was 330.4 GEL. The share of the population below the subsistence level, or the share of the 

population below the country's poverty line, was 21.3 per cent. Among the regions of eastern Georgia, 

the highest rate is in Kvemo Kartli (32.1 per cent), followed by Mtskheta-Mtianeti (26.3 per cent). The 

situation is significantly better in Shida Kartli and Kakheti, respectively 19.6 per cent and 18.6 per cent 

(www.geostat.ge). Even the indicator is decreasing annually, the share of the poor population 

(population with an income of $ 5.5 a day-World Bank standards) in Georgia is 41.9 per cent, almost 

half of the population [20]. 

Population incomes were increasing from 2010 to 2019, but they decreased at the end of 2020 due 

to the economic crisis caused by the pandemic, and the average monthly income per capita in eastern 

Georgia ranged between 270-330 GEL. The structure of incomes is similar in all four regions, and their 

central part (67.5 per cent) consists of salaries, scholarships and allowances (Fig. 4). 

 
Figure 5. Distribution of the average monthly money income and transfers of the population in eastern Georgia in 2020 

(percent)12 

The central part (91.1 per cent) of the household income is spent on food, tobacco, utility charges, 

medicines and transport. Unfortunately, the share of money spent on household items, clothing and 

footwear, and education is insignificant (Fig. 5). The average monthly expenditure per capita in the 

regions varies between 238 and 328 GEL. 

A comparison of the population's incomes and expenditures clarifies that many helpless families 

desired to receive subsistence allowance. In 2020, 106,918 families were registered to receive helpless 

families subsistence allowance in all four regions, of which 49,453 families (46.2 per cent) were 

receiving the subsistence allowance, 264,874 persons (24.2 per cent of the total population of the region) 

were receiving pensions, and social packages in all four regions, however, the largest number was in 

Kvemo Kartli (90,686 persons) [21].         

In 2020, among the regions of eastern Georgia, the highest rate of social inequality, so-called Gini 

coefficient by total consumption expenditures (Index value 0 indicates that there is no inequality, while 

                                                           
11 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data www.geostat.ge 
12 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data www.geostat.ge 

  

41.4 

26.1 

10.2 

9.9 

8.0 

3.9 

0.5 

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 

From hired labor 

Pensions, scholarships, allowances 

From the sale of agricultural products 

From self-employment 

Money received as a gift 

Transfers from abroad 

From property (from rent, percent from 
deposit) 

http://www.geostat.ge/


Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

1 indicates that inequality is maximal), was in Kakheti - 0.42, and in the other three regions – 0.39 - 

0.40 (country ratio 0.41). During the last 12 years, this indicator fluctuated by 0.01 points [20]. 

 Ensuring effective employment of the population is of great importance for achieving economic 

development and solving the existing social-economic problems in any country. The excellent labour 

market of the market economy in Georgia is still in its forming stage, and there are many problems and 

challenges in this process. 

 
Figure 6. Distribution of average monthly consumer money expenditures of the population in eastern Georgia in 2020 

(percent)13 

Speeding up the country's economic development, creating new jobs and overcoming poverty is 

highly dependent on pursuing an active policy in the field of employment that includes developing 

labour market infrastructure, balancing of labour force demand and supply, providing vocational 

training for the unemployed, and employing a low-competitive labour force. 

Conclusion 

Thus, the study outlined the demographic situation and trends in the study area, which represent the 

regional peculiarities of the demographic potential of eastern Georgia: 

1. Over the last decade, the decrease in a number of population has slowed down in eastern Georgia; 

though between 2011 and 2020, in two of the four regions - Mtskheta-Mtianeti and Kvemo Kartli, even 

a slight increase was observed, + 0.09 per cent and + 0.27 per cent on average per year, respectively. 

The decreased slowdown in the absolute population is mostly stipulated by a reduction of emigration 

than by the growth of natural increase.   

2. In the study area, during the last 30 years between 1990-2020, the birth rate decreased by 8.2 

points (from 20.3 per mille to 12.1 per mille), while the mortality increased by 2.9 points (from 9.6 per 

mille to 12.5 per mille). Natural increase is still negative (-0.4 per mille in 2020), but in two of the four 

regions - MtskhetaMtianeti and Kvemo Kartli, according to the latest data, it turned out to be positive 

(+ 1.7 per mille and + 1.5 per mille, respectively). Mtskheta-Mtianeti is distinguished by the meagre 

rates of both – births and mortality (9.9 per mille and 8.2 per mille, respectively) among the regions of 

eastern Georgia. 

3. In general, there is a tendency of "ageing" of the population in eastern Georgia, but Unevenly 

distributed. In Kvemo Kartli, due to the relatively high natural increase, it develops relatively slowly. 

It is most intensively manifested in Kakheti and Mtskheta-Mtianeti, where the share of young (0-14 

years old) and elderly (65+ years old) in the total population is almost the same (within 17- 18 per cent), 

which will further slowdown the population reproduction process and intensify the "ageing" process. 

4. The share of females in the gender structure is reduced compared to the natural balance (5-6 per 

cent excess of women), while in Mtskheta-Mtianeti, males (50.4 per cent) are ahead of females (49.6 

per cent). A large number of females should explain this phenomenon among the labour emigrants. This 

problem is also related to a so-called family crisis and related demographic problems - declining natural 

increase and reduction in child-woman ratio, etc. 

                                                           
13 Source: Calculations are made by authors based on Geostat data www.geostat.ge 

  

46.4 

12.4 

12.3 

12.1 

8.7 

3.4 

3.3 

1.4 

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 

Food, drinks and tobaco production 

House, water, electricity, gas and 
other fuels 

Health care 

Other consumer expenses 

Transport 

Household goods 

Clothing and footware 

Education 



Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

5. Among the regions, Kvemo Kartli is partly distinguished by other demographic characteristics, 

which is explained by the large share of the Azerbaijani population (41.8 per cent) and corresponding 

traditionally different demographic behaviour. Georgians predominate in the study area as a whole (75.2 

per cent). The share of national minorities in rural areas is much higher than in urban areas. 

6. 28.8 per cent of the country's total labour forces are gathered in eastern Georgia, which is slightly 

less than its share in the country's population - 29.6 per cent. The majority of the population is employed 

in non-commercial and partly commercial agriculture, which determined a higher than average share of 

the self-employed among the employed; namely, in eastern Georgia, self-employed is 41.6 per cent 

when they are only 31.9 per cent in Georgia as a whole; 

7. Unemployment remains a major social problem; in 2020, the unemployed amounted to 18.0 per 

cent of the economically active population. The low incomes of a large part of the population are also 

problematic; in 2019, the average salary in eastern Georgia was 787.7 GEL, which was 30.3 per cent 

less than the average in Georgia (1,129.5 GEL). Low income and low standard of living are major 

negative factors in economic growth, as a low purchasing power prevents the formation and expansion 

of domestic markets. 

8. Recently, as in the whole of Georgia, there are signs of improvement in the social situation in the 

study area; for example, the average salary was increasing by 5-6 per cent annually during the last 

decade (2010-2020); also, the share of the population with less than the minimum income or below the 

poverty line, was decreasing every year. The COVID-19 pandemic partially hampered these positive 

trends. 

Competing interests 

The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 

Authors’ contribution 

G.K. and G.M. conceived of the presented idea. G.M., M.T. and N.N. developed the theory and 

performed the computations. S.D., N.K. and G.T. verified the analytical methods. All authors discussed 

the results and contributed to the final manuscript. 

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Khomeriki et al. Georgian Geographical journal 2022, Vol.2 (1) 

[12] https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/316/mosakhleoba-da-demografia 

[13] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/552/methodologia-social-statistics  

[14] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment   

[15] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/683/dasakmeba-umushevroba   

[16] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/regions/ 

[17] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment 

[18] Unemployment in Georgia. Economic Review and Indicators in Georgian (2017-2020). 

[19] Labor Market Analysis of Georgia 2020.  

[20] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/39/wages 

[21] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/48/standard-of-livingsubsistence-minimum 

[22] Geostat data https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/53/healthcare-and-social-protection  

 

 

 

 

 

  

 
 

https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/316/mosakhleoba
https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/316/mosakhleoba
https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/316/mosakhleoba-da-demografia
https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/316/mosakhleoba-da-demografia
https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/316/mosakhleoba-da-demografia
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/552/methodologia-social-statistics
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment
https://www.geostat.ge/ka/modules/categories/683/dasakmeba-umushevroba)
https://www.geostat.ge/regions/
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/683/Employment-Unemployment
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/39/wages
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/48/standard-of-livingsubsistence-minimum
https://www.geostat.ge/en/modules/categories/53/healthcare-and-social-protection 

