Georgian Geographical Journal Geographical Area of Meskheti According to the Ottoman Records of the XVI-XIX Centuries Dali Nikolaishvili1* , Davit Sartania2 Nikoloz Meskhishvili2 Ana Arsenashvili1 1 Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia 2 Museum of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia *Corresponding author: arsenashviliani@gmail.com Introduction Ottoman defters of the Middle Ages (XVI-XIX centuries) contain valuable information not only about the social-economic situation of the Ottomans but also about the countries conquered by them. In these defters, a certain part of the territory of Georgia is described, which is quite a large area. Within Meskheti, it includes not only the territories of modern (Samtskhe, Javakheti, Adjara), but also the territories of historical Georgia (Artan, Erusheti, Klarjeti, Kola, Tao, Shavsheti), the basins of the upper Mtkvari and the middle Chorokhi rivers and their tributaries. According to the defters, a certain part of the works was dedicated to the research of the territories conquered by the Ottomans (Jikia, 1958; Nikolaishvili et al., 2021; Shashikadze, 2006; Shengelia, 1960; Svanidze, 1984), However, this issue has not yet been fully studied and analyzed. The issue of the territorial coverage of political/administrative units of different ranks depicted in the defters is particularly unclear. The low level of study of the mentioned issue is due not only to the fact that only a small part of these documents has been translated into Georgian today but also to the fact that these documents have not been studied in various aspects, even from a geographical point of view. With a few exceptions (Aslanikashvili, 1953; NikolaiShvili et al., 2021), nor were they fully mapped cartographically. Due to these reasons, the geographical area of the political/administrative units depicted in the books and the tendency of their transformation over time are unknown. And if this area is determined, it will give us the opportunity to: ▪ To avoid the mistake of considering different administrative units, which have the same name in different periods of time, as the same territory. An example of this is the province of Gurjistan, which in the records of 1574 and 1595, with some exceptions, includes a different territory. ▪ To carry out a social-economic analysis of different administrative units, on the one hand, by comparing the conquered territories and, on the other hand, the unconquered Georgian parts, in Georgian Geographical Journal, 2024, 4(2) 75-83 © The Author(s) 2024 This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). DOI: https://journals.4science.ge/index.php/GGJ Abstract A certain part of the territory of Georgia was described in the Ottoman Defters of the Middle Ages. This is quite a large territory, which includes not only modern, but also historical Georgia. The aim of the research is the geo- informational cartography of the Georgian cultural heritage according to the Ottoman Defters of the XVI-XIX centuries and showing the geographical area that was described in these recors. From this point of view, 9 defters were processed and analyzed. As research has shown, these defters include the territories of Georgia that the Ottomans: 1) only conquered and tributed; 2) it was conquered and could not be fully preserved and today it is in modern Georgia and 3) it was conquered and it is still within the borders of Turkey. Some parts of the depicted areas in the defters covering each other’s. Their detection is important for studying the dynamics of social-economical, traditional natural management, onomastic and a number of other issues. However, the territorial overlaps are not so large. For example, the defters of 1574 and 1595, both of which describe the province of Gurjistan, coincide only in a small fragment. The 1574 defter of big Artaan liva territorially coincides with the 1595 big Artaan and Fanak liva. Keywords: Ottoman records, historical Georgia, Meskheti, Gurjistani Citation: Nikolaishvili, D.; Sartania, D.; Meskhishvili, N.; Arsenashvili, A. Geographical area of Meskheti according to the Ottoman records of the XVI-XIX centuries. Georgian Geographical Journal 2024, 4(2). 75-83 https://doi.org/10.52340/ggj.2024.04.02.09 Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 76 order to make possible a retrospective analysis of the unified situation of the settlement of the Georgian nation. ▪ To determine the dynamic change of the Georgian substrate through the study of traditional natural management, toponymical, anthroponymical and a number of other issues, i.e. the process of transition to the "Ottoman rule" or, on the contrary, the process of preserving the Georgian substrate. Therefore, it is very important to determine the territorial coverage of the political/administrative units recorded in the Ottoman records. The present work deals with this problematic issue. The aim of the research is to determine the geographical area described by the Georgian translations of the Ottoman records of the 16th and 19th centuries. Methods and Materials The main research method is retrospective cartography and comparative geographical analysis by using GIS technologies. Accordingly, the data in the databases were identified, systematized, and classified, and a GIS database was created. Identification of objects was carried out on the basis of mutual agreement with other sources, for which comparative, semantic, retrospective cartography, and other methods of research were used. A field-expeditional research was also conducted within the borders of modern Georgia (Adjara, Samtskhe-Javakheti) and the Republic of Turkey (Artvini and Artaan provinces). The field research was mainly based on surveys and questionnaires of the local population. Obviously, field research could not be carried out completely on the entire studying area because it required a lot of time and money. Therefore, the field work was carried out on such a scale that a modern picture of the facts recorded in the old defters could be presented in general terms. The fact that a significant part of the data is kept in archival funds of other countries (Russia, Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria and others) with limited access, so this fact also created some difficulty. The object of our research was 9 Ottoman defters: 1. Grand and Short Defters of Ajara Liva of 1566-1574. 2. The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 1574. 3. The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 1595. 4. The Grand Defter of Artanudji of 1595. 5. Jaba Defter of Childir Vilayet of 1694-1732. 6. Grand Defter of Tbilisi Vilayet of 1728. 7. Defter of Shavsheti of 1835-1836. 8. Defter of Machakheli (Crdili Vilayet) of 1836. 9. Defter of Satleli Liva (Crdili Vilayet) of 1836. In the Ottoman defters are recorded just conquered territories by the Ottomans, because conquered territories were described in order to impose taxes on them. Naturally, this conquest did not happen all at once. The Ottomans had separated Georgia from some side or part of it, and then Georgia had taken some of them back. During the years, these territories were lost again with new invasions. Due to the frequent change of the political owner, it is impossible to restore an exact sequence picture. Because Defters depicted exact moments, it became possible to present a general picture for certain periods of time. As the analysis and comparison of historiographic works and Ottoman defters had shown, according to the Ottoman power, the territory of Georgia can be divided into three parts, namely, the territories that the Ottomans: 1) marched and conquered (but did not manage to completely conque)r. Their political subjugation lasted for a certain period. Such is the wester,e largest part of Georgia); 2) They were conquered for a certain period of time, but they could not keep i,t and today it is within the borders of modern Georgia. Such is Eastern Georgi,a and 3) conquered and incorporated these territories (such is the largest part of southwestern Georgia in the basin of the Mtkvari and Chorokhi rivers). The Ottoman influence was less on the territories that were directly separated from Georgia, which was not conquered by the Ottomans. This mainly concerns the northern part of Samtskhe-Saatabago (Samtskhe, the northern part of Javakheti, Adjara, Shavsheti, Klarjeti), which is within the borders of modern Georgia. As for the rest of Samtskhe-Saatabago, located further south (Kola, Artaan, Erusheti, Artanuji, etc.), the Ottoman influence was much more here (Nikolaishvili et. al., 2021). Our research includes the territory of Meskheti, incorporated by the Ottomans. Part of this territory is located in modern Georgia, and another part is in Turkey. Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 77 From the historiography, it is known that within Meskheti were located: Artaani, Erusheti, Klarjeti, Oltisi, Samtskhe, Speri, Tao, Potskhovi, Shavsheti, Javakheti, and others. But there are also parts whose territorial affiliation is debatable and needs some clarification, for example, Borjomi Valley, Kaikuli, and Chaneti. Ivane Javakhishvili wrote that Georgia consisted of several "countries", whose names and borders had been changed over time, which was the result of political-national growth, but still there were permanent, native borders of each country. We investigate only those borders and territory that are included in the "permanent" borders of Meskheti. According to the latest studies, the "permanent" borders of Meskheti include: Soeri (upper river of Chorokhi), Tao (middle river of Chorokhi with right and left tributaries: Parkhalistskali, Tortomi, Oltis), Klarjet-Shavsheti and Adjara (lower river of Chorokhi), Kola, Artaani, Erusheti, Javakheti (incl. Ninotsminda, Akhalkalaki, Aspindze municipalities), Samtskhe and Potskhovi valleys (incl. Akhaltsikhe and Adigeni municipalities), Tori (Borjomi municipality) and others. (Abashidze et al., 2014). According to the Ottoman defters of 1728, Tori, so Borjomi valley, is in Gori Liva, although it, together with Shida Kartli, did not experience the same long-term influence of Ottoman rule as Samtskhe and other parts of Georgia conquered by the Ottomans. But it is also known that the border of South Georgia started from Tashiskar and extended to the south. It is the same with the modern administrative division. Therefore, it was included in our research. Chaneti, also known as Lazeti, was a bordering region of Meskheti. Politically, in a certain period, he was included in its area. Lazeti became one of the first incorporated parts of Georgia by the Ottomans. Moreover, if we trust Vakhushti Bagrationi, Meskheti extended to the borders of Chaneti (Vakhushti Bagrationi, 1941). We find a similar opinion in many scientific works. Therefore, it could not be included in our research. Adjara was also a part of Meskheti, but Batumi and Kobuleti sides were not included in it. Today, Kobuleti is a part of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, although in the Middle Ages this area was part of the Guria, which was captured by the Ottomans. The population was converted to Islam and seperated from Guria. Kayikuli is mentioned in historical sources as Abotsi. It is reported in the defters of 1728. Due to the change of the political situation, it sometimes belonged to Kartli and sometimes to Meskheti. Ivane Javakhishvili had mentioned that Kaikuli was in Meskheti, but he also noticed that it was in the south of Javakheti. There was a community located between Meskheti and Kvemo Kartli, and sometimes it belonged to Meskheti, but often, in particular, in the XVII-XVIII centuries, it was within the borders of Kvemo Kartli. (Javakhishvili, 1998). However, there are different opinions; in particular, V. Nozadze marked that Kaikuli was in Meskheti (Nozadze, 1989). As for Pavle Ingorokva, when he discusses the issue of the territorial dispute between Georgia and Armenia, he says that Abotsi (the same as Kaikuli) belongs to Georgia and adds that Abotsi is geographically located between the districts of Meskheti and Bambak [Ingoroqva, manuscript]. Here, we should emphasize one important physical-geographic circumstance (Nikolaishvili et al., 2021). Historically, it is known that Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli are bordered by an important orographic barrier—the Javakheti ridge. Today, the northern part of the Javakheti ridge, which is located in Georgia, is a main orographic border. Therefore, due to orographic conditions, Abotsi belongs more to Kvemo Kartli than to Javakheti. Based on the above, the geographical area of our research is limited to the historical territory of Meskheti, or the "natural border", which was spread from Tashiskar to Karnukalaki, but did not include Kaikul (Abots), Chanet (Lazet), nor Batumi and Kobuleti. Results According to the "defters of the Province of Gurjistan" of 1574 and 1595, the province of Gurjistan included the basins of the upper Mtkvari and the middle of the Chorokhi rivers. In particular, the right side of Chorokhi with tributaries (Oltissistskal, Banisstskal, Bardusstskal, Sevriststskal, Torthomistskal, Artanujitsskal). The upper part of Mtkvari was surrounded by the vilayet on both sides. According to the "defters of the Province of Gurjistan" in 1574, the province of Gurjistan was divided into 4 parts: Artanuji, Great Artaan, Tortomi and Oltis. A total of 19 Nahie were united in the vilayet. According to the 1595 "defters of the Province of Gurjistan", there are 9 livas and 41 Nahie named in the province, although S. Jikhia also writes that Oltis Liwa is a later inscription (The Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet of 1595, 1941), i.e. It does not belong to the 1595 register. Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 78 Figure 1. Georgian Geographical Journal Figure 2. Geographical area of Meskheti according to Ottoman defters (XVI-XIX centuries) Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 79 The mutual comparison of administrative units showed us that the province of Gurjistan, according to the 1574 and 1595 records, did not have the same territorial coverage, and only on a small fragment they coincided territorially (pic. 1): Didi Artaani Liva of the 1574 record (districts: Mzvare, Mishe, Sheti, Kiamkhisi, Fanaki, Fanaskert) territorially coincides with the 1595 Livas of Didi Artaan (Nahiyes: Mzvare, Tgiani, Shiti) and Fanak (Nahiyes: Kiamkhisi, Fanak, Fanaskerti) (Table 1). This means that in the 20-year period, there was more division of administrative units—didi artan liwa was divided into Didi artaan and fanak livas—but there was no more division of lower-ranking administrative units—nahiyes. The total area of this contiguous territory was 3353 square meters. It's not a big area. If we compare modern Georgia, it is slightly larger than the municipality of Mestia. As for the "Short (Ijmal) Defter of Childir Vilayet" (XVI century) and "Jaba Defter", the available information about the administrative arrangement of the Vilayet is very scarce. The reason for this is that it is compiled based on a big database and contains brief information. It should be determined for which large books they are compiled. According to the current sources, it is impossible to give an exact answer to this question. Moreover, there are later inscriptions in defter, which the Georgian translators date from 1590 to 1622 ("Ijm. David.", p. 5). We can only make assumptions, namely, the Ottoman notebooks of the same period are connected to each other, and the data entered in the short notebooks should not belong to one notebook. Obviously, it is difficult to generalize this to all Ottoman books, although it is confirmed by the books we have. What gives us the opportunity to say that? First of all, the "Short (Ijmal) Defter of Chrdili Province" and "Short Defter" include villages from 1595 and the extensive Defter of Livy of Zemo Adjara (Tab. 2). Table 2. Compliance of some villages according to different defters Short list of Childir Vilayet 1595 Great defters of the Province of Gurjistan Wide defters of Zemo Adjara Villages Sum of taxes Villages Sum of taxes Villages Sum of taxes Table 1. Administrative arrangement of provinces of Georgia According to the records of 1574 and 1595 Livas Nahiye Big Artaani * Mzvare * Mishe * Chrdili * Kiamkhisi * Fanaki * Panaskerti * Tortomi Tortomi Kudrusuri Pertegreki Oltisi Anzavi Bardisi Gobi Marsasori Mzvari Chrdili Artanudji Artanudji Ishkhani Taoskari Khacheni livas Nahiye Big Artaani * Mzvare * Tkiani * Chrdili * Fanak * Kiamkhisi * Fanak * Panaskerti * Akhalkalaki Akshehiri Tmogvi Nialisyure Akhaltsikhe Aspindza Atskuri Mzvare Okroscikhe Otskhi Ude Kvabliani Chrdili Djadjaraki Petre Petre Kashveti Potskhovi Mzvare Chrdili Chrdili Mgeltsikhe Kanarbeli Djanbazi Khertvisi Buzmareti Forest Djavakheti Khertvisi Matches are marked with an asterisk (*) Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 80 Zarzma 11 600 Sersem(?) 11 600 Tsaghveri 15 200 Tsaghveri 15 200 Samda Sakhuri 13 000 Samzisokhevi 13 000 Handakiri/Hakidi 30 000 ? 30 000 Ghordjomi 29 999 Ghordjomi 2999 * Dabagha akhra 15 000 Big Adjara 15 000 Doskho 15 002 Potskho 15 002 Alme 29 999 Alme 2 999 * * – probably, we have to deal with incorrect data collection "Jaba defter of the chrdili Province" 1694-1732. It is a different type of document from the large (extensive) and short records, which records the changes in the lands (Khasi, Ziameti, Timari) granted by the Sultan. All material is arranged by geographical point, not chronologically. There is information about the following lives of Akhaltsikhe Sapasha (Chrdili Province): Artanuji, Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Adjara, Great Artaan, Small Artaan, Mamirvan, Oltis, Livana, Fanak, Potskhovi, Fertekreki, Chrdili (Childiri), Shavsheti, and Khertvisi. Moreover, Peter's Liva is not verified in the Chrdili Vilayet. This is explained by the fact that with the truce of 1639, this area (from Kvishkheti to Atskuri, i.e. Borjomi valley) no longer belongs to Ottomans and is still part of the Kartli Kingdom ["Jaba Davtar", p. 81]. It is interesting how to belong the small Artaani to the province of Livy, i.e., the Chrdili of Kola. This issue is unclear due to the fact that the same nahiyas (Khojevan, Sheti, Mzvare) of the mentioned Livy, often with the same villages, are included in both defters of Chrdili and Karsi. This strange case wasn’t considered a chancellery mistake by Abuladze. the "double" affiliation is also confirmed by the report of Katib Chelebi ("Jaba Davtari", p. 72). Today it is very difficult to explain how the same administrative unit was managed by different governorates. Today it is very difficult to explain how the same administrative unit was managed by different governorates. This issue can be resolved by finding new records; however, in our case, the territorial affiliation of the small Artaan Liv, or Kola, was determined by the Chrdili province. According to the big defter (XVI century) of the Upper Adjara Liva, this one included almost the entire basin of Achariskali (middle and upper parts). Administratively, it was divided into two nahiye: Zemo and Kvemo Adjara. The territory of Liva mostly coincides with the borders of modern administrative units (Shuakhevi and Khulo municipalities), although there are differences between them. In particular, the eastern border of Liva had passed on the top of the Arsian ridge, and the upper part of Kvabliani and Ghrmanistskali did not enter within the border. (as well as modern Adjara) (Nikolaishvili & Sartania, 2011). Even in the short story of Adjara Liva (XVI century) there are only reports about the nahiyes of Kvemo and Kvemo Adjara. It seems that, territorially, it coincides with the data of the extensive defter of Livy of Upper Adjara. According to the 1728 "Tbilisi Vilayeti Big Defter", the territory of the vilayet was quite extensive and included almost the entire territory of present-day eastern Georgia, except Kakheti. The western parts of modern Azerbaijan and the northern parts of Armenia also entered the mentioned vilayet. This makes us think that the defter describes the whole Kartli at that time. The issue about the name of the vilayet is also interesting. The Ottoman name "Gurjistan" meant the whole of Georgia, and that's what they called the territories they conquered as well. Since by the 18th century there was already an administrative unit under the name of the province of Gurjistan, the newly joined territory (Kartli) could not be given the same name due to its large territorial coverage because it could not be merged with it. That’s why the newly conquered territory (Kartli) was separated as an administrative unit, and its name comes from its important center (city) - Tbilisi. From the administrative point of view, Tbilisi Vilayet was divided into 5 livas (Table 3). From here, only 2 nahiye of Gori Liva came into Meskheti: Petre and Gujarati. A comparison with the 1595 "Gurjistan Vilayet defter" showed us that during the 16th-18th centuries, certain changes occurred in the administrative arrangement of the territory of Georgia conquered by the Ottomans, in particular, in the 16th century, the Borjomi Valley had a higher administrative status and was included in the Georgian Vilayet under the status of Peter's Liva. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Borjomi valley (already with the status of 2 nahiyes) was included in the Gori Liva of Tbilisi Vilayet, although the territory of the nahiyes did not change. Defter of Petre and Kashveti nahiyes of 1574 corresponds to Davtri Petre and Gujarat nahiyes of 1728. Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 81 It should also be noted that, according to the 1728 decree, the exact determination of the territory and intra-territorial division of the vilayet turned out to be quite difficult since there are many inaccuracies in it. A more detailed study of the issue is necessary. Table 3. Administrative Unites of Tbilisi Vilayet, 1728 Livas Nahiyas Tbilisi Tbilisi, Avlabri, Sabaratiano, Dmanisi, Baidar, Kaikuli Gori Satsitsiano, Mukhran, Saamilakhvro, Shavi Aragvi and Ksni Eristavi, Trialeti, Petre, Gomareti, Gujarati Somkhiti Armenia, Tashir, Fanbak Akhcha kali Akhcha kali Kazaki Anchi, Javad, Ahsabad, Terki Today, it is very difficult to determine why the Borjomi valley was transferred from one province to another. This is a matter for the future, but some consideration can be given to moving it to a lower administrative status. It is known from historiography that from the 16th century to the 18th century, Borjomi Valley was gradually almost completely deserted. Part of the population died in the fight against the invaders, and part of them moved to other parts of Georgia. Georgian material cultural monuments were significantly destroyed; the economy was disrupted. This is discussed in many scientific works (Abuladze, 1983; Berdzenishvili, 1985; Kudjadze, 1969; Makalatia, 1957). Therefore, the cancellation of Peter's Livy should have been a completely logical decision. Today, it is very difficult to determine why the Borjomi valley was transferred from one province to another. This is a matter for the future, but some consideration can be given to moving it to a lower administrative status. It is known from historiography that from the 16th century to the 18th century, Borjomi Valley was gradually almost completely deserted. Part of the population died in the fight against the invaders, and part of them moved to other parts of Georgia. Georgian material cultural monuments were significantly destroyed, and the economy was disrupted. This is discussed in many scientific works (Abuladze, 1983; Berdzenishvili, 1985; Kudjadze, 1969; Makalatia, 1957). Therefore, the cancellation of Peter's Livy should have been a completely logical decision. Conclusion As it is clear from the above-mentioned differences, the territorial similarities are not so small, but not many. Here it is important to find out which defters match each other—long or short notebooks. It is much more informative, matching according to extensive definitions, which gives us an opportunity to discuss several social-economical and onomastical features in a dynamic perspective. According to extensive data, we have territorial matching in the following geographical areas: Didi Artaan, Fanak, Petre, and Machakhli Livas. Because this coincidence includes different historical-geographical provinces (Artaani, Tori, Machakhela), it also gives us the possibility to find similarities and differences between these provinces. However, it is also clear that these provinces have different areas. The borders of big Artaani and Fanak are the largest areas (3432 km2), where according to the 1595 register, there are 200 villages and 86 villages. Petres Liva has a relatively small area (944 km2), where we see only 8 villages and 41 villages. The area of Machakhli Liva is much smaller, although according to the 1835 register, the number of villages is more here (21 villages). Despite the small area of territorial coincidences, it provides a good opportunity to discuss the onomastic and social-economic situation from a dynamic perspective. If we compare the matching geographical area by the decades of 1574 and 1595, we will see an interesting picture. In 1574, there were 120 families in this area; between them, 114 were Christians and 6 were Muslims, and after 20 years, this picture changed significantly: the total number of families decreased to 36, and 34 of them were Christians and 2 were Muslims. What caused the population decline is difficult to say. However, the economic structure has not changed. The population had continued to grow agricultural crops (wheat, barley, millet, etc.) as before. Despite the decrease in population, it is strange that taxes have increased slightly. This side in 1574 used to pay 380 akhchas, but in 1595 it was increased to 500 akhchas. The reason for this could be inflation or increased taxes to accelerate the process of Islamization. Because we do not have a territorial overlap according to the above-mentioned defters, and it is difficult to talk about the change of the demographical and economic picture, but the general trend Nikolaishvili et al. 2024 4(2) 82 would be clear: it is an indicator of the irreversible process of the transition of the confessional issue from Christianity to Islam, which was also a factor in reducing the consciousness of ethnic belonging. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contribution D.S. and N. M. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. were involved in planning and supervised the work. A.A. and D. N. performed the analytic calculations. A.A. translated this paper from Georgian into English. D.N. took the lead in writing the manuscript. All authors provided critical feedback and helped shape the research, analysis, and manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors cordially thank the Shota Rustaveli Science Foundation for support, under whose financial aid it became possible to accomplish the present work within the project “Mapping and to analyze Georgian cultural heritage of south-west Georgia according to old Turkish Population census books”, Grant #HE-18-448, 26.07.2018). The authors also cordially thank members of the project (Avtandil Ujmajuridze, Darejan Kirtadze, Manana Kvetenadze, Tedo Gorgodze). The authors also thank Zaza Shashikadze for translating some parts of these documents and sharing this data. Funding This research [#HE-18-448] has been supported by Shota Rustaveli Science Foundation ORCID iD Dali Nikolaishvili https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6540-3682 Davit Sartania https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5248-2801 Ana Arsenashvili https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3859-2437 Reference Abashidze, Z., Vashakidze, V. (2014). Whole Georgia (Historical borders of the Georgian state from ancient times to the present day). Tbilisi. (In Georgian). Abuladze, V. (1983). Past and present of Borjomi valley. Tbilisi. Soviet Georgia. (In Georgian). Aslanikashvili, A. (1953). Map of Gurjistan Vilayet, drawn up according to Georgian translation of Grand Defter of Gurjistan Vilayet. Ed. S. Jikia. Tbilisi, scale: 1:300,000 (In Georgian). Berdzenishvili, D. (1985). Essays on the historical geography of Georgia. Zemo Kartli - Tori, Javakheti, Tbilisi. (In Georgian). Javakhishvili, Iv. 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