acknowledgement the editorial board would like to thank and express appreciation to all peer reviewers who have reviewed the manuscripts for publication of geosfera indonesia. marinela istrate (scopus id : 56672996500) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania lucian rosu (scopus id : 56958158800) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania mihai niculita (scopus id : 55022909500) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania tin lukic (scopus id : 54795557700) department of geography, university of novi sad, serbia fatih adiguzel (scopus id : 57204062132) , department of geography, nevşehir haci bektaş veli üniversitesi, nevsehir, turkey elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia prima widayani (scopus id : 57188879871) faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia ivan taslim (scopus id : 57203022349) department of geography, universitas muhammadiyah gorontalo, indonesia efdal kaya (scopus id : 57202135756) department of architecture and urban planning, iskenderun technical university, iskenderun, turkey batuhan kilic (scopus id : 57204675825) geomatic engineering department, yildiz technical university, istanbul, turkey rendra zainal maliki department of geography education, universitas tadulako, indonesia faisal arif setiawan department of geography education, universitas lambung mangkurat, indonesia aulia ulfa farahdiba (scopus id : 57208130620) , department of environmental engineering, universitas pembangunan nasional "veteran" jawa timur, indonesia guruh samodra (scopus id : 55053491600) faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia wahid akhsin budi nur sidiq (scopus id : 57201676728), department of geography, universitas negeri semarang, semarang indonesia pertiwi andarani (scopus id : 55959123900), department of environmental engineering, universitas diponegoro, semarang, indonesia https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=56672996500 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=56958158800 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55022909500 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=54795557700 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57204062132 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57192649049 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57208468203 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57188879871 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57203022349 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57202135756 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57204675825 https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=qivrcmkaaaaj&hl=id prama ardha aryaguna (scopus id : 56236908900), department of survey and mapping, faculty of engineering, universitas esa unggul, jakarta, indonesia ionuț minea (scopus id : 56951000900), faculty of geography and geology, department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university, 20 a, carol i bd., 700505 iasi, romania rosmadi fauzi (scopus id : 6508044388), department of geography, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia mahendra andiek maulana (scopus id : 57189494749), faculty of civil engineering planning and earth science, institut teknologi sepuluh nopember, surabaya, indonesia very dermawan (scopus id : 57190389285), water resources engineering department, universitas brawijaya, malang, indonesia geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve humanenvironment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021 available online since 20 december 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia, vol. 6 no. 3 (2021) accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 . editorial team editor in chief fahmi arif kurnianto (scopus id: 57208473928) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia advisory international editorial boards mihai ciprian margarint (scopus id : 36698019400) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania fahrudi ahwan ikhsan (scopus id : 57208469257) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia mustafa ustuner (scopus id : 56246446800) department of geomatics engineering, yildiz technical university, turkey bashkim idrizi (scopus id : 55937683800) department of geodesy, university "mother teresa" -skopje, macedonia guillermo hector re (scopus id : 7102894803) department of geology, universidad de buenos aires, buenos aires, argentina laras tursilowati (scopus id : 55317967300) indonesian national institute of aeronautics and space (lapan), indonesia m. asyroful mujib (scopus id : 57217104177) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia lyubka pashova (scopus id : 6506546577) national institute of geophysics, geodesy and geography, bulgarian academy of sciencesdisabled, sofia, bulgaria mohmadisa hashim (scopus id : 55214571400) department of geography & environment, universiti pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia layout editors yucha risdarani (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) m. mitasari (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) giofani ginolla ardiyanto (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember focus and scope geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, naturesociety and gis) to resolve human-environment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction publication information geosfera indonesia (geos. ind.) : | issn: 2598-9723 (print)| issn: 2614-8528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. its published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020. this journal has been covered by following indexing and abstracting services: (1) cabi : cab abstracts ; (2) directory of open access journal (doaj); (3) ebsco; (4) google scholar (5) one search (national library of republic of indonesia), (6) web of science. secretariat of geosfera indonesia department of geography education, university of jember, fkip building, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, east java, 68121, indonesia. telp. (0331) 334988 / 330738 email : geografi.fkip@unej.ac.id website : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember table of contents sediment flow characteristics in the upper slope of volcanic landscapes with dryland agriculture 241-259la ode hadini, junun sartohadi, m. anggri setiawan, djati mardiatno, nugroho christanto spatial pattern of multi-dimensional regional disparities in the level of socio-economic development in west bengal: a geographical analysis 260-300 suranjan majumder land cover changes based on cellular automata for land surface temperature in semarang regency 301-318 fahrudin hanafi, dinda putri rahmadewi, fajar setiawan assessing the effectiveness of geography-based online learning during the covid-19 pandemic in higher education 319-333abdul wahab abdi, syahrul ridha, muhammad yunus, puspita annaba kamil, intan safiah, ahmad nubli gadeng analysis of mapping forest, settlement, and rice field areas in konawe selatan district, indonesia 334-352 andri estining sejati, i gede purwana edi saputra 353-376 assessment of flood hazard mapping based on analytical hierarchy process (ahp) and gis: application in kencong district, jember regency, indonesia muhammad asyroful mujib, bejo apriyanto, fahmi arif kurnianto, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, elan artono nurdin, era iswara pangastuti, sri astutik assessment of coral reef life-form classification scheme using multiresolution images on parang island, indonesia 377-397 wahyu lazuardi, pramaditya wicaksono development of creative handicrafts industrial zones in rajapolah district, tasikmalaya regency: spatial recommendation for village areas 398-425 ari djatmiko, deden syarifudin, zulphiniar priyandoko, meyliana lisanti, tyara kusuma diena copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember cover geosfera 63.pdf (p.1) editor.pdf (p.2) focus and scope des.pdf (p.3-4) 113 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 113-121 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8439 the environment analysis of population growth, unemployment, and poverty level in maesan district bondowoso regency fahmi arif kurnianto1, dian rakhmasari2, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan3, bejo apriyanto4, elan artono nurdin5 1,2,3,4,5 department of geography education, university of jember email : fahmiarif.fkip@unej.ac.id received: 10 june 2018/revised: 7 july 2018/accepted: 16 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract poverty is one of the problems in the economy and environment that must be resolved immediately. the factors that influence poverty are population growth, economic growth, and unemployment. this observation aims to find out the relation of environment, population growth, economic growth, and unemployment on the level of poverty in maesan subdistrict, bondowoso regency. the data in this observation is secondary data obtained from the central bureau of statistics of bondowoso regency. the results of this observation indicate that in comparison the variables of population growth, economic growth, and unemployment, have a significant effect on the level of poverty and environment in maesan district, bondowoso regency. according to the data we obtain from the field between the influence of population growth, the economy and unemployment on average the rate of growth is slow and the people are still quite backward, still need more attention for environment effect and there are concrete actions for the development of the maesan region. therefore the government's encouragement is very important to promote the community in maesan district, bondowoso regency. keywords: population growth, maesan, unemployment 1. introduction poverty is one of the problems that often occurs in various countries, especially in indonesia, bondowoso regency. the problem of poverty is not only about finance and the ability to obtain goods and services, but also concerns social, political, health and education life. in the large indonesian dictionary (kbbi) the word poor means people who have no wealth, are deprived, and have low income. population growth, economic growth, unemployment and inflation are the driving factors of uncontrolled poverty. if poverty is not immediately addressed and is only a mere conversation, it will have a negative impact on the https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:fahmiarif.fkip@unej.ac.id 114 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 welfare of the nation and national development of a country. the high population growth of the earth is a problem that is quite difficult to solve completely. with an average population growth rate of 1.8% per year, the burden of providing a variety of demands for the life of the inhabitants of the earth is very large. until 2000 the earth's population reached around 6 billion, in 2009 the human population reached 6.4 billion (the sustainable scale project, 2009) and this number tends to increase in the coming years. therefore, data is needed as a benchmark for the occurrence of economic development. a country is said to be successful in economic development, if it is able to solve three major problems including the amount of poverty that is increasing, income levels are getting worse, and employment is not varied. the government and society must work together to balance population growth with equal distribution of population in each region, increase economic growth from all sectors which will have an impact on employment to reduce the unemployment rate, and certainly will affect the country's inflation, although not 100%, at least a significant increase froms each year. healthy area is a condition of clean, comfortable, safe and healthy area for the community, through the improvement of a potential with integrated activities and agreed by the community, business group and government. to welcome the healthy governance can organize various activities through community empowerment and through forums facilitated by the government. forum is a place for people to channel their aspirations and participate. forum plays a role in determining the direction, regional development planning that integrates various aspects, so as to create a clean, comfortable, safe and healthy environment to be inhabited by its citizens. an indicator of healthy governance is a clean house, not a slum, families who keep each other clean, and a healthy lifestyle. the condition of each environment will affect the health of the surrounding community. to improve public health it is necessary to consider the basic human needs to obtain a healthy and comfortable environment. such as providing clean water, food, and a clean and comfortable place to live. that way can reduce poverty and slum area which is currently still quite high. as one of the factors that can affect public health, healthy governance is very important. in the order of healthy areas is expected society can maintain the cleanliness of the surrounding environment. so as not detected germs germs that can made various diseases. with a clean, safe, comfortable and healthy area is expected to reduce the high number of infant deaths in various region. 115 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 this study is very interested to study, because from here could be know one of the factors causing poverty and poor environment rate in indonesia. with the influence of a clean, healthy, safe and comfortable area design will cause a good impact. the purpose of this study is to analyze the importance of clean and healthy regional related to poverty level in bondowoso. 2. the methods this research was conducted in march 2018 in maesan district, bondowoso regency. this study used a type of survey research, where used the research method using questionnaires as an instrument for collecting data and the technique of data collect ion that i did was qualitative data collection techniques, by interviewing residents whose houses i visited. after interviewing from several houses of pakuniran villagers in maesan sub-district, and from their answers, it was able to analyze it. in taking the data, used descriptive data analysis to see the relationship between the number of population, economy, unemployment and inflation on poverty in bondowoso district, maesan district. to count a lot of the data reported, used formula of morgan below: ........... (1) where : n = sample size n= population size d2 = acceptable for sample error x2 = chi square of degree of freedom p = proportion of population 116 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 3. results and discussion 3.1 the influence of population growth on poverly level table 1. population growth in maesan district, bondowoso regency source : bps 2017 (statistic agency of indonesia) from the data above can be seen, it turns out that the population growth in maesan subdistrict is quite high, but has not been matched by the existence of the family planning (kb) program. on the other hand, the ancient understanding of most local residents, namely "many children a lot of fortune" became one of the main triggers of maesan district residents not to conduct family planning (kb) programs. in addition, the livelihoods of each family that we go to are on average many who become farm laborers and coolies, so that the income they earn is not fixed, according to the amount of work they do. from this problem a new problem arises, with a small income and a large number of families, the income is not able to meet the daily needs of the family, resulting in poverty or deprivation. from the above problems, the government should be more attentive and more protective of its people, because then poverty which is influenced by factors such as population growth, economy, and unemployment can be overcome properly. from the community itself, they should support programs from the government that bring positive impacts to their lives. examples such as; family planning program, counseling about family planning, etc. if a government program has a positive impact on its people and its people for the program, then the problem of population growth can be overcome properly. but when the government no longer cares about its people, and the people do not have a creative mindset, there is only the beginning of a destruction of a country or a problematic area. so all parties must be mutually sustainable and work together to complete a program that leads to welfare. region gender male female rural 4.4645 4.630 urban 2.277 2.376 117 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 3.2 the influence of economic growth on the level of poverty figure 1. livelihood in maesan district from the data that we have obtained in the field, economic growth in maesan subdistrict has experienced considerable growth, although in the economic chart it is low and the economic rate is slow. we can prove that maesan's economy is quite developed because it can be seen from the circle table above. maesan's livelihoods work in the field industry quite a lot even though most of his livelihoods are farmers and breeders. on average, maesan people live in the countryside, so it is not surprising that their livelihoods are farmers and breeders. whereas the people who live next to the highway work on the field industry on average, but not all people. while viewed from the diagram of the circle above the maesan community is quite significant if it is still in the backward class of society. but with livelihoods as farmers and breeders that is not enough, it takes an effort that can break down the economy of the community to alleviate poverty in maesan subdistrict, businesses such as developing entrepreneurs from home-based small businesses, as well as the attention and assistance of the local government are needed to alleviate poverty in maesan district. because a country's progress can be done with mutual support between the community and the government. 45% 8% 30% 13% 4% agriculture plantation farm industry others livelihood in maesan district, bondowoso regency 118 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 3.3 the influence of unemployment on the level of poverty figure 4: educational level in maesan from the above data it can be concluded that, most people in maesan subdistrict have a low level of education, judging from the dark blue data circle which shows that education graduates up to the elementary level are very dominant compared to other graduates, followed by red where people who have never gone to school are more dominant than with other graduates, then it is green, while junior and senior high school graduates are still few, let alone graduate graduates and diplomas are very low in graduates. looking at the sample data above it can be concluded, a low level of education can cause a large number of unemployed. the evidence is found at the strata level or social status of the maesan subdistrict, where they are only graduates of education up to the level of primary school education which automatically does not have enough experience compared to high school or diploma graduates who are far enough in comparison. therefore the role of the local government is needed to improve the quality of education in the maesan subdistrict, bondowoso regency, and conduct programs that can facilitate access to education there. an example of a program that can be done is a scholarship program for children from underprivileged families, scholarships for children who have achievements but from disadvantaged families. support from the government is really needed, because an encouragement that arises from the boss is an opportunity that must be considered. especially in the maesan subdistrict, bondowoso regency, with an average low education history, it must be changed immediately from all aspects of its life, which will 41% 23% 20% 14% 2% educational level in maesan elementary school never school not passed on elementary school junior and senior high school bachelor degree 119 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 ultimately have an impact on the mindset of its people. because a country can be said to develop and experience growth that brings prosperity, it must be seen from the welfare of its people. understand and deal with poverty that is indeed interesting to listen to. in economic theory says that for break the chain of the circle of vicious kemiscan it be possible to increase security the human resources, additions investment capital, and develop technology. through various injections then expected productivity will increase. however, in practice the problem is not easy as that. so what can be done right? countermeasures programs poverty has been implemented in many various countries. for comparison, at united states countermeasures program poverty is directed to improve interstate economic cooperation, improve urban settlement conditions and rural, expansion of opportunities upbringing and work for young people, organizing education and training for adults, and assistance to the elderly. addition to government programs, also circles the community is involved in helping the people poor through community organizations, church, and so on. whereas in the country indonesia is actually from the description above too make almost the same effort as done in the united states, maybe the level of comprehensiveness that is still needed. handling poverty in indonesia is still dominated by the economic sector, not yet touching other aspects like social, cultural, legal and political, even religion (prawoto, 2009) poverty also make environment become not health. slums are dirty areas, have no source of clean water, uninhabitable, unhealthy, irregular buildings, very high population density, and unqualified infrastructure facilities. slums are usually located on the outskirts of the city, such as under a bridge. not a few are also on the edge of the river. people who live in areas that belong to slum areas, may be often affected by the disease. the diseases that attack the bodies of the residents who live in the slums due to factors from food, clean water, and hygiene. a pregnant woman who lives in a shabby place most likely his diet is not awake. the cleanliness of his life may also be lacking. that's why the mother who is pregnant does not take care of the baby's health that is being contained. they still do the habits they always do when they are not pregnant. for example by eating unhealthy foods and often around people who are smoking. healthy areas are structured, away from pollution, where there is healthy food, the availability of clean water with sufficient quantities, a clean and comfortable environment, a place worthy of inhabited by humans. healthy areas are usually rarely attacked by disease. people living in healthy areas usually live always keep the cleanliness. there may be some of them who do not maintain cleanliness so that usually their homes look 120 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 dirty and dirty. but the majority of the population always apply cleanliness to their homes and neighborhoods. a pregnant woman who lives in a relatively healthy area of infant mortality rate is very small. compared to pregnant women who live in slums. because usually pregnant women who live in healthy areas always maintain their diet, avoid pollution, and maintain cleanliness. so the chances of mother and baby exposed to the disease is very minimal. the environment is very influential on the people who live nearby. not infrequently, usually the head of the rt or the head of the rw in a region held a consecrated work to clean up the dirt dirt that could become a den of disease. but the hygiene of the houses depends on every homeowner. if the owner of the house is a person who always maintain cleanliness, then the house will look clean, beautiful, comfortable and healthy. but if the owner of the house is a lazy person, and does not like to keep clean, then his home will look dirty, unhealthy, bleak, and uncomfortable. all depends on each individual. 4. conclusion ` based on the results of data analysis and discussion, the following conclusions can be expressed: (1) education has a positive and significant effect on the income of poor families in maesan subdistrict, bondowoso regency, (2) the number of family dependents has a negative and significant effect on the income of poor families in maesan district, bondowoso regency and (3) this type of work has a significant effect on the income of poor families in maesan subdistrict, bondowoso regency. references basri, faisal h. 1998. indonesian economy ages in the xxi century, distortion, opportunities and constraints. jakarta: erlangga. boediono. 1993. microeconomics. yogyakarta: bpfe. ellies s. 1994. the dimension of poverty. jakarta: kumarien press komariyah, ani. 2013. analysis of several factors affecting fishermen's income: case study in tembokrejo village, muncar district, banyuwangi regency. jember: university of jember 121 fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 113-121 prawoto, nano. 2005. "understanding poverty and handling strategy ". journal of economics and development. vol. 6 no. 1. fe umy simanjuntak, p. 1998: introduction to feui's human resource economics. sukirno, sadono. 1992. introduction to macroeconomics. jakarta: lpfi-press. widarjono, a.2013. econometrics theory and application. yogyakarta: econisia. 50 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 (2018), 50-58, december, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi: 10.19184/geosi.v3i3.9300 the effect of vehicles intensity in sumbersari jember regency eva kurniasari , dinda ayu pramesty geography education study program, university of jember e-mail: kurniasarieva2@gmail.com received:1october 2018/accepted: 10 january 2019/published online: 27 january 2019 abstract the main problem is vehicles very much owned by the public of indonesia. one of transportation that is used population usefulness as a tool for mobility to a place that will be addressed, from rural to urban areas or vice versa. community needs more triggers the movement of people from one place to another. highway average average be passed by a motorcycle and a car. geography and transport have a very close relationship. the purpose of this study was to analyze the density of the vehicle in the sumbersari area of kabupaten jember. the method used is a survey using a sample area. the results showed that vehicle density most often occurs in the morning and evening. keywords: mobility, effective today, the volume of vehicles 1. introduction the transportation system is the link between the passengers, goods, infrastructure, and facilities that interact in the context of the movement of people or goods covered by an order, either natural or artificial. it studies the spatial linkages that connect with the space restrictions of origin, destination, extension and nature. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:kurniasarieva2@gmail.com 51 table 1 developments number of vehicles based on type of vehicle based on police records resort jember, 2007 2013 the above table shows the development of the number of vehicles from year to year in jember. the number of vehicles in 2012 decreased quite a lot, but in the next year ie in 2013 the number of vehicles increased again as many as 413 461. the dominant type of vehicle is a motorcycle increased. location of jember as provincial roads cause many vehicles that go into jember, both of banyuwangi, bondowoso, and lumajang. employment is causing increasing urbanization. the rapid urbanization is causing various problems one of which is the problem of transportation. transportation problems evident that traffic jams. communities often do pekerjaanpulang activity went from villages to cities has the vehicle speed and valume vehicles is growing more and more. people are increasingly bervariari model of the work being done for the progress of the industry today. more and more workers the longer the worker meets the road to reach the workplace. over time the movement of people getting lower and lower because urban land is expensive, so the settlement moved to the suburbs. this situation affects the mobility of people farther and farther from the city center. colleges began to appear in the city center are also triggered the number of people who filled the street. the tendency of increasingly fierce competition in the future lead to continuing education such as courses, training, education, part-time degree becomes a necessity for someone who has worked. this trend is causing additional movement to the city center, where the training center is located. type of vehicle 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 motorcycle 31 925 38 345 41 361 419. 275 464 362 302 375 413 461 jeep / jeep 113 163 267 3,522 3,775 2706 1682 sedan / car 243 231 472 6683 7,092 3,432 256 colt station / colt station 683 703 1947 15 973 18 666 12 468 31 947 truck / truck 264 290 393 6651 6959 3,688 5,414 colt pick up / colt pick up 293 399 606 6004 6467 4,361 8489 bus / bus 464 503 156 449 490 351 465 ambulance / ambulance 20 13 2 45 47 53 9 roda 3 / pedicab 0 89 74 504 790 450 714 total 34 005 40 736 45 278 459 106 508 648 329 884 462 437 52 the more the volume of the vehicle causing various problems such as congestion. this congestion can hinder and disrupt community activities. bottlenecks can slow the economy. congestion is also usually caused by inadequate road capacity so that arose congestion. 2. methods this type of research is in the form of a survey. tika (1997) says that "the survey is a method of research that aims to collect large amounts of data in the form of variables, units or individuals at the same time, the data collected through individual or certain physical samples with the aim to generalize about what is being investigated. variables collected can be physically and socially ". the study was conducted at the arterial road jember based letjen di panjaitan sumbersari. not all roads are to be observed, only one-way street leading to the town of jember. 2.1 data collection technique the data collection technique used is the technique obesevasi. observation is an activity undertaken in the form of a field survey or go directly to the place of research with observation and recording of a phenomenon that exists in the field. data collection techniques that are used in addition to observation of documentation. data can also be a photo documentation. studies conducted to complete documentation of data to analyze. 2.2 technique of analysis data analysis techniques used in studying the phenomenon of geography is descriptive analysis techniques. descriptive analysis aims to provide a description of the subject of research based on data from variables derived from a group of subjects studied and is not intended to test the hypothesis. 3. results and discussion jember geographically located at the position 6027'29 "s / d 7014'35" bt and 7059'6 "s / d 8033'56" ls-shaped canyon fertile plains in the south and central parts, surrounded by mountains that extends along the boundary. north and east as well as the indonesian ocean along the south boundary with the nusabarong island is the only island in the district of jember. the strategic location because it is located 53 between surabaya and bali crossroads, so that progress rapidly and become a barometer of economic growth in east java east region. as autonomous region, jember have territorial boundaries, area, economic capacity, potential of the region, socio-political and socio-cultural and human resources. thus the objective conditions that can reveal the characteristics of natural resources, commodities produced, livelihoods, economic and social circumstances and culture the following table is intensity calculation data of vehicles. table 2 intensity of vehicles in the morninng vehicles intensity (06:00 to 7:00 pm) date car pick up bus truck box motorcycle tosa bike gojek line taxi pedicab 1 330 9 2 2 6 1905 2 17 46 20 1 20 2 279 6 2 4 3 2050 3 20 40 34 11 22 3 122 10 1 11 1 1900 1 18 15 7 5 21 4 328 6 2 3 1 1846 2 15 51 11 4 19 5 274 7 3 6 6 1761 1 27 31 12 5 36 6 283 8 1 5 2 1972 1 15 39 8 4 40 7 309 9 1 6 3 2222 2 18 40 9 3 17 7 a.m. to 08:00 pm date car pick up bus truck box motorcycle tosa bike gojek line taxi pedicab 1 455 15 0 1 4 1957 1 15 50 10 2 25 2 367 10 2 1 4 1606 0 20 56 12 5 25 3 169 13 2 1 6 1500 3 23 12 6 5 30 4 374 15 4 1 6 1413 0 15 38 9 7 19 5 280 11 2 2 9 1371 1 17 34 10 4 22 6 304 10 0 1 2 1762 2 10 38 12 3 27 7 315 15 1 4 3 1300 1 15 31 14 7 18 54 the above table shows the number of vehicles heading jember city passing through the area of research. the average number of vehicles has increased the hours of 06:00 to 07:00 pm. the dominant types of vehicles are motorcycles as many as 2222 vehicles, while car as much as 330 vehicles on hours 7:00 to 08:00 pm. in accordance with the discoveries made by firmansyah (2012), which explained thattraffic at the time of greatest current level / peak is at 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 pm. events that often cause traffic congestion in the morning due yatu research location close to sman 1 jember, so that when the day of many students through this area either by private vehicle or public transportation. table 3 volume of vehicles on the day (11:30 to 12:30 wib) source: volume vehicle survey results 2018 according to the table above the volume of vehicles during the day can be known that motor vehicle is dominated by private motorcycle riders with the highest number of 1265 vehicles per hour, on average, within a week the number of motorcyclists around 1083 private vehicles. the next motor vehicle is dominated private cars with the largest number of 380 cars per hour, with an average per week ranges from 284 cars per hour. motor vehicle with a great third position is gojek with the largest number of 37 riders gojek, with an average of around 33 riders per week gojek per hour. next there is a pick-up truck that has a number average week of 20 vehicles per hour. public transport lin has an average week for up to 10 units per hour. boxcar had an average of one week up to 9 units per hour. penggendara rickshaws have an average week for 6 units per hour. pancal bicycle users also have an volume of vehicles (11:30 to 12:30 wib) date car pick up bus truck box motorcycle tosa bike gojek line taxi pedicab 1 285 25 0 2 1 1200 1 3 36 7 1 9 2 136 25 1 4 11 1265 1 9 36 14 1 6 3 315 30 1 3 11 1032 2 9 37 10 1 9 4 330 15 1 4 10 1000 0 5 30 11 1 6 5 380 20 1 3 9 1010 1 7 34 8 2 5 6 321 10 0 3 8 960 2 5 28 7 1 8 7 221 15 2 1 12 1112 1 2 31 14 1 2 55 average week for 6 units per hour. truck drivers have an average week by 3 units per hour. the next taxi driver, tosa motorists and bus riders have an average week by one unit per hour. it is proved in this way has a large volume of vehicles, so it is possible when children come home from school will occur congestion because many passing vehicles. in addition to the congestion that occurs is also caused by people who prefer to use private vehicles than people who use public transportation, so that more and more private vehicles that cause congestion. table 4 volume of vehicles in the afternoon (17:30 to 19:30 wib) volume of vehicles (17:30 to 18:30 wib) date car pick up bus truck box motorcycle tosa bike gojek line taxi pedicab 1 300 10 2 2 5 945 0 3 23 3 1 4 2 278 13 2 4 2 831 3 4 43 4 2 2 3 604 12 0 4 2 1151 0 26 40 3 6 5 4 353 20 0 4 6 1287 0 4 22 2 2 7 5 298 21 0 1 4 1232 1 13 15 5 2 5 6 368 20 1 2 2 1564 4 10 13 3 3 4 7 309 15 1 6 3 1211 2 8 28 1 4 3 18:30 pm-.19.30 date car pick up bus truck box motorcycle tosa bike gojek line taxi pedicab 1 589 20 1 1 6 878 0 2 21 3 3 0 2 604 17 2 1 4 694 0 4 44 3 2 0 3 353 22 0 3 15 1732 0 9 17 1 4 1 4 371 21 0 1 12 1322 0 3 25 3 2 3 5 368 20 2 2 17 1371 4 10 16 2 2 4 6 320 23 2 3 13 1145 0 9 20 4 1 2 7 428 21 1 4 19 1252 2 5 43 6 4 4 source: volume vehicle survey results 2018 based on the observation that we have done, the data can be seen that vehicle in the afternoon increase or decrease as the volume of vehicles in the afternoon at 17:30 till 56 18:30 pm for 7 days. the volume of vehicles has increased, especially on cars and motorcycles. based on the type of vehicle group showed that car traffic volume is higher than other vehicles, because the car has a total vehicle volume reached 2,510 units during that time. based on the type of vehicle group showed that the volume of motorcycles is higher than other vehicles, because motorcycles have a total volume reached 8221 units during that time. it is explained that most residents mostly private vehicles such as cars and motorcycles. at the time of the motorcycle more than in a car to avoid congestion. trip most commonly occurs in the late afternoon where many people do move simultaneously at the same time. will affect the speed and volume of traffic density. the amount of volume on the road segment is used as a measure to determine the level of service. currently the best size to see the level of service at a traffic condition is speed of operation and the ratio between volume and capacity on the two-lane or four-lane (widodo, 2012). public transportation, when waiting for public transportation a long, travel route public transportation is limited, walking distance to halt urban transport which is quite far away, the time between city transportation with one another (headway) long, the quality of the seating poor , the temperature in the city transportation kuran good, less kindly driver and conductor of city transport, less clean urban transport and seating is provided, the age of freight vehicles that are already old, the lack of a fleet of city transport in operation, the lack of availability of shelter and the size of the stop small (frank, 2017). increasing the volume of vehicles that exploded causing serious congestion. this phenomenon causes the inhibition of the economic chain. the volume of vehicles that much is due to the many people who prefer to use private vehicles instead of private vehicles. they prefer prbadi vehicle for efficiency at the same time feel uncomfortable with public transport provided by the government. solid hour traffic occurs in the morning, especially on mondays. vehicles from the direction towards the city of banyuwangi, jember, students who go to school, the workers who were heading to work merge into one, so that the volume of such vehicles can be exploded. the intensity of the vehicle suffered variations. average hours of stem vehicle that morning with the number of motorcycles for approximately 2000 vehicles. this is due to the entire community activity occurs in the morning. not too crowded during the 4. conclusion 57 day is not until 1000 units. vehicles with congestion intensity relationship is very significant, because the intensity of the vehicle caused the delay speed while on the road. relates also to the people who prefer private vehicles so that the vehicle pembludakan occur. relations with the road capacity bottlenecks that if a vehicle is entering exceeds the capacity, it will cause congestion. factors affecting the traffic density for the government to concentrate activities in the town of jember. references alhani et al. 2016 suburban, in, pontianak, case road, and sungai raya. "capacity analysis of road traffic in suburban pontianak (raya river road case in). untan civil engineering journal. bps. jember 2015. in 2014 bps figures firmansyah, deden et al. 2017 analysis of a traffic jam area (case study on the street lenteng agung). civil engineering journal. vi (2). september. national seminar on civil engineering, 2012. ums civil engineering program, university of pancasila jakarta. frans, j. h et al. 2017. transfer to transport public transport mode for personal in kupang. civil engineering journal. vi (2). september hand, d., & ning, u. 2010. analysis of road network optimization based traffic density in the region semarang assisted geographical information systems (case study region semarang regency). xv (2), 121-135. ifran, ifsan et al. performance 2015.analisis roads by using mkji road superintendent check agus palembang : tridinanti university. pelembang. roads, p., rukmini, ra, & jepara, kk 2017. survey current density traffic intersection reviews in civil engineering, 19-24. kamarwan, ss 1997. transportation systems. jakarta: gunadarma. meyer, jp, & allen, nj, 1984. testing the "side-bet theory" of organizational commitment: some methodological considerations. journal of applied psychology, 69 (3), 372-378. sudjana, nana. 1996. statistical methods. bandung: tarsito novalia, cindy. 2016. analysis and solutions traffic congestion in cities roads (case study jalan imam bonjol sisingamangaraja street). jrsdd, iv (4): 153 -162 pabundu tika, moh. 1997. methods of geography. jakarta: pt gramedia. pramoedya, vishnu et al. 2016. village of ubud on the threshold gridlock. journal of tourism destination. iv (2). s1 studies program of the faculty of tourism destinations tourism udayana university. 58 rizani, ahmad, 2015. evaluation of performance barriers due road side (case study road soetoyo s banjarmasin). banjarmasin: polytechnic banjarmasin. rodrigue, jean paul. 2013. the geography of transport systems. usa and canada by routledge 711 third avenue, new york, ny susanto, irwan et al. 2015. "geospatial (study area: central bandung)." 5: 31-44. widodo, revelation et al. 2012. analysis of volume, speed, and density traffic method greenshields and greenberg. scientific journal semesta teknika. xv (2). 178184, november. wini, mustikarani. 2016. traffic along the way h rais a rahman (sui jawi) city pontianak. : 143-55. 59 application of geospatial techniques in the locational planning of health care centers in minna, nigeria oluwaseun olubadewo-joshua1 and kenneth michael ugom1 1department of geography, ibrahim badamasi babangida university, lapai, nigeria email : oluwaseuno@ibbu.edu.ng received:16 october 2018/revised 21 december 2018/accepted: 14 january 2019/ published online: 27 january 2019 abstract access to health care is an important component of an overall health system and a major indicator of growth. health care planning and geographic information system (gis) are two relevant fields that depend upon spatial data. gis plays an essential role in helping public health organizations to understand population health and make decisions with the powerful tools and situation that gis technology provides. the purpose of the study to investigated the spatial distribution of health care centers in minna, nigeria with a view to use geographic information system (gis) technique in health care management and planning. the method is a qualitative research that is used in making decisions in order to have a strong understanding of government policies and programs. beyond the many uses of a gis in health applications, the greatest power of a gis lies in its ability to integrate information from disparate sources. traffic disturbances and poor road network were observed to be the major factors militating against effective health care facilities location in the study area. keywords: geographic information systems, healthcare, planning, remote sensing, research 1. introduction health institutions are a measure of a nation's health advance (gatrell and elliott 2009). every country has different capabilities in fulfilling the health access of its citizens. one of them is influenced by geographical conditions which then affect the infrastructure budget in each region is very different. flat areas will be easy and inexpensive in the construction of health facilities, while mountainous areas require more funds. health care is a government effort to create a society that is physically and mentally healthy. health services are not only related to medical health but also spiritually. this is due to the importance of the balance between the two geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 (2018), 59-72, december, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi: 10.19184/geosi.v3i3.8754 60 elements. so it requires facilities that are also balanced between the two elements. in addition to infrastructure, health services also include the availability of human resources in the health sector which includes doctors, nurses, midwives, medical records, and other health resources. the existence of human resources in the health sector is also often uneven because of the geographical conditions of a region that has mountainous topography or is far from a big city. especially if the country's natural resources have low potential, so they cannot contribute to the country's income. health access is generally aimed at people with weak economies. this is because the health costs are not comparable to the income of the weak economic community. geographical aspects often cause people to have minimal income. this can be caused by the minimal potential of natural resources or government policies that are too profitable for investors. so that investment activities do not have an impact on the community economy and regional development. developed countries have access to better health than developing countries. this is due to developed countries first managing their human resources. quality human resources will overcome geographical constraints, so that development runs efficiently (law and morris, 1998; w.h.o, 1998). however, if human resource development is ignored, geographic determinants will occur. ogundare (1982) states that healthy food is a determinant of the quality of public health. but getting food requires high income, so not all regions can fulfill it. developing countries have a higher vulnerability to the possibility of people being affected. so that health is not only related to infrastructure but also related to accessibility. barton and isourou (2000) emphasize the importance of sustainable development in the health sector. this is because health is not only for the benefit of the current generation, but also to meet the interests of the next generation. in addition, sustainable development also means that environmental aspects must be considered. geographical information systems (gis) are tools to help analyze needs related to territorial aspects (burrough, 2001). the existence of gis is very efficient because it makes it easier for people to use the application. gis can also help map health facilities ideally by taking into account the factors that benefit the community (wilkinson et al. 2006; albert et al., 2000; cromley and mclafferty, 2012). therefore, the ability of gis in terms of health services will consider aspects of the population and affordability (abubakar et al. 2008). regions that have a high population, will be prioritized 61 to get a closer distance to health facilities. in addition, accessibility of a region to health facilities will be built based on morphological aspects so that the funds needed are not too high. 2. method 2.1 study area minna is situated in northern nigeria between latitude 9038`50``n to 90 40`30.51``n and longitude 6032`26``e to 6037`2.51``e, (figure 1). it has an average elevation of 272 m above sea level. figure 1: map of niger state showing minna source: ministry of lands and housing (2012) 2.1 data source primary data in this study covers all the coordinates of health facilities. secondary data in this study is the use of literature both from journals and other data. digitalization is process is the conversion of analog data into digital data, so that it can be analyzed using gis software. if this process does not work, the content contained in the application cannot be enabled.the georeferencing process is very important to meet the precision aspects of a gis analysis. without proper georeference, it can be ensured that all aspects of analysis will be wrong and cannot be 62 used for the benefit of the community. in georeference there are 4 points that must be obtained through registration on the application screen. these 4 points will represent the entire area analyzed. proximity analysis is an analysis that refers to the radius of a point against another point on the surface of the earth. in gis, this analysis will be accommodated by buffer analysis. furthermore, this analysis will give rise to the average distance of a region to the health center. the next analysis is query analysis which emphasizes the fastest search for points related to health facilities. 3. results and discussion the results of the study can be seen in the following figure. figure 2: map of minna, showing the spatial distribution of health facilities 63 figure 3: proximity analysis from spatial query if the index (average nearest neighbor ratio) is less than 1, the pattern exhibits clustering. if the index is greater than 1, the trend is toward dispersion. results of the average nearest neighbor analysis showed an average nearest neighbor ratio of 1.120895. 64 figure 4: average nearest neighbor analysis from arcgis 65 figure 5: average nearest neighbor analysis from euclidean distance results from nearest neighbor analysis using euclidean distance : observed mean distance: 635.585601 expected mean distance: 567.034089 nearest neighbor ratio: 1.120895 z-score: 1.034317 p-value: 0.300988 distance measured in meters 66 the results of the above research are in accordance with the results of the study (dermatis et al, 2016, mclafferty, 2003 and the world health report, 2008) which state that distance will correlate strongly with transportation and accommodation costs. population factors are the most important in determining the location of health facilities, the findings are supported by the results of the study (chang, 2008) which states that a high population will potentially cause many disaster victims if a place is assumed to be a disaster-prone area. political factors and accessibility are ranked 2 in relation to location determination. this is in accordance with the results of the study (abbas et. al. 2012), which states that political factors are controlling in a region's development system. the results of the study indicate that the location points must also consider poverty. regions with high poverty get priority to be close to health facilities. this is supported by research (usman et. al. 2013), which states that the poor are more susceptible to disease due to low income and unhealthy lifestyle. differences in conditions between villages and cities often affect the construction of health facilities, this is because rural areas lack selling value compared to urban areas. this is in accordance with the results of the lekan study (2010), which states that village and city disparities will influence government policies related to the construction of health facilities. morphology is a very important aspect in calculating the cost of building health facilities. this is in accordance with the results of the study (agaja, 2012) which states that the cost of building health facilities will be very different between the flat and mountainous regions. 4. conclusion healthcare planning is a challenging field that depends on spatial data such as location and characteristics of health center demand. today, health’s planners have several tasks to cover to assure that health service is provided at the best location by using gis. while gis have been used to great success in the health industry, their full potential has not yet been reached. beyond the many uses of a gis in health applications, the greatest power of a gis lies in its ability to integrate information from disparate sources. the ability to visually assess the locations of objects on the earth’s surface, rather than trying to interpret numbers on spreadsheets, is a key element leading to the use of a gis. by integrating gis into decision making, government stands the chance of making their health care facilities more functional and accessible to the populace. 67 references abbas, i.i, auta, s.z and na’iya, r.m (2012) health care facilities mapping and database creation using gis in chikun local government, kaduna state, nigeria. global journal of human social sciences (b) vol. xii, issue x, version 1, pp 10-18 abegunde, a. a. and adedigba, a.m. (2011). teaching hospitals in african nations: infrastructure for 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(2002), cultivating communities of practice: a guide for managing knowledge. boston: harvard business school press wilkinson, r and marmot, m (2006), social determinants of health, international journal of epidemiology, 35(4)1111-1112. world health organization (1998), the world health report 1998-life in the 21st century: a vision for all world health organization (2000), the world health report 2000-health systems: improving performance world health organization (2004), the world health report 2004-gis and public health mapping world health organization (2008), the world health report 2008-primary health care now more than ever beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 56 the effectiveness of problem based learning and discovery learning model toward learning outcome in geography on students with external locus of control beti munawaroh1 and muhsinatun siasah masruri2 1,2geography education, postgraduate program, yogyakarta state university jalan colombo, no.1, catur tunggal, depok, sleman, yogyakarta email : 1beti.munawaroh93@gmail.com, 2muhsinatun_siasah@uny.ac.id received 15 december 2018/ revised 7 february 2019/ accepted 12 february 2019/ published online 29 april 2019 abstract based on the development in education, indonesia has implemented a new curriculum called k13, in this curriculum, implementing the scientific approach is mandatory. unsuitable learning model results in minimum students’ learning outcome in geography. in addition, locus of control also affects the students' learning outcome since students with internal loc are alway better than students with external loc. to cope with this issue, a suitable learning model is necessary: pbl and dl model. a suitable model is expected to be able to improve students' learning outcome — the present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of pbl and dl towards students with external locus of control. the present study was categorized as experimental research with control group experiment. the sample of the study was sixty-two students of sma negeri 1 sekadau hulu class x of ips. they were selected using purposive sampling. t-test was used to analyze the data obtained from the questionnaire and test. the result of the study showed that the significance value was .043 < 0.05. it means that there is effectiveness different between pbl and dl on students with external locus of control in terms of their learning outcome in geography. keywords: problem based learning, discovery learning, external locus of control. 1. introduction education holds an essential role in human life. by a high-quality education, a nation may move forward. by a high-quality education, a nation shall obtain an excellent quality of human resources. according to ambarjaya (2012: 5-6), an education is carried out in three ways namely informal education, non-formal education, and formal education. informal education is an educational process runs throughout life, where every individual obtains their values, attitudes, skills, and pieces of knowledge from their life experiences. non-formal geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 4 no. 1 (2019), 56-62 , april, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.9240 beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 57 education is any organized and systematic activity outside a school system. while, formal education is any systematic and gradual activities, starts from elementary education until higher education level. one of the scientific material learned in school is geography. geography as a learning subject is taught in accordance with the students' mental development at each educational level (sumaatmadja 1988: 20). based on the development in the world of education, indonesia has implemented new curriculum namely curriculum 2013, in which applying scientific approach is the requirement. however, based on the observation, schools in indonesia, in carrying out the learning process, were still teacher-centered. the teacher explained the material based on the books or student’s worksheet, while the students listened to and wrote down the teacher’s explanation. this is the reason why the students’ learning outcome for geography subject was low. in other words, a learning model may affect the students’ learning outcome in geography. problem-based learning and discovery learning are two of many models of the scientific approach that are based on a problem. problem based learning is a learning model involving students to solve problems in accordance with the surrounding environmental condition. thereare five phase in implementing problem based learning, namely: problem serving, organizing students, group investigation, result development and display, and investigation result evaluation (arends, 2008: 71). while, discovery learning model is a learning that allows students perform exploration, there are six phases in implementing this model namely: stimulation, problem statement, data collection, data processing, verification dan generalization (syah, 2004: 244).through this learning model, the students are required to be active for the teacher's role is only as an advisor. the students obtain their knowledge independently. it is in line with david hammer (1997) who states "in principle, students formulate their own questions and design, conduct, and present their own experiments." in addition to the learning model, external locus of control also affects the students' learning outcome. robbin and judge (2009: 138) note that learning outcome may be affected by many factors, one of them is locus of control. it is an individual’s believe in perceiving the factors lie behind their successes or failures they experience. most of the previous studies found that students with internal locus of control have better performance than those with external locus of control in terms of learning outcome. a study conducted by yuliana septiani (2016:118-126) found that the learning outcome in the mathematics of group of students with internal locus of control is better than those of the students with external locus beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 58 of control. it possibly happens since students with external locus of control is a type of person is lack of effort, they perceive that their successes are determined by fate, easy going, relaxed, and lead a pleasant life (hans, 2000; hattie, marsh, neill & richards, 1997). kreitner, r. & kinicki, a. (2001:135) state that external locus of control tends to attribute key outcomes in their lives to environmental causes, such as lick or fate. it is in line with winner (woolfolk, 1990:319 who states that external locus of control is closely related to belief, confidence, pride, guilt, and pudency. in a study conducted by sihkabuden (1999:6869), it is found that there is a positive and significant correlation between achievement motivation and locus of control. high motivation and achievement make students more active and complete their task better, high-motivated students will also obtain high learning outcome. based on the issues described above, the researcher intends to carry out an experiment on the effectiveness of problem-based learning and discovery learning on the learning outcome in geography for students with external locus of control. 2. the methods the present study was categorized as an experimental study with control group experimental design. in this design, the subject is placed randomly into groups and are exposed as independent variable by given a post-test, the post-test score was then used to compare the effectiveness.the population of the study was all students of sma negeri sekadau hulu. the sample of the study was sixty-two students of class x of ips who were selected through purposive sampling technique. the experimental group of the study was determined based on the lowest mean score of the final exam from two classes. in order to determine the group of students with external locus of control, this study employed a questionnaire of 15 questions and two alternative answers. while, in measuring the effectiveness of problem-based learning and discovery learning model, pre-test and post-test were conducted. 3. result and discussion before given any treatment, the students were asked to fill a questionnaire of locus of control. the questionnaire provided two answers (‘yes' with score 1 and ‘no' with score 0). it aimed at finding out the students who are included in external locus of control. after that, the beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 59 students worked on a pre-test. then, problem-based learning and discovery learning model were implemented, then, the post-test was conducted. the maximum and minimum score of pre-test and post-test of the students with external locus of control are shown in the table below: table 1 the mean score of problem based learning model and discovery learning model of the students with external locus of control. description problem based learning model discovery learning pre-test post-test pre-test post-test mean 55.51 72.40 43.66 84.12 median 57 70 40 84.5 mode 67 70 40 80 minimum score 20 50 20 50 maximum score 73 93 73 97 n-gain 0.37 0.72 source: data 2018 figure 2. graphic of mean score of the students with external locus of control the table above exhibits the result of pre-test and post-test on problem-based learning and discovery learning model. the average of students' pre-test result before treated by problem-based learning model was higher than the students' pre-test result before treated by discovery learning model. after treatment, the score of students who were treated using discovery learning was higher (84.12) than those treated using problem-based learning (72.4). it could be concluded that students with external locus of control are more effective when learning using discovery learning model than learning using the problem-based learning model. it is supported by the score n-gain on students treated by problem-based learning was 0.37, and its effectiveness was categorized as intermediate. while, the n-gain score of students treated using discovery learning was 0.72, its effectiveness for students with external locus of control was categorized as high. in other words, students with external locus of average score of pre test dan post test external locus of control problem based learning beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 59 students worked on a pre-test. then, problem-based learning and discovery learning model were implemented, then, the post-test was conducted. the maximum and minimum score of pre-test and post-test of the students with external locus of control are shown in the table below: table 1 the mean score of problem based learning model and discovery learning model of the students with external locus of control. description problem based learning model discovery learning pre-test post-test pre-test post-test mean 55.51 72.40 43.66 84.12 median 57 70 40 84.5 mode 67 70 40 80 minimum score 20 50 20 50 maximum score 73 93 73 97 n-gain 0.37 0.72 source: data 2018 figure 2. graphic of mean score of the students with external locus of control the table above exhibits the result of pre-test and post-test on problem-based learning and discovery learning model. the average of students' pre-test result before treated by problem-based learning model was higher than the students' pre-test result before treated by discovery learning model. after treatment, the score of students who were treated using discovery learning was higher (84.12) than those treated using problem-based learning (72.4). it could be concluded that students with external locus of control are more effective when learning using discovery learning model than learning using the problem-based learning model. it is supported by the score n-gain on students treated by problem-based learning was 0.37, and its effectiveness was categorized as intermediate. while, the n-gain score of students treated using discovery learning was 0.72, its effectiveness for students with external locus of control was categorized as high. in other words, students with external locus of pre tes pos tes 55,51 72,4 43,66 84,12 average score of pre test dan post test external locus of control problem based learning discovery learning beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 59 students worked on a pre-test. then, problem-based learning and discovery learning model were implemented, then, the post-test was conducted. the maximum and minimum score of pre-test and post-test of the students with external locus of control are shown in the table below: table 1 the mean score of problem based learning model and discovery learning model of the students with external locus of control. description problem based learning model discovery learning pre-test post-test pre-test post-test mean 55.51 72.40 43.66 84.12 median 57 70 40 84.5 mode 67 70 40 80 minimum score 20 50 20 50 maximum score 73 93 73 97 n-gain 0.37 0.72 source: data 2018 figure 2. graphic of mean score of the students with external locus of control the table above exhibits the result of pre-test and post-test on problem-based learning and discovery learning model. the average of students' pre-test result before treated by problem-based learning model was higher than the students' pre-test result before treated by discovery learning model. after treatment, the score of students who were treated using discovery learning was higher (84.12) than those treated using problem-based learning (72.4). it could be concluded that students with external locus of control are more effective when learning using discovery learning model than learning using the problem-based learning model. it is supported by the score n-gain on students treated by problem-based learning was 0.37, and its effectiveness was categorized as intermediate. while, the n-gain score of students treated using discovery learning was 0.72, its effectiveness for students with external locus of control was categorized as high. in other words, students with external locus of beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 60 control suit better with discovery learning in improving students’ learning outcome in geography.elin (2016) also states that discovery learning mode is able to improve the students’ learning outcome and make students become more active and creative. this statement is consistent with the result of study conducted by fajar (2018) who states that there is an effectiveness difference between the use of discovery learning model and discovery learning model on the learning result. the calculation result of students with external locus of control and problem-based learning and discovery learning are as follow: table 3. the t-test analysis result of students with external locus of control. learning model external locus of control frequency sig pre-test post-test problem based learning 52.93 74.14 27 0.043 discovery learning 42.91 85.17 35 source: data 2018 the table above describes the group of students with external locus of control toward the learning model. the group of external locus of control consisted of 62 subjects, 27 of them were treated using pbl, and the 35 of them were treated using dl. the significance value of the learning model on students with external locus of control was .040 < 0.05. ha is accepted, and there is an effectiveness difference between problem-based learning and discovery learning on students with external locus of control in terms of their learning outcome in geography. the present study aimed at examining the effectiveness of problem-based learning and discovery learning model in improving the learning outcome in geography of the students with external locus of control. an external is an individual whose orientation is directed to external factors such as being sociable. it can be concluded that an individual with external locus of control is an individual who is easy to interact and to socialize with his/her surroundings, and are also more active in various events, as well as possessing mode disclosure trait to people around him/her.it can be concluded that students with external locus of control suits better with discovery learning model. it is proven by the n-gain score that indicates that this model is categorized as highly effective compared to a problem-based learning model. the result above supports the study conducted by karwono (2007) which finds that experimental study on students to organize microlearning is effective for the group of students with external locus of control. dhanisusanti (2018) states that discovery learning beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 61 model is more effective than the problem-based learning model in terms of students' critical thinking and activeness. ratna (2016) finds that there is an interaction between learning model and locus of control in affecting learning outcome in geography. it is found that the cognitive aspect p = 0,002, affective aspect p = 0,000, and psychomotor aspect p = 0,001 on α = 0,05/2 (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspect p value < α = 0,05/2). mahmoud, a. k. k. (2004) states that discovery learning manages in teaching language in developing skills. the model assist in employing learning activity where they learn the situation independently. 4. conclusion student with external locus of control is more effective when learning using discovery learning model than learning using the problem-based learning model. n-gain of students who learn using discovery learning model was 0.72. its effectiveness for students with external locus of control was categorized as high. the significance value between learning model on students with external locus of control was .043 < 0.05. it means ha is accepted and there is an effectiveness difference between problem-based learning and discovery learning on students with external locus of control in terms of their learning outcome in geography. references ambarjaya, beni s. (2012). psikologi pendidikan &pengajaran (teori&praktik). yogyakarta: caps hammer. david (1997). discovery learning and discovery teaching. journal. published by: taylor & francis, ltd. source: cognition and instruction, vol. 15, no. 4 (1997), pp. 485-529 hattie, j. a., marsh, h. w., neill, j. t. & richards, g. e. (1997) adventure education and outward bound: outofclass experiences that have a lasting effect. review of educational research, 67, 43-87. karwono (2007). pengaruh pemberian umpan balik dan locus of control terhadap kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mengelola pembelajaran mikro (studi eksperimen pada mahasiswa fkip universitas muhammadiyah lampung) kreitner, r., dan kinicki, a. (2001) organizational behavior. fifth edition. irwin mcgrawhill robbins, stephen p & timothy a. jugdge. (2009). organizational behavior. 13 three edition, usa: pearson international edition, prentice-hall beti munawaroh and muhsinatun siasah masruri/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 56-62 62 septiani, yulia. (2016) pengaruhlocus of control terhadap prestasi belajar matematika. jurnal.jkpm, vol.02, no.01, 01 des 2016, hlm. 118-128 sihkabuden. (1999). hubungan antara gaya kognitif, motivasi berprestasi, dan lokus kendali dengan perolehan belajar siswa smu. ilmu pendidikan-jurnal filsafat, teori, dan praktik kependidikan, 26(2): 154-161. susanti, dhani. (2018) perbedaanpengaruh discovery learning dan problem based learning terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis, keterampilan pemecahan masalah dan keaktifan siswa dalam pembelajaran tematik integratif kelas iv sd segugus winduaji kabupaten brebes. thesis.tidak diterbitkan. universitas negeri yogyakarta , yogyakarta. syatriadin. (2017) locus of control: teoritemuanpenelitian dan reorientasinya dalam manajemen penanganan kesulitan belajar pesert adidik. journal pendidikan dasar. issn2579-6194; 144-164 . pangestika, ratna pramudita (2016). model inquiry, model discovery, locus of control, hasil belajar geografi. thesis. tidak diterbitkan. universitas negeri yogyakarta , yogyakarta. woolfolk, anita, e. (1990). educational psychology-fourth edition. new jersey: prentice hall. 103 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 103-112 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8047 the land use priority ranking with the approach of analytic hierarchy process (ahp) on the boundary of entikong robby irsan1*, luthfi muta’ali2, sudrajat3 1 doctoral program of environmental science, gadjah mada university, indonesia 2, 3 faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia *)corresponding author (e-mail: beetreecyber110683@gmail.com) received: 21 july 2018/revised: 7 august 2018/accepted: 16 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract entikong is a sub-districts located in the borderline, northern end of sanggau regency directly adjacent to sarawak, malaysia. the growth of entikong as a center of growth does not provide a downward trickle effect, but it creates an excessive resources exploitation effect to the surrounding area (backwash effect). the land use within an area should be adjusted to its function. for that reason, this research will determine the priority and rank of land use by using the analytic hierarchy process (ahp). the ranking is based on four aspects of criteria; social, economic, institutional, and environmental. the hierarchy model is sorted into alternatives, criteria, and sub-criteria. the criteria and subcriteriaare compared, as well as the value of consistency. after data processing and analyzing with expert choice software version 11, the researcher found that the main priority of land use in entikong is for plantation, which is 29,7%. keywords: ahp, land use, expert choice 1. introduction entikong is one of the areas located in the borderline, northern end of sanggau regency, directly adjacent to sarawak, malaysia. entikongsubdistrict has an area of 506, 89 km2, consisting of 5 villages and 28 hamlets, with a population of ± 13,514 inhabitants (in 2012). most of the residents of entikong are farmers. the average population growth rate in entikong is 9.51% per year. there is a heterogeneous ethnic assimilation of the community: dayak, malay, javanese, chinese, banjar, and bugis. the growth of entikong sub-district as a center of advancement does not provide a downward trickle effect, but it creates the depletion of resource effect of the surrounding area (backwash effect). this will cause the border areas to grow rapidly, while rural areas experience excessive resource depletion. ernan rustiadi and sunsus saefulhakim (2011) state that the occurrence of backwash effects can be caused by: (1). the opening of access to rural areas often encourages urban elites, government officials and large corporations to exploit the village's resources, while villagers themselves are powerless because of their political and https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:beetreecyber110683@gmail.com 104 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 economic power. in this case, resource exploitation actors have a much stronger bargaining position. 2). the rural areas are generally inhabited by the less developed and less institutionalized human resources, which results in the difficulty of accepting modern ideas in rural communities (3). inter-regional relationships have mutually weakened one another, where rural areas (hinterlands) are become the target of excessive resource depletion, while the growth is also slowing due to the tremendous urbanization process. there are six factors that influence the process of land use change; (1) the physical characteristics of the land which is related to the physical condition of the land, such as land topography, fertility, irrigation, and so forth; (2) regulations concerning land use that is related to the designation of the land in accordance with existing regulations; (3) the personal characteristics of the landowner that is related to the socio-economic condition of the landowner; (4) the number of available public utilities. the complete public facilities will further encourage land use change; (5) the degree of accessibility of the land, which is related to affordability or accessibility in and from other places, and (6) the initiative of the builders, related to the chosen area used as the location of the construction of a large housing cluster (ipcc, 2000). changes in land use will continue to occur as population increases. fandelli (2014) states that the continued increase of population, especially in developing countries, can cause some environmental problems such as: the urbanization process will cause air pollution, water, and soil problems; population pressures on the land will be higher, so that the land will intensively result in erosion and sedimentation, while in some places there will be floods and landslides; population pressures on forest areas can lead to declining biodiversity in forest ecosystems. land use management must be planned to have ecological, economic and social benefits to assure the sustainability of natural resources potential (adimihardja, 2006). land use planning should be adjusted to the spatial plan of a region. the intention is to avoid misapplication purpose of the development of a region. with good planning, the land use for agriculture, plantation, housing, and others can be maximized. the allocated land must be adapted to environmental conditions and consistent with the objectives of the regional development. the natural, social, economic and cultural aspects of geography have been a major concern since they may form the spatial variation. in the spatialanalysis, the natural and human elements reside and interact dynamically to provide various visions. the appearance is a reflection of decision making in the utilization of the land and the outcome of the 105 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 distribution of human activity in the past, present, and future. meanwhile, the repetition of an object's appearance at a location is often referred to as spatial distribution. distribution of objects or appearances that have similar characters in different locations is often called spatial patterns. in this dimension, the elements of distance, direction, and location are related (giyarsih, 2010). the proliferation of land used for plantations and housing in border areas makes the forest area limited. based on the result of overlay analysis of land use map of entikong subdistrict in 2011 to 2017, the area of primary forest within the period of 6 years decreased by 7.018 ha, while the plantation and settlement area increased by 3,637 ha. this indicates that every year forest land decreases with the proliferation of plantations and settlements. this continues until recent days, although it is clear that it violates the function of forest resources as a counterweight to the environment. ahp is a decision support model developed by thomas l. saaty. this support model describes the problem of multi-factor or complex multi-criteria into a hierarchy. according to (saaty, 2008), the hierarchy is defined as a representation of a complex problem in a multilevel structure where the first level is the goal, followed by the factor level, criteria, subcriteria, and so on down to the last level of the alternative. hierarchical or decision-making structures are undertaken to illustrate the identified system elements or decision alternatives. planning and utilization of appropriate allocation can optimize land use (hidayat, rustiadi, & kartodihardjo, 2015). land use model will be optimal with functioning various criteria that can influence the land use (prawira & ariastita, 2014). this study aims to obtain a priority ranking of land use from the aspects, criteria, sub-criteria, and alternative options for sustainable land use using ahp (analytic hierarchy process) method based on the expert or key person views. the emphasis on my research is arranging an effective and operational land-spatial roadmap, as well as the decision of the priority sector with environmentally sound land use. this research will be different from previous research and from elsewhere, thus bring a novelty of this study. 2. the methods basically, ahp is a general theory of measurement used to find the ratio scale of comparison. the ahp method is a framework for effective decisions making by simplifying and speeding up the decision-making process by solving a problem into parts. followed by arranging the part or variable in a hierarchy arrangement, giving numerical value on subjective considerations about the importance of each variable so the dominant variable is 106 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 consistent with the objectives of the study. after that sets which variable has the highest priority and acts to influence the outcome in that situation (saaty, 2008). the ahp method helps to solve complex problems by structuring a hierarchy of criteria and interested parties, by drawing considerations for developing weights or priorities. this method also combines the power of feelings and logic concerned with various issues. in addition, ahp also has special attention to deviations from consistency, measurement and dependence within and outside its structural elements. consistency ratio (cr) is the limit of inconsistency set by saaty. consistency ratio is formulated as a comparison of consistency index (ri) (saaty, 2008). key informants are used to gaining information from stakeholders in order to compose the scenario of land use priority decision, which consists of 11 people. the number of samples supports in the decision system is 8-15 people (bourgeois, penunia, bisht, & boruk, 2017). the key informational distribution includes local government, parliament, community leaders, and academics. table 1. stakeholders sampling distribution unit (key informants) no samples amount information 1 local government 4 (1) bappeda, (2) bpn, (3) entikong border entity management agency/up3lb, (4) entikong sub-district office 2 dprd 1 commission ii for economic affairs and development 3 public figure 5 village head in entikong sub-district 4 academics 1 land and environmental resources expert total 11 people the formulation of a decision-making model is implemented through the involvement of competent stakeholders in the field of border, land, environmental, and socio-economic management. preparation of decision directives considers 6 (six) alternative decisions with priority development of agriculture, plantation, industry, mining, conservation, and tourism. table 2. land use arrangement of main priority area no variable criteria priority 1 social 1. poverty 2. people's welfare 3. quality of education and health 4. social conflict 1. industry 2. plantation 3. agriculture 4. mining 5. tourism 6. conservation 2 economy 1. employment opportunities 2. revenue 3. regional growth 4. the pattern of production and consumption 3 institutional 1. connectivity within and between countries 2. local institutions 3. interregional trade regulations 4. border management 4 environment 1. environmental conservation 2. environmental supporting capacity 3. environmental degradation 4. sanitation management source :(ishartono & raharjo, 2015) sustainable development goals (sdgs) 107 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 the next step is to create the hierarchical structure of the decision model in table 2. then do a pairwise comparison between each criterion and alternative, so the value of importance of each criterion and alternative in the form of the qualitative opinion is obtained. to quantify the qualitative opinion, the assessment scale is used to obtain an opinion value in the form of numbers (quantitative). the numerical values used for all comparisons are obtained on a scale of 1 to 3 as defined by (saaty, 2008) with modifications, as showed in table 3 below. table 3. fundamental comparison scale level of interest definition elucidation 1 one element is slightly more important than the other experience and judgment strongly support an element compared to other elements 2 one element is more important than the other experience and judgment strongly support an element compared to other elements 3 one element is absolutely more important than the other evidence that supports one element against another has the highest degree of affirmation that might be corroborating source :(saaty, 2008) figure 1. ahp hierarchy model of sustainable land use 108 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 3. results and discussion based on the decision aspect of land users, the value of consistency (0.07) is less than 10%. this indicates that the value of the preferences can be used as a basis for conducting land use decision making in entikong. the result of data processing by using expert choice software shows the priority value for criteria as shown in table 4 and the result of calculating the priority value as shown in figure 2. table 4. priority values for criteria no criteria priority score inconsistency 1 social 0,220 0,07 2 economy 0,523 3 institutional 0,103 4 environment 0,153 source: analysis results based on decision aspects of land users that covers social, economic, institutional and environmental criteria, the economic criteria has the highest value compared to other criteria. the result is shown by the score obtained on the economic criteria 0.523, the next social criteria with a score of 0.220, followed by environmental criteria 0.153, and the last institutional criteria 0.103. the table above also shows an inconsistency value of 0.07, the inconsistency value is less than 10% alpha (0.07 <0.10), which means that the economic criteria are the dominant criteria in the land user decision aspects, which have been consistent. 109 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 figure 2. calculation of eigenvalues results (priority) as a whole, the calculations shown in figure 2 can be found in table 5, and table 6 below. table 5. priority values for sub criteria no criteria sub criteria score inconsistency 1 social poverty 0,468 0,008 people's welfare 0,279 quality of education and health 0,123 social conflict 0,130 2 economy employment opportunities 0,447 0,09 revenue 0,289 regional growth 0,131 the pattern of production and consumption 0,132 3 institutional connectivity within and between countries 0,120 0,09 local institutions 0,499 interregional trade regulations 0,158 border management 0,223 4 environment environmental conservation 0,125 0,07 environmental supporting capacity 0,178 environmental degradation 0,384 sanitation management 0,313 source: analysis results based on social criteria, poverty has the highest score compared to other sub-criteria. the inconsistency value shown in the social criterion is 0.008, the value is less than 10% alpha (0.008 < 0.10), means that the sub-dominant of the social sub-criteria, which is erasing poverty rates have been consistent. 110 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 based on the economic criteria, employment opportunity has the highest value compared to other sub-criteria. the inconsistency valueshown in the economic criteria is 0.09, the value is less than 10% alpha (0.09 <0.10), means that the sub-dominant of the economic sub-criteria, which increases the employment opportunities, have been consistent. based on environmental criteria, environmental degradation have the highest value compared to other sub-criteria. the inconsistency valueshown in the environmental criteria is 0.07, the value is less than 10% alpha (0.07 <0.10), which means that the sub-dominant of the environmental sub-criteria, which is the environmental degradation, has been consistent based on institutional criteria, local institution has the highest value compared to other sub-criteria. the inconsistency value shown in the institutional criteria is 0.09, the value is less than 10% alpha (0.09 <0.10), which means that the sub-dominant of the institutional sub-criteria, which is the improvement of the local institutional role has been consistent. table 6. land use priority score no sub criteria industry plantaction agriculture mining tourism conservation 1 poverty 0.118 0.369 0.241 0.098 0.092 0.083 2 people’s welfare 0.157 0.281 0.236 0.140 0.112 0.074 3 quality of education and health 0.147 0.279 0.229 0.102 0.114 0.129 4 social conflict 0.098 0.301 0.225 0.136 0.104 0.136 5 employment opportunities 0.178 0.288 0.148 0.114 0.197 0.075 6 revenue 0.192 0.370 0.179 0.127 0.071 0.062 7 regional growth 0.114 0.342 0.283 0.110 0.082 0.069 8 pattern of production and consumption 0.099 0.290 0.285 0.109 0.102 0.115 9 connectivity within and between countries 0.150 0.320 0.232 0.161 0.069 0.069 10 local institutions 0.094 0.267 0.170 0.087 0.128 0.254 11 interregional trade regulations 0.142 0.298 0.179 0.137 0.114 0.129 12 border management 0.261 0.314 0.128 0.136 0.080 0.081 13 environmental conservation 0.090 0.226 0.218 0.110 0.190 0.160 14 environmental supporting capacity 0.098 0.246 0.193 0.167 0.149 0.147 15 environmental degradation 0.131 0.260 0.106 0.220 0.106 0.177 16 sanitation management 0.270 0.300 0.091 0.128 0.122 0.088 average 0.146 0.297 0.196 0.130 0.115 0.116 source: analysis result 111 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 among priority land use, which includes industry, plantation, agriculture, mining, tourism, and conservation. the priority decision on the plantation is the dominant priority, indicated by the highest average grade score of priority compared with others. the average plantation priority score is 0.297, followed by the agricultural priority with 0.196, the industry priority with 0.146, the mining priority with 0.130, the conservation priority with 0.116, and the tourism priority with 0.115. therefore it can be concluded that the most dominant priority in land use is a plantation. 4. conclusion from the calculation analysis the obtained results are: a. economic criteria are the most dominant criteria in land use decision making in entikong. b. the sub-dominant of the social sub-criteria, which is to eradicate poverty is an absolute thing to do. c. the sub-dominant of the economic sub-criteria is to increase job opportunity. d. the sub-dominant of the environmental sub-criteria is to erase environmental degradation. e. the sub-dominant of the institutional sub-criteria is to increase the role of local institutions. f. among the priority decisions regarding land use which include industry, plantation, agriculture, mining, tourism, and conservation, decisions on plantation priority are the dominant priority acknowledgments i am thanking mr. luthfi muta'ali, and dr. sudrajat for providing willingness and time in research consultation, as well as prayer and support from his beloved wife yulfitri and beloved son ahsin rifa in completing this research. references adimihardja, a. (2006). strategi mempertahankan multifungsi pertanian di indonesia. jurnal litbang pertanian. bourgeois, r., penunia, e., bisht, s., & boruk, d. (2017). foresight for all: co-elaborative scenario building and empowerment. technological forecasting and social change. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2017.04.018 ernan rustiadi, sunsus saefulhakim, d. r. p. (2011). perencanaan dan pengembangan wilayah. restpent press. 112 robby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 103-112 fandelli, c. (2014). bisnis konservasi pendekatan baru dalam pengelolaan sumberdaya alam dan lingkungan hidup (2nd ed.). yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. retrieved from http://ugmpress.ugm.ac.id/id/product/sains-teknologi/bisnis-konservasipendekatan-baru-dalam-pengelolaan-sumberdaya-alam-dan-lingkungan-hidup giyarsih, s. r. (2010). pola spasial transformasi wilayah di koridor yogyakarta-surakarta spatial pattern of regional transformation in yogyakarta-surakarta corridor. forum geografi. hidayat, w., rustiadi, e., & kartodihardjo, h. (2015). dampak pertambangan terhadap perubahan penggunaan lahan dan kesesuaian peruntukan ruang (studi kasus kabupaten luwu timur, provinsi sulawesi selatan). jurnal perencanaan wilayah dan kota. https://doi.org/10.5614/jpwk.2015.26.2.5 ipcc. (2000). land use, land-use change, and forestry. forestry. https://doi.org/doi: 10.2277/0521800838 ishartono & raharjo, s. t. (2015). sustainable development goals (sdgs) dan pengentasan kemiskinan. social work jurnal. https://doi.org/ttps://doi.org/10.24198/share.v6i2.13198 prawira, n. g. a., & ariastita, p. g. (2014). rumusan insentif dan disinsentif pengendalian konversi lahan pertanian di kabupaten gianyar. jurnal teknik pomits. saaty, t. l. (2008). decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. international journal of services sciences. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijssci.2008.017590 122 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 122-130, august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8126 learning activities in higher order thinking skill (hots) oriented learning context nofrion1, bayu wijayanto2 1,2lecturer of department of geography education, faculty of social sciences padang state university, indonesia email: dion_geografi@yahoo.com received: 17 july 2018/revised: 1 august 2018/accepted: 18 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract the development of 21st century life requires the higher-level thinking ability developmental for learners. hots learning is characterized by; 1) analysis, evaluation and creating, 2) logical reasoning, 3) consideration and critical thinking, 4) problem solving and creative thinking. one effort that can be done by educators to develop higher-level thinking ability for learners is by facilitating learners to do advanced learning activities (abl) that include: 1) processing/ analyzing, 2) communicating/ dialogue, 3) discuss/ collaborate, 4) presents/ constructs. abl is a continuation of basic learning activities which includes; 1) observing (combination of seeing and hearing), 2) trying/ questioning, 3) searching/ collecting. therefore, in learning, educators should be more focused on giving learners space to do abl while still allowing time for abd as a warm-up activity or initial activity (schaffolding). the way that can be done as a trigger of advanced learning activities is to present more questions/ tasks/ problems on high cognitive level that is c4, c5, and c6 in every learning. high-level questions/ tasks/ problems will also encourage learners to dialogue and discuss so that collaboration in learning will be created. keywords: basic learning activity/abd, advanced learning activities/ abl, hots oriented learning 1. introduction in a global context, unesco states the four pillars of education consisting of learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and live together in peace. in some studies, especially in indonesia, it is added with the fifth pillar of learning to believe in god. this addition is based on the fact that the indonesian nation is a religious nation and it is contained in the uu no. 20 of 2003 onnational education system stating that one of the goals of national education is to develop the potential of learners in order to become a man of faith and cautious to the one almighty god. in 2009, a report entitled "learning for the 21st century" published "framework for 21st century learning" which describes four competencies or areas to be mastered by learners, covering "1) core subject and 21st century themes, 2) learning and innovative skills, https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:dion_geografi@yahoo.com 123 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 3) information, media and technology skills and 4) life and career skills "(marzano&heflebower, 2012. the four competencies must be possessed by graduates of educational institutions in order to compete in the global association. therefore, in the 21st century schools and other educational institutions should be able to develop 21st century competencies/ skills. in indonesia, this has been adopted by the curriculum 2013 with the term "4k" which in indonesian is (a) kecakapan berfikir kritisdan pemecahan masalah (critical thinking), (b) kecakapan berkomunikasi (communication skills), (c) kreativitas dan inovasi (creativity and innovation), (d) kolaborasi (collaboration). the four 21st century skills can be realized if supported by learning that is oriented to the development of higher order thinking skill (hots) and optimize the three main energies in learning that are energy of educator, energy of students and energy of learning environment (prayitno, 2009: 200-222). the combination and collaboration of these three energies will be reflected in the interaction between learners and educators, learners with other learners as well as interactions with various learning resources in a learning environment. this condition is expected to occur within the classroom as stated in uu no. 20 of 2003 on national education system, article 1 paragraph 20. however, in the current practice of learning is still found a lot of conventional learning that is teacher-centered, high competition, minimal interaction and learning activities and collaboration has not been created. if this condition is maintained then it is difficult to create students who have higher-level thinking ability characterized by the creativity in learning, critical and analytical thinking skills, communicative and collaborative. based on this, in this article the author tries to suggest ideas about the need to redefine the activities in learning. this is very necessary because with a deeper understanding of the type and level of learning activities will guide educators to design learning. the author calls itwith advanced learningactivity or abl. the authors also emphasize the importance of understanding the difference between basic learning activity (abd) with advanced learning activities (abl). basic learning activities are the initial activities and the steps (schaffolding) for advanced learning activities. in order to design hots oriented lesson, the educator must provide more portions to the advanced learning activities in the lesson. 124 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 2. review of related literature 2.1 hots learning hots learning is a learning that develops higher-order thinking ability of learners, more than just the ability to memorize/ recall, restate, remember and refer without scientific reasons (recite). questions and tasks and problems in learning are useful for: a. transfer one concept to another b. process and apply information c. looking for links from different sources d. use information to resolve the problems e. review ideas and information critically. brookhart (2010: 14) in his book "how to assess higher order thinking skills in your classroom" states that there are five categories of higher-level thinking skills/ hots namely: a. analysis, evaluation and creating. all of these are the top level in the realm of cognitive/ knowledge in the bloom revision’s version (2001). b. logical reasoning c. consideration and critical thinking d. problem solving and creative thinking. to get a more operational explanation of hots, anderson and krathwohl (2001) have revised bloom's taxonomy by modifying the cognitive level of learners as shown in the following table: table 1. dimension of thinking process no cognitive level dimension infromation kko category 1 c1 knowing recalling remember, register, repeat, mimic lots 2 c2 understanding explain ideas / concepts explain, classify, receive, report mots 3 c3 apply use information on different domains uses, demonstrates, operates 4 c4 analyze specifies the elements/ aspects comparing, checking, criticizing, testing hots 5 c5 evaluate make the final decision evaluate, assess, disprove, decide and vote and support 6 c6 creating creating your own ideas construct, develop 125 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 source: ministry of education and cultural of indonesia (2017) further explanation of cognitive level grouping includes: a. knowledge and understanding (level 1), includes c1 and c2. b. application (level 2), includes c3. c. reasoning (level 3), includes c4, c5 and c6 2.2 geography learning geography learning is part of geography. in another term known as 'geography as a science, geography as education or learning and geography as an attitude'. in geography for life: national geography standards, 2nd edition (2012) explained that the goal of geography learning is "to equip students with the knowledge, skills, and perspectives to 'do' geography" "(https://www.nationalgeographic.org/education/national/geographystandards/?ar_a=1 accessed on july 20th, 2017.) that means the purpose of learning geography is to equip students with knowledge, skills and geographical perspective. based on these objectives, the three main pillars of learning geography are: a. geography content/ theme/ essential that is related to the material or what is learned. b. geography skills that include; 1) posing geography question or a student's skill in identifying problem and asking geographical question. 2) acquiring geographic information or the ability to collect data including observations and measurements of geographical phenomena. 3) organizing geographic information or the ability to organize or process data 4) analyzing geographic information or the ability to analyze data to answer questions or solve problems 5) answering and designing solution or ability to answer or solve problems and 6) communicating geographic information that is the ability to communicate or inform geography data to the audiences like a teacher in learning process. c. geography perspectives perspective is a way of looking at something. in geography education there are two geographical views namely spatial perspective and ecological perspective. in indonesia, it is https://www.nationalgeographic.org/education/national/geographystandards/?ar_a=1 126 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 commonly added with one more type of perspective,which is a complex region perspective. in the context of the curriculum is known as geographic approaches (parjito, 2015: 248-249). 2.3 learning activity the way to know someone learns or not is through the learning activity that is shown during the lesson. this method is easier and faster to observe so that the teacher can observe it throughout the lesson. even more, so many research has proven that learning activity is very influential on learning outcomes. learning activities are all activities that students do in the learning process, starting from physical to psychic activity (hamalik, 2001: 171). in his more recent book, hamalik (2010: 28) states that learning activities are all activities undertaken in the process of interaction (teachers and students) in order to achieve learning objectives. more concisely, sardiman (2010: 100) explains that learning is both physical and mental activities that are interrelated. from the three formulationsof learning activities above, it can be abstracted that learning activities are activities that students do during learning both physical and mental that support the achievement of learning and learning objectives. furthermore, paul d. diedrich in hanafiah&suhana (2010: 24) considers that learning activities can be divided into eight groups, namely: (a) visual activities ie. reading, viewing pictures, observing experiments, demonstrations, exhibitions and observing others working or playing; (b) oral activities, for examplebrings up a fact or principle, relate an event, asking a question, give advice, express opinions, interview, discuss and interruptions; (c) listening activities, for example listening to material presentations, listening to conversations or group discussions, or listening to the radio; (d) writing activities, for example writing stories, writing reports, checking essays, copying materials, making outlines or summaries, and doing tests and filing questionnaires; (e) drawing activities, for example drawing, creating graphs, charts, maps and patterns; (f) motor activities, for example experimenting, selecting tools, conducting exhibitions, modeling, organizing games, and dancing and gardening; (g) mental activities, for example contemplating, recall, solving problems, analyzing factors, looking at relationships, and making decisions; (h) emotional activities, for example interest, differentiate, courageous, calm, bored and nervous. 127 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 2.4 ideas on basic learning activities/ abd and advanced learning activities/ abl a. basic learning activities/ abd basic learning activities here mean a learning activity related to sensory sensation against the existing objects and activities that do not require higher-thinking process, like the activity of seeing, listening, asking, trying, searching, collecting and its kind. to simplify, all these activities are divided into three basic learning activities, namely; 1) observing (combination of seeing and hearing), 2) trying/ questioning, 3) searching/ collecting. observing learning activities is a combination of viewing and listening activities. for example, when the teacher presents a lesson, showing a video or displaying a picture, the student who gives attention with the indicator of his eyes are fixed on the object and his ears are hearing, so that the student has done the observing learning activity. the trying/ questioning learning activity is when the student tries to ask questions, trying to take opportunity that the teacher gives such as posses or pasting things or trying to answer the light questions the teacher gives at the beginning of the lesson. also included in the trying/ questioninglearning activity is when the student comes to the front of the class to give an opinion or response to something that the teacher presents with the note that it has not touched the main lesson substance. the third basic learning activity is searching/ collecting. included in this category is learning activities such as looking for something that the teacher requested and collecting information. for example, a teacher asks students to locate a city on a map or ask students to collect data about the number of objects exist in an image and so on. these are basic and intermediate learning activities (lots and mots). the author's opinion is relevant to silbermen (2006: 10) who writes that to learn something well, we need to start with (basic learning activities) such as listening, seeing and asking questions. b. advanced learning activities/ abl advanced learning activity/ abl is a learning activity that demands the middle and higher thinking process. included in the advanced learning activities are processing, analyzing, communicating, dialogue, discussing, collaborating, presenting, and constructing. to be more simply, advanced learning activity/ abl formulated into; 1) process/ analyze, 2) communicate/ dialogue, 3) discuss/ collaborate, 4) present/ construct. student involvement 128 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 in learning by doing advanced learning activities is expected can develop middle and high thinking skills (mots and hots). in accordance with current curriculum style (curriculum 2013),teacher should be more focus on designing learningactivities that encourages students to do advanced learning activities/ abl. choosing the lecturing as the main method of learning will only give sensation to the two main senses of the student that is sight and hearing. even if there is a lecture that triggers the brain to think, mostly only limited to the basic level because with the lecturing method, the delivery of the material is very solid while the human brain's ability to digest the word and the sentence at a time has its limits and is strongly influenced by "noise" as well as the classroom atmosphere. silbermen (2006: 9) states that we can just tell something to students quickly. however, students will forget what we are telling faster. that is, the lecture method as the main method in learning has the potential to make children quickly forget the material presented by the teacher because of the limitations of sensation felt by the child so that the process of perception and memory formation is less optimal. therefore, teachers need to find ways and strategies to encourage advanced learning activities among students as learning takes place. one way that can be done is to provide questions/ tasks/ exercises that challenge students. silbermen (2006: 9) suggests that one indicator of learning activities that running effectively and efficiently is the availability of many tasks that challenge students using the brain to think hard. a figure of cognitive learning theory, piaget in woolfolk (2009: 79) states that education should be "form not furnish" which means, education is to form or develop the mind rather than fill it with various information. by presenting challenging questions/ tasks/ exercises, students have room to develop. therefore, teachers must prepare high-level questions/ tasks/ problems to be undertaken by learners in learning. the questions/ task/ problem must be at level 3 that is c4/ analyze, c5/ evaluate and c6/ create. 129 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 table 2. example of hots, mots and lots questions in geography subjects no cognitive level cognitive level sample of questions 1 c1 level 1: measuring knowledge of facts, concepts and procedures salah satu tipe bencana menurut uu no.24 tahun 2007 tentang penanggulangan bencana adalah : a. geologis b. hidrometeorologis c. alam d. konflik e. kegagalanteknologi 2 c2 3 c3 level 2 includes the dimensions of the process of thinking and applying wabah malaria banyakterjadi di daerah pegunungan, pada awal dan akhir musim hujan, karena: a. kondisi berhutan lebat b. banyak genangan air jernih c. kurangnya usaha pemberantasan d. budaya hidup masyarakat e. kondisi iklim sesuai or, daerah a pada tahun 2010 memiliki tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk sebesar 1,5 % per tahun. berdasarkan data tersebut, daerah a diperkirakan jumlah penduduknya akan menjadi dua kalinya pada tahun: a. 2047 b. 2057 c. 2067 d. 2070 e. 2077 4 c4 level 3: have high logic and reasoning to solve the problems based on levels 1 and 2 angin tenggara setelah melintasi khatulistiwa akan mengalami.. a. pembelokan ke arah timur laut b. menuju barat laut c. dibelokkan oleh gaya coriolis ke arah barat d. berbalik ke arah barat daya e. semua salah 5 c5 6 c6 source: nofrion (2017) high-level questions will not only encourage students to think hard but will also motivate them to dialogue and discuss so that collaboration occurs (nofrion et al, 2018: 5-8). after the students are given the questions, then the teacher has the task to observe student learning activities. good observation will be the basis for improvements of the next learning. 3. conclusion advanced learning activity/ abl is a learning activity that is expected to provide opportunities for students to develop higher-order thinking skills/ hots. one effort that can be done by educators to trigger the occurrence of advanced learning activity/ abl is to give the questions/ task/ problem that is at level 3 or at the level of c4, c5 and c6. high-level 130 nofrion, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 122-130 questions will not only encourage students to think hard but will also motivate them to dialogue and discuss so that collaboration occurs. references brookhart, l. susan. 2010. how to assess higher order thinking skills in your class. ascd. alexandria, virginia usa hamalik, oemar. 2001. learning strategies. jakarta. bumiaksara -------------------2010. learning strategies. jakarta. bumiaksara hanafiah, nanang & suhana, cucu. 2010. learning strategies. bandung. refika aditama marzano, r. j., & kendall, j. s. (2007) .the new taxonomy of educational objectives (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage marzano, r. j & heflebower, t. 2012.teaching & assssing 21st century skills (the classroom strategies series). ebook from marzanoresearch.com nofrion. 2017. geography learning models and strategies (designing hots and learning collaborative learning). padang. sukabina publisher n, nofrionet al.2018. effectiveness of exo olo task learning model based on lesson study in geography learning iop conf. ser .: earth environ. sci. 145 012038 parjito. 2015. vision of 21st century geography education. proceedings of the p3gi national seminar. poor. isbn: 978 602 71506 3 – 8 prayitno.2009 basic teaching and praxis education. grasindo. jakarta sardiman. 2010. interaction and motivation of learning teaching. jakarta. rajawali press silbermen, l. melvin. 2006. active learning: 101 learning methods active students. bandung. nusamedia law number 20 of 2003 concerning national education systems woolfolk. 2009. educational psychology (active learning edition), tenth edition. yogyakarta. student library 43 identification of huntete beach tourism object in kulati village east tomia subdistrict wakatobi regency la ode amaluddin1, andri estining sejati2, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan3, mutiana1 1department of geography education, halu oleo university 2department of geography education, sembilanbelas november kolaka university 3department of geography education, university of jember email: amaluddin75@gmail.com received:1 october 2018/revised:7 november 2018/accepted: 5 december 2018/published online:31 december 2018 abstract huntete beach has good physical potention, but still not optimal visitors. the purposes of this paper there are two (a) to determine the potention of huntete beach tourism objects in kulati village, east tomia subdistrict, wakatobi regency with spatial analysis views, (b) to find out the perception of tourists on the potential of huntete beach tourism objects in kulati village, east tomia district, wakatobi regency. this research uses survey method. the results of this paper are (a) the potential of huntete beach is in the medium category (internal potential) and low (external potential), so it needs to be developed again so that it can become a main tourism object in east tomia subdistrict, wakatobi regency, (b) presumption from tourists who visit that there is a potential in huntete beach tourism, so needs better management by completing facilities that are not yet available. it can tourists more enjoy the natural phanorama and not feel bored at this place. keywords: potential identification, tourism object, huntete beach 1. introduction wakatobi regency south east sulawesi is an area that is actively developing its regional potential for tourism resort. tourist resorts in wakatobi pull tourists interest to visit. tourism in wakatobi has been established by the ministry of culture and tourism of the republic of indonesia as a national maritime tourism development area. the ministry of forestry has also designated wakatobi islands as a conservation area with national park status. this shows that wakatobi is a natural tourism area. according to (sutedjo and murtini, 2007) natural tourism objects, namely the form or form of this object in the form of scenery such as the form of mountainous, coastal or aquatic, the environment in the form of life, flora and fauna. according to (law number 9 year 1990) tourism is a travel activity or part of the activity is carried out voluntarily and temporarly, to enjoy tourism objects and attractions. according to (pearce in sujali, 1989) tourism as a symptom relationship that arises from the journey and the stay of someone or a group of people due to recreational purposes. tourist visits are currently focused on the wakatobi national park. there are many other natural objects in wakatobi regency that can be developed for tourism activities. tourism activities is the kind activties atractions in the tourism resort, there are: natural, culture, human made, special interest. one of tourism activities focus at natural is huntete beach tourist attraction. according to (damanik, 2006) one of the objects on which tourism is based is nature and blue (clear and clean sea). this natural attraction has the highest value in tourist satisfaction for tourists. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 3 (2018), 43-49 , des, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8688 44 the beach is a tourist attraction that many people visit in filling their holidays. after the climate, coast and sea are the most important geographic aspect in tourism. beach is an important asset in tourism. according to (nugroho in devina, 2011), beach tourism is a beach that has attraction as a tourist spot both physical factors, attractions, facilities, and others. according to (burton, 1995) as a natural tourism, the beach must have a beautiful physical form, such as clean, sandy and comfortable to sunbathand safeable to swim with calm waves which can also makes children play on the beach. huntete beach is located in kulati village in the administrative area of east tomia sub-district. this tourism object has the longest beach characteristics on tomia island. huntete beach can be reached by 2-wheeled vehicles, 4-wheeled vehicles and marine vehicles towards the west of kulati village with a distance of 2 km to the south of kulati. white sand expanse on huntete beach with the banda’sseawaves and many fish passing through the coastal waters when the tide arrives makes this beach a beautiful place, turtles also come at night to lay eggs in this place. according to (freuler in pendit, 2003) tourism in the modern sense is a phenomenon from the present era based on the need for health and the changing of air for breathe, built a sense of natural beauty, to get pleasure. according to (pearce, 1983) the locational factors that influence the development of tourism potential are physical condition, accessibility, ownership and land use, barriers and support and other factors such as labor wages and political stability. other activities that can be done are diving, snorkeling, and sunbathing. some diving points are included in the best category in tomia. the challenge in this huntete beach tourist attraction is not visited yet by many both indonesian and international tourists. according to (suwantoro, 2004) in addition to the basic elements that must be considered in tourism include tourist objects and attractions, tourism infrastructure, tourism facilities, infrastructure and community/environment. according to (yoeti, 1997) tourist attraction is everything that is found in tourist destinations which is an attraction so that people want to come and visit a tourist destination. based on this, an effort is needed to identify the potential of huntele beach tourism objects. research can describe the ability of regions in terms of resources and planning and management capabilities. according to (damardjati, 1995) tourism potential encompasses all things in real and non-palpable conditions that are worked on, regulated, and provided in such a way that they can be useful or utilized, manifested as the ability of factors and elements needed or determine tourism development, whether in the form of atmosphere, events, objects or services or merit. there are two research aims. first, to determine the potential of huntete beach tourism objects is determined by looking at several variables including internal factors, the quality of objects, condition of objects and support for object development. external factors are accessibility, complementary facilities and object support facilities. all potential use spatial analysis views. second, the characteristics of tourists can be seen including the origin of tourists, age, and final education, while the perception of tourists can be seen from the tourist responses to huntete beach tourist attractions. according to (suwantoro, 1997) generally the attraction of a tourist object is based on: (1) resources that can cause pleasure, beauty, comfort, and clean. (2) high accessibility to be able visit it. (3) there are special/specific characteristics that are rare. (4) the existence of supporting facilities/infrastructure to serve the tourists present. (5) natural tourism objects have high attraction because they have special values in the form of art attractions, traditional ceremonies, noble values contained in an object of human work in the past. 2. method this research used survey method. survey can descibe phenomena form many population. this research was carried out in june 2017. this research place was in kulati village, east tomia 45 tourist. huntete beach tourism objects both internal and external factors. the sampling of visitors (tourists) in this study was determined by quota sampling there are 40 respondents. the sampling technique was carried out using the accidental sampling method, which is how to obtain samples based on who happened to be encountered while conducting the research. according to (singarimbun, masri and effendi, 2008), survey concluded big population from sampel. according to (sugiyono, 2008) the population is an area of generalization consisting of objects or subjects that have product quality and certain characteristics set by researchers to be studied and then drawn conclusions. the data in this research is a combination of primary data and secondary data. analysis of data in the study using scoring techniques seen from the interval class. data were also analyzed qualitativewith the percentage of choices submitted by respondents determined by the formulation of muktar, erna and widodo (2000). interval class using that formula.k= , k = interval class a = high potential value b = low potential value y = total class class use likert scale, the total is five. each criteria scoring from interval class range. then the total divided become five classifivcation, there are: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. 3. result and discussion identification of huntete beach tourism potential consists of internal and external potential. the internal potential of huntete beach tourism objects can be seen in the following table: table1 internal potentions of huntete beach tourism object internal factor delails potention criteria score object quality a. the beach that presents the beauty of natural scenery in the form of white sand and coral reefs 2 b. the combination of components is less able to enhance the quality of objects 2 c. objects do not have supporting attractions yet 1 d. tourist catch atraction 2 e. there is no trash and the water in the toilet that is not available yet makes the environment look less clean. 2 f. the object has not been properly treated 2 tourism object contitions g. clear and clean sea water 2 h. 2 to 3 activities 2 i. quite interesting object 2 j. quite confort object 2 k. safety in objects is quite guaranteed 2 supports object development l. parallel objects have tourism objects support 2 m. the available land area for development is still sufficient 2 n. it will only be planned by the local government tour package 2 total score 26 clasification moderate 46 source: research result, 2017 based on the results of the data analysis above obtained internal potential assessments indicate that huntete beach tourism objects are potentially moderate with a score of 26. these results can be projected that the internal potential possessed by huntete beach attractions has a strong natural element such as the scenery with cool air, the beauty of sand white, unique coral reefs, and has historic caves. natural conditions and types of vegetation in huntete beach are natural scenery that can provide comfort for tourists. the internal potential of huntete beach tourism objects can be seen in the following table: table2.external potentions of huntete beach tourism object external factor delails potention criteria score accesibility a. available, but conditions are quite good 2 b. not available 1 object support facilities c. 45 minute 2 d. not awailable 1 complement facilities e. available building to enjoy the object 2 f. available parking area, toilet or tersedia lahan parkir, toilet/bathroom 2 total score 10 classification low source: research result, 2017 based on the analysis above, it is known that the scores of huntete beach tourism objects included in the classification of low potential, in this case need to be developed better. complementing facilities and infrastructure for tourist needs that are not yet available in huntete beach tourism objects are expected to attract tourists who visit and feel comfortable. this internal external state is in line with the swot method, where the sw is internal and external ot. according to (rangkuti, 2004), swot analysis is a situation analysis conducted by identifying various factors systematically to formulate a strategy. according to (maramin, 2004), the step after swot calculation is to compile an internal matrix/ifas (internal strategic factors analysis summary) as well as external/efas (external strategic factors analysis summary) to identify the position of ecotourism objects and develop development strategies. huntete beach based on data shows that internal conditions are good but have great opportunities to be developed into natural attractions. the identification of huntete beach tourism potential in line with spatial analysis. the coastal line spetially for identificataion sea water conditon use buffer line amount of 50 meters from coastal line to sea. the basic map use image from sas planet. acoording to (prahasta, 2002), anatomically buffer is outsite direction zone from a map object such point, polyline, and polygon. characteristics of tourists who come to huntete beach attractions can be described, first, group of tourists according to gender. based on gender, most tourists visiting huntete beach are male 60% while female is 40%, the difference in number based on sex is not very influentialbecause huntete beach is a tourist attraction that is open for activities travel. according to questionnaire data and finding data in the field, visitors at these tourist sites mostly come in groups or families where the male ratio is greater. according to (the international ecotourism society-ties in damanik and weber, 2006) environment-based tourism is no longer the dominance of men, care and needs in the natural environment are also important characteristics of female tourists. 47 the second, level of education, the biggesttourists education are 45% undergraduate, 35% senior high schooland the smallest frequency is tourists with elementary school education 20%. motivation of tourists visiting huntete beach tourism is mostly for the purpose of free time, looking for fresh air and making observations to expand knowledge. according to (pitmann et al, 2010), many people with adult learning do tourism activities. third, origin of tourists. tourists who visit huntete beach attractions are mostly domiciled in tomia and outside wakatobi, generally from various cities in indonesia and abroad. the highest number of tourists comes from tomia, wakatobi (30%). this is because huntete beach tourism objects are not too widely known. the presence of tourists both at home and abroad makes this tourism object a great potential for other tourists to visit. this is because tourists tend to influence other tourists to visit a tourist attraction. according to (yang and lo, 2018) tourist arrivals in a place affect the increase in the number of tourists coming from other regions, in this case chinese tourists affect taiwanese tourists. the fourth, the distance perception of residence to tourist attractions. 50% of travelers agree to have a distance of more than> 10 km, 25 very agree, 20% disagree and 5% strongly disagree. the five dominant transportation tools used by tourists are 65% of cars. the six tourist ratings on huntete beach attractions are in good condition 50% and very good 50%. this allows huntete beach to be developed better as a tourist attraction. according to (lohmann and pearce, 2012) transportation with modes of transportation affects the development of tourist attractions, for example connecting wellington and picton in new zealand with a ferry. seventh, the reason tourists are interested in visiting huntete beach attractions is one of the reasons for having a unique natural panorama. tourists will choose a place that has interesting and unique natural scenery, so that when visiting tourists are amazed by the beauty of the panorama that the object has. travelers judge the location is very convenient for travel. eighth, 60% agreed that the attraction was interesting. this is seen in its natural beaches, clear sea water and clean white sand. according to (arida et al, 2017) one of the development of tourism is based on natural potential such as mambal village which has extensive natural rice fields, a natural senaung pengibull’s cave which is formed naturally, and pancoran pitu. nineth, 25% of respondents said that tourism was less safe due to the absence of intensive supervision carried out at huntete beach tourist sites. this is necessary for supervision to be carried out so that tourists who visit feel safe and comfortable in traveling. tenth, the availability of facilities and infrastructure at huntete beach tourism objects is not yet well approved 25% respondem. this requires the attention of the government and the local community to provide inadequate deficiencies in tourist attractions in order to attract more tourists. eleventh, most tourists argue that the facilities that need to be addressed are the water facilities that are jammed, roads that are not good, parking lots that are not yet well available, cleanliness in the environment of the object being guarded, and the need for special supervision in tourist attractions. in this case, the need to pay attention to the shortcomings in huntete beach tourism objects so that tourists are more comfortable and attractive to visit again. according to (hanifah et al, 2018), tourism objects that are close to health facilities are complementary. according to (lumbanraja, 2012) one of development tourism area is availability of facilities. twelfth, tourists are very supportive if huntete beach tourism objects are developed so that they are more famous in accordance with their potential. judging from the increasing flow of visits, tourists on huntete beach have prospects for development. where there is a motivation for tourists to do tourism activities, it is expected that it will also bring a better influence on the surrounding community. thirteen, tourists agree that huntete beach tourism objects are developed for arts and cultural activities and campground activities. each of them is 45% and 30%. this aims to preserve and introduce various arts and cultures in wakatobi. according to (culusjarvi, 2016) the development of tourist attractions is a combination of 48 natural environment and human activities, such as in northern finland that requires regional studies. 4. conclusion there are two conclusions that can be taken from this research: first, the potential of huntete beach is in the medium category, seen from internal potential. while the external potential is included in the low category so it needs to be developed again so that it can become a maintourism object in east tomia sub-district, wakatobi regency. second, there is an assumption for tourists who visit that there is a potential in huntete beach tourism object so that it needs better management by completing facilities that are not yet available so that tourists who come to visit can enjoy the natural beauty and not feel bored at the place. references arida, i, n, s., wiguna, p, p, k., narka, i, w., dan pebrianti n, k, o. 2017. development planning of tourist village using participatory mapping (case study: mambal village, badung regency, indonesia). iop conf. series: earth and environmental science 98 012044: 1-10. burton, rosemary.1995.travelgeography. london: pitman publishing. culusjarvi, outi. 2016. resort-oriented tourism development and local tourism networks-a case study from northern finlan.vennia 194 (1): 3-17 damanik j dan weber h.f. 2006. perencanaan ekowisata dari teori ke aplikasi. yogyakarta: puspar ugm & penerbit andi. damardjati, r.s. 1995. istilah-istilah dunia pariwisata. jakarta: gramedia pustaka umum. devina, 2011. tingkat daya tarik objek wisata pantai di wilayah karst kabupaten gunung kidul. depok: universitas indonesia. hanifah dkk. 2018. analysis of tourist travel patterns toward health care facilities (case study of prambanan sub-district, klaten district. geosfera indonesia 3 (2): 1-10. law no. 9 year 1990 about tourism. lumbanraja, victor. 2012. tourism area life cycle in lake toba. indonesian journal of geography 44 (2): 150-160. lohmann, gui, dan pearce, d, g. 2012. tourism and transport relationships: the suppliers’ perspective in gateway destinations in new zealand. asia pacific journal of tourism research 17(1): 14-29. maramin. 2004. teknik dan aplikasi pengambilan keputusan kriteria majemuk. jakarta: gramedia widiasarana indonesia. pearce, douglas. 1983. toursit development topics in applied geography. england: longmand group limited. pendit, nyoman, s. 2003. manajemen kepariwisataan. jakarta: pradnya paramitha. pitmann, t., broomhall, s., mcewan, j., dan majocha, e. 2010. adult learning in educational tourism. australian journal of adult learning 50 (2): 219-238. prahasta, eddy. 2002. konsep-konsep dasar sistem informasi geografis. bandung: informatika. rangkuti, f. 2004. riset pemasaran (edisi 2). yogyakarta: andi offset. singarimbun, masri dan sofian effendi. 2008. metode penelitian survei. jakarta: lp3es. sugiyono, 2008. metode penelitian bisnis. bandung: alfabeta. sujali, 1989. geografi pariwisata dan kepariwisataan. fakultas geografi ugm: yogyakarta. sutedjo, agus dan murtini sri. 2007. geografi pariwisata. surabaya: penerbit unesa university press suwantoro, gamal, 1997. dasar-dasar pariwisata.yogyakarta: andi. suwantoro, gamal. 2004. dasar-dasar pariwisata. yogyakarta: andi. 49 widodo, erna dan mukhtar. 2000. konstruksi kearah penelitian deskriptif. yogyakarta: avirouz. yang, chih-hai dan lo, pei-ling. 2018. how the influx of chinese tourists affects national tourism behaviors: evidence from taiwan. international journal of tourism research 20 (5): 543-553. yoeti.oka a. 1997. perencanaan dan pengembangan pariwisata. jakarta: pt pradnya paramita. 16 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723,e-issn 2614-8528 vol 3. no. 3 (2018),16-25 ,december, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8790 the effectiveness of project-based learning and problembased learning models towards geography learning outcomes in terms of students’ locus of control nur hafidah yuniar sari1 , muhsinatun siasah masruri2 1student of geography education, graduate school, yogyakarta state university 2lecturer of geography education, graduate school, yogyakarta state university street. colombo, no.1, caturtunggal, depok subdistrict of sleman, yogyakarta. nurhafidah_yuniar@ymail.com received:1 october 2018/revised:7 november 2018/accepted: 1 december 2018/published online:31 december 2018 abstract nowadays, indonesian’s education seems to have an improvement in its quality. the government is establishing the 2013 curriculum. however, its implementation has not been well-implemented. in regard to this problem, it is necessary to apply scientific learning models: pjbl and pbl models. with these models and according to the students’ locus of control, it is expected that it will improve students’ learning outcomes. this study is aimed at determining the effectiveness of pjbl and pbl models towards learning outcomes in terms of the students’ locus of control. the method used in this study was experiment, with 2x2 factorial design. the population was xi ips students of sman 1 ngaglik. the samples were 32 experimental students of pbl model and 28 experimental students of pjbl model. the data were collected using questionnaires and tests. the data were analyzed using two ways anova. the result of the analysis shows that there is an influence between the models and students’ locus of control towards the learning outcomes. the value of fcal5.488>fstd4.00 and the value of the probability is 0.023 < 0.05. keywords: project-based learning, problem-based learning, learning outcomes, students’ locus of control. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:nurhafidah_yuniar@ymail.com nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 17 1.introduction purwanto (2009: 1) states that education is a program that involves several interrelated components in a process to achieve the goals that have been set. then, sani (2017: 1), asserts that education gives students the possibility to get opportunities and knowledge in order to gain a better life through better changes. the current education should be able to prepare students in facing the globalization, where students can be more active, creative, and innovative. however, the education in indonesia is currently in the process of improving its quality. the government is implementing a new curriculum, namely the 2013 curriculum, with a scientific approach. with regard to the issue of scientific approach, it has been implemented at various levels of school: in elementary school, middle school, and senior high school. it is stated by saefudin & berdiati (2016: 43) that scientific approach does not only focus on the learning outcomes as the main goal, but another important aspect is the learning process, therefore it is emphasized on the process. further, in scientific approach, the students are required to be more active in the learning process. thereby, its process is student-centered while the teacher acts as a facilitator, presents the materials, prepares a syllabus, designs the learning process, and coordinates students during the learning process. with regard to the implementation of the 2013 curriculum, one of the important aspects to be prepared is the human resources, particularly creative and qualified teachers. in addition, another aspect is the fulfillment of the student learning facilities that can support the learning process. yet, as found by the researcher, the implementation of the 2013 curriculum with a scientific approach has not been fully implemented. some problems were found. first, the learning process was still teacher-centered. second, the method of teaching and delivering the material was less attractive and still using the lecturing model, so that the students felt bored and less interested in the learning process. third, the learning outcomes obtained by the students were still lack. as found by the researcher in sman 1 ngaglik, the students obtained the mid test scores on geography subject were still below the minimum learning mastery standard (75.00), in this case, the average score of the students’ mid test is 60.00. therefore, to solve these problems, it is necessary to imply the scientific learning approach through project-based learning and problem-based learning models on geography subject. sani (2013: 171) states that “project-based learning refers to students designing, planning and carrying out an extended project that produces a public-exhibited output such as a product, publication, or presentation”. in addition, krauss & boss (2013: viii) claims that project-based learning model can create a meaningful learning experience which is easy to be remembered by the students, it is due to its notion that teachers not only provide learning material but provide concrete examples of real problems. another point is asserted by hosnan (2014: 202-203) that project-based learning is a systematic learning model that involves students in the learning process and skill development through complex exploration processes and assignments, and produces a product at the end of the learning process. further, fathurrohman (2015: 119) defines project-based learning as a learning model that uses a project or activity in the students’ learning process for achieving the learning goals and fostering students’ knowledge and skills. nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 18 meanwhile, problem-based learning (pbl) is a teaching model which tries to ensure that students learn by working together in a group to examine real life problems (tok, 2016: 154). in this model, as emphasized by duch, groh, & allen (2001: 6), the complexity of real life problems is used to motivate students for identifying and examining the concepts and principles in solving the problems. the students are set up to work together as a team, collaborate the collective skills in communicating, and integrate the information. therefore, by implementing this interactive and innovative learning model, it is expected to improve students’ learning outcomes. last, alavi (1995: 29) proposes that a structured processing framework is very beneficial for students at the beginning of the problem-based learning process, in other words, mastering the framework is as the first valuable point before beginning to engage in more complex problems that significantly lead them to their ability to make sophisticated clinical judgments before they graduate. hereinafter, it cannot be denied that, in one class, there are various kinds of students’ characteristics. in accordance to the notion of ‘locus of control’, students’ characteristics are divided into ‘introvert’ and ‘extrovert’. kreitner & kinicki (2005: 155) asserts that: “locus of control is individuals who have an external locus of control tendency are individuals who have confidence that their performance is the result of events that occur outside of their direct control. the results achieved by the internal locus of control are thought to originate from his or her own activities. whereas in the individual locus of control external consider that the success achieved is controlled from the surrounding circumstances. a person who has an internal locus of control will see the world as predictable, and individual behavior plays a role in it. in individuals who have external locus of control will view the world as something unpredictable, so also in achieving goals so that individual behavior will not have a role in it.” to sum up, the implementation of an appropriate learning model which is in accordance to each student’s locus of control is expected to improve students’ learning outcomes. therefore, this study is aimed at determining the effectiveness of project-based learning and problem-based learning models towards geography learning outcomes in terms of students’ locus of control. 2. the method this study used experiment method, by utilizing the 2x2 factorial design. the population was all the students of sman 1 ngaglik. the samples were 60 students of xi ips class selected randomly, consisting of 32 students in the experimental group of problem-based learning model and 28 students in the project-based learning model. the instruments of the data collection were questionnaires and learning outcomes tests. the data were analyzed using two ways anova, at the significance level α = 0.05. the twonur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 19 way anova (two ways analysis of variance), as stated by riduwan (2016: 222), is used to examine the comparison hypothesis consisting of more than two samples, in which each sample consists of two or more types conjointly. 3. result and discussion learning outcomes description with regard to the learning outcomes, the data were obtained from tests which were in the forms of pre-test (before the treatment) and post-test (after the treatment). the test contains 10 multiple choice and 2 essay questions. the following is the results of the geography learning outcomes which are in the forms of pre-test and post-test on the group of students who were given project-based learning and problem-based learning models in sman 1 ngaglik; table 1. data description of geography learning outcomes statistic measurement project based learning problem based learning pretest posttest pretest posttest mean 74.28 81.25 69.84 77.50 median 75.00 82.50 67.50 77.50 modus 60.00 70.00 60.00 70.00 maximum 95.00 95.00 90.00 90.00 minimum 60.00 60.00 60.00 65.00 std. deviation 11.28 10.85 9.71 8.327 sum 2080 2275 2235 2480 n-gain 0.4009 0.2360 source: data processed in 2018 figure 1. average curve of geography learning outcomes of project-based learning and problem-based learning models. as shown in table 1, the result of the students' pre-test before implementing projectbased learning model is: the mean of 74.28; the median of 75.00; the modus of 60.00; the maximum score of 95; the minimum of 60 (sd: 11.28). mean while, the result of the posttest after implementing project-based learning model is: 81,250 (mean), 82.50 (median), 70 (modus), 95 (maximum score), 60 (minimum score), and 10.85 (standard deviation). and, it also presents that the result of the pre-test before implementing problem-based learning model obtains the mean of 69.84, the median of 67.50, and the modus of 60, where the maximum score is 90 and the minimum is 60 (sd: 9.71). meanwhile, the result of the posttest after implementing problem-based learning model shows improvements: the mean is 77.50; the median is 77.50; and the modus is 70, where the maximum score is 90, the minimum is 65, and the standard deviation is 8.32. to conclude, in accordance to the mean 60 65 70 75 80 85 pretest posttest pjbl pbl nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 20 score of the post-test, students gained a better improvement in the group that has been given the treatment of project-based learning model which is an average score of 81.25. locus of control (loc) description with regard to the student’s loc, it was considered through a questionnaire containing 15 questions, in which the student was asked to choose ‘yes or no’ answers. the following is the result of the loc questionnaire test on the group of students who were given the implementation of project-based learning and problem-based learning models in sman 1 ngaglik; table 2. data description of students’ loc in sman 1 ngaglik project based learning problem based learning introvert ekstrovert introvert ekstrovert frequency 11 17 14 18 percent 39.3 60.7 43.8 56.3 n-gain 0.2690 0.4863 0.2369 0.2354 source: data processed in 2018 figure 2. graphic introvert and extrovert students’ loc it can be seen from the data in table 2 that the group given the implementation of project-based learning model consists of 17 extrovert students with a percentage of 60.7%, and 11 introvert students of 39.3%. as also seen in table 2, the group given the implementation of problem-based learning model consists of 18 extrovert students of 56.3% and 14 introvert students of 43.8%. these results come to draw a conclusion that most of the students in sman 1 ngaglik given the implementation of project-based learning and problem-based learning models have extrovert personality, namely: 17 and 18 students. hypothesis test result the interaction between the learning models and students’ locus of control toward geography learning outcomes is presented as follows: table 3. the result of two way anova test between the learning models and students’ locus of control towards geography learning outcomes model average score sum of square df mean square f p ekstrovert introvert pjbl 87.64 76.36 362.36 1 362.363 5.488 0.023< 0.05 nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 21 pbl 78.05 76.78 3 source: data processed in 2018 looking at table 3, it is apparent that the fcal is higher than fstd, namely: 5.488 > 4.00. in this case, ho is rejected whereas ha is accepted, which means that there is an interaction between the learning models and students’ locus of control towards the learning outcomes in sman 1 ngaglik. and, the value of the probability is 0.023 <0.05. in summary, this result shows that there is an influence between the learning models and locus of control towards the students’ learning outcomes. discussion discussion problem based learning and project based learning models are scientific learning models applied to the 2013 curriculum. the model encouraged students to play an active role in the learning process. students were given the opportunity to do insight exploration, so that it could spur them to think creatively and innovatively. the application of the learning model was expected to improve student learning outcomes. the application of the learning model could be adjusted to each student's locus of control, both locus of control introvert and extroverted, so that the learning outcomes of students both introverted and extroverted could increase and the learning outcomes could be maximized. the value of fcount> f table was equal to 5.488> 4.00, where ho was rejected and ha was accepted, which means there was an interaction between the learning model and locus of control on student learning outcomes in sman 1 ngaglik. the probability value between the learning model and locus of control on learning outcomes was equal to 0.023 < 0.05, so it could be seen that there was an influence between the learning model and locus of control on student learning outcomes. judging from the results of the mean, we could know that students who were given treatment with the application of the project based learning model got a better value of 81.25. the majority of students had extrovert locus of control both in the class given the application of the problem based learning and project based learning models as many as 17 students and 18 students. the results of the study were in line with the research conducted by noviarda (2015), which stated that there were significant differences in learning outcomes between students given treatment by applying the project based learning model to students who were given the treatment by applying the expository model. the results of the research from prahesti (2017) were that there was an influence between the problem based learning and project based learning models on students’ learning outcomes. susanti, rahma & monalisa (2017), explained that there were differences in mathematical problem solving abilities of students who had locus of control introverts with mathematical problem solving abilities that had extroverted locus of control. the mathematical problem solving ability of groups of students with locus of control introverts was better than the mathematical problem solving abilities of groups of students with extroverted locus of control. the results of the study from syatriadin (2017) were that students with locus of control introverts had better performance on average than extroverts. pangestika (2015) stated that students with extroverted locus of control in the inquiry model group were more effective in improving geography learning outcomes. the results of the study from nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 22 wicaksono (2016), which states that there was a significant effect of problem based learning, discovery learning and conventional learning models on geography learning outcomes on disaster mitigation and adaptation material in wonogiri district public high school. santria (2018), there was no difference in effectiveness between the project-based learning model and problem-based learning in terms of student achievement, mathematical communication skills and student interpersonal abilities. maysara (2016), the results of this study indicated that with the application of the problem based learning model to the subject of an effective colloid system with an n-gain score of 0.64 and the chemistry learning outcomes of students increased with the average score of 76. sari (2018), the results of the study were as follows: (1) there was a difference in effectiveness between the pjbl and pbl learning models for improving geography learning outcomes (fcount: 6.746> ftable: 4.00), pjbl model was more effective in improving geography learning outcomes, n-gain: 0.4009 or medium category. (2) there was no difference in the effectiveness of geography learning outcomes between students applying the pjbl and pbl models in the loc introverted group (tcount: 0.069 < ttable: 4.00). the effective loc introverted group was treated well with the pjbl and pbl learning models to improve students’ learning outcomes, n-gain: 0.2690 and 0.164 or low effectiveness categories. (3) there were differences in the effectiveness of geography learning outcomes between students applying the pjbl and pbl models in the loc extroverted group (tcount: 4.848> ttable: 4.00). loc extroverted groups were more effectively treated with pjbl learning models to improve students’ learning outcomes, n-gain: 0.4863 or moderate effectiveness categories. (4) there was an interaction between the model and locus of control on learning outcomes (fcount: 6.096> ftable: 4.00). 4. conclusion the third hypothesis states that there is an interaction between the models and students’ locus of control towards the learning outcomes. the result shows that fcal is higher than fstd : 5.488 > 4.00, in which the value of the probability is 0.023 < 0.05. in this case, ho is rejected whereas ha is accepted, which means that there is an interaction between the learning models and students’ locus of control towards the learning outcomes in sman 1 ngaglik. judging from the post-test mean score, the students obtained better grades in the group that has been given the treatment of project-based learning model, in which the mean score is 81.25. and, it is also found that most of the students of sman 1 ngaglik have extrovert personality in the group which was given the treatment of projectbased learning and problem-based learning models, namely: 17 students and 18 students. references akdeniz, c., bacanli, h., baysen, e. cakmak, m., çeliköz, n., doğruer, n., eristi, b., erisen, y., eyyam, r., gündoğdu, k., karatas, e., karatas, s., kaybasi, y., kilic, d., kurnaz. a., menivis, i., özerbaş, m. a., özü, o., silman, f., sünbül, a. m., sahin, m., tok, h., yalin, h. i. ed: kaya, z., akdemir, s. (2016). learning and teaching: theories, approaches and models. tukiye: çözüm eğitim yayıncılık. retrived from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304119354, 14 september https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304119354 nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 23 2018. alavi, c. (1995). problem –based learning in a health sciences curriculum. london: routledge. retrived from: http://en.booksee.org/s/?q=problem+based+learning&t=0, diakses pada tanggal 16 september 2018. duch, b.j., groh, s.e., allen, e.d. (2001). a pratical “how to” for teaching undergraduate courses in any disipline: the power of problem based learning. virginia: stylus publishing, llc. retrived from: http://en.booksee.org/s/?q=problem+based+learning&t=0, diakses pada tanggal 15 september. fathurrohman, m. (2015). model-model pembelajaran inovatif. yogyakarta: ar-ruzz media. hosnan, m. (2014). pendekatan saintifik dan konsektual dalam pembelajaran abad 21: kunci sukses implementasi kurikulum 2013. bogor: ghalia indonesia. krauss, j. & boss, s. (2013). thinking through project-based learning, guiding deeper inquiry. usa: a sage company. kreitner, r., dan kinicki, a. (2005). perilaku organisasi. jakarta : salemba empat. maysara. (2016). “the effectiveness of problem based learning (pbl) model on students’ learning outcomes at class xi ipa 2 of senior high school 5 south konawe on the subject of colloid system”. international journal of education and research, 4(7). halu oleo university, kampus bumi tridharma. internasional journal of education and research. issn: 2411-5681. pangestika, r. p. (2015).“keefektifan model inquiry dan discovery dengan pendekatan saintifik dalam pembelajaran geografi ditinjau dari locus of control di sma kabupaten pemalang. tesis, tidak diterbitkan. universitas negeri yogyakarta. prahesti, h.c . (2017). eksperimen model pembelajaran problem based learning dan project based learning pada pembelajaran matematika terhadap hasil belajar ditinjau dari keaktifan belajar siswa. skripsi, diterbitkan. universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. retrived from: http://eprints.ums.ac.id, diakses pada tanggal 17 oktober 2018. purwanto. (2013). evaluasi hasil belajar. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. riduwan. (2012). dasar-dasar statistika. bandung: alfabeta. saefuddin. a. & berdiati, i. (2016). pembelajaran efektif. bandung: rosda. sani, r. a. (2017). pembelajaran saintifik untuk implementasi kurikulum 2013. jakarta: bumi aksara. santria, u. (2018). efektifitas model project based learning dan model problem-based learning ditinjau dari prestasi belajar, kemampuan komunikasi matematis, dan kemampuan interpersonal siswa materi statistika dan peluang kelas viii. tesis, tidak diterbitkan. universitas negeri yogyakarta,yogyakarta. http://en.booksee.org/s/?q=problem+based+learning&t=0 http://en.booksee.org/s/?q=problem+based+learning&t=0 nur hafidah yuniar sari, et all / geosi vol 3. no. 3 (2018) 16-25 24 sari, n. h. y. (2018). efektifitas model pembelajaran pjbl dan pbl untuk meningkatan hasil belajar geografi ditinjau dari locus of control siswa sma negeri ngaglik, diy. tesis. program studi pendidikan geografi. program pascasarjana. universitas negeri yogyakarta. susanti, d., rahma, r.m., monalisa. (2017). pengaruh locus of control terhadap kemampuan pemecahan masalah matematika. journal nasional pendidikan matematika. retrived from: www.researchgate.net, diakses pada tanggal 17 oktober 2018. syatriadin. (2017). locus of control: teori temuan penelitian dan reorientasinya dalam manajemen penanganan kesulitan belajar peserta didik. jurnal pendidikan dasar. 1(1). e-issn 2579-6194; 144-164. wicaksono, u. (2016). keefektifan model pembelajaran problem based learning dan discovery learning berdasarkan adversity quotient terhadap hasil belajar geografi sma di kabupaten wonogiri. tesis, tidak diterbitkan. universitas negeri yogyakarta. versity 79 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 79-89 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8230 analysis of rainy days and rainfall to landslide occurrence using logistic regression in ponorogo east java dihin muriyatmoko1 , sisca mayang phuspa2 1department of informatics, university of darussalam gontor, indonesia 2department of occupational safety and health, university of darussalam gontor, indonesia email : dihin@unida.gontor.ac.id, siscamayang@unida.gontor.ac.id received: 29 july 2018/revised: 10 august 2018/accepted: 18 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract referred to data of badan nasional penanggulangan bencana (bnpb) and kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia (kemenkes ri), almost landslide occurrence in ponorogo always starts with high-intensity rain. this research aimed to determine simultaneously correlation and partial assessment impact of rainy days every month and monthly rainfall toward landslide occurrence in ponorogo using logistic regression. the data collection was conducted through badan pusat statistik (bps) in the book of ponorogo regency in figure on 2012 to 2016. the existing data shows that in sixty months have been twenty-six times landslides occurrence in ponorogo districts. the data statistically analyzed in simultaneous proves that contribution of rainy days and rainfall to landslide were included adequate correlation (nagelkerke r square = 25.4 % and cox & snell r square = 36.9 %) and in partial test proves that rainy days have significant impact (sig. = 0.024) and rainfall does not significant impact (sig. = 0.291) (α = 0.05) to landslide occurrence in ponorogo regency. the rainy days per month were abled applied to predict for possible landslide elsewhere. keywords: rainy days, rainfall, landslide, ponorogo, logistic regression 1. introduction ponorogo regency is an area in east java province who are in a position 200 km northwest province capital, and 800 km to the capital city of indonesia.the area of 1.371.78 km2 is divided in 21 district that consists of 307 villages. ponorogo regency topography varies from lowlands to mountains. based on existing data, a large district that is 79% ponorogo situated at an altitude of fewer than 500 m above sea level, 14.4% are between 500 and 700 m above sea level and the remaining 5.9%is at the height of the above 700 m(badan perencanaan pembangunan daerah ponorogo, 2013). based on the location of topography, climate, and rainfall, ponorogo regency including areas that are often categorized landslides, especially in the hills and mountains (yuniarta, saido, & purwana, 2015)of which there are in five districts that is ngrayun, slahung, pudhak, pulung, and ngebel. according to data from bnpb and kemenkes ri from https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:dihin@unida.gontor.ac.id mailto:siscamayang@unida.gontor.ac.id 80 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 2012 to 2016, ngrayun district was ranked the highest with nine times the landslide, slahung with five times, ngebel four times and the last place is pudhak and pulung with twice the landslide occurred. almost all landslide events always start with rainfall in high intensity or rain for more than a day(badan nasional penanggulangan bencana, 2018; kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia, 2018). factors of rainy days and rainfall are also the ultimate set to be the cause of the occurrence of the landslide by ubeku and okeke (ubechu & okeke, 2017), as well as paimin a geoscientist who gave a statement that 25% of landslide factors are caused by rainy days for three days. (paimin, sukresno, & pramono, 2009), the department of public works also makes one of the fourteen factors that cause landslides is rainfall (departemen pekerjaan umum, 2007), the book of disaster risks indonesia also makes one of the four factors that cause landslides is rainfall (amri et al., 2016). this study examines the extent to which the simultaneous correlation of rainy days every month and monthly rainfall on the occurrence of landslides in ponorogo and the impact of rainy days every month and monthly rainfall on landslides in ponorogo using logistic regression. these are some studies related to landslides and logistic regression i.e, the first is the results perform that landslides terrace dramatically from 1946 to 2012 inthe capture area. the nearness and overlapping of human development with landslides terraced. however,the logistic regression results prove that variation in sensitivity to landslides was due to natural causes,with the exclusion of historical deforestation and recentlyestablished road systems. accordingly, well-recoveredhistoricalwoodland sites might presently be landslide-prone areas(y. c. chuang & shiu, 2018), second in ambon indonesia, eight landslide causative factors were respected in the landslide sensitivityevaluation. the causative factors were height, slope angle, slope aspect, closeness to stream network, lithology, the solidity of geological boundaries, closenessto faults, and closenessto the road network. the output sensitivitymaps were reclassified into five categorize ranging from very low to very high sensitivity using jenks natural breaksmethod. twenty percent of allmapped landslideswere used as the legalization of the sensitivitymodels. the legalization and the accuracy of each modelwere examined by calculating areas under recipient operating characteristic curves (rocs),andthe areasnether the curve (auc) for the success rate curves of fr, lr, and ann were 0.688, 0.687, and 0.734, severally. the auc for the prediction rate curve of fr, lr, and ann were 0.668, 0.667, and 0.717, respectively (aditian, kubota, & shinohara, 2018), the third is twelve landslide causative factors (namely, slope, slope aspect, highness, curvature, profile arch, plan arch, slope length, topographic dampness index, gap to river, gap 81 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 to road, gap to fault and yearly maximum 24and 48-h rainfalls) were used in this landslide sensitivity analysis. these models were applied to the kaoping river basin in southwestern taiwan to rate its show. landslide inventory maps from 2008 to 2011 were congregated. the results prove that the rbf-svm model makes better the logistic regression in the study area (lin, chang, huang, & ho, 2017). 2. the methods logistic regression is a method of statistical analysis to describe the relationship between response variables (dependent variable) which has two or more categories with one or more explanatory variables (independent variable) scale or interval (hosmer & lemeshow, 2005). logistic regression is a nonlinear regression, used to explain the relationship between x and y which is nonlinear, y-dislocated abnormality, diversity of non-constant response unexplained by ordinary linear regression model (agresti, 1996). figure 1. research method with regression logistic 2.1 variable identification independent variable is landslide occurrence and the dependent variable is rainy days every month and rainfall every month 2.2 research hypothesis output result data analysis with spss data collection research hypothesis variable identification 82 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 1. any simulant correlation between rainy days every month and rainfall every month to landslide occurrence 2. impact between rainy days every month to landslide occurrence 3. impact between rainfall every month to landslide occurrence 2.3 data collection this data was taken on five years from ponorogo in figure since 2012 to 2016 by ponorogo regional development planning agencyand central bureau of statistics (badan perencanaan pembangunan daerah ponorogo, 2013, 2014, badan pusat statistik kabupaten ponorogo, 2015a, 2015b, 2016), ministry of health of the republic of indonesia (kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia, 2018) and bpbd (badan nasional penanggulangan bencana, 2018). table 1. data of rainy days every month, rainfall every month and landslide occurred status in 2012-2016 at ponorogo regency no. years month rainy days every month rainfall every month landslide status no. years month rainy days every month rainfall every month landslide status 1 2012 1 21 15 no 31 2014 7 2 7 no 2 2012 2 13 16 yes 32 2014 8 0 8 no 3 2012 3 16 12 no 33 2014 9 0 0 no 4 2012 4 12 17 no 34 2014 10 0 12 no 5 2012 5 7 15 no 35 2014 11 13 16 no 6 2012 6 2 7 no 36 2014 12 18 19 yes 7 2012 7 1 3 no 37 2015 1 14 8 no 8 2012 8 0 0 no 38 2015 2 16 13 yes 9 2012 9 1 4 no 39 2015 3 20 12 yes 10 2012 10 3 11 no 40 2015 4 15 11 yes 11 2012 11 11 19 no 41 2015 5 4 1 no 12 2012 12 23 17 no 42 2015 6 1 11 no 13 2013 1 23 17 no 43 2015 7 0 0 no 14 2013 2 18 19 no 44 2015 8 0 0 no 15 2013 3 15 14 no 45 2015 9 0 0 no 16 2013 4 13 19 yes 46 2015 10 0 2 no 17 2013 5 15 12 yes 47 2015 11 8 4 no 18 2013 6 12 13 yes 48 2015 12 16 10 no 19 2013 7 8 11 no 49 2016 1 16 17 no 20 2013 8 0 0 no 50 2016 2 20 19 yes 21 2013 9 0 0 no 51 2016 3 16 21 yes 22 2013 10 3 17 no 52 2016 4 17 19 yes 83 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 23 2013 11 13 18 no 53 2016 5 12 14 yes 24 2013 12 19 19 no 54 2016 6 11 14 no 25 2014 1 18 17 yes 55 2016 7 6 9 no 26 2014 2 14 12 no 56 2016 8 5 9 no 27 2014 3 13 17 no 57 2016 9 13 21 yes 28 2014 4 11 15 no 58 2016 10 15 17 no 29 2014 5 6 14 no 59 2016 11 23 22 yes 30 2014 6 4 22 no 60 2016 12 16 12 yes 2.4 data analysis with spss figure 2. data analysis method with regression logistic using spss figure 2 describes the logistic regression stage i.e. data validation test is used to know that data is valid or not, variable category naming is used to know the code of the landslide occurs or not, the properness model test is used for sufficiently explained the data (goodness of fit), the significant test is used to know the correlation value of dependent variables to independent variable, the accuracy classification test is used for measure precision prediction in this study, and the last partial test is used to prove the significance value of dependent variables to independent variable. the statistic of logistic regression was produced the chi-square value that is used to check the correlation of rainy days and rainfall toward landslide occurrence. the accepted criteria of rainy days and rainfall to landslide occurrence can be seen if the chi-square value is lower than chi-square table. 2.5 output result the output details referred to figure 2 were shown in the result and discussion section. partial test accurate classification test significance test properness model test variable category naming data validation test 84 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 3. results and discussion here are the results of calculations using logistic regression using spss tools (reed & wu, 2013) 3.1 data validation test table 2. case processing summary case processing summary unweighted casesa n percent selected cases included in analysis 60 100.0 missing cases 0 .0 total 60 100.0 unselected cases 0 .0 total 60 100.0 referred to table 2, the sixty data is valid and no missing cases. 3.2 variable category naming table 3. dependent variable encoding dependent variable encoding original value internal value no landslide occurred 0 landslide occurred 1 referred to table 3. azero value indicates that is no landslides are occurring, and one value indicates that landslide occurred. 3.4 properness model test table 4. omnibus tests of model coefficients omnibus tests of model coefficients chi-square df sig. step 1 step 17.552 2 .000 block 17.552 2 .000 model 17.552 2 .000 the correlation between x1 and x2 to y, chi-square technique obtained chi-square value 17.552 with sig value 0.000 <0.05, it means together rainy days (x1) and rainfall (x2) associated with a landslide (y). omnibus tests: h0 = variables x1 and x2 do not significantly affect y h1 = at least one between x1 and x2 significantly affect to y 85 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 test criteria: h0 is rejected if sig value <0.05, or chi-square value > chi-square table (5.99) referred to table 4. the output can be seen that significant = 0.000, it means less than 0.05 and chi-square value is 17.552, it means chi-square value is higher than chi-square table. decision: h0 rejected conclusion: the value of chi-square = 17.552 with significant value or p-value = 0.000 means with 95% confidence level, there is at least one free variable (x1, x2) that influence on the dependent variable, so the model can be used for further analysis table 5. hosmer and lemeshow test hosmer and lemeshow test step chi-square df sig. 1 6.023 8 .645 the probability of 0.645> 0.05, meaning that the binary regression model is suitable for further analysis since there is no significant difference between the predicted classification and the observed classification. hosmer and lemeshow test: h0 = the model has sufficiently explained the data (goodness of fit) h1 = model is not enough to explain data test criteria: h0 accepted if the p-value or significance > 0.05 referred to table 5. has a significance value of 0.645 > 0.05, it means that the significance value is greater than 0.05. decision: h0 accepted conclusion: the model has sufficiently explained the data (goodness of fit). 3.5 significance test table 6. model summary model summary step -2 log likelihoods cox & snell r square nagelkerke r square 1 52.038a .254 .369 referred to table 7 indicates that the coefficient determinant of logistic regression that is 0,369 so it can be concluded that the contribution of variable x1 and x2 to y is equal to 37% 4. accurate classification test (percentage correct) table 7. classification classification table a observed predicted 86 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 landslide occurred percentage correct no yes step 1 landslide occurred no 39 5 88.6 yes 9 7 43.8 overall percentage 76.7 referred to table 7 indicates thatprecision prediction in this study is 76.7%. 3.6 partial test table 8. variable in the equation variables in the equation b s.e. wald df sig. exp(b) step 1a rainy days .169 .075 5.121 1 .024 1.184 rainfall .096 .091 1.114 1 .291 1.101 constant -4.498 1.440 9.762 1 .002 .011 the partial test shows that only x2 is significant because of the value of sig 0.024 <0.05, while x2 significant 0.291> 0.05 means that alone x1 has no significant effect on y. a partial test of rainy days every month: h0 = 0, the variable of rainy days does not significantly affect the landslide h1 ≠ 0, the variable of rainy day significantly affects the landslide test criteria: h0 is rejected if significance value < 0.05 decision: h0 is rejected because significance value = 0.24 conclusion: rainy days have significantly affected the landslide a partial test of rainfall every month: h0 = 0, the variable of rainfall does not significantly affect to landslide occurred h1 ≠ 0, the variable of rainfall significantly affects the landslide test criteria: h0 is rejected if significance value < 0.05 decision: h0 is accepted because significance value = 0.291 conclusion: rainfall does not have significantly affect to landslide occurred referred to table 2 to table 8, prove that in ponorogo regency the factor of rainy days every month have significantly affectedto the landslide occurred and rainfall every month does not have significantly affected to the landslide occurred. so, for the next step we can 87 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 discuss that the numberof rainy days every month can be used to predict landslide occurs in ponorogoand to analysis of landslide can use the others methods besides logistic regression for example artificial neural network (logar, turk, marsden, & ambrožič, 2017), support vector machine (y. chuang & shiu, 2018), artificial neural networks (anns), boosted regression tree (brt), classification and regression trees (cart), generalized linear model (glm), generalized additive model (gam), multivariate adaptive regression splines (mars), naïve bayes (nb),quadratic discriminant analysis (qda), random forest (rf), and support vector machines (svm) (pourghasemi & rahmati, 2018). 4. conclusion the data statistically from ponorogo regency that analyzed using logistic regression method in simultaneous proves that contribution of rainy days and rainfall to landslide were included adequate correlation (nagelkerke r square = 25.4 % and cox & snell r square = 36.9 %) and in partial test proves that rainy days have significant impact (sig. = 0.024) and rainfall does not significant impact (sig. = 0.291) (α = 0.05) to landslide occurrencein ponorogo regency. for the next research, the rainy days per month were abled applied to predict for possible landslide elsewhere and landslide analized can used others algoriltm beside linear regression such as artificial neural network, support vector machine, boosted regression tree, generalized linear regression, etc. acknowledgement we would like to thank the ministry of research and higher education for the support of research grants in 2017, so that this research can work well. references aditian, a., kubota, t., & shinohara, y. 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(2018). science of the total environment relationship between landslides and mountain development — integrating geospatial statistics and a new long-term database. science of the total environment journal, 622–623, 1265–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.039 departemen pekerjaan umum. pedoman penataan ruang kawasan rawan bencana longsor, pub. l. no. 22 /prt/m/2007, 148 (2007). indonesia: menteri pekerjaan umum republik indonesia. retrieved from landspatial.bappenas.go.id/komponen/peraturan/the_file/permen22_2007.pdf%0a hosmer, d. w., & lemeshow, s. (2005). multiple logistic regression. in applied logistic regression (pp. 31–46). hoboken, nj, usa: john wiley & sons, inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471722146.ch2 kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia. (2018). pusat krisis kesehatan kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia. retrieved june 11, 2018, from http://pusatkrisis.kemkes.go.id/ lin, g., chang, m., huang, y., & ho, j. (2017). assessment of susceptibility to rainfall 89 dihin muriyatmoko, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 79-89 induced landslides using improved self-organizing linear output map , support vector machine , and logistic regression. engineering geology journal, 224(may), 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.05.009 logar, j., turk, g., marsden, p., & ambrožič, t. (2017). prediction of rainfall induced landslide movements by artificial neural networks. journal of natural hazards and earth system sciences discussions, (july), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2017253 paimin, sukresno, & pramono, i. b. (2009). teknik mitigasi banjir dan tanah longsor. (a. n. ginting, ed.). balikpapan: tropenbos international indonesia programme. retrieved from www.tropenbos.org pourghasemi, h. r., & rahmati, o. (2018). prediction of the landslide susceptibility: which algorithm, which precision? catena journal, 162(november), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.11.022 reed, p., & wu, y. (2013). journal of fluency disorders logistic regression for risk factor modelling in stuttering research ଝ. journal of fluency disorders, 38(2), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2012.09.003 ubechu, b. o., & okeke, o. . (2017). landslide: causes, effects and control. international journal of current multidisciplinary studies, 3(03), 647–663. yuniarta, h., saido, a. p., & purwana, y. m. (2015). kerawanan bencana tanah longsor kabupaten ponorogo. jurnal matriks teknik sipil, 3(1), 194–201. 3.1 data validation test 3.2 variable category naming 3.4 properness model test 3.5 significance test table 6. model summary 4. accurate classification test (percentage correct) table 7. classification 3.6 partial test table 8. variable in the equation developing students learning attributes through collaborative learning based on flipped classroom suwito1 and akhmad faruq hamdani2 1 ,2 geography education study program, faculty of educational studies, universitas kanjuruhan malang email : 1suwito@unikama.ac.id, 2a.faruqhamdani@unikama.ac.id received 5 november 2018/ revised 31 march 2019/ accepted 11 april 2019/ published online 29 april 2019 abstract educators and education practitioners should be able to respond educational shift by modify paradigm of learning in the classroom. the problem that frequently emerge were the lack of conceptual and practical understanding, experience sharing among the students, as well as spirit of collaboration in learning. the purpose of the study was to build and develop students’ learning character through collaborative learning based on flipped class. the study was done in the framework of lesson study, using three steps (plan, do, and see). the technical steps included socialization, identifying problem, designing learning process, implementation, evaluation and reflection, and follow up. the result showed that collaborative learning based on flipped classroom was effective in developing the spirit of cooperation, honesty, discipline, and openness as it prioritized on the ability to cooperate with the others. there were some obstacles regarding time and class size in conducting lesson study. keywords: collaborative learning, flipped classroom, learning attributes. 1. introduction educational issues in indonesia, both in term of fundamental-philosophical and technical-operational are debatable and still on discussed. the discussion in education aims to find the best way to create reliable human resources academically, socially, and vocationally. in the 21st century, the four competencies (1) core subject and 21st century themes, 2) learning and innovative skills,3) information, media and technology skills and 4) life and career skills) for 21st century learning must be possessed by graduates of educational institutions (nofrion and wijayanto, 2018). the challenge faced by educators today is to promote learning that can make students learn in finding a fact and information, process it, and develop anything beneficial to himself and the community. learning should not only repeat key ideas or ideas, but also be able to explore student ideas or ideas. it is intended that students get a more meaningful learning. meaningful geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 4 no. 1 (2019), 1-10 , april, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8938 1 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 learning is a process of linking new information to basic concepts. today, the students needed to be knowledge regarding the season of the year, environmental condition, and climate change. many of the aspect of the earth were closely associated with interaction between people and earth (stoltman 2012). geography is a very broad and complex field of science of the earth that needs to use many learning resources(suharwati, sumarmi, & i nyoman, 2016). geography is complex scientific discipline about the earth and with is interdisciplinary approach. (markuszewska, tanskanen, and subiros, 2018). using the interdisciplinary approach means looking at solving a problem by using a review of the various relevant cognate perspectives in an integrated manner. in order to improve the quality of the learning process, lesson study is conductedthrough collaborative learning based on flipped classroom. lesson study is not a strategy nor method of learning, but it is an effort to improve the learning process and results that is implemented in collaborative and sustained by a particular group. flipped classroom is student centered approach to increase the quality of period within class (ozdamli&asiksoy, 2016). flipped classroom method enhanced student capacity to apply concept and develop skill by discussions, group works, and application during course ((ragg and piers, 2017) based on the observations in the classroom, there were some problems in the course of introduction of geography that should be considered: 1) how to find the best way to convey the various concepts taught in introduction of geography course so that all students can understand the concept and apply it in everyday life, 2) how the introduction of geography can be understood as a continuous and integral understanding, 3) how to solve various problems proposed by students through communicating idea, 4) how lecturers can extend students' perception so that they can learn various concepts and relate them to real life. learning experience in geography not only using a traditional way of learning using handbooks but also need new ways to learn geography (markuszewska, tanskanen, and subiros, 2018). researcher is interested to implement a collaborative learning based on flipped classroom in introduction to geography course in order to build positive attributes which are accommodated through collaborative learning, such as teamwork, honesty, openness, discipline and a culture of collaboration to enrich repertoire of knowledge through experiences sharing, both individuals and groups. as associated with aspects of the learning process in improvement of learning attributes, the objective of this lesson study to apply collaborative learning in order to enhance cooperation of individuals and groups as the key to success, to build positive attributes that support adherence to the learning process, to minimize conflicts that often occur in teamwork 2 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 through collaborativelearning, and to improve the quality of classroom teaching and learning outcomes in introduction of geography. 2. the methods 2.1 place and time lesson study was conducted in offering a, b, c, and d of geography education first year students in university of kanjuruhan malang. lesson study lasted for two weeks (16— 26 january, 2017) consisting of two cycles of activity. each cycle stages consisted of plan, do and see. 2.2 objective object of lesson study was students participating in introduction to geography course and lecturer as model to engage the spirit of collaboration and cooperation with openness and reciprocity. 2.3 attributes to be developed character education has a higher meaning than moral education, because in it doesn’t only teach what is right and wrong, but rather the habituation merit. this is in line with what was proposed by wynne in zuchdi (2009) that character education is more focused on how to apply the value of good deed in the form of behavior (zuchdi 2009). there are many aspects of character that have been expressed by some experts, but this activity referred to the seven main aspects proposed by ari ginanjar (2007). the seven aspects of the attributes include: honesty, responsibility, visionary, discipline, cooperation, fairness, and caring (agustian 2007). the selection was based more on consideration of aspects that may be raised in the learning phase of collaborative and in accordance with the nature of the course of introduction to geography. 2.4. learning model the model used in this study was a collaborative learning. the model allowed the lecturer to create a social environment that is characterized by a democratic environment and scientific processes.the primary responsibility of educators was to motivate learners to work collaboratively in the learning process addition to problem-solving efforts in collaborative groups, from day to day learners learned the principles of democracy through interaction among their peers. in a social context, collaborative learning in this course theoretically 3 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 functioned as a democratic laboratory for students in accordance with the expected goals and competencies. 2.5 procedures in general, the sequential steps of lesson study were as followed. 2.5.1 preparation in preparation, an initial meeting was held. (a) lecturer model (lm) presented the purposes and significance of lesson study for improving pedagogic professionalism. (b) lm composed syllabus and learning scenario. (c) lm presented syllabus and learning scenario as grand design to the team. (d) the team gave suggestion related to the activity to be carried out. observation sheet was developed based on pedagogical aspect and competencies to be achieved. (e) the improvement was made. the agreement on the number of cycle (minimum two cycle of plan, do, and see), time, and documentation was made. the documentation was needed as supplement in reflection. 2.5.2 implementation in implementation, a technician was in charge of recording the process of lesson study using camera. filming is done thoroughly and then editing was made on some events that was considered important. the observer sat in the back while observing the lesson progress. the activities were as followed. (a) lm carried out the lecture process from the learning contract until the next meetings (the team conducted the observations according to the agreed time). (b) after the first observation, lecturer and the team reflected on the learning process with the help of recording. (c) lm and team planned the next lesson based on reflection. the improvement was done focusing on the lecturer ability to deliver the competences and facilitate the learning prosess. (d) lm re-conducted the lesson as planned on the agreed schedule. (e) the team did reflection as in step b—d until minimal of two cycles. 2.5.3 reflection at the end, valuable lessons were gained from reflection. reflection activities conducted thoroughly by: (a) lm and team reflected on entire learning cycles. students’ representatives were invited to give their perspective on the learning to deepen the analysis. in this session, the assessment and evaluation of documented evidence was done thoroughly. (b) various suggestions from the team and students as well as the results of reflection were documented as learning materials to be disseminated to the faculty along with the entire recording process. 4 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 (c) full report was prepared for experience sharing with the other lecturer in university of kanjuruhan malang. 3. result and discussion lesson study is an activity to increase learning collaboratively and sustainably based on the principle of collegiality and mutual learning. the establishment of a learning community which is a form of developing learning through the stages of plan-do-see (zubaidah, 2017). the focus of lesson study is on improving learning, through observationtowards students, so they can think of ways to improve learning activities andstudent thinking activities, and not on teacher activities (zubaidah 2017). 3.1. implementation of lesson study 3.1.1 first cycle first cycle began with implementation of collaborative learning by group method. the purpose was to improve discipline and teamwork. first cycle was held in one meeting or 3 hours lesson. the implementation of this learning was done by one lecturer model who was assigned to teach and become facilitator, one moderator who assisted model lecturer in arranging the learning process, and two observers who observed the learning process. in the first cycle of learning application was conducted by collaborative method containing two activities, namely the group discussions and group presentations. a. plan the initial phase in the first cycle was planning that was held on january 16, 2017. the planning started with drafting lesson that will be implemented based on preliminary data about the students’ condition which was submitted by lecturer of the course introduction to geography who will also act as lecturer model of lesson study. the design of learning is made by focusing on the importance of teamwork and student discipline. based on their designs, implementing lesson study activities to do in the first cycle didn’t require any media, because learning would be more on a group discussion. the lecturer model only prepared observation sheet to observe the activities and performance of each group. b. do implementation of ‘do’ in the first cycle was held on january 18, 2017. after lecturer model and moderators started the lessons, students’ representative reported the preparations they had made for the presentation. through these results, lecturers asked students to join in small groups. based on the conditions and target achievement of the course, the group formed 5 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 was a group based on the existing group in the presentation activities. it aimed to have good communication and coordination, so that they built a good cooperation in each group. each group coordinated and discussed the problems faced in carrying out individual tasks. in addition, each division made work plans and performance targets that must be addressed by concrete action for successful discussion or presentation. in the end of session, the lecturer asked for a brief report on the results of the discussions that had been undertaken by each group. then the lecturer concluded and provided motivation for students to work well together and on the importance of discipline for the success of planned presentation activities including discipline in attending class. after that, lecturer model and moderator ended the lesson. c. see evaluationwas done immediately on 19 january 2017. at this stage, lesson study team discussed all the activities carried out in the stage of do. based on observations,there were still some shortcomings in the implementation of lesson plan as followed. 1) time of lessonwas not well managed, causing some of the planned activities couldn’t be implemented. 2) many students were observed to be not disciplined in following the lecture indicated ten students who came late. this indicated that the previous lesson couldn’t raise the students' involvement in coming to the class. 3) team didn’t discussed well. only one group observed to have optimal discussion. reflection showed the urge to improve the learning so that it would be well planned for second cycle and could achieve the desired result. 3.1.2 second cycle second cycle of lesson study was focused more on improving student discipline from the time attending the class, the time of finishing group discussion, and quality of teamwork in team discussion. second cycle was held in one meeting and was carried out by one model lecturer who was assigned to teach and become a facilitator during the lecture process. in the second cycle the implementation of learning was done by modifying the group of experts and group sharing among group. in addition, worksheet was developed tomonitor the team target. a. plan planning was done on january 25, 2017. this stage began with the improvement and preparation of lesson plan that would be implemented based on reflection in the first cycle. lesson planin second cycle focused more on improving the discipline both the time of 6 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 attending the lecture and completion of the group target, and the quality of team work. based on the draft made in the second cycle, it was planned that the lecture arrived ten minutes earlier than lectures scheduled. this was intended to build perception that lecturers were ready to give lectures on time. it was also intended to discipline student attendance in a timely manner. furthermore, the grouping during the lectures modified by the formation of group experts and group sharing. modification of this group was done with the intention that every student had a complete understanding of their group progress. this would push the students to complete targets. the development of student worksheet (lkm) which contained the targets to be achieved by each group was also intended to increase discipline and teamwork within the group. b. do implementation phase of second cycle was held on january 26, 2017. lecturer model was prepared ten minutes before the lecture took place as planned. lecture activities began by delivering the purpose of lectures. after delivering the summary of the previous week material and the steps to be taken at the second cycle meeting, the lecturer model conditioned the students in their respective group called expert group. lecturer model distributed student worksheet to be completed by each group whose members were responsible as experts of the group. expert group discussions lasted for approximately thirty minutes, in which each member was obliged to master the worksheet which that would be distributed in groups sharing. after the expert group discussion finished then new groups called sharing group was formed. it was formed from representatives of each group came together to provide information on the performance that had been achieved and what had not been achieved and the target achievement to the members between groups. groups sharing took place as planned, with each member of sharing group formed from members of different group. each group discussed and coordinated about what had been achieved and what each group needed. this sharing group activity lasted approximately for forty minutes. when the lecturer gave a sign that the discussion should be ended, students still asked for more time. at the end of the lecture, the lecturer asks for worksheet of each expert group and the sharing group to be submitted to the committee chairman of the exhibition as a report from each group. lecturer model then concluded from the lecture activities that have been going 7 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 on and appreciated the decrease in the number of students who were late in attending the lectures. lecturers again provided motivation from the importance of discipline and teamwork to be able to make the exhibition activities in accordance with the expected. c. see reflection of the implementation in second cycle was conducted right after the implementation. based on observations, the number of students who came late was very significantly declined, from 10 people down to 2 people. this indicated the impact of the motivation given by the model lecturer. group discussion was also well conducted because of the given worksheet that gave students guidance to carry out activities. only discussion in sharing groupseemed ineffective. model lecturers needed to be more assertive in providing reinforcement and suggestion to the conflicts that occur in sharing groups discussion. 3.2. limitations of implementation of lesson study some limitations in implementation of lesson study were described as follows. 3.2.1 lecturer model didn’t involve observer in designing lesson flow. this implied on the lack in data collection since the observer didn’t quite understand about lesson flow and objectives. 3.2.2 the lack of time (only in two weeks) contributed to un-optimal implementation of lesson study. minimum of lesson study session required (four meeting) was not fulfilled. more time was needed in conducting stages of do and see. 3.2.3 the size of class (forty five students in one class) was also the problem faced in this lesson study. the class was too big that lecture was not effectively conducted because of the lack of supervision and monitoring from the lecture. flipped classroom is a student-centered approach to increase the quality of period within class. generally this approach whose applications are in geography education first year students in university of kanjuruhan malang. the basic idea in flipped classroom teaching is to reverse the traditional order of instruction where lectures precede student activities. in flipped classroom students are instead given homework as preparation for class, and classroom time is then spent on active learning under the guidance of the teacher (karlsson and janson 2016). flipped classroom is a way that educators can provide by minimizing the amount of direct instruction in teaching practices while maximizing interaction with one another flipped classroom is also known as a student-centred approach to learning where the students are more active than the instructor in the classroom activity. in this case, the 8 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 instructor acts as a facilitator to motivate, guide, and give feedback on students’ performance. in implementing flipped classroom, remembering and understanding as the lowest levels of cognitive domain are practiced outside the class hour (karlsson and janson 2016). while in the classroom, the learners focused on higher forms of cognitive work, including applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. with the flipped model, the lower levels are presented before class through recorded lectures and video. readings, simulations, and other materials also provide this foundational support for learning so that in-class time can be spent working on higher levels of learning from application to evaluation.in flipped classrooms, students go from the lowest level (remembering) to achieve the highest level (creating). based on the results of the study, the advantages of doing a flipped classroom are developing the spirit of cooperation, honesty, discipline, and openness as it prioritized on the ability to cooperate with the others, increased understanding independently in the discussion process, increasing comfort and openness when interacting with colleagues, and increased learning motivation. the flipped as an educational technique moves the lectures outside the classrooms and uses learning activities to move practice with concepts inside the classroom (pavanelli, 2018) 4. conclusion based on the implementation of learning that has been done, it can be concluded that:collaborative learning model was quite effective in conducting the course of introduction to geography, because the subject contains many concepts of geography and demands more on students' ability to work cooperatively with others.lesson study generally went smoothly, however, some limitation on the timing and size class was some problems to deal with. lesson study provides a significant impact on improvement of the learning process of introduction to geography. attribute of learning is successfully developed in introduction to geography courses through lesson study activities, including cooperation and discipline. references agustian, a. g. (2007). rahasia sukses membangun kecerdasan emosi dan spiritual: esq. jakarta: arga. karlsson, g., and sverker j. (2016). “the flipped classroom : a model for active student learning.” : 127–36. markuszewska, iwona, minna, t., and josep v. s. (2018). “new ways to learn geography – challenges of the 21 st century.” quaestiones geographicae 37(1): 37–45. 9 suwito and akhmad faruq hamdani/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 1-10 nofrion, and bayu, w. (2018). “learning activities in higher order thinking skill ( hots ) oriented learning context.” 3(2): 122–30. ozdamli, fezile, and gulsum, a. (2016). “educational technology : current issues.” 8(2): 98–105. pavanelli, r. (2018). “the flipped classroom : a mixed methods study of academic performance and student perception in eap writing context 4205 bonaventure blvd.” 5(2): 16–26. ragg, mark, and james, p. (2017). “competency-based blended learning : flipping professional practice classes to enhance competence development mark ragg eastern michigan university , united states of america james piers hope college , united states of america.” iafor journal of education 5: 47–66. stoltman, j. p. (2012). “perspective on geographical education in the 21 st century.” : 17– 24. suharwati, sri, i.i., sumarmi, and ruja, i. n. (2016). “pengaruh model pembelajaran resource based learning terhadap minat dan hasil belajar geografi siswa sma.” jurnal pendidikan 1(2): 74–79. zubaidah, s. (2017). “lesson study sebagai salah satu model pengembangan.” makalah pendidikan dan pelatihan nasional dengan tema peningkatan profesionalisme guru melalui kegiatan lesson study (april 2010). zuchdi, d. (2009). pendidikan karakter. ed. uny press. yogyakarta. 10 164 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 utilization of forest by wolasi sub-disrict community, south sulawesi nur hasanah1* and hastuti1 1 geography education, postgraduate program, yogyakarta state university, indonesia. *email : nurhasanah.patibunga@yahoo.com received 9 january 2019/ revised 12 june 2019/ accepted 19 june 2019/ published 20 august 2019 abstract this study aims to determine the utilization of forests conducted by communities in forest area of wolasi sub-district. this research was conducted in wolasi forest sub-district of southeast sulawesi province. the research methods used were survey and interview with 86 and 87 respondents with purposive sampling by plotting two different villages characteristics to represent forest utilization form in different area (villages in lowland landforms) and aoma village (village has the shape of hilly terrain). the result of this study examining the forests utilization of inhabitants in wolasi subdistrict, which is represented by two topographic characteristics. reseacher selected two similar conditions that engage the forest as a source of daily needs and workface that is considered as a resource, producing timber and non-timber products. ranowila inhabitants occupations are dominated with farmers, while in leleka village, despite being farmers, some inhabitants are craftsmen of non-timber forest products such as bamboo and rattan as well as furniture entrepreneur. this fact is influenced by residential areas that close to the forest and can be observed through the neighbourhood area which is close to the temporary forest area in leleka village. temporary forest is located in an area which always extends land, since the topography circumstance encourages numerous people prefer to live closely towards their managed land. the forest is beneficial both in the term of land utilization or forest products,due to the distance there is limited knowledge,as well as limited work, it enhances low expenditure obtained. keywords: utilization, forest, community in district wolasi 1. introduction forest plays notable role in order to cope upon poverty, increasing earnings, improving food availability, reducing vulnerability and developing the sustainability of natural resources. forest resources in indonesia are adequately large and widespread throughout the region. nurbaya & efransjah (2018: 29) states that indonesia is a mayor nation with 120.6 million hectares or 63 percent of the nation’s entire land is dominated by forests area. forest obtains a variety of natural resources in term of wood and non-timber products, but it should be noticed that forest is quite vulnerable when the management runs innapropriately, as well as gradual abuse. the lowland rain forest type possess the greatest reserve and diversity of wood in geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 164-174, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.9435 doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.10192 165 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 indonesia is currently hitting the dangerous risk, since rain forest almost completely disappear in sulawesi region. gibson et al. (2011) argues tropical forests have critical ecological and utilitarian values, so far tropical forest has been preserving numerous world’s biodiversity and provides significant ecosystem services. natural resources and ecosystems preservation in tropic region is an inherently multivariate issue, particularly in poorly known and rapidly changing ecoregions such sulawesi (cannon et al., 2007:45). sulawesi is one of the regions with extensive forest in main land of indonesia, one of which is located in the wolasi subdistrict, where still obtains sample of natural forests. the presense of inhabitants around the forest is an integral part of the forest itself. the suburb of wolasi has extensive forest with a folded forest resource. the community has a notable profile upon forest resources. silaen (2008: 585) states forest resources possess an important role in providing industrial raw materials, income sources and job opportunities. those are some advantages of forests both as a component of life (biotic) or as a source of society (pongtuluran, 2015: 70). commercial utilization of forests puts forestry as one of the economic recovery aspects within community. referring to dudley (2012:6) most commercial attempts to manage forests have focused primarily on timber and fibre, and indeed the increased efficiency of forests as producers of valuable raw materials has been a major driver behind the changes in the quality of the forests that remain. forests obtains an important role, particularly towards neighbourhood inhabitants who do living near forests either for food or income sources. forests and tree-based systems are part of broader economic, political, cultural and ecological landscapes that typically part of different food production systems and other land engagement (parotta, 2015:155). forest management involves managing forest ecosystems for the provision of ecosystem services (wagner, 2014: 32). residents of wolasi village in particular are considering forest as an economic source, attach forest products in daily life, timber sales, domestic needs and alternative land utilization for agriculture and horticulture in different scale. forests and people (communities) are two things that can not be separated, the dependence of both sides can be observed as follows, (figure 1) figure 1. forest and human relations aryadi (2012) states forest and human relation is an inseparable relationship, where forest and its benefits can not be separated upon human influence in managing the utilization of forest resources for life prevalence and environment. (official regulation) pp / no.6 of 2007 declares forest land utilization as an activity to exploit forest area, utilize environmental services, utilize timber and non timber forest products, collect timber and non timber forest products optimally and people needs productions 166 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 moderately deliver community welfare while maintaining forests sustainability. rural communities are living around to the forest mostly in term of forest resources as common property, even as an open access property that anyone is able to organize (banowati & sriyanto, 2013: 189). based on the description mentioned above, forests utilization is significantly substantial for people, especially community who stays around forests. 2. the methods the basic method used in this study is survey method. survey method was engaged to obtain data sources and information from respondents as research samples. sampling was performed to attain representatives of two villages characteristics by purposive sampling. in order to determine the sample number that suitable towards the number of respondents, reseacher engaged slovin technique. thereby, it attained 86 respondents for ranowila village and 87 respondents for leleka village with different village topographic characteristics. questionnaire technique was performed as an instrument to collect data, questionnaire results were calculated using crosstab. research subjects were targeted based on two different topographic characteristics to represent forest engagement in different areas, namely leleka village (village with rice fields form) and ranowila villages (village with hilly terrain form). primary data collection was obtained through surveys or direct observations directly in the field, namely observation, interviews and questionnaire. secondary data was collected from various institutions that support the research objectives. primary data collection was conducted in a participatory manner through questionnaire results while secondary data was attained referring to the previous research reports, such village monograph data, and other supporting literature. figure 2 represents the framework of this study, as follows: forest utilization wolasi sub district community leleka village (mainland) ranowila village (hilly area) based on the topography utilization of timber and non timber forest products distance between houses and forest area low socio-economy 167 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 figure 2. research framework forest performance is observed based on forests utilization in the form of wood and nontimber, also could be identified from people characteristics who occupy near to the forest area, but with different topography and the distance of respondents' residence to the forest. distance and socio-economic conditions of people who reside around the forest could be enhanced in order to empower themselves in developing forest products as the primary purpose. adhikari (2003: 248) states forest products are defined as products found and used by local communities within forest area. forest products namely wood, as well as non-wood products such as leaves and bark for medicinal purposes, medical plants and other plant products. 3. results and discussion wolasi sub-district has quite large forest with different natural features. people do preserving local traditions, hence they happen to obtain a significant dependence onto forest resources to support their needs. wolasi sub-district has a large protected forest of 3,369,499 ha. the existence of the protected forest it self has a very significant part in balancing ecosystem and as a form of protection upon buffer system to regulate the water system, flood, erosion and maintain soil fertility. in addition, other types of protected forest in wolasi sub-district such as forest production fixed 420.518 ha, 361.031 ha of fixed production forest, forest production remains 41.102 ha (figure 3). figure 3. type and extent of forest in wolasi sub-district the wolasi forest area is located in wolasi sub district, konawe selatan district, southeast sulawesi province. in 2016 it has 450605.53 ha. wolasi forest area is located in gularaya production forest management unit that stands in the main land of southeast sulawesi. wolasi 0,00 500,00 1.000,00 1.500,00 2.000,00 2.500,00 3.000,00 3.500,00 4.000,00 protected forest permanent production forest limited production forest production forest is not fixed 168 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 subdistrict is a hilly area and part of the lowland based on geographical and topographic location. wolasi is a mountainous region. 3.1 wolasi traditional rituals wolasi sub-district is dominated by the existence of indigenous tribe from southeast sulawesi, namely the tolaki tribe. within this wolasi tribe, they arestill strongly dependent on to rituals to respect the existence for the forest. in order to deliver respect towards the forest, people of wolasi frequently do hold traditional ceremonies, particularly if there is an activity relating to forest resources utilization (timber and non-timber products), such springs and other utilization of forest land both small or large scale. the traditional ceremony is known as mooli, which means to buy, the ceremony is held in a day performed by traditional elders and representatives of the community with no more five people. 3.2. inhabitans circumstance throughout forest area wolasi district is an area dominated by forests existence, particularly for the two villages which are the samples of this study, namely leleka and ranowila villages. these two villages are part of wolasi sub-district with different topographic conditions. however, it is undeniable that between two villages have similarities and differences in the sense utilizing forests. forests exploitation for rural communities or local inhabitants around the forest is likely influenced by certain needs. most people attain relatively low education, low income, conventional manner and passive community attitudes. hence, most people are strongly relying upon forest products and even consider forests as property treated. 3.3 the number of timber and non-timber products of forest utilization wood beneficial cannot be denied as a need that cannot be separated towards community. wood existence accomplish the needs of clothing and money. wood selling price is more expensive compared to the non-timber forests potential in the sense of people in wolasi. non-timber resources in the form of forest products that could be made for food and handicrafts are adequately to meet the community requirements. in addition, wood availability also brings numerous job opportunities, even for those with insufficient skills. non-timber forest product is categorized as non-timber species which is cultivated and often utilized by leleka and ranowila villagers with various allocation objectives. those non-timber species utilized are available the in forest areas. the number of timber and non-timber utilization within community can be seen in table 1 below: 169 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 table 1. the number of timber and non-timber utilization within community of ranowila and leleka villages utilization of forest products ranowila village leleka village total percentage total percentage timber 39 45,3 67 77,01 non timber 49 57,0 79 90,8 source: primary data analysis (2018) based on the table description, the number of wood in leleka village is larger than ranowila village, which is 77.01 percent in ranowila village with 45.3 percent is being used as timber forest products. in leleka village 90,8% percent above respondents in ranowila village only amounted to 57.0 percent. this concludes that timber and non-timber forest products are performed more by leleka villagers. 3.4 timber utilization in ranowila and leleka villages the statistic of wood utilization among respondents in ranowila village who engaged wood as much as 45.3 percent while in leleka village as much as 77.01 percent. hence, more intens wood utilization is found in leleka village inhabitants. wood in leleka village is indicated by community endeavor emphasizes more in the forest and also community belief that the selling value of timber is more expensive compared to non-timber forest products. in addition,village location is quite near to the forest. people in ranowila village engaging the ample of land in the forest as primary source of earnings. the utilization wood is mostly performed based on distance between residence and forest, settlements in leleka village are more indented towards the forest and closer compared to ranowila village, which prefers settlement establishment around main road and their land. the following types of wood utilization in ranowila and leleka villages can be seen in table 2 below. table 2. types of wood processed by respondents in ranowila and leleka villages types of wood used ranowilla village leleka village total percentage total percentage jabonmerah (anthocephalusmacrophyllus) 0 0 12 13,6 eha wood (castonopsissp) 4 7,8 0 0 flower wood 5 9,8 0 0 jabonputih (anthocephaluscadamba) 1 2,0 9 10,2 biti wood (vitexcofasus) 2 3,9 10 11,4 jati wood 16 31,4 30 34,1 cendana wood (santalum album) 2 3,9 0 0 dolken wood 2 3,9 0 0 mahoni wood (swieteniamahagoni) 0 0 2 2,3 meranti wood (shorea) 8 15,7 22 25,0 jangguan wood(sonchusarvensis l) 1 2,0 0 0 kuma wood (saffron) 2 3,9 0 0 rawa wood 8 15,7 0 0 eucalyptus (melaleucaleucadendra) 0 0 2 3,4 total 51 100,0 88 100,0 170 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 source: primary data analysis (2018) wood utilization from both villages can be noticed in table 1. the locals of leleka and ranowila mostly perform teak species usage. however, respondents of leleka village manage more types of meranti wood which possesses higher economic value within leleka and the respondents were more varied in utilizing the types of wood available. hence, wood exploitation activities could illustrate livelihood patterns and people preference in electing the types of forest related works in any form. 3.5 non timber utilization in ranowila and leleka villages the number of non-timber available in ranowila village were mostly using non-timber natural resources, apparently 57,0 percent. while in leleka villagethere werelessnon-timber resources usage than in ranowila village, apparently 90.8 percent. non-timber utilization is not only relating to income earnings, but also engagingas food and fuel. nonetheless, it cannot be denied that non-timber forest product is a source of community livelihood around the forest, due to limited capacity to obtain employment and lack of education or knowledge. there were more nontimber utilization activities in leleka village than in ranowila village. this fact is implied through the number of needs and jobs for each person. wood and non-timber expansion resources is more dominant in leleka village. it can be concluded based on the extensive land of forest engaged in leleka village and more diverse forest functions are found, either land arrangement or utilization of timber and non-timber forest resources. the following table shows types of non-wood performance upon ranowila and leleka inhabitants (table 3 below). table 3. types of non-wood managed byranowila and leleka villages inhabitants source: primary data analysis (2018) non-timber managed in ranowila and leleka villages are shown in the table above. it could be statedthat firewood is dominating non-timber product within ranowila village, apparently 68.2%, while in leleka village firewood is managed only as much as 45%. the use of firewood is more prevalent in ranowila village than in leleka village. ranowila village manage drugs non wood species ranowilla village leleka village total percentage total percentage bamboo 4 2,6 firewood 45 68,2 69 45,7 medicinal plants 8 12,1 honey 5 7,6 11 7,3 rattan 2 3,0 13 8,6 sago 3 4,5 33 21,9 vegetables 3 4,5 12 7,9 decorative plants 9 6,0 total 66 151 171 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 utilization with approximately 12.1%, as opposed to leleka village which is dominated by sago commodity with 12.5%. non-timber resources management is more vared in leleka village such bamboo, honey, sago, vegetables and ornamental plants. nonetheless, there were no respondents in leleka village who performed medicinal plants relying upon forest. there were respondents in ranowila village who engaged drugs, sago and were dominated by the use of firewood. this matter could be seen in leleka village that utilizing forest resources as dish substance. in order to increase domestic earnings, those commodities from leleka are offered with other commodities produced in ranowila village which engages non-forest resources as meal ingredients. 3.6 influencing factors of forest utilization 3.6.1 distance to the forest the proximity of villages inhabitants upon forest makes it convenience for them to obtain forest resources in the form of timber and non-timber as income means and food sources. forest also produces boards and clean water for their daily needs. the following table is the distance of inhabitants settlements over the forest. table 4. residence distance towards forest distance of residence with forest ranowila village leleka village total percentage total percentage <500 m 15 17,4 70 80,5 500-1000 m 54 62,8 17 19,5 1000-2000 m 12 14,0 0 0 >2000 m 5 5,8 0 0 source: primary data analysis (2018) the distance of locals residence with the forest in ranowila village is approxiamtely 5001000 m,or 62.8% .while leleka village possesses a distance of <500 m as much as 80.5%. the location of leleka village is closer than ranowila village, hence it affects the way people organize the forest resources at time being, since closer distance reduces time for walk and saving the cost. people who stay within topography area tend to settle with following the road pattern and plantations or agriculture path, while people who live on toporaphic slopes tend to live in a safe terrain pattern from the forest. the road condition along the protected forest in the form of a path is unlikely possible to travel by two or four-wheeled vehicles. thus, people do establish a field inside the protected forest access area by walking along the forest alley. 3.6.2 people’s socio-economic in ranowila and leleka villages socio-economic conditionof inhabitants near forest encompasses a variety of lives, in term of economic dependence, hunting area for nutrient needs, cultivation and plantations, property materials, and some other functions. the relationship between community and forest is inseperable, 172 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 due to compulsory needs and socio-economic conditions encourage them to strongly depend on to forest and neglecting other kind of jobs. considering the socio-economic conditions of ranowila and leleka villages inhabitants, below is presented education, employment and income level in table 5 as follows. table 5. socio-economic level of the community in ranowila and leleka villages source: primary data analysis (2018) in the table above, it can be seen that the level of education is significantly low, thus triggering the village community to encounter limited jobs opportunities, despite their dependence on the forest. information and knowledge flow slugghisly, due to the affordability of the region, limited skills and education level enhance jobs availability dwindling. job vacancies are not varied, despite depending on forest products existence such timber and non-timber products and extensive land of forest. ranowila village community is dominated by farmers, which is influenced by land topography that has been converted into agricultural land. besides, the distance to the forest that is not closed compared to the people living in leleka village, within hilly areas which forest is very dense and natural. somehow, some people who depend on the forest also relying to it in obtaining food and earning to meet the needs. it could be observed upon jobs majority perform between two villages. for instance,while farmers are waiting for the harvest to get wages, for people who close to the forest are offering certain forest products such as vegetables, fruits, firewood and even wood that possess particular selling value for the community. the distance between community residence and forest is one of the factors that triggers forest exploitation manners of inhabitants in term of their daily welfare. distance is the trigger for forest utilization upon rural communities, as well as socio-economic should be considered as another factor that stimulates forest functions. socio-economics is somehow related to accomplishment of people's needs, such as clothes, food, houses, education, health and others (silaen, 2008: 218). the socio-economic encompasses education level which establishes limited types socio-economy ranowilla village leleka village total percentage total percentage 1. education no degree 6 6,97 17 19,54 graduated from primaryschool 47 54,65 53 60,91 did not complete primary school 33 38,37 17 19,54 2. work farmer 59 68,60 20 22,98 non wood crafts 7 8,13 30 34,48 vegetable seller 15 17,44 7 8,04 timber manager 1 1,16 20 22,98 woodman 4 4,65 10 11,49 3. income <rp 500.000 40 46,51 24 27,58 rp 500.000 rp 1.000.000 16 18,60 30 34,48 >rp. 1.000.000 10 11,62 33 37,93 173 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 knowledge, especially for those who stay remote toward information sources, work that only depends on what is available. if there is land available, then managing is the only choice to do work. thus, it influences uncertain opinions according to the daily wages earned. utilization of forests managed by community is plotted through socio-economic requirements, especially for communities that settle withinthe forest, which in this case are dominated by rural communities in general. the community around and inside the forest is generally under developed. thereby, socio-economic condition of this community is basically poor. the community presence ear forest who have direct or indirect access to forest areas to manage forest resources is a reality that cannot be ignored (wirakusumah, 2003: 23). a high socioeconomic level in a society illustrates a high level of welfare (suradi, 2012: 145). 4. conclusion forests utilization of people in wolasi sub-district is represented by two topographic characteristics, posing similar conditions that plot forest as a source of daily needs and jobs that is viewed as a resource, producing timber and non-timber forests. ranowila inhabitants occupations are dominated by farmers, while in leleka village, among jobs as farmers there are also craftsmen of non-timber forest products such as bamboo and rattan. there were managers of wood, this is affected by residential areas that close to the forest and can be seen through the area which is significantly very close to the temporary forest area in leleka village. leleka villageis located in which always demands more area, due to topography that allows number of people to prefer living close to their processed land. the triggers of forest utilization both in the form of land and forest products, due to distance, limited knowledge, as well as limited work, hence provides low expenditure. references adhikari, b., di falco, s., & lovett, j. c. (2004). household characteristics and forest dependency: evidence from common property forest management in nepal. ecological economics, 48(2), 245-257. nurbaya & efransjah (2018). the state of indonesia’s forests 2018. jakarta: ministry of environment and forestry republic of indonesia. aryadi, m. (2012). hutan rakyat: fenomenologi adaptasi budaya masyarakat. upt penerbitan, universitas muhammadiyah malang. banowati, e., & sriyanto.(2013). geografi pertanian. yogyakarta:ombak. 174 nur hasanah and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 164-174 cannon, c. h., summers, m., harting, j. r., & kessler, p. j. (2007). developing conservation priorities based on forest type, condition, and threats in a poorly known ecoregion: sulawesi, indonesia. biotropica, 39(6), 747-759. dudley, n., schlaepfer, r., jackson, w., jeanrenaud, j. p., & stolton, s. (2012). forest quality: assessing forests at a landscape scale. routledge. gibson, l., lee, t. m., koh, l. p., brook, b. w., gardner, t. a., barlow, j., ... & sodhi, n. s. (2011). primary forests are irreplaceable for sustaining tropical biodiversity. nature, 478(7369), 378. parrotta, j.a.(2015). the historical, environmental and socio-economic context of forests and tree-based systems for food security and nutrition. 1(3), 72-136. pongtuluran, y. (2015). manajemen sumber daya alam dan lingkungan. penerbit andi. silaen, a.p. (2008).preservation of forest and environmental functions environmental law perspectives. 16 (3), 218-594. suradi, s. (2012). pertumbuhan ekonomi dan kesejahteraan sosial. sosio informa, 17(3). wagner, s., nocentini, s., huth, f., & hoogstra-klein, m. (2014). forest management approaches for coping with the uncertainty of climate change: trade-offs in service provisioning and adaptability. ecology and society, 19(1). wirakusumah, s. (2003). mendambakan kelestarian sumber daya hutan bagi sebesar-besarnya kemakmuran rakyat. penerbit universitas indonesia. jakarta. cetakan pertama. fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 44 constraints of geography teacher of sma n 1 ngaglik in developing the 2013 curriculum learning devices in sleman regency fajar agung nugroho1 and hastuti1 1geography education, postgraduate program, yogyakarta state university, caturtunggal, depok, sleman, yogyakarta email: fajar.agung2016@student.uny.ac.id received 29 december 2018/ revised 10 february 2019/ accepted 12 february 2019/ published online 29 april 2019 abstract the study aimed to find out: (1) the difficulties of geography teachers 0f sma 1 ngaglik in developing the learning devices, and (2) their efforts to overcome them. the research conducted in sma n 1ngaglik used the descriptive qualitative methods, meanwhile the subjects were geography teachers. the data collection techniques were observation, interviews, and documentation. the data analysis technique used the interactive analysis which included data collection, data reduction, data presentation and conclusion withdrawal. the results of this study indicated that (1) the constraints encountered by them were regarding the development of syllabus using a scientific approach; they had not carried out all learning models in accordance with 2013 curriculum, difficulties in developing learning media, developing the teaching materials, and assessing the attitudes and skills balanced with the knowledge, and (2) efforts to overcome the difficulties that was the teachers performed the various ways: discussing and sharing with the other geography teachers, participating in mgmp activities from the school level until the district one, attending training or workshops to add insight and various knowledges for improving the development of learning devices. keywords: constraints, learning devices, 2013 curriculum 1. introduction human resources are the goal of every nation. these goals can be achieved including through education. it is developed continuously along with the development of civilization, science, technology, and art. the continuous effort to improve the quality of education is manifested in the form of curriculum changes. the curriculum changes from time to time have the clear reasons and basis. thechanges are encouraged by the desire to continue and to improve the quality of the geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 1 (2019), 44-55, april, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.9294 fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 45 national education system. the teachers as the spearhead in curriculum implementation is demanded to optimally and seriously understand and apply it because the quality of the implementation of the education process is seen from this.however, in the field, the curriculum changes frequently create some new problems, especially inthe implementation phase, there are some technical constraints, so that schools as the organizers of the formal education process need energy to know and to understand the contents and objectives of the new curriculum. in the implementation technique,there arealso some constraints due to the need for adaptation to the changes from the previous curriculacommonly applied, (qomariyah, 2014). the procedure for entering the field of research, the researchers initially chose the location by observing the data published by the ministry of education and culture (kemendikbud). based on these data, the researcher chose a public high school in sleman regency which was stated by the ministry of education and culture as the school chosen to implement the 2013 curriculum. researchers chose the location of ngaglik 1 public high school because itis a school that has adopted an approach scientific in sleman regency and it has never yet been used as research location by any researchers.based on the information obtained by the researchers, the location of the study was in accordance with the criteria that must be chosen, namely state public schools, a-accredited, choosing sub-district representatives, namely ngaglik and far from the city center, and using the 2013 curriculum.furthermore, the researcher consulted it to the supervisor, and he agreed it. curriculum and learning are two things that cannot be separated from each other (ro'iyatunisa 2013: 3). as a plan or a program, the curriculum will not be meaningful when it is not implemented in the form of learning. vice versa, without a clear curriculum as a reference, the learning will not go on effectively. law number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system states that the curriculum is a set of plans and arrangements regarding the content and material of the lesson as well as the methods used as guidelines for the implementation of teaching and learning activities. the content and material of the lesson itself is a composition of study material, and lessons to achieve the objectives of the implementation of the relevant education unit in the context of efforts to achieve national education goals (wina sanjaya, 2009). the learning process used the constructivism paradigm. the curriculum recommends a learning with a scientific approach, a problem-based learning, or a project-based learning (minister of education and culture, 2013). the learning syntax has also been established, fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 46 which is expected to facilitate teachers in implementing learning. therefore students will become more active and construct their own understanding to master the competences of spiritual and social attitudes, knowledge, and skills. school is a place to study which implementation requires at least three variables that must exist, namely curriculum, teachers, and teaching and learning process. the teachers become one of the components that cannot be separated in formal education so that in this case, they must be able to follow the development of a curriculum. to create an education system that is in line with this nation, the government strives to improve the quality of education through new policies in each period, one of which is the curriculum. the indonesian curriculum has undergone several changes in its development to the date, that is the 2013 curriculum. it aimsto develop the students' knowledge, comprehension, abilities, values, attitudes, and interests, so they can do something in the form of proficiency, skill, accuracy, and the responsible success (mulyasa, 2014: 68). before the 2013 curriculum is implemented, the important thing for the government to do is to conduct a good management. it determines the success of the 2013 curriculum implementation (katuuk, 2014). one part to be necessarily focused in this management is socialization and dissemination. this activity is intended in order that the curriculum implementers completely understand the curriculum, so that they can carry out it properly. mayer & fortner (1987) stated that intensive workshops were an effective way to ensure the utilization of the disseminated curriculum material. another way that can be used is the development of teacher professionalism related to the curriculum (ryder, banner, & homer, 2014). when the new curriculum is implemented, of course there are some difficulties for its development. the difficulties and the challenges commonly experienced and faced by many countries are the implementation phase, such as the teacher’s additional assignments and the differences experienced during learning in the class(cheung & wong, 2012), the lack of teacher's understanding for the curriculum (park, 2008, cheung & wong, 2012), and the lack of facilities (syomwene, 2013). in addition, there are also difficulties in the implementation of learning and assessment. the assessment system carried out by teachersis also very different from the previous curriculum, namely the application of an authentic assessment. the 2013 curriculum assessment is regulated by the regulation of minister of education and culture, number 81 of 2013 (minister of education and culture, 2013) which was later revised to be the fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 47 regulation of minister of education and culture, number 104 of 2014 (minister of education and culture, 2014). there are 4 competencies measured in this assessment, they arethe competencies in spiritual, social attitudes, knowledge, and skills. to measure spiritual attitudes and social attitudes, there are 4 techniques that can be used, namely observation, self-assessment, assessment among the students, and journals. to measure knowledge, there are 3 techniques that can be used, including the test, observation, and assignment techniques. meanwhilethe skill assessment, there are 4 techniques applied, namely performance assessment, projects, products, and portfolios. these assessmentsare carried out on each basic competency by bringing together the results of the assessment of some basic competencies learned, and on all subjects in the school. then the assessment results arequalitatively described for each student for the four competencies in all subjects. the implementation of the authentic assessments in the new curriculum has various obstacles faced by teachers, especially by the geography teachers. theseare caused by the lack of teacher understanding of alternative assessments (eraslan, 2013), plan of assessment, implementation of assessments, the use of various methodsin the assessment and the time of evaluation (lumadi, 2013), lack of teachers’ understanding in conductingthe assessments, lack of resources in carrying out summative assessment and formative (kurebwa & nyaruwata, 2013), resources and policies (kankam, bordoh, eshum, bassaw, & korang, 2014). as the 2013 curriculum is carried out, information is needed about the teachers’ barriers in implementing it, especially for geography subjects. this information can be used as input for the policy makers therefore the implementation of the curriculum becomes better and more efficient. in this regard, this study aims to describe the constraints of developing the geography teacher learning tools for sma n 1 ngaglik. 2. the methods the research on the constraints of geography education teachers of ngaglik 1 public high school in ngaglik district is a descriptive study with a qualitative approach. descriptive research according to sukardi (2005: 157) "is a study that attempts to describe and interpret objects according to what they are." while qualitative methodology is a research procedure that produces qualitative descriptive data in the form of written or oral words from people and observed behavior (andi prastowo, 2012: 22). fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 48 research subjects were determined using purposive techniques. sugiyono (2007: 299) revealed that "purposive technique is a technique of determining data sources with specific considerations and objectives." considerations in determining research subjects were geography teachers of ngaglik 1 public high school in ngaglik district who had attended 2013 curriculum education training. the snowball method is carried out in a chain manner, the technique of determining the sample which is initially small and then enlarges. data collection methods used in this study were interviews, observation and documentation. analysis of the data used in this study is descriptive qualitative, sugiono (2013: 338) states that data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. the time of the study will be carried out starting in march july 2018. the population in this study consisted of two geography subject teachers of ngaglik 1 public high school (sma n 1 ngaglik), meanwhile the samplesconsisted ofone principal, three peer teachers, and two students of the school. generally, the research steps were carried out in three phases, namely the preparation phase, the implementation phase, and the data analysis phase. data collection technique was a systematic procedure of standard data to obtained the required data. the researcher used a qualitative approach using data collection as follows: observation, interviews, and documentation. the data collecting used triangulation techniques combining observation and interviews. stainback (1988) and sugiyono (2013: 241) stated that the techniques did not aim to determine the truth about some social phenomena, but the purpose of triangulation was to increase one's understanding of whatever was being investigated. it meant thatthe triangulation aimed to improve the researcher’s understanding about the social phenomena and to investigate whether the information obtained from informants / participants is either true or wrongbased on thetheory and law. fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 49 3. result and discussion 3.1 constraints faced by teachers in developing the 2013 curriculum learning devices in sma n 1 ngaglik,2017/2018 academic year the development of learning devices is certainly not without constraints. the preparation of the syllabus can be completed properly, but there aresome obstacles due to the time inconsistency in the field. both syllabus and rpp arethe guideline of teaching,but theobstacles are still found, that is making the learning implementation plans. the geography teacher at sma n 1 ngaglik makes the plans once a week or one semester. this is done because the geography teacher has the task burden and obligation of teaching assignments and the other ones. the geography teacher at sma n 1 ngaglik has attempted to develop learning media. however the teachers have the limited time to create learning media so that teachers only develop simple learning media according to their needs and abilities. the attachment to the minister of education and culture regulation number 103 of 2014 concerning learning in primary and secondary education explains as follows; “… the learning process requires a carrying capacity in the form of the availability of learning facilities and infrastructure. these include furnitures, educational equipment, educational media, books and other learning resources”. the teacher has used an interactive learning model. the selection of models in which the applied methods, approaches and strategies shouldbe adapted to the material being taught. the constraints faced by one learning model are not applied in all subject matter. the selection of learning models with learning materials is what sometimes makes the teacher experience difficulties in determining the learning model. 3.1.1 annual program the annual program is a plan to determine the time allocation for one school year to achieve a predetermined standard of competence and basiccompetences. the results of observations, andinterviews showed that the geography teachers at sma n 1 ngaglik was able to develop the annual program. based on the results of the annual program analysis fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 50 indicated that the teacher preparedthe annual program by determining the identity of learning, mentioning the points of the material to be discussed, formulating the basic competencies and estimating thelength of time based on the school calendar. the geography teacherswerebasically able to develop well the annual program. 3.1.2 semester program based on the results of the semester program observations showed that the teachers developed well the semester program but it was not optimal because it had not completed the specified components. the lack ofthe semester program are not yet formulating learning objectives, writing down learning resources, and determining the assessment systems. this could be seen in the semester program learning devices that had been analyzed by researchers. based on the observations showed that geography teachers were not good enough in developing the semester program. 3.1.3 syllabus syllabus is a product of curriculum development as a written plan that must be related to other curriculum products, namely the learning process. teacher is an important component in education efforts. the geography teachers at sma n 1 ngaglik used a syllabus from the government and still develop the scientific knowledge and could be seen from the analysis of the geography syllabus. the development of the geography syllabus in sma n 1 ngaglik was adjusted to the potencies of school resources and thestudents. the research concluded that the development of the geography syllabus was goodenough and still in the process of improvement. 3.1.4 learning implementation plan learning implementation plan is a plan of learning activities arranged for one meeting or more and refers to syllabus. it is developed from syllabus which aimed to direct a teacher in an effort to achieve the basic competencies (kd). it is developed by the geography teacher of sma n 1 ngaglik has been good enough even though it still does not meet the components determined by the government, namely the objectives and learning material have not yet been poured. the teacher is not yet capable enough in developing the plan which is of course according with the potential of student resources and school infrastructure. based on the fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 51 observation results of rpp geography adapted to the conservation assessment table, researchers indicated that the lesson plans were good enough. 3.1.5 learning model based on the results of observations and interviews with respondents showed that the geography teacher at sma n 1 nggalik had been capable in choosing the learning model. this was stated by the principal. the teacher has already chosen a model that was of course adapted to the material because whatever the model was, learning continually runand the material could be conveyed to students. the learning model that was often used by teachers were inquiry and project. 3.1.6 instructional media the geography teacher at sma n 1 ngalik has practically developed several classifications of learning media table 1. the developed several classifications of learning media group of media learning media teaching aids 1. audio audio tape (open reel, cassette tape) telephone, intercom 2. print material (includingpictures / photos) programmed text, manuals, modules, manuals or instructions hand out, blackboard, graphics, transparency, map, globe 3. projected image slide, film strip (can be accompanied by narration or explanation) slides, transparencies, film strips 4. audio-print (combination 1 and 2) worksheets accompanied by tape, maps or diagrams accompanied by narration worksheets are accompanied by tape, maps or diagrams accompanied by narration 5. projected audio visual the film strip given a narrative, sound slide 6. moving image movie without sound movie without sound 7. pictures or sound films voice film, video-tape, audio-vision (video accompanied by props of real objects) video tape 8. object or things real objects, models or imitation objects specimens, real objects, models or imitation of objects. fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 52 this media was developed by the teacher and it had to be suitablewith the material and class conditions because these were different each other.according to the conservation tablecould be calculated that the teacher's ability to develop learning media was good enough because the teacher had tried to create the media with limited school conditions. 3.1.7 teaching materials teachers developedthe teaching materials such as student worksheets (lks), dictates, audio-visual teaching materials. they also used the internet and library book facilities and they can beaccessed by students to study. table 2. the types of media types description printed material handouts, module books, student worksheets, brochures, leaflets written printing material in the form of sheets folded but turned off or sewn), wallcharts (printed material is usually in the form of a cycle or process chart or graph that means to show a particular position), photos or pictures, models or models printed material (audio) cassettes, radios,phonograph record, and compact audio disks. radio is an electronic equipment that can be used to listen to good and actual news, can find out several important and new events and events, life problems and so on. radio can be used as a learning media that is quite effective teaching material (audio visual) compact disk, film. a learning model that focuses on teaching and problem solving skills, followed by strengthening skills (k. l. pepkin, 2004: 1). by using this learning model, it expected that it can increase the interest as well as creativity and motivation of students in learning mathematics, so that students can get maximum benefits both from the process and the results of their learning. interactive teaching material interactive compact disk the teacher's ability from a number of respondents' opinions stated that in evaluating and evaluating the results of geography learning it was very difficult to be able to formulate the objectives of the assessment and implementation. this is because the government has fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 53 determined an assessment plan that includes attitudes, knowledge, and skills. this assessment many complain of many aspects that must be assessed. the development of learning devices that is an obligation of a professional teacher is in fact inseparable from various obstacles. it is one of the obstacles faced by geography teacher. geography teacher of sma n 1 ngaglik overcomes the obstacles in developing 2013 curriculum-based learning tools through several ways including; (1) discussing and sharing with other geography teachers or with more senior geography teachers took part in subject teacher discussion activities (mgmp) from the school, sub-district, to district levels, attendingthe trainings or workshops to add insight and various information to improvement in developing learning devices, (2) managing the time allocation to be more effective. the teachers designedthe group assignments. the teachers expected that each member of the groups can exchange information and it can be easily understood by students so that the spent time can be effective, (3) the teacher prepares learning media in the form of power points and student worksheets. the teacher revealed that power point media is easier to use as a learning medium by making material points. teachers need to have the ability to design and implement the various learning strategies that are considered suitable with their interests and talents and with the level of development of students, including the usage of the various learning resources and learning media (sanjaya, 2010: 274). (4) besides using the wi-fi facility as a supporter of internet learning resources, the teachers can use other learning resources such as textbooks. teachers also provide group assignments so that group members can exchange information. the teacher as a facilitator should be able to cultivate the useful learning resources and support to achieve the goals of the teaching and learning processes, (4) explaining to the point of one way to overcome the difficulties of the teacher in "reasoning" and "presenting". in accordance with the professionalism of the teachers, they must have the ability to manage the classes, andthe teaching and learning interactions. they must explain clearly the materials in order to be easily understood by the students. it is the basis for the teacher to convey to the point, therefore the delivery of the subject is easily accepted by students and hey can understand the intent and purpose of the learning. 4. conclusion the problems encountered by the geography teachers of sma negeri 1 ngaglik included: developing the learning devices,composing the syllabus using the scientific fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 54 approach,implementing the learning models according to the 2013 curriculum. in addition, they hadsome difficulties in developing learning media,providing the teaching materials, and making the attitude and skill assessments. the teachers overcamethe difficulties of developing the learning toolsby discussing and sharing with other geography teachers or with geography teachers who have been senior, participating in subject teacher discussion activities (mgmp) from the school, sub-district, to regency levels, must attend thetraining or the workshops to add insight and various information for improving the development of 2013 curriculum learning devices. references cheung, a.c.k & wong, p.m. (2012). “factors affecting the implementation of curriculum reform in hong kong: key findings from a large‐scale survey study”. international journal of educational management, vol. 26 iss: 1, pp.39 – 54. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513541211194374. eraslan, a. (2013). “teachers’ reflections on the implementation of the new elementary school mathematics curriculum in turkey”. hu journal of of education. 28 (2), 152165. mulyasa. e (2014). pengembangan dan implementasi kurikulum 2013. bandung: pt. remaja rosdakarya. kankam, b., bordoh, a., eshum, i., bassaw, t.k, & korang, f.y. (2014). ”teachers’ perception of authentic assessment techniques practice in social studies lessonsin senior high schools in ghana”. international journal of educational researchand information science. 1 (4): 62-68. katuuk, d.a. (2014). manajemen implementasi kurikulum: strategi penguatan implementasi kurikulum 2013. cakrawala pendidikan, 13 (1): 13-26. kurebwa, m. & nyaruwata, l.t. 2013. ”assessment challenges in the primary schools: a case of gweru urban schools”. greener journal of educational research 3(7), pp. 336344. lumadi, m.w. (2013). “challenges besetting teachers in classroom assessment: an exploratory perspective”. journal of social science. 34 (3): 211-221. fajar agung nugroho and hastuti/ geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 44-55 55 mayer, v.j. & fortner, r.w. (1987). “relative effectiveness of four modes of dissemination of curriculum materials”, thejournal of environmental education, 19(1) 25-30. doi:10.1080/00958964.1987.10801957. menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia. (2013). peraturan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan nomor 81 tahun 2013 tentang pelaksanaan penilaian. menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia. 2014. peraturan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan nomor 104 tahun 2014 tentang pelaksanaan penilaian. ryder, j., banner, i., & homer, m. (2014). “teachers’ experiences of science curriculum reform”. school. sugiyono. (2007). metode penelitian kuantitatif kualitatif dan r & d. bandungan: alfabeta. sukardi. (2005). metodologi penelitian pendidikan kompetensi dan praktiknya. jakarta: bumi aksara. syomwene, a. (2013). “factors affecting teachers’ implementation of curriculum reforms and educational policies in schools: the kenyan experience”. journalof education and practice. 4 (22) 8086. wina sanjaya. (2010). perencanaan & desain sistem pembelajaran. jakarta: kencana. qomariah. (2014). kesiapan guru dalam menghadapi implementasi kurikulum 2013. semarang; mahasiswa pendidikan ekonomi ikip veteran semarang. 90 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 90-102 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8185 domestic energy utilization and potentials of alternative sources of energy in mubi metropolis bulus luka gadiga1, kevin ferdinand jigumtu2 and hajjatu tammi3 1,2,3department of geography, adamawa state university, mubi, nigeria email : bulgami@gmail.com, bulga_mi@yahoo.com received: 25 july 2018/revised: 13 august 2018/accepted: 18 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract the study investigates domestic energy utilization and potentials of alternative sources of energy in mubi metropolis of adamawa state. to achieve the objectives of this study, data were collected using questionnaire. a total of 108 sets of questionnaire were retrieved and analyse using descriptive statistics. some of the data collected from respondents include; types of energy used for various purposes, factors that influence such use and preferences for the different types of energy. other information which cannot be collected using questionnaire were obtained from published and unpublished materials. the findings show that households rely more on fuel-wood. economic factors were found to influence the choice of energy used in homes. solar energy and wind energy have high potentials as alternative energy source that will help in mitigating climatic change. the study concludes that households in mubi metropolis tends to climb the energy ladder from low grade energy types to modern energy when income increases and such energy are made available. the study recommends that households be sensitized on the health and environmental effects of traditional energy. households should be encouraged to use modern and alternative sources of energy in order to mitigate climate change. such energies should also be made affordable and available since majority of the respondents were willing to switch when made affordable. keywords: domestic energy, alternative energy, climate change, firewood. 1. introduction domestic energy utilization is the total amount of energy used in a household. the amount of energy used per household varies widely depending on the standard of living of a country, the climate, the age of the head of household and type of residence (palmer, 2004). energy is a basic necessity of life for meeting domestic, social and industrial needs. adequate and regular supplies of energy for both industrial and domestic purposes are prerequisites for socio-economic progress and overall development. energy is required at all times for meeting various purposes especially at the household levels. life can become difficult without the availability of adequate and regular energy supply for domestic needs. energy for domestic https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:bulgami@gmail.com mailto:bulga_mi@yahoo.com 91 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 purposes is determined by two major factors: availability and affordability (momodu, 2013). this implies that energy must be readily available and at an affordable price that is within the reach of the people especially the poor. making energy available to all and sundry in a particular society is a measure of the level of economic development of that particular society. for example, in advanced economies, majority of their population have access to cheap and affordable energy supply because of their technological advancement (momodu, 2013). in such clime, the necessary energy infrastructures are available while the costs of energy are affordable by the majority of the people. the reverse is however the case with people living in low income country like nigeria, where the purchasing power of large proportion of the populace is low while necessary energy infrastructure is not in place. thus, majority of the people do not have access to energy sources of their choice. in addition, there is inadequate energy infrastructure and inadequate energy supply. this further compounds the problems of energy availability. overall, most of the developing nations do not have access to cheap, reliable and environmentally friendly energy sources. in terms of utilization, household energy accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption in developing countries (obueh, 2008). households use energy for lighting, heating, cooling, ironing, food and drinks preservation, powering electronic devices, cooking and vacuum cleaning. the rural dwellers, whose needs are often basic, depend to a large extent on the traditional sources of energy for their domestic energy requirements while the majority of the urban dwellers depend on traditional energy sources and fossil fuels. however, the high level of poverty and other socio-economic problems inhibit both the rural and urban dwellers from having access to adequate and reliable sources of energy for domestic purposes. in terms of energy availability, there are various alternative energy sources in nigeria such as wind, biomass and solar, which if properly harnessed will alleviate energy problems of the people most especially for their domestic consumption. obviously, nigeria is naturally endowed with oil and gas and depends on it for her economic development. for example, oil accounts for 80.5% of national revenue (cbn, 2009). these two energy sources are the major export commodities that provide foreign exchange earnings for the country. oil and gas also play major role in meeting energy needs of the various sectors of the nation’s economy. studies by climate change network nigeria (ccnn) (2003) reveal that the combustion of fossil fuels is not the only anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide. when ecosystems are 92 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 altered and vegetation is either burned or removed, the carbon stored in them is released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. currently, up to a quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere can be attributed to land use change. concentrations or emission of greenhouse gases and especially carbon dioxide have risen over the past two hundred and fifty years, largely due to the combustion of fossil fuels for energy production. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen from about 270 parts per million (ppm) giga tons to about 370 ppm giga tons (ccnn, 2003). environmental problems like deforestation, desertification and drought will be the order of the day as a result of the emission of carbon dioxide and other toxic and harmful gases if these traditional sources of energy like firewood are frequently used. fossil fuels, coal, natural gas, and oil, produce most of our electricity but come with significant and harmful consequences. they produce the vast majority of global warming emissions. they release toxic chemicals that pollute our air and water. and they have adverse, and costly, effects on public health (ucs, 2015). climate change and climate variability in nigeria have become issues of considerable concern. evidences from studies have revealed that the country is vulnerable to the impact of climate change. instrumental observations over the past 150 years show that surface temperatures have risen globally, with important regional variations. in nigeria, temperatures have been on the increase in the last five decades and have been very significant since 1980s. after the drought of 1983, temperatures have been above normal except in 1989 and 1992. the 55-year (1951 – 2005) linear trend indicates a change of 1.01 (0.52 to 1.5) o c. the linear warming for the same period of 30-year averages on a decadal slice further reveal changes in temperature by an average of 0.2oc. temperature anomalies over the country show that except in1973 when the country experienced a significant drought, temperatures were below normal between 1951 and 1978. from the 1980s upward, temperatures have been above normal by as much as 2oc in 1998 which was considered as the hottest year in instrumental records in the country (federal ministry of environment, 2014). a study conducted by new et al. (2006), from 1961 – 2000, has shown that there was an increase in the number of warm spells over west africa and a decrease in the number of extreme cold days. there exist a number of inter-annual fluctuations observed in the annual rainfall over the country which is responsible for dry and wet years or extreme climate events such as drought and flood. the fluctuations during the first relatively wet period which occurred between 1951 and 1968 had high values of rainfall in 1954, 1955, 1957 and 1963. the lowest value of rainfall during this period was in 1958. the period 1970 – 1990 was dry except between 1978 – 1980 and coincided with the sahelian droughts of early 1970s and 93 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 1980s. from 1990s to present, rainfall has been above normal. however, rainfall was much better in the 1990s than the present. the general trend indicates a decline in rainfall over the country even though some locations may experience better rainfall than what has been expressed for the country (federal ministry of environment, 2014). this will eventually have negative consequences on the economy of the country as majority of the people depend on rain-fed agriculture as their main source of income. the use of alternative sources of energy is desirable in tackling the contemporary global challenge of climate change and environmental degradation. hence, this study attempts to assess the potentials of alternative sources of energy in order to contribute to global efforts in mitigating climate change. 2. the methods 2.1 study area mubi as a geographical area falls within two major local government areas, mubi north and mubi south. the metropolis lies approximately between latitude 10০ 14′ 30′′ and 10০ 18′ 08′′ north of the equator, and between longitude 13০ 13′ 09′′ and 13০ 17′ 14′′ east of the greenwich meridian with the yadzeram river cutting across it (figure 1). mubi metropolis is situated at the foot of the mandara mountain ranges, and extends westwards. mubi north and south local government areas share international boundary with the republic of cameroun on the eastern parts. mubi has a land area of 4728.77km2 with a population of 151,515 (npc yola 2006). mubi region has tropical wet and dry type of climate coded as aw in the koppen’s climatic classification. mubi has one of the tropical african savanna climate where temperature gradually increases from january to april with seasonal maximum occurring in the month of april. temperature declines slightly as rain set in due to the effect of cloudiness, increasing again after the cessation of rain in the month of october to november. relative humidity tends to be low between january and march; and increases from april to reach the maximum in august following the movement of the intertropical convergence zone (itcz). 94 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 figure 1: the study area 2.2 analysis of data to achieve the objective of the study, the following information were acquired using questionnaire; types of energy used for various purposes, factors that influence such use and preferences for the different types of energy. other information which cannot be collected 95 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 using questionnaire were obtained from published and unpublished materials. a total of 108 sets of questionnaire were retrieved and analyze using descriptive statistics. four wards were selected from the study area which was categorized into residential zones; very low, low, medium and higher-class residential zones. the purpose of using different zones of the study area is to determine variation in energy utilization. the study also assesses the potentials of alternative energy sources in generating electricity in order to mitigate climate change by reducing emission of co2 as a result of fossil fuels and fuelwood consumed per household. 3. results and discussion the sets of questionnaire were administered in the four selected residential zones (wards) in study area. out of the 120 questionnaire administered, 108 were retrieved and analyzed. table 1 gives the distribution of questionnaire in each ward. table 1: questionnaire return rate ward distributed retrieved wuro patuji 30 24 barama 30 27 kolere 30 29 lamurde 30 28 total 120 108 source: field survey, 2018. 3.1 categorization of energy used by household the results of data collected on household energy use with their sources are presented in table 2. mean and percentages were used in determining the general responses of the respondents. 96 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 table 2: types of energy used by households energy/utility cooking % ironing % lighting % cooling % electricity 0 0 7 5.5 35 32.4 41 37.9 gas 7 6.5 0 0 kerosene 17 15.7 40 37.0 firewood 44 48.2 4 3.7 charcoal 32 29.6 99 91.6 candle 29 26.9 petrol/diesel 0 0 2 1.9 0 0 67 62.1 total 108 100 108 100 108 100 108 100 source: field work, 2018 the table shows that in the study area electricity was not usually used for cooking (0%) due to epileptic power supply from the national grid. only 6.5% of the respondents indicated to using gas, 15.7% use kerosene stove, while firewood is the dominant type of energy use for cooking (48.2%) followed by charcoal which has 29.6%. the energy type that is mostly used for ironing is charcoal (91.6%), electricity from the national grid is the second important energy used for ironing (6.5%) and electricity generated using petrol/diesel generators is the least used energy (1.9%) for ironing in mubi metropolis. for household lighting, bush lambs using kerosene and generators (petrol/diesel) are the frequently used energy types for lighting with 37% of responses, electricity is the second frequently used energy for lighting (32.4%), candle (26.9%) and the least is wood product (3.7%). the energy type attributable for cooling in most households is petrol/diesel powered generators (62.1%) while electricity from the national grid (37.9%) is also used. the findings of this research revealed that the most frequently used energy type for cooking in households is firewood followed by charcoal. the energy type used for ironing is charcoal. in most households, kerosene/petrol powered generators ranked high in the use of energy for lightning in the area. for cooling in the area, petrol/diesel ranked the most used. this shows that, the most frequently used energy type in mubi metropolis is firewood/charcoal followed by petrol/diesel. the findings of this study agrees with the position of world bank, (2005) and nec, (2006), which stated that in nigeria, traditional energy sources accounts for over 70% of domestic energy supply. the use of this type of energy could be attributed to the fact that the traditional energy sources are more accessible 97 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 energy sources. with the current pressure heaved on the firewood and other wood product in the area, there is no doubt that the area will soon start experiencing a dramatic change in its micro climatic conditions. 3.2 the factors influencing the choice of energy used by households factors that influence the choice of different energy types used in households are collected from respondents. table 3 presents the results of respondents that strongly agree and agree that price, season, accessibility and culture influences the choice of used by households and also those that disagree and strongly disagree to the influence of these factors. table 3: factors influencing the choice of energy used by households response increase in price % seasonality % accessibility % cultural belief % strongly agree 69 63.9 70 64.8 83 76. 9 28 25.9 agree 29 26.9 30 27.8 18 16. 7 18 16.7 strongly disagree 1 0.9 0 0 2 1.8 27 25 disagree 9 8.3 8 7.4 5 4.6 35 32.4 total 108 100 108 100 108 100 108 100 the result in table 3 shows that 63.9% strongly agree, 26.9% agree, 0.9 strongly disagree and 8.3% disagree that price of energy affects their choice of energy as a result, it also shows that 64.8% strongly agree, 27.8% agree, strongly disagree 0% and 7.4% disagree that seasonality affects their choice of energy, it also shows that 76.9% strongly agree, 16.7% agree, strongly disagree 1.8% and 4.6% disagree that the accessibility in terms of availability and affordability affects the choice of energy they use. for example the accessibility of firewood in their environment has greatly influence the way has been used in the study area. however, it shows that 25.9% strongly agree, 16.7% agree, strongly disagree 25% and 32.4% disagree that cultural belief and preference affects the energy used for cooking and other activities. accessibility of the different energy types was found to be a strong determinant of its use. majority of the households agree that firewood is collected for free and this influence its 98 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 high usage in the area, while some households resort to the use of firewood and charcoal owing to its relative cheapness. price of energy, whether it is very affordable or not its availability and accessibility can also determine its use. income is also a major determinant of the type of energy been used in the area as high and medium income earners tends to climb the energy ladder from low grade energy types to modern energy. for example, the use of charcoal-iron is substituted with electric-iron when income improves. 3.3 carbon dioxide emission by firewood consumed in mubi metropolis etb (2011) shown that firewood when used as a fuel emits the highest co2 compared with other fuels (0.39 kg co2 /kwh) thereby contributing to global warming. the combustion of 1kg of wood generates between 1.65 and 1.80 kg of carbon dioxide depending on the species used (halava, 2013; kaltimber, 2017). thus, the approximate emission in mubi was calculated based on 1.73 kg of co2 per kg of firewood. table 4 emission of carbon dioxide by quantity of fuel wood consumed in mubi wards firewood consumed daily kg fixed emission of co2 kg no. of household mean monthly firewood consumption mean monthly emission of co2 kg kolere 2.6 1.73 1,346 104,988 181629.24 lamurde 2.1 1.73 455 28,665 49,590.45 barama 1.7 1.73 792 40,392 69,878.16 wuro patuji 3.4 1.73 1275 130,050 224,986.5 from the table 4, wuro patuji consumes the highest wood per household per day (3.4kg) which approximately emits 224,986.5 kg of co2 monthly. kolere consumes an average of 2.6 kg of firewood per household per day and with the total of 1346 households it therefore consumes a total 181,629.24 kg of firewood monthly which translates into 104,988 kg of co2. lamurde consumes 2.1 kg of wood per household daily which emits 49,590.45 kg of co2 and barama with the least firewood consumption (1.7 kg) emit 69,878.16 kg of carbon dioxide monthly. 99 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 this shows from the information obtained, that a total household of 26,378 are found in the study area (mshelia, 2015). therefore, the households in mubi daily consume an average of 64,626.1 kg of wood which emits 111,803.15 kg of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere daily and 3,354,094.59 kg monthly. therefore, targeting alternative energy sources will address about 30% of the carbon dioxide emissions in the area (ccnn, 2003). for example, the use of renewable energy for electricity generation does not cause additional carbon dioxide emissions, and is sustainable into the future. the major challenges with the use of renewable sources of energy are the cost, intermittency of supply, and distance between the resources and the end user. some possible renewable energy sources in the area are solar power, wind power and rooftop photovoltaic. table 5: the preferences of alternative energy sources in mitigating climate change. response frequency (f) percentage (%) prevent soil erosion 16 14.8 minimal emission of carbon dioxide 47 43.5 available 15 13.9 cheap 11 10.2 reduces deforestation 19 17.6 data presented on the preferences of alternative energy sources in mitigating climate change showed that 43.5% prefers alternative energy source because they emit less carbon dioxide than firewood while 17.6% prefer alternative energy source because it reduces deforestation, 14.8% said it protect soil against erosion, 13.9% said is available in the environment and 10.2% said it is healthier to the environment. the information given by the respondents on the alternative sources of energy shows that if the energy is made available and affordable they are willing to switch to it which will help to mitigate the emission of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. according to ccnn, (2003), when alternative energy sources or modern energy sources are made available and affordable, it will reduce about 111,803.15 kg of carbon dioxide emitted daily into the atmosphere thereby reducing global warming. hence, alternative energy is the answer to our global climatic crisis. solar and wind power are the main sources of renewable energy that this study considers as suitable to the study area. studies have shown that areas with a total 100 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 solar output of 5.2kw/day and wind speed of 60kw will be sufficient to generate power for domestic use (ucs, 2015). renewable energy resources like wind and solar power generate electricity with little or no pollution which could reliably and affordably provide energy mix for the area thereby reducing the emission of greenhouse gas (ucs, 2015). the use of alternative sources of energy can globally reduce deforestation annually from 400,000 to about 120,000 hectares this is because trees are being used for other uses apart from energy (i.e. in construction, furniture etc.) which will eventually checkmate to a reduced level soil erosion and deforestation (ccnn 2003). 3.4 potentials of alternative sources of energy in the study area a. solar energy solar energy will be ideal for household power generation in the study area; this is because the area receives an average of 9 hours of solar radiation which translate to about 5.25kw/m2 energy (osueke and ezugwu, 2011). therefore, mubi can be said to have high potentials for the development of solar energy which can generate electricity to be used domestically. b. wind energy large utility-scale wind turbines range in size from 50 kilowatts to over four megawatts. smaller wind towers (under 50 kw) are suitable for residential and agricultural use. for wind energy system to function effectively, certain conditions like wind speed and space most be put into consideration. base on this information, the location of mubi close to mandara highlands makes it ideal for wind powered energy with an average speed of 60kw can rotate turbine that can generate electricity for domestic purposes (oyeneye, 2004). wind power is a totally renewable energy source with no greenhouse gas emissions. as one of the alternative source of energy, wind towers can be installed to generate electricity which will go a long way in mitigating co2 emission in mubi. wind energy is clean, non-polluting, and capable of providing enough electricity to power a household. 4. conclusion the findings revealed that households in mubi metropolis responded differently in their energy use pattern. the choice of energy use can be related to season, accessibility, location, income, and energy price. the study shows that traditional sources of energy are commonly used for domestic purposes. firewood accounts for the most frequently used 101 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 source of energy in the area. other sources of energy like; fossil fuel (kerosene, petrol, diesel and gas) and charcoal are also used in the area. households in mubi metropolis responded positively to the use of modern energy for cooking and non-cooking activities. however, they are constraint by the affordable, available of these cleaner energies. making modern energy available and affordable as well as sensitizing households on the impact of traditional energy use on the environment will help ensure a secured and safe environment. based on these findings the study concludes that households in mubi area tends to climb the energy ladder from low grade energy types to modern energy when income increases and such energy are available. the high dependence of most households on low grade energy types has environmental and health implications especially against the backdrop of forest degradation and deforestation amidst the threats of climate change. references cbn (2009). statistical bulletin, central bank of nigeria: volume 20, december 2009 climate change network nigeria (ccnn, 2003) monitoring nigerian climate change. www.ccnnigeria.org accessed on february, 2018 decc, (2013) the uk low carbon transition plan: national strategy for climate and energy. presented to parliament pursuant to sections 12 and 14 of the climate change act 2008, tso etb (2011) engineering tool box. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com. accessed may 2017 federal ministry of environment (2014). nigeria’s second national communication under theunited nations framework convention on climate change. abuja, nigeria. halava, satu (2013) carbon footprint of thermowood. unpublished project, satakunnan university of applied sciences. accessed on 13th august, 2018 from https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/63624/halava_satu.pdf;sequence=1 kaltimber (2017) how much co2 is stored in 1 kg of wood? http://www.kaltimber.com/blog/2017/6/19/how-much-co2-is-stored-in-1-kg-of-wood accessed on 11th august, 2018. mshelia, a. d (2015). seasonal variations of household solid waste generation in mubi, nigeria. international journal of innovative education and research. vol. 3, no. 5 https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/63624/halava_satu.pdf;sequence=1 http://www.kaltimber.com/blog/2017/6/19/how-much-co2-is-stored-in-1-kg-of-wood 102 bulus luka gadiga, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 90-102 momodu i. m., (2013). domestic energy needs and natural resources conservation: the case of fuelwood consumption in nigeria. mediterranean journal of social sciences, vol 4 no 8. 27-33 nec, (2006) national emission ceilings for certain atmospheric pollutants. ministry of housing, spatial planning and the environment, the hague, netherlands new, m., bruce hewitson, david b. stephenson, alois tsiga, andries kruger ….robert lajoie (2006): evidence of trends in daily climate extremes over southern and west africa, j. geophys. res., 111, d14102, doi: 10.1029/2005jd006289. nigeria energy commission, (2006) report of survey of energy utilization in the informal sector: a case study of the fct, federal ministry of power technical report. september, 2006. obueh, j. (2008), “the ecological cost of increasing dependence on biomass fuels as household energy in rural nigeria”: lessons from boiling point no. 44, gtz/itdg. laurent cousineau copyright 2011-2017, climate change guide. osueke c. o and c. a. k. ezugwu (2011) study of nigeria energy resources and its consumption. international journal of scientific & engineering research, vol. 2, (12) oyeneye o.o., (2004) socio-economic influence on policies of power deregulation, proc 20th national conference of the nigeria society of engineering (electrical division), october 6th to 7th, 2004, pp.1-15 palmer j, cooper i. (2014) united kingdom energy housing fact file 2013; 2014. union of concerned scientists (ucs), (2015) science for a healthy planet and safer world. 2016–2020 strategic plan world bank, (2005).‘‘household energy use in developing countries’’ (series no.5). washington d.c., u.s.a: retrieved on august 16, 2012 from esmap report.http://www.worldbank.org./esmap/. accessed on july 10th, 2012. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 25 hydro-geomorphic factors and the potential of hydrokinetic power production upstream of ikere gorge dam, nigeria wahab salau1 and ifatokun ifabiyi paul2 1department of geography, faculty of humanities, management and social sciences, federal university of kashere, pmb 0182, gombe state, nigeria 2department of geography and environmental management, faculty of social sciences, university of ilorin, pmb 1515, ilorin, nigeria email: salawiy@fukashere.edu.ng received 21 january 2019/ revised 8 april 2019/ accepted 11 april 2019/ published online 29 april 2019 abstract the operation of hydrokinetic turbine depends on river flow and pressure head (∆h) which are of high potential in many parts of nigeria. this study attempts the analysis of the potential of the area upstream of ikere gorge dam for hydrokinetic potential. soil and water assessment tool (swat) was used to determine the hydrological parameters of the sub-basins. pearson moment correlation and linear regression methods were used to find the relationships between morphometric properties and the discharge parameters. hydrological modeling and statistical computations were done to estimate the theoretical potential of the catchment. the result shows that river oshe has 9.542 mw, which is the highest potential while river konsun with 1.161 mw has the lowest potential pearson moment correlation shows that there is strong positive relation of 0.7 between slope and pressure head (∆h) at 0.05 significant levels. the result of the multiple regression show that hydro-geomorphic factors explained 59.1% of the variance in the explanation of hydrokinetic power potential upstream of ikere gorge dam. the result shows that higher discharge is a function of more hydrokinetic energy that can be produced in the basins. it is therefore expected that the variation in hydro geomorphic properties of the basin will not affect substantial amount of hydrokinetic energy that can be produced from upstream of the basin under study. hence, further work is expected to be replicated in some potential basins, across the country, for hydrokinetic power production. keywords: hydrokinetics, hydraulic head, gorge, kinetic energy, flow rate, velocity 1. introduction hydrokinetic energy is extracted from ocean currents, waves, rivers, canals, tide and from other sources. it require no impoundments, hence, externalities associated with dam construction and reservoir creation become irrelevant (kosnik, 2008 in bahleda & hosko, 2007). according to ofuani (2013) the use of renewable energy as a means of addressing environmental geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 4 no. 1 (2019), 25-41 , april, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.9511 wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 26 infractions is growing world-wide because of the environmental harms caused during the production and use of convectional/fossil resources. greater demand for renewable energy has led to the considerable interest in the development and application of hydrokinetic contribution designed for river, tide and marine environment (stephen, 2012).the hydrokinetic energy’s key difference to wind power is that water is over 800 times denser than air, making it a highly concentrated, reliable, and largely untapped resource. the renewable energy such as hydrokinetic is a step toward eradicating global energy crisis. it will go a long way to foster on diversification of power sector. the pivotal role of renewable energy will also be a hub for sustainable energy development especially in developing countries of the world. alternatively, hydrokinetic renewable energy does not need displace of settlement and people involved before it can be set up unlike hydropower project which may cause destruction of ecosystem and marine life. flood and sediment are threat to dam which use to cause hydropower dam failure. the result of the failure is the displacement of people living at the downstream of a hydropower dams hence making hydrokinetic system to be safer. it has a big advantage over other clean energy technologies such as wind or solar, given that the start-up costs for small-scale hydrokinetic projects are much lower and power production begins much sooner. for most clean energy source, large plots of land are required, while many potential locations already in place are ready to produce hydrokinetic power (evan, 2012). in hydropower system, the water wheels must be developed and perfected (aschenbrenner, 2008). hydrokinetic energy is thought to be useful to decision makers regarding the potential benefits of using this technology in rural areas especially in countries with little or no elevation (vermaak et al., 2013). in the study conducted by kusakana, et al. (2013), they investigated the possibility of using and developing hydrokinetic power to supply reliable, affordable and sustainable electricity to rural, remote and isolated areas in rural south africa where reasonable water resource is available. the advantages of hydrokinetics power over other powers include: the facts that is is simple and cheap to design and therefore suitable for rural electrification; it is an alternative means of ecotourism development; it is a medium of developing small scale industries and it is a means to curtailing rural-urban migration. soil and water assessment tool has been a veritable tool in drainage basin analysis, particularly in river basins where there is paucity of data like what obtain in the study area. neitsch et al. (2009) reported that swat is a wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 27 catchment-scale continuous time model that operates on a daily time step with up to monthly/annual output frequency. in a nutshell, the global concern over climate change will support the use of alternative energy sources such as hydrokinetic power to avert the effects of global warming. for example, reservoir construction contributes to earth climate change; hydroelectric dam construction is a major source of methane gas emission. this gas is one of ghgs causing global warming. issue of power generation is a bane of rural development. power availability will not only raise the standard of living but will enhance peoples livelihood (wahab, adeogun & ifabiyi (2017); ifabiyi & wahab (2017). its development in nigeria would provide a platform for building a virile economy and usher-in massive rural and regional transformation. this research examined hydrokinetic potentials and its relationship with hydro-geomorphic factors in a rural community in western nigeria. figure 1: ikere gorge dam [inset; nigeria map showing ikere gorge basin]. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 28 figure 2: drainage network of the upstream of ikere gorge basin. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 29 2. the methods the configuration of the model used includes setting of simulation start date and finish date with respect to selection of weather data from the swat database. the model was runned to execute the swat model operation and the simulation period covered from january 01, 2004 to december 31, 2013. all the data gathered were input into the computer with the use of swat software to process the data in order to get the desirable results. the 90m resolution extracted from shuttle radar topographical mission (srtm) is used to acquire elevation of the selected locations within the watershed area. the digital elevation model (dem) enabled to delineate the watershed into sub-basins. with the use of srtm data, terrain slope, straight length and channel slope were derived from digital elevation model (dem). mapwindow and hydrologic swat model was used to model location of some suitable sites in the river channels. the model was used to determine the sub-basin having the highest potential for hydrokinetic power resource generation. weather parameters such as minimum and maximum temperature, rainfall, relative humidity within the river basin for the period of 10 years were used for this analysis. the data acquired from ogun osun river basin development authority and world global weather database of world meteorological agency was used for the analyses. also, linear regression is used to find the relationship between the dependent or criterion variable and independent or predictor variables. the relationship between the morphometric properties and hydrokinetic power potential is established through the linear regression equation: y= a+b1x1+…….bnxn +e…………………………………. [1] the dependent variable (y) represents hydrokinetic energy potential while independent variables (x1……x2) represent morphometric properties. in order to estimate the energy potentials, the method used to derive energy potential includes standard hydrological engineering equation. the equation is used to relate theoretical hydraulic power (pth, watts) to discharge (q, m³/s) and hydraulic head or change in elevation ∆h (m) over the length of the segment. a multiplication of discharge values with the measured elevation and constant mass density gives the segment specific theoretical hydrokinetic power resource of the location. the theoretical hydraulic power potential can be calculated using the formula, wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 30 p th = q ∆h.……………………... ..........................................[2] where: pth (watts) = theoretical hydraulic power, = specific weight of water (9800 n/m³),∆h (m) = change in hydraulic head between the beginning and end of the river segment or change in elevation over the length of the segment, q= flow rate (m³/s). this method was used by the electric power research institute (epri) in determining the theoretical riverine hydrokinetic resource for continental usa using assume river slope of 0.3m (epri, 2012 in ladokun et al., 2013). however, gis system mapwindow and hydrologic swat model were used to model the location. input files were configured and the model was runned automatically. hence, the results were displayed through gis interface mapwindow. also, the delineation of the watershed was carried out with the use of mapwindow spatial tool. that is, arc swat model were used to generate all the files needed through input from digitized map. also, manual editing of the necessary data was carried out and the weather data of the basins were runned accordingly to get average daily discharge in order to calculate potential capacity of each river as it shown in figure 3 and 4 respectively. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 31 figure 3: average daily discharge of rivers in ikere gorge basin source: author’s computation. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 32 figure 4: hydrokinetic potential energy of rivers in ikere gorge basin source: author’s computation. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 33 3. result and discussion 3.1 hydrokinetic potentials in the upstream of ikere gorge basin data was sourced from ogun river basin development authority and world meteorological database with the use of soil-water assessment tool (swat) software to estimate various parameters such as nature of the terrain, river order, river discharge, shape, etc. the result of the analysis shows that the strength of the average daily discharge of many rivers at the upstream of ikere gorge basin is reasonably high to produce hydrokinetic power. also, correlation between morphometric properties and discharge parameters showed in table 2 indicated that there is strong positive nexus between pressure head and channel slope. hence, the values of theoretical hydrokinetic resource in table 8 are functions of changes in water pressure head (∆h), velocity and specific weight of water. it is therefore imperatives that there are some hidden factors responsible for the variation in the amount of hydrokinetic energy produced besides average daily discharge and morphometric properties. also, microsoft excels and microsoft access software packages were used to generate the morphometric analysis of the basin under study. table 1: basin hydrologic parameters of ogun river catchment river location rivero rder head, ∆h(m) slope (m) straight length (m) flow-in (m³/s) flow-out (m³/s) average daily discharge (m³/s) 1 konsun 1 17.00 0.001299669591 11217.2 247885.0 260965.5 697.1 2 tewu 1 13.00 0.001978248862 5661.9 236996.8 243568.3 658.3 3 opo 1 53.00 0.002941717624 14828.9 222624.4 240641.4 634.6 4 woro 1 10.00 0.001408971636 6072.9 208438.6 215536.1 580.8 5 onko 1 62.00 0.0030009223338 15182.3 157408.5 178069.3 459.6 6 awo 1 76.00 0.001634228118 29663.0 136673.3 183179.3 438.2 7 oshe 1 65.00 0.002665049486 19324.8 42488.6 66878.0 149.8 8 owi 2 58.00 0.002107941192 20951.7 180923.1 208438.6 533.4 9 kojuoba 3 0.00 0.000000000000 612.8 157408.5 158070.1 432.2 10 igba 3 34.00 0.001480861115 14525.0 42488.6 65447.8 147.9 source: author’s computation. the implication of the results of the swat shown in table 1 depicted that there are 8 first order streams, 1 second order steam and 2 third order streams in the selected location. it was therefore imperatives that river konsun which is one of the first orders river has the highest discharge of wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 34 697.1 (m³/s) while river igba has the lowest discharge of 147.9 (m³/s). also, river awo recorded highest value for head while river kojuoba has the lowest head. not only have that, all the river had reasonable values of discharge that could be used to project hydrokinetic power production. the average daily discharges of each river were represented in figure 5. figure 5: pattern of rivers and average daily discharges source: author’s computation. the result revealed the strength of the average daily discharge of some of the selected rivers in the river catchments is reasonably high to generate some power. the alaska center for energy and power (acep) (2011) reported that minimum velocity of water current that is required for hydrokinetic generation is between 1.03 m/s and 2.06 m/ and range of 2.57 m/s and 3.6 m/s for 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 a ve ra ge d ai ly d is ch ar ge (m ³/ se c) wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 34 697.1 (m³/s) while river igba has the lowest discharge of 147.9 (m³/s). also, river awo recorded highest value for head while river kojuoba has the lowest head. not only have that, all the river had reasonable values of discharge that could be used to project hydrokinetic power production. the average daily discharges of each river were represented in figure 5. figure 5: pattern of rivers and average daily discharges source: author’s computation. the result revealed the strength of the average daily discharge of some of the selected rivers in the river catchments is reasonably high to generate some power. the alaska center for energy and power (acep) (2011) reported that minimum velocity of water current that is required for hydrokinetic generation is between 1.03 m/s and 2.06 m/ and range of 2.57 m/s and 3.6 m/s for rivers wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 34 697.1 (m³/s) while river igba has the lowest discharge of 147.9 (m³/s). also, river awo recorded highest value for head while river kojuoba has the lowest head. not only have that, all the river had reasonable values of discharge that could be used to project hydrokinetic power production. the average daily discharges of each river were represented in figure 5. figure 5: pattern of rivers and average daily discharges source: author’s computation. the result revealed the strength of the average daily discharge of some of the selected rivers in the river catchments is reasonably high to generate some power. the alaska center for energy and power (acep) (2011) reported that minimum velocity of water current that is required for hydrokinetic generation is between 1.03 m/s and 2.06 m/ and range of 2.57 m/s and 3.6 m/s for wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 35 optimum power generation. the results of average daily discharge presented in table 1 point to the adequacy of flow in the (10) sub basins under consideration as discharge ranges from 147.9 m³/s in igba to 697.1m³/s in konsun sub basin. table 2:inter-correlation between morphometric properties and discharge parameters variables ∆h (m) slope(m) straight length(m) flow in(m³/s) flow out(m³/s) 1. slope (m) .700* 2. stream length (m) .924** 0.486 3. flow in (m³/s) -.409 -.053 -.374 4. flow out (m³/s) -.267 0.016 -.211 .985** 5. average daily discharge (m³/s) -.341 -.020 -.296 .996** .996** *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)., **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). source: author’s computation. the result of the correlation analysis between morphometric properties and discharge parameters showed in table 2 indicated that there is strong positive relationship existing between pressure head and channel slope at 0.05 significant levels. the pressure head and stream length have strong positive correlation suggesting that as pressure head increases, stream-length also increases. a strong positive correlation was also noticed between flow-in and flow-out along the basin, showing that as the volume of water entering channel increases, the output also increases. the result of pearson moment correlation shows that there is strong positive relation between slope and this implies that as changes in pressure head increases, slope also increases. hence, both are important factors in determining hydrokinetic power production. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 36 figure 6: pattern of hydrokinetic energy potentials in the ikere-gorge basins (x 106) source: author’s computation. 3.3 relationship between potential hydrokinetic energy and selected hydro morphometric variables the result of the multiple regression analysis between hydrokinetic energy and hydro morphometric variables presented in table 4 shows the model summary of combined parameters of flow-out, slope, straight length, ∆h (m), flowin and hydrokinetic energy potential with the adjusted r² is 59.1 %. table 4: regression model summary: model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .769a .591 .080 2.87224 predictors: (constant), flow out (m³/s), slope (m), straight length (m), ∆h (m), flow in (m³/s). source: author’s computation. from table 4, it implies that multiple regression model for the combined variables with five explanatory variables have an r square (r²) value of 0.591. this depicted that 59.1 % variation 1,161 8,387 3,296 5,692 2,793 3,264 9,542 3,032 0 4,928 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 th eo re ti ca l h yd ro ki ne ti c re so ur ce s rivers wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 37 in hydrokinetic power production can be explained by this model in table 4 implying that there are some hidden factors responsible for the variation apart from morphometric properties and average daily discharge. table 5: relationship between morphometric properties and average daily discharge coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig.b std. error beta 1 (constant) 4.016 3.699 1.086 .339 ∆h (m) -.237.157 -2.152-1.509.206 slope (m) 44.337 22.983 1.340 1.929 .126 stream length (m) .000 .001 1.158 .425 .693 flow in (m³/s) -3.199e-5 .001 -.783-.057.957 flow out (m³/s) 3.970e-6 .001 .091 .007 .995 a. dependent variable: hydrokinetic hydrokinetic energy (y) = 4.016 0.237head + 44.337slope + 0.00stream length 0.0003flowin + 0.0003flow-out…... [3] from table 5, it implies that for every 1 % decrease in ∆h and flow-in, there is decrease in -23.7 % and -31.99 % decrease in hydrokinetic power production. on the other hand, for every 1 % increase in slope, flow-out, there is 44.33 % and 39.7 % in hydrokinetic power production as it shown in equation 3. therefore, the relationship between the morphometric variables and hydrokinetic power is given in the linear equation as follows: y= a+ b x…………………………..…………………………….. [4] the estimated model equation is given by this equation as follow: hydrokinetic energy = 4.016-0.237∆h + 44.337slope + 0.00 straight length -0.00003 flow in + 0.0003 flow out……………. [5] on the other hand, the trend equation model can be used to predict the selected variables and the hydrokinetic power potential as shown in the equation y= a+ b x and the result is represented in the table 6. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 38 table 6: trend equation model of the studied variables variables trends equation model 1. head, ∆h (m) y= 3.559 + 0.17x 2. slope(m) y= 1.511 + 14.569x 3. straight length(m) y= 3.746 + 3.357x 4. flow in (m³/s) y= 6.337 1.303x 5. flow out(m³/s) y= 6.814 1.430x source: author’s computation. the trend equation models in table 6 can be used to predict the selected variables and the hydrokinetic power potentials of ogun river basin at the upper catchment of ikere gorge basin. table 7: linear regression analysis between morphometric properties and hydrokinetic power potential variables r² std. error significant linear equation 1. head, ∆h (m) 2.30 3.13694 .674 y= 3.559 + 0.17x 2. slope (m) 19.4 2.85242 .203 y=1.511+14.569x 3.stream length (m) 0.9 3.16249 .795 y= 3.746 +3.357x 4. flow in (m³/s) 10.2 3.01082 .3694 y= 6.337-1.303x 5. flow out (m³/s) 10.8 2.99995 .353 y= 6.814-1.430x source: author’s computation. the linear regression equation can be expressed as y= a + b x…………………………….. [7] where, y= hydrokinetic power potentials of the basin, a= intercept, b= slope, c=constant table 7 displayed the result of the linear regression analysis which implies that pressure head explain 2.3 % variability on hydrokinetic power potential. the reason may be that there are still other strong factors that are influencing the output of hydrokinetic power production of ogun river basins. the percentage of r² varies from 0.9 % to 19.4 %. also, the results of the simple linear regression analysis shows that slope explained 19.4 % variability of hydrokinetic power potential. slope is a strong factor influencing power potential although there are other factors influencing the output of hydrokinetic power production in ikere gorge basins. miller et al. (2010) reported that hydro kinetic power [hkp] has a lower cost per unit of energy extracted than hydro potential power [hpp] system, and is economically compared with other distributed system such as solar, wind and others making it a better method for policy support and compliance. therefore, government and non-governmental organization should invest on hydrokinetic energy for human and socio-economic building of the country including industrial growth and development. wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 39 4. conclusion the trends in the evolution of science and technology call for friendly alternative source of energy production. climate change and changing system in world order call for reliable energy that will sustain man’s environment now and in the future.therefore, there is the need to focus more on the benefits of hydrokinetic and what it can do to promote economy in this age of technological advancement. this technology of hydrokinetic will be useful in augmenting energy crisis especially at local level which serves as the backbone of the economy of this nation. the chosen sites are suitable to promote hydrokinetic energy technology; it is one of many potential sites in nigeria to boost electricity production. references alaska center for energy and power (acep) (2011). hydrokinetic energy (in-river, tidal and ocean current), retrieved from http://energy-alaska.wikidot.com/ on april 20th, 2014 aschenbrenner, f. (2008). innovation on traditional waterwheels for renewable energy // power electronics and motion control conference, portoroz, slovenia, pp.1625 bahleda, m., and hosko, m. a. (2007). assessment of water power potential and development needs: electric power research institute, california bhattacharya, a.k., and bolaji, g.a. (2012). fluid flow interactions in ogun river, international journal of research and reviews in applied sciences, 2 (2): 22-23. electric power research institute, epri (2012). fish passage through turbine: application of convectional hydropower data to hydrokinetic technology palo alto, usa energy information administration (2014). retrieved on dec. 20th, 2014 from www.eia.gov/electricity epler, j. (2010). tidal resources characteristics from acoustics doppler current profiler, an unpublished m.sc.thesis, department of mechanical engineering, university of washington, usa evan, m. (2012). hydrokinetic power: an analysis of its performance and potential in the roza and kittas canals. an unpublished m. sc. thesis, the evergreen state college, usa ifabiyi, i.p. and wahab, s. (2017). theoretical potential of hydrokinetic energy in the upper wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 40 ogun and upper kaduna river basins, nigeria. journal of sustainable development in africa, 19 (1): 242-256. clarion university of pennsylvania, clarion, usa. issn: 15205509. jsd-africa@clarion.edu kosnik, l. (2008). the potential of water power in the fight against global warming in the usa, energy policy, doi: 10.1016/ j. enpol. (05), 009. kusakana, k., and vermaak, h. j. (2013). hydrokinetic power generation for rural electricity supply: case of south africa. renewable energy, 1 (55): 467-73. ladokun, l.l., ajao, k.r., and sule, b.f. (2013). hydrokinetic energy conversion system: pros -pects and challenges in nigerian hydrological setting, nigerian journal of technology, 3 (32): 538-549. miller, v.b, ramde, e.w., grandoville, r.t., and schaefer, l.a. (2010). hydrokinetic power for energy access in rural ghana, renewable energy international journal, 1(36): 671675. mohibullah, m., radzi, a. m., and hakim, m.i.a. (2004). basics design aspects of micro hydropower plant and its potential development in malaysia // power and energy conference, kualar lumpur, pp. 220-223. neitsch, s.l, arnold, j.g., kiniry, j.r and williams, j.r. (2009). soil and water assessment tool theoretical documentation version 2009 grassland, soil and water research laboratory-agriculture research service, blackland research centertexas agrilife research., usa. ofuani, a.i. (2013). combating climate change through renewable energy legislation in nigeria: prospects and challenges. paper presented at university of ilorin/ ucc (ghana) international conference held at university of ilorin. may 1st-4th 2011. stephen, v.a, paul, t.a., and daniel, j.g. (2012). survival and behaviour of fish interacting with hydrokinetic turbines, 9th ise, vienna, usa vermaak, h.j., kusakana, k., and koko, s.p. (2013). status of micro-hydrokinetic river technology in rural applications: a review of literature: renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 29(14): 625-633. wahab, s., ifabiyi, i.p. and adeogun, a.g. (20017). swat analysis of ikere gorge basin for wahab salau and ifatokun ifabiyi paul/geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 25-43 41 hydrokinetic power estimation in selected rural settlement of oke ogun, nigeria. ruhuna journal of science. 8(2):24-43 ruhuna, faculty of science, university of ruhuna, sri lanka. eissn: 2536-8400. doi: http//:doi.org/10.4038/rjs.v8il. 96 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.29160 research article rain station network analysis in the sampean watershed: comparison of variations in data aggregation entin hidayah 1, * , gusfan halik 1 , minarni nur trilita 2 1department of civil engineering, university of jember, jl. kalimantan no. 37 jember, 68121, indonesia 2 department of civil engineering, universitas pembangunan nasional veteran jawa timur, surabaya, 60293, indonesia *coresponding author, e-mail address : entin.teknik@unej.ac.id 1. introduction accurate rainfall-runoff modeling is fundamental in the planning and managing water resources such as drinking water, agriculture, industry, hydropower, and other needs. the source of the inaccuracy of the hydrological model is caused by the inappropriateness of the model structure, data input errors, and difficulties in parameter estimation (rafiei emam et al., 2018). this causes the accuracy of rainfall estimates to be essential and challenging (wu et al., 2020; xu et al., 2015). the ability of rain gauge to monitor hydrological characteristics, condition of measuring instruments, and discrepancies in the amount of rain gaugeis caused by natural factors. the mean rainfall is a source of error from the modeling input. therefore, regional average rainfall data representing the depth of precipitation in the watershed are needed to model rainfall flows (razmkhah et al., 2016). in addition, the data input factor that affected the performance of the discharge estimate is the lack of density and distribution of the rain gauge network (bárdossy & das, 2008). therefore, it is necessary to rationalize the density of the station network to find out how many gauge stations are ideal, effective, and representative according to regional conditions. abstract the lack of rainfall-runoff accuracy is important for some applications. the choice of data aggregation that affects the estimation results is important at the level of accuracy. some commonly used aggregations are daily, ten days, and monthly rainfall. this study aimed to compare the results of the estimation of the effect of data aggregation and to analyze the density of the rain gauge network in the sampean watershed. the evaluation of the rain station network is carried out through the kagan calculation. rainfall data are from the rainfall data records for 20 years at 33 rain gauge stations. measurement of the performance of aggregation variations using the relationship between the correlation value of rainfall with the distance between station locations. station network positioning is assessed from alignment errors and interpolation errors. the results showed differences in the correlation and estimation values in the variation of data aggregation.the greater interval can increase the effectiveness of deployment with minimum error. based on kagan's analysis, there is an uneven distribution of gauge stations in the sampean watershed eventhough the average and interpolation error in the monthly rainfall is less than 5%. it is this inequality that causes gauge stations to be inefficient. keywords : rain gauge network; correlation; kagan; data aggregation article info article history received : 9 january 2022 revised : 14 april 2022 accepted : 20 april 2022 published : 27 april 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 96-108 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.29160 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1233-6850 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 97 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 regional mean rainfall is mostly obtained from sparsely located rainfall measurement points, and several studies have shown that this results in large area uncertainty of daily time intervals (ndiritu & mkhize, 2017). however, water resources management does not always use daily time intervals. as well as assessing water availability for various purposes using ten days, and even monthly data inputs and river flow simulations are an important component of this assessment. rainfall data with minimum error in data input is one of the determining components in subsequent calculations, such as modeling and prediction.there are some methods to minimize rainfall estimation error in the spatial correlation network between measuring stations: the p-median model (wang et al., 2020), the kriging method (adhikary et al., 2015; fattoruso et al., 2020), remote sensing data (morsy et al., 2021), multi-criteria decision analysis (tekleyohannes et al., 2021),and kagan method (bakhtiari et al., 2021; nandiasa et al., 2020; nandiasa & purwaning, 2021; wu et al., 2020). kagan's (1972) approach can minimize rainfall estimation errors in the spatial correlation network between measuring stations. the measurement of the network density of each watershed used the kagan method to determine the placement pattern and the number of gauge stations.this method can provide results in the form of coordinate points that become recommendations for rain station construction locations based on the kagan triangles (renaldhy et al., 2021). the calculation of network density using the kagan method begins by determining the correlation coefficient between gauge stations in the month that has high rainfall intensity (wet season). therefore, correlation analysis to evaluate the density of the field rain gauge network on variations in the aggregation of temporal rainfall data are required to be explored. some research applied the kagan method to design a rain gauge station network in iran (bakhtiari et al., 2021; nazaripour et al., 2017). optimization of rain gauge networks in the jinjiang basin concluded that the kagan method improves the optimization level of rain gauge networks and provides a reference for such an optimization (wu et al., 2020). analysis of placement pattern and number of rain stations based on the equation of kagan rodda in ciliwung watershed (nandiasa et al., 2020), evaluating database water resources in the kabupaten banyuwangi (erwanto et al., 2016), assessing rain gauge rationalization by considering the criteria in determining the location of rain gauges (renaldhy et al., 2021). next, the research on the rationalization of the density of river basin gauge stations has been carried out based on daily rainfall data and variations in error rates (abdaa et al., 2021). the results showed that the daily rainfall correlation between locations was relatively small. this was a result of the observed daily rainfall. the selection of aggregated data can change the conclusions of an analysis result (siegmund et al., 2020). temporal aggregation is a process that varies from fine to coarse intervals. temporal aggregation was necessary for various reasons, including closing save in data, data summary, and data size reduction for convenience processing (cheng & adepeju, 2014; falconi et al., 2020). the effect of data aggregation on dispersion estimates in count data has been discussed that dispersion estimates can increase strongly after aggregation, an effect which we will demonstrate and quantify explicitly for some scenarios (errington et al., 2021). the increase in dispersion estimates implies an inflation of the parameter standard errors, which, however, can be shown to serve a corrective purpose by comparison with random effect models. several previous studies in evaluating the determination of the rain station network did not pay attention to variations in aggregated rain data. based on the advantages of the variety of data aggregation, this study aims to compare the variety of data aggregation in the rain gauge station network analysis and evaluate the rain gauge network in the sampean watershed. 98 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 2. study area this research was conducted in the sampean watershed with the upstream part located in bondowoso regency, while the downstream part was in situbondo regency. geographically, the sampean watershed is located at 7°41'30,'s-8°7'0'' s and 113°40'30-14°6'0'' e. the highest elevation in this watershed is sumber gading station 650,4 masl, and the lowest elevation is kolpoh station 98,5 masl. sampean watershed has an area of 1244.1265 km 2 with 33 rain gauge stations. sampean watershed map is shown in figure 1. figure 1. sampean watershed mapping this study used secondary data on daily, ten days, and monthly rainfall in the sampean watershed from 2000-2020 with 33 rain gauge stations obtained from the upt sda (natural resources office) sampean. gauge stations in the sampean watershed are listed in table 1. table 1. position of the gauge station network in the sampean watershed no gauge station village location 1. ancar jetis 113,78083 e and -7,95444 s 2. bluncong pandak 113,94608 e and -7,81709 s 3. clangap alas sumur 113,87505 e and -8,00584 s 4. glendengan botolinggo 113,97695 e and -7,82848 s 5. grujugan grujugan lor 113,82877 e and -7,95611 s 6. jero kalitapen 113,91541 e and -7,86214 s 7. kejayan kejayan 113,87491 e and -7,96008 s 8. kesemek kesemek 113,87233 e and -7,96270 s 9. klabang klabang 113,82026 e and -7,87030 s 10. kolpoh sempol 114,00470 e and -7,79641 s 11. maesan maesan 113,77541 e and -8,02102 s 12. maskuning maskuningwetan 113,90613 e and -7,98664 s 99 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 no gauge station village location 13. pakisan pakisan 113,92199 e and -7,98934 s 14. pandan suling wetan 114,04222 e and -7,79416 s 15. pinang pait pecalongan 113,93784 e and-7,95205 s 16. prajekan walidono 113,97685 e and-7,80240 s 17. pringduri besuk 113,96203 e and-7,82774 s 18. ramban wet rambankulon 114,03000 e and-7,80823 s 19. sbr.dumpyong sumber dumpyong 113,74631 e and-7,88113 s 20. sbr.gading sumber gading 113,98749 e and-7,96885 s 21. selolembu jeruksoksok 113,79663 e and -7,95466 s 22. sentral badean 113,81765 e and -7,92166 s 23. sukokerto maskuningwetan 113,89830 e and-7,98914 s 24. suling wetan suling wetan 114,04582 e and-7,79968 s 25. taal taal 113,95073 e and -7,86261 s 26. talep walidono 113,97729 e and -7,79188 s 27. tamanan tamanan 113,82802 e and-8,01390 s 28. tlogo tlogosari 113,93613 e and-7,99645 s 29. wonoboyo leprak 113,93638 e and-7,80305 s 30. wonosari wonosari 113,89383 e and-7,87477 s 31. wonosari ii wonosari 113,77289 e and-7,97471 s 32. wonosroyo tumpeng 113,88268 e and -7,93356 s 33. wringin jatisari 113,76481 e and-7,83623 s 3. methods based on the same data source and time, this study's grouping rainfall data consisted of three types: daily, ten daily, and monthly. the advantages of this aggregation variation can be seen through the graph of the relationship between the rainfall correlation value and the distance between the locations of the gauge stations. furthermore, the analysis of the distribution of gauge stations was carried out using the kagan method. the advantages of a station network can be seen through alignment errors and interpolation errors. 3.1 spatial rainfall correlation spatial correlation of rain data was used for precise distribution of rainfall data, such as modeling of rainfall flows etc. the correlation structure inherent in the data can be determined based on historical rainfall data for different durations. the rainfall correlation coefficient between locations can be calculated using the eq. (1) (nazaripour et al., 2017): 𝑟(𝑑) = 𝑟(0)𝑒 −𝑑 𝑑0 (1) where 𝑟(𝑑) is the rainfall correlation among two stations with distance 𝑑, 𝑑0 is reference distance, 𝑟(0) is correlation coefficient when zero distance. 3.2 station network density several studies have used the kagan method to optimize the density of the rain station network (nandiasa & purwaning, 2021; nazaripour et al., 2017). the kagan network produces several outputs, namely the relationship between the number of gauge stations needed and the level of alignment error and interpolation error, producing the optimal number and pattern of placement of gauge stations. if there are more existing gauge stations than the results of kagan's calculation, not all gauge stations are used in the subsequent analysis, and gauge stations can be reduced. the selection is 100 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 made by selecting the gauge station closest to the node that represents the kagan network. if there are fewer rain stations than kagan's calculation, it is necessary to add more gauge stations. however, in this study, the measure of the kagan network is only used to determine the optimal number and placement of gauge stations as the basis for advanced analysis (erwanto et al., 2016). rain gauge stations that meet both number and distribution requirements are adjusted to the world meteorological organization (wmo), which provides guidelines for minimum network density in several areas. two essential things in planning the network are the number of stations required and the location of the gauge stations (abdaa et al., 2021), which are listed in table 2. table 2. minimum densities of station (area in km 2 per station) based on wmo source: rodda (2011) 3.3 kagan-rodda method evaluation of the distribution of gauge stations is one way to obtain an efficient hydrological network, which effectively represents hydrological conditions in the river area. a simple way to find out the gauge station network was proposed by kagan (1967), who has the advantage of determining the need for the number of stations and their placement pattern. with this method, the desired error in the network calculation can be determined, and the optimal number and placement pattern of gauge stations can be obtained. the determination of the measurement network proposed by kagan (1967) used statistical analysis by relating network density to interpolation errors and smoothing errors (bakhtiari et al., 2021). eq. 2 –6 used are as follows: 𝑃1 = 𝐶𝑣 √ 1−𝑟(0)+0,23 √𝐴 𝑑0 √𝑁 𝑁 (2) 𝑃2 = 𝐶𝑣 √ 1 3 |1 − 𝑟(0)| + 0,52 𝑟(0) 𝑑0 √ 𝐴 𝑁 (3) 𝐿 = 1,07√ 𝐴 𝑁 (4) 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑆 �̅� (5) where 𝑃1 is alignment error (%), 𝑃2 is interpolation error (%), 𝐶𝑣 is coefficient of variation, 𝐴 is the watershed area (km 2 ), 𝐿 is the distance between stations in an equilateral triangle, 𝑆 is the standard deviation of rainfall in the sampean watershed, and �̅� is the average calculated rainfall in the sampean watershed. physiographic unit densities of station coastal 900 mountains 250 interior plains 575 hilly/undulating 575 small island 25 polar /arid 10.000 101 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 4. results and discussion before performing the kagan analysis, preprocessing the data into daily, ten days, and monthly rainfall during the wet month was carried out. the wet season in indonesia occurs between october and march. the division of rainfall data into several types according to different time intervals is called the data aggregation process (cheng & adepeju, 2014). the relationship between the distance between stations and the correlation is illustrated through a scatter diagram which is then formed by an exponential function as shown in figure 2. (c) 403020100 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,0 distance (km) c o rr e la ti o n r(d) = 0,511306 * exp(-0,031315 * 'distance (km)') 403020100 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,0 distance (km) c o rr e la ti o n r(0) = 0,692461 * exp(-0,0188976 * 'distance (km)') (a) (b) 102 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 figure 2. correlation of rainfall data aggregation to the distance of gauge stations (a) daily (b) ten days (c) monthly figure 2 shows that the correlation coefficient decreases sharply in daily time intervals case. the three images also show that there is a very strong correlation of rainfall at close distances.the correlation value decreases to near zero as the distance increases. in addition, it can be seen that the scatter chart of data aggregation from daily to ten days and monthly levels are increasing. at the same time, it can also be seen that in general the slope of the scatter points becomes flattered when aggregating with longer time intervals. this indicates that the correlation distance for the monthly interval is stronger than for the ten-day and daily rainfall intervals.that is, a certain time interval can affect the results of basic estimates such as correlation and autocorrelation (cheng & adepeju, 2014; mair & fares, 2011). therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the placement pattern of rain stations. the analysis of the placement pattern of gauge stations using the kagan method is used to obtain the alignment errors and interpolation errors are listed in table 3 and visualized in figure 3. the values of 𝑟(0) and𝑑0 are obtained through the exponential function of the correlation shown in figure 2. figure 3 shows that the alignment and interpolation errors in the three aggregation decrease exponentially with the increase in the number of stations. based on the existing rain gauge network, the relative mean error of observed rainfalls is less than 5% in the study area. nevertheless, the spatial interpolation error is a more important error criterion to achieve a network design (nazaripour et al., 2017). the interpolation error is quite large for daily rainfall, exceeding 5%. for ten days and monthly rainfall have almost the same error graph. however, the percentage of error in the 10-day rainfall is higher than the monthly rainfall. it can be seen from the percentage of errors at 1 to 5 gauges. error analysis of daily rainfall shows that the alignment error less than 5% occurs when the number of gauge stations is 5, but the interpolation error is still quite high. even when there are 33 stations in the sampean watershed, the interpolation error still exceeds 5%. if there are 15 gauge stations, the percentage of interpolation error is less than 10%. in contrast to the daily data, the 10 daily and monthly rainfall data managed to get an average and theinterpolation error rate of less than 5%. for 10 days of rainfall, there are 10 to 12 ideal gauge stations with an error rate of less than 5%, and a network density of less than 250 km 2 /station for the mountainous region category. while the monthly data between 7-12 stations are optimal for the hydrological needs of the sampean watershed. 403020100 1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 distance (km) c o rr e la ti o n r(0) = 0,72608 * exp(-0,0123824 * 'distance (km)') (c) 103 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 as we know the construction of the station certainly requires time and money, therefore it would be better and more efficient if the gauge station was built as little as possible but could represent the hydrological conditions of the area. in this case, it can be seen that monthly rainfall produces gauge stations that are more efficient than 10 days rainfall and daily rainfall because 7 stations in the sampean watershed have been able to meet wmo recommendations for mountainous areas of less than 250 km 2 /station with an error rate of less than 5%. (a) (b) 104 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 figure 3. graph of smoothing and interpolation errors for many gauge stations (a) daily (b) ten days (c) monthly based on kagan's analysis and wmo recommendations regarding network density, the ideal sampean watershed as a mountain area (arifianto, 2019) has 7 rain stations with a distance between stations of 14,263 km. that is, there are 26 out of 33 that should not be needed. the location of the rain station based on the kagan method in figure 4 is shown by the vertices of an equilateral triangle. several nodes are still empty or far from the rain station. characteristically, the empty node area is mountainous, therefore a rain gauge station difficult be built. sampean watershed has too many stations. some stations are located nearby, such as kejayan and kesemek stations, which are only less than 1 km away. this causes the gauge station position to be ineffective, therefore it needs to be reviewed. the same condition related to too many rain station networks in the watershed also occurs in the kedunglarangan watershed with 16 rain gauges (prawati & dermawan, 2018) and in arid & semi-arid regions of iran (nazaripour et al., 2017). table 3. analysis of gauge station position errors based on daily, ten days, monthly no 𝐶𝑣 𝑟(0) 𝑑0 𝑃1(%) 𝑃2(%) 𝐿(km) network density (km2/station) daily rainfall 1 0.59 0.73 0.012 15.14 19.48 37.74 1244.14 2 9.00 16.38 26.69 622.07 3 6.64 14.80 21.79 414.71 4 5.35 13.77 18.87 311.03 5 4.53 13.03 16.88 248.83 6 3.95 12.45 15.41 207.36 7 3.52 11.98 14.26 177.73 8 3.18 11.58 13.34 155.52 9 2.91 11.25 12.58 138.24 10 2.69 10.95 11.93 124.41 11 2.51 10.70 11.38 113.10 12 2.35 10.47 10.89 103.68 (c) 105 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 13 2.21 10.26 10.47 95.70 14 2.09 10.07 10.09 88.87 15 1.99 9.90 9.74 82.94 16 1.89 9.74 9.44 77.76 17 1.81 9.59 9.15 73.18 ten days rainfall 1 0.85 0.67 0.0086 26.131 31.83 37.74 1244.14 2 15.539 18.93 26.69 622.07 3 11.465 13.96 21.79 414.71 4 9.241 11.25 18.87 311.03 5 7.817 9.52 16.88 248.83 6 6.818 8.30 15.41 207.36 7 6.074 7.40 14.26 177.73 8 5.495 6.69 13.34 155.52 9 5.031 6.13 12.58 138.24 10 4.649 5.66 11.93 124.41 11 4.328 5.27 11.38 113.10 12 4.055 4.94 10.89 103.68 13 3.819 4.65 10.47 95.70 14 3.612 4.40 10.09 88.87 monthly rainfall 1 0.60 0.73 0.012 15.27 19.56 37.74 1244.14 2 9.08 11.63 26.69 622.07 3 6.70 8.58 21.79 414.71 4 5.40 6.91 18.87 311.03 5 4.57 5.85 16.88 248.83 6 3.98 5.10 15.41 207.36 7 3.55 4.54 14.26 177.73 8 3.21 4.11 13.34 155.52 9 2.94 3.76 12.58 138.24 10 2.72 3.48 11.93 124.41 11 2.53 3.24 11.38 113.10 12 2.37 3.03 10.89 103.68 13 2.23 2.86 10.47 95.70 14 2.11 2.70 10.09 88.87 15 2.00 2.57 9.74 82.94 figure 4. kagan analysis through an equilateral triangle 106 entin hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 96-108 5. conclusion the results of the study indicate that the temporal aggregation of rainfall data gives an effect on the basic statistics as correlation. the greater interval can increase the effectiveness of deployment with minimum error. based on kagan's analysis, there is an uneven distribution of gauge stations in the sampean watershed even though the average and interpolation error in the monthly rainfall is less than 5%. it is this inequality that causes gauge stations to be inefficient. two nodes are still empty and far from the gauge station. therefore, it is necessary to shift or relocate several gauge stations to areas that match the coordinates of the kagan node. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgments i would like to thank the department of public works, east java province for their assistance in collecting my data, as well as to the university of jember for facilitating this research. references abdaa, d., fauzi, m., & sandhyavitri, a. 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(2015). entropy theory based multicriteria resampling of rain gauge networks for hydrological modelling – a case study of humid area in southern china. journal of hydrology, 525, 138–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.03.034. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.pengairan.2021.012.01.05 https://doi.org/10.3390/w12082252 188 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction in ende regency selfiyah karimah1* and hastuti1 1geography education, postgraduate program, yogyakarta state university, indonesia *email : ifa.karimah214379@gmail.com received 12 december 2018/ revised 23 may 2019/ accepted 27 may 2019/ published 25 august 2019 abstract the purpose of this study is to analyze the potential and the development of lake kelimutu tourist attraction in ende regency. the data were collected through observation, documentation, and interviews with stakeholders, such as the kelimutu national park office, government tourism office, community, and visitors. the data was then analyzed descriptively for later determined of its development strategies using swot. the results of the study showed that the potential of lake kelimutu tourist attraction, besides the uniqueness of the three crater lakes, is also a diversity of flora and fauna, and it was concluded that the appropriate alternative strategy for developing lake kelimutu tourist attraction was the s-o strategy (strength and opportunity), they are: creating an integrated tourist package marketing strategy for natural and cultural tourism, using various existing social media to promote the uniqueness of the ever-changing colors of the lake, working with various travel agents to provide special discounts or special services for tourists, and creating special transport routes to lake kelimutu from ende. keywords: potential, development strategy, tourist site, lake kelimutu. 1. introduction tourism in the broad sense is recreational activities outside the domicile to get away from routine activities or to find another atmosphere. tourism as an activity has become an important part of the basic needs of developed country communities and a small portion of developing country communities (damanik & weber, 2006: 1). tourism is a temporary movement made by humans with the purpose of getting away from the routine activities, leaving the residence. activities are carried out during their stay in the destination and facilities are provided to meet their needs (marpaung, 2000: 1). tourism means all activities related to tourism that are related to tourism and they are multidisciplinary and multi-dimensional, which emerges as a form of every person and geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 188-200, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.9222 189 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 country’s needs, it is as well as interaction among tourists and the local communities, fellow travelers, government, regional government and entrepreneurs (ismayanti, 2010:20). tourism is a demand-based industry inspired by the needs of people to experience something different from their daily life. tourists travel to new places to see something new, such as culture, important historic or beautiful nature. tourists travel to find, learn and experience something new (engelhard, 2005: 174). for example if we visit flores, we know that flores whose landscape is not better than other regions, is much more visited by people. it is because the culture in flores is truly unique and hard to find elsewhere. tourists who come there can mingle with the local people and learn local culture, like weaving culture, learning dances, or learning local folk songs. tourists will also feel that indonesia is truly rich in culture. tourism is the most important economic producing machine in the word because we can find tourism in all parts of the word, this is because every continent, country, and even region has tourist attractions and becomes the tourism places. tourism contributes income in terms of transportation, tourist attractions, provided service and infrastructures, as well the purchasing power growth around the tourist spot. mohammed et al (2015) stated that unwto explains the tourism greatness that last six years. now tourism becomes the fastest growing sector in the world. the main advantage of tourism in stimulating the economic growth repsented by the increase in number of jobs available in the tourist destination, both directly and indirectly in the company providing the needed services for the tourist (bunghez, 2016). the increasing number of tourists will require more laborers. the large number of tourists will make the unemployed people find work in the tourist spot and it can reduce unemployment. indonesia, which has the largest variety of tourism resources in the world (mesa biodiversity), is very interested in this sector for several reasons: (1) tourism is a global means of the world community’s interaction, (2) tourism trusted by the world community as the economic driving sector in the 21st century, (3) tourism can recruit many labors, (4) indonesian tourism has unique products and there are many more that have not been explored, (5) tourism does not require long lead time, (6) tourism can improve indonesia’s image in the eye of theworld, (7) tourism is an advertising tool of indonesian export products, (8) tourism can be a means of the people's economy empowerment and the economic equality (9) tourism can preserve and enrich the national culture (pitana, et al., 190 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 2008:5). the ministry of tourism currently targets 20 millions of foreign tourist and 275 millions of domestic tourist trips in 2019. indonesian tourism minister, arif yahya, explained that the tourism sector is the third largest source of foreign exchange after oil and mining (http://bisnis.tempo.co). similar to what yoeti (2008: 1) said, in the country's economy, if it is developed in a planned and integrated manner, the role of the tourism sector will exceed the oil and gas sector and other industries. the tourism sector will function as a development catalyst (agent of development), it is as well will speed up the development processitself.the tourism sector is a sector that is currently considered to have the most dynamic development and is also the largest in the economic sphere (kruja, 2012). tourism as an industry that has a major impact on the economy, while also influencing politics, socio-culture and the environment (tabash, 2017). as the era of natural tourism develops, special interests in tourism and eco-tourism are beginning to emerge. both of these models of tourism, in general, largely depend on the natural quality in order to ensure the preservation and existence of nature, which is a tourist object and attraction (fandeli, 2002:3-4). it is also based on two main things: the search for new products and the search for quality (weiler&hall, 1992). one of the potential tourist destinations that provide natural beauty is lake kelimutu tourist attraction, which is located in ende regency, and at the same time it is a nature destination that is not far from ende city center. lake kelimutu has natural beauty which is a natural phenomenon that other regions do not have, namely three crater lakes that color always changes. it is formed as a result of the geological activity of mount kelimutu itself. the area of the three lakes is about 1.51.00 m3, each lake has a name which is same as itscolor;they are blue lake, red lake, and white lake (gaol, 2014:33). the beauty of the landscape around lake kelimutu also has flora and fauna. the flora near lake kelimutu consists of 78 trees, which are divided into 36 tribes, two of which are endemic to kelimutu, namely uta onga (begonia kelimutuensis) and turuwara (rhondodenron renschianum), and one specific ecosystem in lake kelimutu namely, vaccinium and rhododendron. the fauna inhabiting inlake kelimutu area includes 49 species, and some of them are endemic to flores. lake kelimutu tourist attraction also has cultural potential, which remains existed until today, namely the feeding traditional ritual to the spirits of deceased ancestors. this traditional ritual is held every 14th of august. in the ritual, ancestors are offered various 191 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 types of food, accompanied by prayers for prosperity, health, fertile nature, and good life in the upcoming year. if many potential found in lake kelimutu tourist attraction maximally developed, it will increase the regional income and improve the prosperity of local community. therefore, it is needed to conduct an in-depth study to find out the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats, or swot analysis as strategic formula for the development of lake kelimutu tourist attraction. 2. the methods the method used in this research is qualitative. a qualitative research is a study obtaining analytical procedures that do not use statistical analysis procedures or other quantitative assessment methods (moleong, 2007: 6). sukmadinata (2008: 60) defines qualitative research as a study aimed at describing and analyzing phenomena, events, social activities, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and thoughts of people both individually and in groups. qualitative research can also be interpreted as a research method based on the post-positivism philosophy, which is used to investigate the condition of natural objects (as opposed to experiments) where the researchers are the key instruments, data collection techniquesare done by triangulation (combination), data analysis is inductive or qualitative, and the result of qualitative research emphasizes in more meaning than generalization (sugiyono, 2013: 13). the location of the study was at lake kelimutu in ende regency, east nusa tenggara province. the type of data used in this study is primary and secondary data. primary data was obtained through observation, documentation, and interviews conducted with the kelimutu national park (tnk) office, the government tourism office, the communities, and the visitors. while secondary data was obtained through the bps agency, tnk office and the government tourism office. then, a swot analysis was used to determine the development strategy. the informants of this study are: (1) the head of kelimutu national park office, (2) the division head of ende regency department of culture and tourism, (3) the head of moni 1 sptn, (4) the communities around lake kelimutu tourist attraction, (5) and the visitors of lake kelimutu tourist attraction. data analysis used the swot matrix. swot analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate factors that become weaknesses, opportunities and threats that 192 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 may arise when achieving goals in an organization activity project on a wider scale. for this purpose, the study of the environmental aspects is needed to conduct in which derived from both internal and external environments that influence organization strategy structurein achieving goals (rangkuti, 2008). table 1. swot anlysis design (rangkuti, 2008) internal external strengths (s) determine internal strength factors weakness (w) determine internal weakness factors opportunities (o) determine external opportunity factors s-o strategy make strategy that uses strength to utilize opportunities w-o strategy make strategy that minimizes weakness to utilize opportunities. threats (t) determine external threats factors s-t strategy make strategy that uses strength to overcome threats w-t strategy make strategy that minimizes weakness and avoids threats. 3. results and discussion 3.1 potential tourism object of lake kelimutu 3.1.1 attraction the lake kelimutu tourist attraction has 140 species of flora in the form of woody plants (shrubs), as well as 36 species of herb plants. it is also found the endemic plant species, in which the distribution is only in that place, it is begonia kelimutuensis. it is not only endemic plants that could be found the kelimutu national park but endemic ecosystems in the form of vr ecosystems, namely turuwara (rhododendron renschianum) and arngoni (vaccinium varingiaefolium) also could be found. those species has blooming season between may to august in which will give the red color on the edge of the lake and increase the attractiveness of lake kelimutu it self. the fauna inhabiting lake kelimutu tourist attraction is so diverse that it consists of 193 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 various species of birds, various species of mammals, various species of endemic and endangered reptiles and fauna. there are 62 species of birds, 13 species of mammals and 4 species of reptiles, in addition, there are 12 species of endemic and dangered fauna. the cultural potential in the lake kelimutu tourist attraction is the traditional ritual of pati ka dua bapu ata mata. it is a traditional ritual held on the peak of lake kelimutu which is held every year on august 14th. this ritual is a moment that unites the entire local community of lake kelimutu, which traditionally has a religious connection with the peak of lake kelimutu as the ancestorsregion. 3.1.2 accessibility transportation to lake kelimutu tourist attraction can use both car and motorcycle, and it is still hard to use public transportation, because it takes about three kilometers to get into the retribution area and there is no special tourism bus that can take to lake kelimutu. the distance from lake kelimutu tourist attraction to the city center is about 53 kilometers. the condition of the road to lake kelimutu tourist attraction is good, and the road has also beenwidened. 3.1.3 accommodation there are many inns around lake kelimutu, where prices vary from idr 150 to 250 thousand. visitors of lake kelimutu tourist attraction who come from outside the city usually stay at the inns/hotels around lake kelimutu or in ende city, and the next day they will continue their journey to lake kelimutu tourist attraction. in around lake kelimutu tourist attraction are very modest, but some of them are quite comfortable for an overnight stay. 3.1.4 facilities and infrastructure facilities and infrastructure are an important asset to make the tourist attraction attract people to come and it is as the requirement of the tourist attraction itself. the lake kelimutu tourist attraction is a mainstay tourist attraction of ende regency, which requires facilities and infrastructure that can support all aspects of its development. lack of facilities and infrastructure can bring obstacles in developing the tourism. there are some existing facilities and infrastructure in lake kelimutu tourist attraction, namely: retribution counter, parking lot, information center, restaurant and souvenirs vendor, 194 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 tourism map, signpost, shelter, information board, and toilet. 3.2 the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction efforts to develop lake kelimutu tourist attraction in the future need to be discovered about how the characteristics of it. these characteristics can be determined using a swot analysis. swot analysis is one of the methods used to determine the regional characteristics in detail of the various reviews that will be used as a basic for the establishment or the development materials adapted to the region conditions. the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction can be seen below: table 2. the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction strengths (s) 1. the uniqueness of the ever-changing colors of the lake. 2. the culture of the local community, which is religiously connected to lake kelimutu tourist attraction. 3. a variety of flora and fauna. 4. the supporting natural environment around the tourist attraction. weaknesses (w) 1. the difficulty of involving the community in the development of lake kelimutu tourist attraction. 2. the lack of the government role, in this case, it is the government tourism office in developing the tourism attraction. 3. facilities and infrastructures that must be added. 4. there is still a lack of tourists’ awareness that litter. 5. there is still no evacuation route considering flores as an earthquakeprone area. opportunities (o) 1. the emergence of other tourism sectors. 2. the emergence of other types of tourism activities. 3. picture of culture and society that must be promoted. 4. promoting about the tourist attraction. 5. the development of tour agencies. 6. increasing public transportations to and from tourist attraction. threats (t) 1. organizer internal policies that do not comply with the principles of conservation 2. excessive tourists visit in high season 3. the growing parasite that disrupts the landscape 4. the competitiveness with other tourist attractions 195 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 after identifying the strengths, the weaknesses, the opportunities and the threats, then swot analysis was conducted. after they were analyzed, four alternative strategies will be obtained, namely: s-o strategy (using strengths to utilize opportunities), w-o strategy (minimizing weaknesses to utilize opportunities), s-t strategy (using strengths to overcome threats) and w-t alternative strategy (minimizing weaknesses and avoiding threats). the following are the swot results: 1) s-o strategy alternative strategies that can be done in improving the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction are: a) creating a marketing strategy of the integrated travel packages for natural and cultural tourism. b) using various existing social media to promote the uniqueness of the everchanging colors of the lake. c) collaborating with various tour agents to provide special discounts or special services for tourists. d) creating special transportation routes to lake kelimutu from ende city 2) w-o strategy alternative strategies that can be done in improving the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction are: a) involving the community leaders in tourism management of lake kelimutu b) asking the ministry of tourism to encourage the regent to expand the authority of ende government tourism office in developing the tourist attraction as a source of government income (pad). c) enabling the community to engage in tourism activities, such as being tour guides or souvenirs’sellers d) increasing the availability of trash bins and urging the tourists to throw the garbage to its place e) making an evacuation route and conducting regular evaluation simulations. f) repairing and improving the roads to the lake kelimutu tourist attraction. 196 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 3) s-t strategy alternative strategies that can be done in improving the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction are: a) making various alternative tourist destinations to distract some tourists not only coming to lake kelimutu b) forming a special task force that clears parasites regularly c) doing the cooperation with other tourist attractions 4) w-t strategy alternative strategies that can be done in improving the development strategy of lake kelimutu tourist attraction are: a) holding regular meetings between local people and tourism organizer of lake kelimutu. b) holding an annual event that involves the community and the local government outside lake kelimutu area to distract the excessive tourists’visits and increasing the community participation. 197 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 internal external strength (s) weakness (w) the uniqueness of the ever-changing colors of the lake. the difficulty of involving the community in the development of lake kelimutu tourist attraction. the culture of the local community, which is religiously connected tolake kelimutu tourist attraction. the lack of the government role, in this case, it is the government tourism office in developing the tourism attraction. a variety of flora and fauna. facilities and infrastructures that must be added. the supporting natural environment around the tourist attraction. there is still a lack of tourists’ awareness that litter. there is still no evacuation route considering flores as an earthquakeprone area. opportunities (o) strategy (s-o) strategy (w-o) the emergence of other tourism sectors. creating a marketing strategy ofthe integrated travel packages for natural and cultural tourism involving the community leaders in tourism management of lake kelimutu the emergence of other types of tourism activities. using various existing social media to promote the uniqueness of the ever-changing colors of the lake asking the ministry of tourism to encourage the regent to expand the authority of ende government tourism office in developing the touristattraction as a source of pad picture of culture and society that must be promoted. collaborating with various tour agents to provide special discounts or special services for tourists. enabling the community to engage in tourism activities, such as being tour guides or souvenirs’ sellers promoting about the tourist attraction. creating special transportation routes to lake kelimutu from ende city increasingthe availability of trash bins and urging the tourists to throwthe garbage to its place the development of tour agencies. making an evacuation route and conducting regular evaluation simulations. increasing public transportations to and from tourist attraction. repairing and improving the roads to the lake kelimutu tourist attraction. threats (t) strategy (s-t) strategy (w-t) organizer internal policies that do not comply with the principles of conservation involving environmental ngos and klh in developing tourism conservation programs. holding regular meetings between local people and tourism organizerof lake kelimutu. excessive tourists visit in high season makingvarious alternative tourist destinations to distract some tourists not only coming to lake kelimutu holding an annual event that involves the community and the local government outside lake kelimutu area to distract the excessive tourists’visits and increasing the community participation. the growing parasite that disrupts the landscape forming a special task force that clears parasites regularly the competitiveness with other touristattractions doing the cooperation with other tourist attractions table 3. the result of swot analysis 198 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 according to pendit (1999), tourism potential is all the resources found in a particular place that can be developed into a tourist attraction. tourism potential is all the resources possessed by a place or region and can be developed into tourist attraction that can be utilized for economic interests while still taking care of other aspects. the results of observation and interview regarding the potential of lake kelimutu as a tourist attraction in ende regency, east nusa tenggara, based on its attractiveness, accessibility, accommodation, facility and infrastructure showed good results to be developed further. this is in accordance with the opinion of soekadijo (2000) that tourism potential is the principal to be an attraction and can be developed into a tourist attraction. in the tourism development, the ende regency government will continue to develop the potential of tourist attraction resources in ende regency, like the three colors lake kelimutu tourist attraction. the preservation of the regional culture and the development of lake kelimutu objects and attractions in ende regency require professional handling from the local government, so that tourist attractions can be maintained its continuity and it can emerge the tourists’ development. the resources arrangement is used as the tourist attractions, potential tourist attractions and tourist areas so that it can be more professional and can compete with other tourism destinations. therefore, the arrangement and the maintenance of the tourist attractions need to be improved both in terms of quality and quantity. tourism development planning has a concept, one of which is the product driven and market driven concept. product driven is a concept that focuses on the development of tourism products or objects and tourist attractions while market driven focuses more on tourists’ desires and market behavior as the basis for development. the conditions and privileges of those products can be used as the main principal in the development (fandeli, 2002). in order to carry out a good tourism development planning, a swot analysis is conducted first. the results of the swot analysis indicate that the appropriate alternative strategies to be used by lake kelimutu are so (strength and opportunities), with the consideration that lake kelimutu tourist area in ende regency has a lot of great potentials to be developed but it has not been utilized optimally, therefore, in an attempt to develop lake kelimutu tourist area in ende regency, the government must create strategies by using strength to take advantage of opportunities. meanwhile this power must 199 selfiyah karimah and hastuti/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 188-200 be used to improve its weaknesses, so that it can be used as an incentive and motivation for all the stakeholders to find solutions for the weaknesses. more specifically, those strategies are as follows: creating an integrated travel package marketing strategy for natural and cultural tourism, using various existing social media to promote the uniqueness of the ever-changing colors of the lake, collaborating with various tour agents to provide special discounts or special services for tourists, and creating special transportation routes to lake kelimutu from ende city. 4. conclusion the potential of lake kelimutu tourist attraction is very rich. in addition to the uniqueness of the three craters lake,it also has many varieties of flora and fauna. there are 140 species of flora that can be found in lake kelimutu in the form of woody plants (shrubs), there are 36 species of herb plants, and there are also three types of endemic plants that the distributionis only in lake kelimutu tourist attraction, they are: begonia kelimutuensis, turutuwa (rhododendron renschianum) and arangoni (vaccinium varingiaefolium). the fauna inhabiting lake kelimutu tourist attraction consists of 62 species of birds, 13 species of mammals and 4 species of reptiles, and there are 12 species of endemic and endangered animals. lake kelimutu tourist attraction also has cultural potential, because every year on august 14th, local people perform a traditionalritual praying for their ancestors. the local community has a religious connection with the lake kelimutu tourist attraction. lake kelimutu tourist attraction has much great potential which is not further developed yet, therefore, this study presents a development strategy using the swot analysis method. the development strategy by combining strengthopportunity (so), weakness-opportunity (wo), strength-threat (st), weaknessthreat (wt), creates a marketing strategy of integrated tourism packages for natural and cultural tourism using existing various social media to promote the uniqueness of the ever-changing colors of the lake, to cooperate with various tour agents to provide special discounts or special services for tourists, and to create special transportation routes to the lake kelimutu from ende city. references bunghez, c.l. 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(2008). ekonomi pariwisata: introduksi, informasi, dan aplikasi.jakarta: kompas. 26 health facilities locational analysis in makurdi local government area of benue state-nigeria using gis application oboh satur okosun department of geography, faculty of humanities, management and social science, federal university of kashere, p.m.b 0182, gombe state, nigeria email: obohcom@fukashere.edu.ng, obohyian25@yahoo.com received:1 october 2018/revised:7 november 2018/accepted: 1 december 2018/published online:31 december 2018 abstract the most important indices of defining general welfare and quality of life of people in the world are the physical and mental health of individuals. the purpose of this study is to examine gis solution in the spatial analysis of health facilities in makurdi local government area of benue state; through mapping of the existing health facilities located in the study area, their spatial distribution pattern, identify areas with marginal services and propose a model for the future development as well examine the availability and accessibility of the existing health facilities, e.g (road network, travel time, distance covered and queuing time). the random sampling method was used in selecting the represented ward and a total 275 questionnaire were distributed, the x and y coordinates of the existing healthcare facilities were collected using the gemini global positioning system (gps). the” nearest neighbour analysis” geospatial statistical method was employed to determine the spatial distribution pattern of the existing health facilities in other to determine the area of limited service and accessibility to healthcare facilities. the results showed that the healthcare facilities are randomly distributed; fiidi ward was discovered to have limited service as regards the healthcare facilities in the study area. in line with the findings, recommendations were made on the use of gis to build a concept that can be followed and replicated in divergent social-economic and political contexts. conclusively, the study had shown that gis is a vital tool in healthcare facility analysis and also in live application issues and thus should be encouraged in nigeria for national economic transformation and sustainable development. keywords: health, facilities, gis, mapping, location 1. introduction rapid population growth, high level of poverty and lack of available resources within any society has become a problem to adequate and equitable essential health services. presently, to measure the quality of life individuals, we have to look at the health and health care received by such individual. health development and management of disease within any society has a geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 3 (2018), 26-42, des, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8830 27 significant role to play in the development of that society culturally, socially, and economically. the primary goals of any functional public health institutions are to control disease, prevent, disease management, health education and environmental health. many interrelated changes in the world such as urbanisation, transportation and industrial development, population and life expectation growth, unsustainable agricultural development, cause general and complex environmental problems that threaten the health of humankind. dealing with such a complex and multi-aspect problem cannot be in common sense and managing experience of the decision makers in the public health area. up-to-date information and adequate models are required to help them to decide regarding any of the parameters affecting public health. thus, one of the significant parameters affecting public health care is its location and accessibility. location is one of the essential geographic concepts. it has been noted that the location of objects and places is the starting points in all geographic study (fellman et al., 2005). in addition to its literal meaning, a location is an area, commonly recognised and defined in which activities take place. according to atser and akpan (2009), within developing societies where there are problems with limited facilities and low personal mobility (accessibility), inequality in facilities’ distribution is of crucial importance. accessibility in this context has a spatial theme and signifies the ease with which potential healthcare seekers get to the health facilities unhindered. the proper location/accessibility of public health facilities just like educational service, administrative regions, polling station, is an essential feature of a well developed nation. therefore, proper location of facilities should be sort after by planners in the health sector and opinion leaders. fanan, u.and felix, k., (2014) was on the opinion that one of the imperatives of health care provision is a concern for both social and spatial justice. ajala et al (2005) in order to analyse health facilities in nigeria carried out a research on, accessibility to healthcare facilities as a panacea for sustainable rural development in osun state, nigeria using the year 2001 data. from the finding, it was recorded that, severe inequalities exist in the provision of healthcare facilities and services by both the public and private sectors and that the existing distribution pattern is more in favour of urban areas. also, that the resultant effect of inadequate access to health care delivery on sustainable development can be exemplified by the number of man-hour loss annually to malaria alone which cumulates into lower productivity by workers, this could be traced to effect of distance on patient travel time to health care facilities and as a result the 28 estimation of critical distance threshold for different levels of healthcare should be a subject of extensive study. however, this study lays emphasis on location, accessibility and useful mapping of health facilities and ascertain how gis can be used to analyse the locational problems (situation) of health facilities, which can be achieved by the proper mapping of health facilities (hospitals, dispensary, health centre, maternity, nursing home and private clinics). this gis technology is not just a magic box as assumed to be by most people, but it is merely an extension of one’s analytical thinking because it has no inherent answers, only those of the analyst. it is a tool just as the statistic is a tool; it is thus, handy for proper health care delivery regarding location, accessibility and management. accessibility is the measure of the capacity of a location to be reached by, or to reach different locations. therefore, the capacity and the arrangement of transport infrastructure are key elements in the determination ofaccessibility,for health care facilities the proper location and accessibility just like any other facility is an essential feature of any well developed nation, but there has been a continuous problem regarding haphazard setup of health facilities without tangible and reliable planning information in nigeria with makurdi inclusive. the random location of health facilities in makurdi has been a significant obstacle in the accessibility of these health centres for prompt services.the location of most public health facilities that render specialised services are influenced by individual connected to high government officials in order to favour their constituency; these facilities are sited in areas where it cannot be accessed easily by the general public. it is within the scope of this study to find out the existing pattern of location of health facilities and as well map them in the study area. it is assumed that population and distance/accessibility play a crucial role in the location of health facilities (especially the private clinics); thus this study assessed the optimal location of healthcare facilities. it has also been noticed that the type of service rendered and the economic status of the patient/populace informs their choices on the healthcare utilised. other factors like environment and land suitability are not within the scope of this study. it is the goal of any development effort by the government to improve the well-being of the generality of the people it governs; making adequate planning for healthcare delivery will be a right step in the right direction. however, adequate planning could only be based on adequate 29 information on the existing condition in the planning region. the present study sets out to provide the required information on the existing condition of healthcare facilities in the study area, in other to help in the planning for adequate healthcare delivery system in the study area by looking at; types of healthcare facilities found in the study area, distance/cost travelled, accessibility, estimated number of patients per day and distribution pattern of the healthcare facilities. 2. methods 2.1 study area based on the fact that the research is empirical in nature with specific purpose and focused on a particular location (case study) makurdi local government area which picked. this local government area is one of the 23 local government area of benue state; it is situated at the narrow end of the river benue where the rail bridge is constructed. makurdi lies on both banks of the river benue. it is bordered on the west by keana, north by lafia and doma local government in nasarawa state, on the east by guma local government and the south by gwer and gwer-west local government. it is located on latitude 7°43'60"n and longitude 8°31'60"e of the greenwich meridian. makurdi local government has an area of a 16km radius and is called great makurdi as provided for in the greater makurdi edict of 1984. it was created in 1970 out of the then tiv native authority. makurdi local government later gave birth to gwer, guma and the gwer-west local government areas of the state. today makurdi serves a dual purpose both as a local government headquarters and also as the state capital. the local government has 11 council wards with an estimated population of 500,797 people (2006 population census). it is made up of two constituencies, makurdi north comprising agan, mbalagh, north bank i, north bank ii, clerk/market and central south mission. makurdi south comprises of ankpa/wadata, bar, modern market, fiidi and wailomayo wards. 30 fig 1. map of benue state, location of study area fig 2. map of the study ward 2.2 sources of data the data for this research was sourced from two primary sources; 1. primary source: this includes the use of global positioning system (gps), to collect data (x and y) coordinate on the location of existing healthcare facilities, distribution of the questionnaire. 2. secondary sources (documented): this includes the use of relevant textbooks, articles, journals, published and unpublished statistics from ministry of health, maps from the ministry of lands and survey and google earth map (raster image). 31 the nature of data employed includes, location of existing healthcare facilities, accessibility, travel time, distance covered, travel cost, queuing time (waiting time) and the distance from one hospital to the other. makurdi serves as both headquarter of benue state and also makurdi local government. it is made up of eleven (11) wards, and seven (7) wards representing 63.64% of the total ward were selected using the random sampling method as shown in the table below. as earlier stated, the random sampling method was used, in which each member in the sampling frame (the population under study) has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. the method involves selection at random from a list of the sampling frame (the population) the required number of subjects or element for the sample. out of the four ways of conducting random sampling, the lottery method popularly called by means of a lottery was used for this work. each item (ward) in the sample frame was represented, each ward identified and written on a sheet of paper (1-11) and thoroughly mixed in which a sample of appropriate size ‘n’ were picked out randomly without replacement. (see table 1 below). table 1: showing the seven wards selected s/n name of wards 1 ankpa/ wadata 2 fiidi 3 walomayo 4 clerk/market 5 central south mission 6 north bank ii 7 modern market sources: fieldwork 2017 from the ministry of health, the list of all registered healthcare facilities was sourced. from the data, it was possible to identify the location of existing health care facilities within the stipulated ward under survey. the x and y coordinates of the existing healthcare facilities were collected using the gemini global positioning system (gps). in totality the study area is made up of (11) as explained earlier, a total of seven (7) wards were randomly selected for the research purpose. from the 7 wards sampled a total number of fifty-five (55) healthcare facilities were recorded and that includes clinic, hospitals, clinic/maternity, dispensaries and health centre’s; as the 32 major types of health facilities. as regards to the questionnaire distribution, a total of two hundred and seventy-five (275) were distributed across the wards, and within each health facility, five (5) patients were sampled as shown in table 2 below. ankpa/wadata ward has a total of eleven (11) healthcare facilities, with five (5) patients sampled in each health care facility, thus, giving rise to fifty-five (55) questionnaire which accounts for 20% of the total questionnaire distributed in the study area. walomayo with a total of 20 healthcare facilities sampled hundred (100) questionnaires which account for 36.36% of the total questionnaire. fiidi has a total of four (4) healthcare facilities, 20 questionnaires were sampled which accounts for 7.27%. clerk/market ward has a total of five (2) health care facilities, 10 questionnaires were sampled which accounts for 3.64%. central south mission ward has a total of 7 healthcare facilities, thirty-five (35) questionnaires were sampled which accounts for 12.73%. north bank ii ward has a total of 8 healthcare facilities, forty (40) questionnaires were sampled which accounts for 14.55%. lastly, modern market ward has a total of five (3) health care facilities, 15 questionnaires were sampled which accounts for 5.45%. table 2. showing questionnaire distribution wards no of health facilities no of patient total questionnaire distributed number % ankpa/wadata 11 5 55 20 walomayo 20 5 100 36.36 fiidi 4 5 20 7.27 clerk/market 2 5 10 3.64 central south mission 7 5 35 12.73 north bank 8 5 40 14.55 modern market 3 5 15 5.45 total 55 275 100 sources: fieldwork 2017 the map showing the location of the various wards was sourced for from the ministry of lands and survey (cartography department) and was scanned into the arcgis 10.3 (arcmap) environment. the map was digitised to show the different layers: wards, boundary, roads, river and significant settlements and arcgis 10.3 was also to calculate the spatial distribution pattern 33 of the healthcare facilities (nearest neighbor analysis). the data were also presented using statistical diagram and statistical mappings such as bar chart, pie chart and histogram, also included is descriptive methods. 3. results and discussion 3.1 types of health facilities all the 55 healthcare facilities within the area under study were grouped into types based on the oral interview conducted between the researcher and doctors. categorically, the healthcare facilities were grouped into six types across the seven (7) wards which include: clinics/maternity, hospital, clinics, maternity, dispensary and lastly health centres. this was done based on the function performed by the health facilities. as shown in table 3 below, analyzing the types of health facilities in each ward; ankpa/wadata ward has 2(18.18%) clinic/maternity, hospital 5(45.45%), clinic 2(18.18%), maternity 1(9.09%), dispensary 1(9.09%) and health centre none of the entire 11 health facilities in the ward. in walomayo ward, of all the entire 20 health facilities; clinic/maternity 4(20%), hospital 8(40%), clinic 6(30%), dispensary and health centre has 1(5%) respectively. fiidi ward with 4 health facilities; 1(25%) for clinic/maternity and 3(75%) for the hospital. clerk/market ward with 2 healthcare facilities has 1(50%) respectively for clinic/maternity and health centre. central south mission ward has; 5(71.43%) for hospital and 2(28.57%) for the clinic of all the 7 healthcare facilities. north bank ii ward with 8 health care facilities; with 3(37.5%) clinic/maternity, hospital 3(37.5 %), 1(12.5%) for maternity and health centre respectively. lastly modern market ward has 3 health care facilities; clinic/maternity 1(33.33%) and clinic 2(66.67%). in general (entire study area) out of all the 55 healthcare facilities as shown in table 4 below;12(21.82%) are clinics/maternity with ankpa/wadata 2(3.64%), walomayo 4(7.27%), fiidi, clerk/market and modern market has 1(1.82%) respectively and north bank ii with 3(5.45%). in totality hospital is 24(43.64%); ankpa/wadata and central south mission have 5(9.09%) respectively, walomayo 8(14.55%), fiidi and north bank ii have 3(5.45%) respectively. the clinic has 12 healthcare facilities; ankpa/wadata, central south mission and the modern market have 2(3.64%) each, walomayo 6(10.91%). maternity has 2 healthcare facilities; with ankpa/wadata and north bank ii having 1(1.82%) each. the dispensary has 2 healthcare 34 facilities; with ankpa/wadata and walomayo having 1(1.82%) each. lastly, the health centre is 3; with walomayo, clerk/market and north bank ii having 1(1.82%) each. fig 3 and 4 below also help to show the location and type of healthcare facilities across the study area fig 3. map of study area showing the location of different health facilities. fig 4: map of study wards showing the types of health facilities. 35 table 3. showing types of health facilities within wards. s/n ward clinic/mat ernity hospital clinic mater nity dispen sary healt h centr total no % no % no % no % no % no % no % 1 anakpa/ wadata 2 18.18 5 45.45 2 18.18 1 9.09 1 9.09 11 100 2 walomay o 4 20 8 40 6 30 1 5 1 5 20 100 3 fiidi 1 25 3 75 4 100 4 clerk/ma rket 1 50 1 50 2 100 5 central south mission 5 71.43 2 28.57 7 100 6 north bank ii 3 37.5 3 37.5 1 12.5 1 12.5 8 100 7 modern market 1 33.33 2 66.67 3 100 sources: fieldwork 2017 table 4. showing types of health facilities in the entire study area. s/n ward clinic/maternit y hospital clinic maternit y dispensary health centr no % no % no % no % no % no % 1 anakpa/w adata 2 3.64 5 9.09 2 3.64 1 1.82 1 1.82 2 walomayo 4 7.27 8 14.55 6 10.91 1 1.82 1 1.82 3 fiidi 1 1.82 3 5.45 4 clerk/mar ket 1 1.82 1 1.82 5 central south mission 5 9.09 2 3.64 6 north bank ii 3 5.45 3 5.45 1 1 1.82 7 modern market 1 1.82 2 3.64 1.82 total 12 21.82 24 43.64 12 21.82 2 3.64 2 3.64 3 5.46 sources: fieldwork 2017 36 3.2 total distance covered in respect to the distance covered or travelled by the patient to the healthcare facilities across the various wards were also analysed. the parameter or indices of measurement includes a range of distance 0-1km, 2-3km, 3-4km, 4-5km, 5-7km and 8 km and above. see table 5 table 5. showing total distances travelled to health facilities source: fieldwork 2017 3.3 cost of distance travelled the cost of distance travelled is the fare paid to health facilities of a patient’s choice which could be a hospital, clinic, and maternity. table 6 below help to explain better. table 6. showing cost of travel to health centres wards 50-n100 % 100-n300 % n500 above % total ankpawadata 30 54.54 10 18.18 15 27.27 55 walomayo 60 60 25 25 15 15 100 fiidi 8 40 7 35 5 25 20 clerk market 10 40 8 32 7 28 25 central s.mission 20 51.14 10 28.57 5 14.28 35 ward distance covered in kilometers (km) 0-1 % 2-3 % 4-5 % 6-7 % 8 & above % total ankpawadata 10 18.18 15 27.27 15 27.27 10 18.18 5 9.09 55 walomayo 40 40 30 30 20 20 7 7 3 3 100 fiidi 5 25 10 50 3 15 2 10 20 clerk/market 10 40 7 28 5 20 2 8 1 4 25 central south mission 10 28.57 12 34.28 7 20 4 11.42 2 5.71 35 north bank ii 8 20 12 30 10 25 5 12.5 5 12.5 40 37 north bank ii 15 37.5 15 37.5 10 25 40 total 143 75 57 sources: fieldwork 2017 3.4 accessibility concerning how accessible the health facilities are, 3 significant responses of the survey stipulated that the road are bad, 22 responded to fair, 195 responded to good roads and the remaining 55 responded to perfect roads. table 7 below is the tabular representation of the survey result. table 7. showing accessibility to healthcare facilities ward bad % fair % good % very good % total ankpa-wadata 3 5.45 10 18.18 40 72.72 2 3.63 95 walomayo 5 5 85 85 10 10 100 fiidi 20 100 20 modern market 10 40 15 60 35 central s. m 5 5 15 42.85 15 42.85 35 north bank ii 2 10.5 25 62.5 13 32.5 40 3 5.45 22 28.68 195 55 275 source: fieldwork 2017 3.5 estimated number of patients per day in regards to the patient influx per day, the following results as shown in table 8 below were obtained from all the sampled hospitals. table 8. estimate of patient per day s/n ward name of health facilities type of health facility patients per day 1 ankpa wadata bethel clinic & maternity hope clinic & maternity nations hospital federal medical centre mercyland hospital riverside federal hospital musab hospital julua clinic & maternity adikwu memorial alheri clinic primary health care clinic & maternity clinic & maternity hospital hospital hospital hospital hospital maternity dispensary clinic clinic 10 10 22 60 15 20 20 11 15 07 20 2 walomayo abama clinic & maternity epidemiology unit clinic & maternity health centre 10 20 38 benue brewery clinic yima hospital immaculate conception empathy clinic wurukm specialist hospital kings paaks clinic kings cross clinic & maternity blue cross specialist tosema specialist fabash herbal clinic queens clinic & maternity s.a herbal centre bright way dispensary bishop murray medical benue hospital pampas hospital hemko hospital clinic hospital hospital clinic clinic clinic & maternity clinic & maternity hospital hospital clinic clinic & maternity clinic dispensary hospital hospital hospital hospital 10 15 20 10 10 12 12 09 30 05 15 10 15 25 20 15 22 3 fiidi elshaddai hospital federal medical centre airforce base hospital fiidili clinic & maternity hospital hospital hospital clinic & maternity 20 55 12 11 4 clerk/market unity hospital & maternity benue women clinic health center clinic & maternity 15 13 5 central south mission winners hospital samara hospital family support program psychiatric unit judita hospital city hospital dora clinic hospital hospital clinic hospital hospital hospital clinic 15 20 15 10 15 15 13 6 north bank ii harmony clinic & maternity primary healthcare centre dora specialist hospital samaritan specialist hospital savior medical hospital st. sabastine clinic linester clinic & maternity genein hospital clinic & maternity health centre maternity hospital hospital clinic & maternity clinic & maternity hospital 20 15 20 15 20 13 15 20 7 modern market immanuel medical specialist vakion clinic & maternity pishon women clinic clinic clinic & maternity clinic 10 15 18 source: fieldwork 2017 39 3.6 distribution pattern one of the objectives of this work was to determine the spatial distribution pattern of the hospital. from the analysis carried out, using the arcgis 10.3 software, it was discovered that the health facilities in the study are not regularly distributed but randomly distributed at a significant level of 0.05 and a critical level of 1.96, as shown in fig 5 below. the distance covered in table 5 and 6 above also gave a picture of the distribution pattern of the health care facilities. fig 5: map of the analysis showing nearest neighbour analysis 3.7 summary of the finding the study of gis usefulness in spatial analysis of health facilities is an avenue to put up appropriate strategies for approving health care services in the national level, state and local government level (grassroots). the main aim and relevant objectives in which this study is targeted at have been duely achieved. it is thus imperative to mention that the study has been able to make the following remarks (observations). 40  before this time there exist, no map chart or graph showing the location of healthcare facilities in the study except for the list and address of all the registered health care facilities.  it was discovered that most of the location of health facilities in the health manual sourced from the ministry of health is not in existence.  from the findings, it was discovered that all the fifty-five (55) health facilities surveyed are about six (6) types or categories which includes; hospitals clinics and maternity clinics dispensary health centres maternity  some of the few specialist hospital and services rendered are as follows, federal psychiatric unit renders psychiatric services, the epidemiology unit renders epidemiological services (epidemic breakout), and tuberculosis unit renders treatment for t.b patients and blue cross hospital which offer orthopaedic services for a broken bone.  concerning the distribution pattern of the existing health facilities, it was discovered that the health facilities are randomly distributed.  from the fair pools given regarding accessibility, it was discovered that most of the roads to health facilities are excellent and accessible. 3.8 recommendation the recommendation given here is to enhance future studies on health care facilities, gis for spatial analysis of health facilities in nigeria, africa and the world in general. the gis coordinates will be useful for positioning health care services and facilities. this will provide the basis for health facility audit and creation of master facilities in the state. the map produced can provide bases for referral in the following ways;  distribution of health facilities  distribution of numbers of doctors  a suitable location for future health facilities. 41 the map produced should not be seen as the final product but as a yardstick or a bearing for mapping health facilities as it is obtainable in the developed world. gis has been not a magic box; it is also not an end to everything but a means to it. the map produced at this level should be seen as a way forward. the newly created database on the location of health facilities should be regularly reviewed and updated for maximum benefit. the nature of the distribution of health facilities should be given all the urgent attention needed. places that lack adequate health facilities services like clinics, hospitals, health centre’s etc. should be provided for each ward and appropriately distributed within the wards. specialised hospitals like blue cross who offers strictly orthopaedic services and also psychiatric hospital should be provided within all the wards to enable the citizens of the local government to have easy access to such services. lastly, the staff of the local government, state government and ministry of health should be trained on how to create health service maps based on the following, cartography, web-based gis application, use of gps and access to google earth. 4. conclusion in spite of the high level of constraints that may be involved in the implementation of some of the listed recommendations, notwithstanding, the researcher calls for the cooperation of the government at all level, (ngo) non-governmental organization, the ministry of health and its agencies, the relevant authorities and the general public at large to support the drive. with no part removed or left out, it is the candid opinion of the researcher that if all stake holder adopt the recommendation stipulated by the researcher, a meaningful improvement will be undoubtedly attained. this will, in turn, bring about an improved health care system in nigeria which will be free and accessible to all. the researcher, therefore suggests that further areas on this topic should avail to cover studies of gis and health facilities mapping, gis and health service, gis and public health. studies can be carried out in other departments like universities, ngo, private and public institution or countries as this will help in making the empirical comparison within the department, ngo, public/private institution, countries and universities in regards to their constraints. 42 conclusively, it is suggested that use of gis for health facilities and live application issues, should be encouraged as it is relatively a new technique or tool for this significant part of the world. acknowledgement for his enabling grace, divine wisdom and vision for writing this work, the almighty god takes prime position in our expression of appreciation and gratitude. my unreserved appreciation goes to my wife (okosun obekpa mercy) and my two lovely daughters (okosun hadassah oyale onose and okosun ariel abahi ainose). lastly for those who believe in the beauty of geography, cartography and gis references ajala, o.a., sanni, l., and adeyinka, s.a., (2005). accessibility to healthcare facilities: a panacea for sustainable rural development in osun state, south western nigeria. journal of human ecology, 18(2):121 – 128. amer, s., (2007). toward spatial justice in urban health services planning. phd.dissertation, itc, enschede, the netherlands. atser j., and akpan, p.a., (2009). spatial distribution and accessibility of health facilities in akwa ibom state, nigeria. ethiopian journal of environmental studies and management (ejesm) vol.2 (2): pp. 49-57. fagbeja, m.a., (2000). mapping the incidences of chronic bronchitis and bronchopneumonia and verification of high-risk areas using gis. m.sc.dissertation, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. fanan, u., and felix, k. (2014). analysis of the spatial distribution of health facilities in benue state, nigeria ,public health research 2014, 4(5): 210-218.doi: 10.5923/j.phr.20140405.09 ogundare, e.i., (1982). healthcare delivery is a success in oyo state. p.7 october 27, daily sketch, lagos-nigeria. ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 11 the development of web-based learning multimedia on lithosphere material and its effectivity in improving students’ learning motivation and outcomes ellese sulistianingsih1 and mukminan1 1master program of geography education, yogyakarta state university, indonesia email : ellese_sulistianingsih@yahoo.com received 4 march 2019/ revised 9 april 2019/ accepted 13 april 2019/ published online 29 april 2019 abstract science and technology develop very fast in every aspect of life, including in the aspect of education. as the development of science and technology, guiding teachers to be able to make use various kinds of creative and innovative learning media in learning process at school is needed in order to increase the effectivity of the learning process which will have impact on the students’learning motivation and learning outcomes. according to the explanation, learning multimedia needs to be developed in order to increase the students’ learning motivation and learning outcomes. the intention of this research is to develop a web-based learning multimedia on lithosphere material that is valid, practical and effective in improving students’ learning motivation and outcomes. this research is a research and development (r&d) which refers to the development model of hannafin and peck, which is then modified by using tessmer formative evaluation. the analysis results show that the web-based learning multimedia for lithosphere material has been proven its eligibility, that the web-based learning is valid, practical, to be used in learning process and is effective in increasing students learning motivation and learning outcomes. keywords:development, learning multimedia, website, lithosphere. 1. introduction internet technology is currently developing very fast and has been enjoyed by everyone, including in the aspect of education. nowadays, almost every student already have a gadget that is capable of accessing the internet easily. it enables the students to be capable of acquiring various kinds of information quickly. in indonesia, the government regulation on the use of information and communication technology (ict) is based on the president regulation number 50 of 2000 on the indonesian telematics coordination team that in order to anticipate the needs of society for the advancement of information technology and the use of telematics in order to support the improvement of national competitiveness, geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 1 (2019), 11-24 , april, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.9882 ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 12 therefore coordination and synergy in building telematics facilities, application and resources are needed in indonesia. utilizationict in the world of education, or often referred to as e-learning. mohasin, shinde and khaparde (2013: 246) reveal that e-learning is a form of technology and innovation advancements in the world of education, in which the roles are increasingly become more important at the end of this decade, where the use of e-learning is able to change the traditional learning model into a more modern learning. tsai (2009: 45) explains that e-learning has four characteristics of online learning environments, they are: more flexible time and space, indirect social interaction, abundant sources of information, and dynamic learning interface. a research conducted in the wilfrid laurier university canada (umar, 2013; 15) reveal that students whose learning processes use web are proven to be able to learn faster compared to students whose learning process carried out in conventional manner, 80% of the students have good and very good achievement, while the other 66% of the students do not need printed learning source. the use of computer and web is adjusted to the level of needs in learning, it is done so that the use of computer and internet can be more optimal in helping the students to reach the purpose of learning expected in each learning subject, including in geography subject. daljoeni (2014: 1) explains that geography is the study of earth and its relationship to all of its contents such as human beings, animals and plants. geography learning is divided into two aspects, which are physical geography which discusses about volcanism, earthquake, mining and types of rocks, and human-related geography. one of the geography learning materials in the curriculum of grade x high school is lithosphere. according to hawley & lyon (2017: 30) lithosphere is the outer layer of earth which has cooled down, it has various level of thickness and is relatively solid and strong. lithosphere material is a part of physical geography in which the object of the study is material, therefore the learning materials are sourced from various kinds of physical materials that exist on earth. a case that often happens in learning process is the less effective communication process that occurs between the teacher and students, therefore even though the information delivered is considered interesting and good, but if it is not communicated well then the students will have a hard time to understand and master the material delivered,it is caused by the lack of learning media used by teachers in presenting the learning material and presenting a geosphere phenomenon condition in learning process.in addition, the teachers also have ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 13 difficulties to deliver a lot of geography learning material with the limited time and space available. good understanding and mastery of the learning material learned will determine the success of the students’ learning purposes, which has impact on the increase of students’ motivation and learning outcomes. day (2012: 308) explains that every individual has their own unique learning motivation. according to huang (2012: 1755), learning motivation of students comes from the subjective experience they have, especially something that is related to their willingness to be involved in learning process and also their reasons to be involved. su (2016: 2) explains that when students have high aspiration and motivation in learning, then the students can have good learning outcomes, by participating in the learning activities based on the intensity of their motivation, attitudes, and mental conditions. it is in accordance with the opinion of moeed (2015: 25) who explains that when students are well-motivated in learning, then they will be fully involved in the learning, and if the students are not well-motivated then they will do the opposite. learning multimedia as a media (intermediary) becomes a bridge between the source and receiver of the information. learning multimedia involves several media components to make the learning more interesting and easier to be understood by the students. because in learning media, the materialpresentation is not only in form of text but it is the combination of several other media components such as pictures, video, audio, animation and others (milovanovic, perisic, vukotic, bugarcic, radovanovic, &ristic, 2016: 45). the utilization of multimedia in learning can also help to present an event that is beyond the direct reach of human, complex, complicated and dangerous that iswell-packed in a shorter/slower time. as explained by gilakjani (2012: 62) that the advantages of using multimedia in learning process are not limited to the space-time which enables the students to learn by themselves anytime and anywhere. 2. the methods this research is conducted in sman 1 prambanan, sleman. this research is aresearch and development (r&d) which refers to the development model of hannafinand peck (wiyani, 2012: 44-46)in which consists of three phases, namely: a. analysis phase, in which in this phase the author analyzes the students’ needs, identifies the students’behaviors and characteristics, identifies the objective, determines the objects on the learning media developed, and conducts evaluation and revision. ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 14 b. design phase, in which in this phase the author designs the learning materials within the media developed, creates paper-based media, which is creating a design in a form of storyboard. storyboard in a narration material used for the content and guiding materials that are then synthesized into things that want to be shown and said, the author then evaluates and conducts revision towards the flowchart and storyboard that have been made. c. development and implementation phase, in which in this phase the author creates a flowchart based on the storyboard that has been designed, and creates learning media based on flowchart that has been made. within the implementation phase, the activities carried out are testing the learning media developed, then evaluating and revising the media that has been developed in order to be able to be used by the users. the development trial design for the product is done by using tessmer formative evaluation model(1998: 15) which consists of 5 stages, namely self evaluation conducted by the author, expert review conducted by 3 expert, one-to-one evaluationconducted by 3 students, small group evaluation conducted by 9 students, and field test evaluation conducted by 26 students. tessmer evaluation is used to assess the strength and weakness of the instruction in the development stage, with a reason to revise the instruction in order to increase its effectivity and attractiveness (sahrir, alias, ismail, osman, 2012: 110), and also to enable the design team to monitor the academic development of the students based on the learning purpose and the learning level determined by the design (bowman, 2015: 51). the instrument for collecting data in this research are questionnaire of learning motivation and learning outcomes measurement test. students learning motivation indicators in this research refer to keller’s arcs model (robb, 2010: 33) with motivation indexes or markers such as attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. the data analysis technique used is gain score, with the following criteria as in the following tabel 1. tabel 1. gain score (n-gain) acquisition category gain score criteria category n-gain ≥ 0,7 high 0,7 >n-gain ≥ 0,3 medium n-gain < 0,3 low source: hake (1999: 2) ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 15 3. result and discussion 3.1 validity and practically of web-based learning multimedia for the lithosphere material this development produces web-based learning multimedia on a valid and practical lithosphere material. the procedures in developing this media are done in three phases of analysis, design, and development and implementation in which the evaluation and revision are processed formatively by the developer and modified by using the tessmer formative evaluation. a. the analysis phase consists of 6 (six) stages; (1) conducting discussion and interview; (2) identifying the students’ needs, (3) identifying the students’ characteristics; (4) identifying the purpose of web-based learning multimedia that will be developed; (5) determining and collecting the sources; and (6) conducting evaluation and revision toward the analysis that has been made. b. the design phase consists of 3 (three) stages; (1) designing the material in web-based learning multimedia that will be developed; (2) creating paper-based, which is making a design in form of flowchart and storyboard as the material for narration and visual which consist of materials and related things that will be used as guidelines in developing the web-based learning multimedia; and (3) conducting evaluation and revision toward the analysis that has been made. c. the development and implementation phase consists of 3 (three) stages; (1) developing web-based learning multimedia by using adobe flash cs6 based on the flowchart that has been made; (2) preparing domain and hosting that will be used for the web-based learning multimedia; and (3) conducting evaluation and revision toward the analysis that has been made. the web-based learning multimedia produced from the production stage, which is named as the first prototype, is then evaluated by using the tessmer model in order to produce a valid and practical web-based learning media, where the evaluation stage consists of expert review, one-to-one evaluation, small group evaluation and field test evaluation. expert review is wherethe material and instrument experts assess the media by filling a questionnaire, and providing comments and recommendations. the validation results of material expert are viewed based on three aspects; the learning eligibility and content, presentation eligibility, and language assessment which consist of 14 indicators and ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 16 descriptors. the validation results of media expert are viewed from four aspects; the graphics, coloring, interactivity and sounds which consist of 7 indicators and 20 descriptors. the validation results of instrument expert are viewed from three aspects; questionnaire format, contents, and language used that consist of 10 indicators. the validation results of expert review are presented in the following table 2. table 2.the validation results of the expert review stage no. expert review average score criteria 1. material expert 4,70 very good 2. media expert 4,19 good 3. instrument expert 4,53 very good source: data processed in 2018 after the expert review, the next stage is the one-to-one evaluation trial which is conducted to three students, who have different academic abilities,where the students are asked to give their responds in form of comments and to fill in the assessment questionnaire. the results of the one-to-one evaluation trial are presented in the following table 3. table 3.assessment distribution of one-to-one evaluation no. interval criteria one-to-one evaluation trial f 100% 1 5 > 4,22 very good 3 66,7% 2 4,21 – 3,41 good 1 33,3% 3 3,40 > 2,61 enough 4 2,60 – 1,79 lacking 5 <1,79 very lacking total 3 100% source: data processed in 2018 the next stage is small group evaluation trial that is given to 9 (nine) students, who havedifferent academic abilities, where the students are asked to give their responds in form of comments and to fill in the assessment questionnaire. the following table presents the results of small group evaluation trial. table 4.assessment distribution of small group evaluation trial no. interval criteria small group evaluation trial f 100% 1 5 > 4,22 very good 7 77,8% 2 4,21 – 3, 41 good 2 22,2% 3 3,40 > 2,61 enough 4 2,60 – 1,79 lacking 5 <1,79 very lacking total 9 100% source: data processed in 2018 ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 17 next, the developer conducts revision to the third prototype of web-based learning multimedia and conducts trial on the field test evaluation that is given to 26 students in a class, who have various levels of abilities. as in the previous stage, the students are also asked to give their responds in form of comments and to fill in the assessment questionnaire. the distribution table of the field test evaluation can be seen as follow: table 5.assessment distribution of the field test evaluation trial no. interval criteria field test evaluation trial f 100% 1 5 > 4,22 very good 20 76,9% 2 4,21 – 3, 41 good 6 23,1% 3 3,40 > 2,61 enough 4 2,60 – 1,79 lacking 5 <1,79 very lacking total 26 100% source: data processed in 2018 based on the assessment results of expert review, the one-to-one evaluation trial, small group evaluation and field test evaluation, it can be concluded that the web-based learning media for lithosphere material developed is valid and practical to be used in learning process. 3.2 the effectivity of the use of web-based learning multimedia forlithosphere material the effectivity of web-based learning multimedia for lithosphere material can be seen from the increase of students’ motivation and learning outcomes based on the n-gain by comparing the pre-test and post-test scores. the graphic results for the students’ average learning motivation before and after using the web-based learning multimedia on lithosphere material can be seen in the following picture. ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 18 picture 1.graphic of the students’ average learning motivation picture 1 shows that the students’ learning motivation before and after using the webbased learning multimedia has experienced an increase, both in students who have the high, medium and low academic achievement. the comparison recapitulation of the students’ learning motivation before and after using the web-based learning multimedia can be seen in the following picture. picture 2.comparison recapitulation graphic of the students’ average learning motivation the average pre-test score of students’ learning motivation before using the webbased learning multimedia is 70 and the average post-test score of students’ learning motivation after using the web-based learning multimedia is 82.54. based on the average score, the result analysis of n-gain can be acquired, in which it is 0.44 with medium effectivity category. the students’ average learning outcomes in the pre-test and post-test 0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 80,00 90,00 100,00 high 84,71 93,57 60,00 65,00 70,00 75,00 80,00 85,00 70 82,54 academic achievement ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 18 picture 1.graphic of the students’ average learning motivation picture 1 shows that the students’ learning motivation before and after using the webbased learning multimedia has experienced an increase, both in students who have the high, medium and low academic achievement. the comparison recapitulation of the students’ learning motivation before and after using the web-based learning multimedia can be seen in the following picture. picture 2.comparison recapitulation graphic of the students’ average learning motivation the average pre-test score of students’ learning motivation before using the webbased learning multimedia is 70 and the average post-test score of students’ learning motivation after using the web-based learning multimedia is 82.54. based on the average score, the result analysis of n-gain can be acquired, in which it is 0.44 with medium effectivity category. the students’ average learning outcomes in the pre-test and post-test high medium low 78,00 41,57 93,57 87,08 63,71 pre-test post-test 70 82,54 academic achievement ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 18 picture 1.graphic of the students’ average learning motivation picture 1 shows that the students’ learning motivation before and after using the webbased learning multimedia has experienced an increase, both in students who have the high, medium and low academic achievement. the comparison recapitulation of the students’ learning motivation before and after using the web-based learning multimedia can be seen in the following picture. picture 2.comparison recapitulation graphic of the students’ average learning motivation the average pre-test score of students’ learning motivation before using the webbased learning multimedia is 70 and the average post-test score of students’ learning motivation after using the web-based learning multimedia is 82.54. based on the average score, the result analysis of n-gain can be acquired, in which it is 0.44 with medium effectivity category. the students’ average learning outcomes in the pre-test and post-test pre-test post-test 70 82,54 academic achievement ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 19 when using the web-based learning multimedia on lithosphere media can be seen in the following picture. picture 3.graphic of the students’ average learning outcomes the picture 3 shows that the students’ average learning outcomes before and after using the web-based learning multimedia has experienced an increase, both in students who have high, medium and low academic achievement. the comparison recapitulation of the students’ average learning outcomes before and after using the web-based learning multimedia can be seen in the following picture. picture 4.the comparison recapitulation graphic of the students’ learning outcomes the average pre-test score of the students before using the web-based learning multimedia is 41.92 and the average post-test score of the students after using the web-based learning multimedia is 70.81. based on the average score, the result analysis of n-gain is acquired, in which it is 0.50 with medium effectivity category. 0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 80,00 90,00 high 50,71 82,86 0,00 20,00 40,00 60,00 80,00 pre-test 41,92 academic achievement ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 19 when using the web-based learning multimedia on lithosphere media can be seen in the following picture. picture 3.graphic of the students’ average learning outcomes the picture 3 shows that the students’ average learning outcomes before and after using the web-based learning multimedia has experienced an increase, both in students who have high, medium and low academic achievement. the comparison recapitulation of the students’ average learning outcomes before and after using the web-based learning multimedia can be seen in the following picture. picture 4.the comparison recapitulation graphic of the students’ learning outcomes the average pre-test score of the students before using the web-based learning multimedia is 41.92 and the average post-test score of the students after using the web-based learning multimedia is 70.81. based on the average score, the result analysis of n-gain is acquired, in which it is 0.50 with medium effectivity category. high medium low 50,71 42,92 32,14 82,86 69,58 60,00 pre-test post-test 41,92 70,81 academic achievement ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 19 when using the web-based learning multimedia on lithosphere media can be seen in the following picture. picture 3.graphic of the students’ average learning outcomes the picture 3 shows that the students’ average learning outcomes before and after using the web-based learning multimedia has experienced an increase, both in students who have high, medium and low academic achievement. the comparison recapitulation of the students’ average learning outcomes before and after using the web-based learning multimedia can be seen in the following picture. picture 4.the comparison recapitulation graphic of the students’ learning outcomes the average pre-test score of the students before using the web-based learning multimedia is 41.92 and the average post-test score of the students after using the web-based learning multimedia is 70.81. based on the average score, the result analysis of n-gain is acquired, in which it is 0.50 with medium effectivity category. pre-test post-test academic achievement ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 20 learning multimedia is a combination of several media, combined as a message used to deliver a form of knowledge in order to stimulate students’ choices, feeling, attention and interest in learning process. the use of multimedia in learning can help to deliver information in a more interesting manner and make it easier for the user to acquire the information. it is because the learning materials are not only delivered through words but through a simultaneous combination of video, picture, graphic and animation. in addition, the use of learning multimedia can also help in presenting an object which has a very small or big size more clearly and displaying the object in school, it can also display a dangerous event that is outside the reach of human directly in a faster/slower duration and to attract students’ attention in order to emerge learning motivation that has influence in improving students’ learning outcomes. the results of this research show that the learning media developed is in valid, practical and effective category to be used in learning process, which is proven by the expert review conducted to measure the validity level of the multimedia, in which the average score is 4.47 with very good category, the practicality of the multimedia based on the assessment in the one-to-one evaluation stage is 66.67% with very good category, the small group evaluation is 77.8% with very good category and field test evaluation is 76.9% with very good category, and the effectivity in increasing students’ learning motivation with n-gain of 0.50, in which it is in medium category. the results of this research is in accordance with the research conducted by kusumaningtyas and mukminan (2014: 14) that lithosphere material consists a lot of learning material and needs learning multimedia in the material presentation, in addition the results of this web-based learning multimedia development is proven to be effective in increasing students’ learning outcomes, with the completeness of students’ learning outcome percentage of 10%. permadi(2016: 13) in his research explains that web-based learning media development needs to be conducted so that the learning is not only carried out in conventional manner and becomes more interesting, so that the students can reach the passing grade in the competency taught. cahyono (2013: 8) conducts a research in using web-based interactive media, in which the results of the research show that the students’ learning motivation has experienced an increase of 17.65% and the students’ learning outcomes also has experienced an increase of 44.12%. another research is also conducted by fadli&ikawati (2017: 7) , in which the results show that the use of learning multimedia has significant increase towards the learning ellese sulistianingsih and mukminan /geosi vol 4. no 1 (2019) 11-24 21 motivation, it is proven with their research which shows that the chi square (x2) count acquired is bigger than the chi square (x2) acquired in the table, which is 17.19 > 16.919, therefore that the h0is rejected and ha is accepted, it means that the use of learning multimedia has significant influence towards students learning motivation. a research conducted by sari &suswanto (2017: 1008) explains that the use of web-based learning media in learning is effective in increasing students’ learning outcomes, where there is an increase in the average score of pre-test to post-test, where the average pre-test score is 46.67 and the average post test score is 88.09. 4. conclusion the web-based geography learning multimedia for grade x of high school students’lithosphere material developed is valid based on the assessment of expert review, in which the scores are 4.70 from the material expert, 4.19 from the media expert and 4.53 from the instrument expert. the result of the practicality test conducted in the one-to-one evaluation stage is 66.67% with very good category and the other 33.3% is in good category. the result of small group evaluation is 77.8% which is in very good category and the other 23.1% is in good category. the web-based learning multimedia for lithosphere material is proven to be effective in increasing students’ learning motivation, with the average pre-test score of 70 and the average post-test score of 82.54 and the media is also capable of increasing the students learning outcomes with the average pre-test score of 41.92 and the average post-test score of 70.58. therefore in can be concluded, based on the resultsof research, that the development of web-based geography learning multimedia on lithosphere material for grade x of high school students has been proven its eligibility, that the web-based learning multimedia is valid and practical to be used in learning process and is effective in increasing students’ learning motivation and learning outcomes. references bowman, s. f. 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(2012). desain pembelajaran pendidikan: tata rancang pembelajaran menuju pencapaian kompetensi. yogyakarta: ar-ruzz media. marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 63 the development of cai based android in solar system and universe topic for tenth-grade marwiyah1*, rusijono1, fajar arianto1 1master program of educational technology, state university of surabaya, indonesia *email : marwiyah.17070905004@mhs.unesa.ac.id received 21 february 2019/ revised 8 july 2019/ accepted 15 july 2019/ published 1 august 2019 abstract the aim of the research to generate learning media, thus the media development will assist students to understand the content during the learning process. besides establishing a product, the manual guide was also arranged. the method used was research and development (r & d) model, the validation result of content expert i and ii obtain a very good category and media experts i and ii also obtain a very good category. the result of individual test is categorized very well with percentage of 91.01%, the result of small group test is categorized very well with percentage of 91.43 %, the result of the large group test is categorized very well with percentage of 89.60%. hence, based on the result of android-based cai media development of geography in solar system and universe topic of tenth-grade in al-iftitahiyah high school needs to be developed and utilized as a learning media that could support the teaching and learning process. keywords: development, cai based on android, geography 1. introduction technology grows rapidly in modern times, where millennials are significantly dependent to it. in the sense of technology education and learning, technology can be engaged as a learning media for wider information and in the current era of globalization. it is not quite recent that media has become an integral part of the learning process. this can be noticed the media is anything that can be used to deliver messages from sender to recipient, hence media possess capacity in stimulating students' thoughts, feelings, and interests, thusthe learning process occurs. (sadiman, 2007: 7). the learning process that still only relies on the teacher's ability to explain geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 63-77, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.9824 marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 64 learning contentgenerates impact, such learning process will unlikely to be effective enough to enact thinking patterns of students inunderstanding the contentbetter. the development of learning equipment in the form of teaching content modelis employedas a reference for educational unit in developing or engaging teaching content which is sustainable, actual, and appropriate manner to the needs and conditions of the education unit concerned. the selection of teaching contents is determined based on difficulty level and depth of the content, the characteristics of the subject matter, the complexity in selecting learning strategies, students character, the conditions of the learning facilities and infrastructure available. this cai-based development media engages android within learning process of geography subject. geography is a subject that proposes content in the form of memorization. while the topicis unpopular upon the students, this will encourage students to meet difficulties in receiving the learning content. in solar system and universe subject, students encountered complicated issues to recall the names of solar system and universe. thus, the presence of interesting media is very compulsory and needed to overcome the problems experienced by students and teachers during the learning process. learning media has a significant impact in the term of learning process quality and learning outcome. the unecessary media possibly cause the lack of response, motivation, and interest of students toward the subject. considering these facts, the presence of media that is not suitable over the needs will deliver another issue. in the other hand, a presence of an attractive media could support students to be more enthusiastic and understand the subject matter. furthermore, there is a study which conducted upon on instructional media utilization in teaching and learning process. result of the study shows that the process and the learning outcomes of students reveal significant differences between learning without media and learning using media. therefore, the learning media engagementwithin learning process is highly recommended to enhance the quality of learning (sudjana and rivai, 2010: 3). based on the result of interview and preliminary observation, the issues experienced by students were bored feelings and difficulty to grasp the content delivered to the tenth-grade students of al-iftitahiyah senior high school batuputih sumenep. android is a software platform as well as an operating system based on the linux kernel. it is an open source in which accessible to be developed by developers from all over the world. marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 65 android is used by more than 300 million devices and 850 thousand devices are activated every day (bhardwaj et al., 2013). android market share in the whole world currently hits 73.05%, with its closest competitor being ios with 19.99% ("mobile operation", 2017). in indonesia, android tops the highest market share of 83.99% in july 2017, far exceeding ios which only reached 3.09% ("market share held", 2017). android application is very massive on daily life. it also can be used by teachers to develop learning that is supported by smart phones or other devices based on android. then, the development of cai based on android is in accordance to the development of education currently. the research of media cai based android development modelengages research and development model (r & d) by sugiyono (2015). 2. the methods according to the issue background mentioned above, it is necessary to develop cai media based android ongeography subject focusing on solar system and universe topic of tenth-grade students in al-iftitahiyah high school batuputihsumenep. this research is also based on research result conducted by rika dian kurniawan, (2015: 6) which provides suggestions for the development of cai media. it suggests further action to develop media in other subjects and other subject matter, thereby the learning media is becoming more varied. the relevance of this research title with the concept of educational technology definition could be observed from the association for educational communications and technology (aect) in 2008 as follows: figure 1. educational technology domain (januszweski and molenda, 2008: 5) marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 66 based on learning technology domain,according to molenda (2008) dividing education technology area into three parts, namely; creation/creating, utilization, and managing.within the development of cai media, if it is related to the direction of development,then it is included the creation/creating scope. the purpose of this research is to generate a product in the form of cai to improvelearning content of solar system and universe topicfor tenth-grade class geography subject. the object of this research is al-iftitahiyah high school students batuputih sumenep. basically, there are three main steps of establishingthe tutorial model, as follows: (1) formulating the interactive multimedia.tutorial design model program by analyzing the curriculum and competency, hence it produces media program outline (bgpm) (2) arranging flowchart learning program tutorial model, interactive multimedia tutorial, storyboard model, and (3) using computer device as the main equipment with appropriate software and hardware in programming (susilana and riyana, 2007: 147). for the 1st stage and 2nd stage have already explained earlier. the characteristic of the tutorial model is clearlyillustratedin the flowchart as follows: figure 2. flowchart tutorial model (susilana and riyana, 2007:148) the flowchart illustrates that tutorial model is divided into 6 parts, namely; the introduction part, the information presentation section, the presentation of questions and program introduction section closing feed back & remediation judge response question & response present of information marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 67 responses, responses consideration, the information section, feedback and responses. the improvements will keep performing as long as students have not succeeded, and if it has succeeded, it will be completed by the closing section. presentation of development activities has been adapted to the development procedures for the modification of research and development (r & d) according to sugiyono (2015). the steps description for cai-based android media developmentare explained below: 1) potential problems the initial stage of developing the android-based cai media conducted by direct observation to al-iftitahiyyah high school, batuputihsumenep. based on observations performed at tenth-grade class, there are some factualconditions of learning that can be identified, which are: the unavailability of instructional media except textbooks and classical method learning used during the learning process. thereby, students experience difficulties within independent learning process. 2) data collection after the potential and problems were being identified, it is required to collect various data that can be engaged as content for planning certain product that is expected to cope with the problem. in order to collect the initial data such as; students characteristics, media and the learning methods that are being used, students difficulties in the learning process. in addition, interviews were also addressed to content experts and media experts to obtain validity of thecontent used in the media, obtain improvements and feasibility of media that would be applied in the learning process. 3) product design before arranging cai production based on android, it is notable to establish a program script and storyboard (susilana and riyana, 2007: 147). storyboard testing is a benchmark for the success of making a product in the form of a prototype, then a media is suitable for learning. trials were conducted by discussingwithcontent experts regarding thecontent to be presented in the android-based cai program,researcher also discussed with media experts relating the media to be generated referring to sugiyono (2009: 298) there are ten steps of research and development, as follows: (1) potential and problem (2) data collection (3) design product (4) design validation (5) marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 68 design revision (6) trial product (7) product revision (8) trial usage (9) product revision (10) and mass production. the research steps are shown in the following figure: figure 3. research and development procedure (sugiyono, 2015:409) in the development of cai media, it employs the procedures and r & d steps. it includes several development-based stages. 1) potential and problems: at this stage the developer observes and identifies the problem. based oninterviewresults, most students did not understand the content properly. 2) data collection: data obtained from interviews, student learning outcomes, syllabus and lesson plan of geography subject, the solar system and the universe topic. 3) product design: in this step, developer designs the cai media as suitable as possible. the product design produced is in the form of a story board, which is a description of the cai media that will be developed. after story board was finished, then examining the media with the experts to do a validation upon design made by the developer. 4) design validation: the result of the development design in the form of a cai learning media draft, consulted with content experts and media experts. marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 69 5) improved design: the revised result of the cai media in the form of product drafts wasimprovedin accordance to the revised version referring to the media experts and contentexperts suggestion. 6) product testing: cai media was tested associated to the purpose and the chosen target. 7) product revision: after being tested in small groups to determine the weaknesses and shortcomings of the media. therefore, the result of the cai media draft was revised by several experts such as media experts and content experts. 8) trial use: following the revision, the product wasexamined in a broad scope or in large groups. 9) product revision: after being tested on large groups. the cai media was revised again to obtain eligibility to improve media development. 10) making mass products: after the revised cai media product was considered feasible and effective. then, it finally can be produced to assist and facilitate the learning process in science subjects of structure and function of plant tissues content. the development test should be carried out in a complete and comprehensive way that can be performed in three stages of examination/testing, which are individual testing, small group testing and field testing. those stages are expected to gain the best results that related to the factual conditions (rusijono and mustaji, 2008: 44). data collection instrument in this study performs interviews for content experts and media experts, the type of interview used in this study is structured interviews referring to sugiyono(2010: 194-197). data collection instrument works to determine students' assessment of the cai media based android using closed anarchy arikunto (2006: 151). descriptive analysis is obtained from assessment questionnaire result through individual trials (content experts, media experts, and students), small group trials and large groups and interviews with content experts and media experts. this descriptive percentage is processed by dividing frequency with the number of respondents and multiplied by 100 percent, asdikjanasudjana explained (2001: 129) is as follows: p = x 100% marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 70 details of information: p: percentage result f: a frequency that the percentage is being searched n: number of respondents/individuals after data is being calculated by the formula above, then it could be analyzed by dividing the frequency of answers for each alternative chosen by the respondent with 100% and the next stage will be discussed with the assessment criteria. guidelines for interpreting the results of analysis are decided. table 1. assessment criteria range of percentage criteria information 76% 100% very good ready to use in pbm (without revision) 56% 75% pretty good ready to use in pbm (without revision) 40% 55% deficient revision <40% not good revision if the calculation result is between 76% 100%, then this media is considered to be appropriate for the teaching and learning process which does not require to be revised, but if the calculation value is between, 0% 56% then the media is considered less feasible and revisions are absolutely needed. 3. results and discussion 3.1 validation of cai media design based android in solar system and universe topic during development phase of the android-based cai program, a valid test will be conducted for content experts and media experts. within the procedure for developing the android-based cai program, it is performed in three steps, i.e. analysis, android-based cai program design and android-based cai program development. a. the step of analysis consists of 6 (six) stages; (1) conducting interviews with the institution; (2) identifying student needs, (3) identifying student characteristics; (4) identifying cai-based android media development goals; (5) determine and collect resources; and (6) conduct an evaluation and revision of the analysis that has been carried out. marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 71 b. the design step consists of 3 (three) stages; (1) designing learning contents using cai media based on android; (2) arranging design in the form of flowcharts and storyboards as narrative content that will be used as guidelines in developing cai-based android media; and (3) conducting an evaluation and revision of the analysis that has been held. c. the development phase consists of 2 (two) stages; (1) developing cai-based android media by using adobe flash cs6 based on the flowcharts that have been made; (2) and perform evaluations and revisions. in this stage of developing the cai-based android media will be tested towards 2 (two) content experts and 2 (two) media experts. as for the testing phase of the development of android-based cai media, this was completed through three stages of testing, i.e. individual tests consisting of 3 (three) students, small group trials consisting of 10 (ten) students, and usage trials consisting of 26 (twenty six) students. during the testing stage, content experts and media experts 1 and 2 who will asses attractiveness aspect, which includes the display of cai-based media on android, understandingaspect which includes content descriptions and content evaluations, credibility aspect which includes answer keys, technical standards which includes grammar and layout.the review result can be seen in the table below table 2. table 2. validation of content experts and media experts no validator average score criteria 1 content expert 1 94,31% very good 2 content expert 2 92,78% very good 3 media expert 1 94,60% very good 4 media expert 2 92,49% very good source: data processed (2018) after collecting the results of the validation from the content experts, there were inputs relating the content in the cai media based on android. then after obtaining the validation results from media experts, there were inputs about the media on the cai media based on android. following the making of cai-based media production through the revision of content and media experts, the next step was to examine individual products and small group trials. marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 72 at the trial stage on individuals in which will be given to 3 (three) students with a total of 91.18%, assessment related to attractiveness including the appearance of cai media based on android, understanding includes content descriptions, and technical standards including grammar and motivation. the test in this trial was given for students who possess different academic abilities. students were asked to give comments and fill out the assessment questionnaire. the results of individual trials are presented in table 3. table 3. assessment distribution of one-to-one evaluation no interval criteria one-to-one evaluation trial f 100% 1 76% 100% very good 2 66,66% 2 56% 75% pretty good 1 33,33% 3 40% 55% deficient 4 <40% not good total 3 100% source: data processed (2018) the next stage was a trial of small group evaluations given to10 (ten) students with a total of 91.91%, who will assess the relevance of the appearance of cai-based media on android. the understandingincludes content descriptionsand technical standards including grammar and motivation. each student had a different academic ability in which they were asked to give their responses in the form of comments and filling in the assessment. the results of small group trials are presented in table 4. table 4. assessment distribution of small group evaluation trial no interval criteria small group evaluation trial f 100% 1 76% 100% very good 9 90% 2 56% 75% adequately good 1 10% 3 40% 55% deficient 4 <40% not good total 10 100% source: data processed (2018) following testing individual products and small groups, there was revision. it was found that button of the content page in the cai-based android media was not big enough. it made the button less sensitive when students pressedit. hence, students were still having difficulty marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 73 pressing the next button. the results of the trial were employed to improve the final product before the trial in a large group in the class was performed. furthermore, the developer revised the cai-based android media as suggested and conducted a trial. it was given to 26 students in the class, which composed of various levels of ability. as in the previous stage, students were also asked to give their responses in the form of comments and fill out the assessment questionnaire. the total score is 89.95%. the table of evaluation distribution in the trial test can be seen as follows: table 5. assessment distribution of the field test evaluation trial no interval criteria field evaluation trial f 100% 1 76% 100% very good 26 100% 2 56% 75% pretty good 3 40% 55% deficient 4 <40% not good total 26 100% source: data processed (2018) after the trial use of the large group was completed, the product was revised again to propose the feasibility of learning media utilization and to improve the whole learning media. furthermore,considering the results of the content and media experts test as well as individual trials, small groups and tests usage, this android-based cai media is beneficial to beused as learning media. 3.2 the effectiveness of cai media utilization based on android solar system content and the universe cai-based android media effectiveness in solar system and universe topiccan be seen based on student learning outcomes by comparing the score of the pre-test and post-test. the graph of average results of student learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media can be observed in the following figure. marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 74 figure 4. the student`s average learning outcomes figure 4 shows that student learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media have improved; for those who obtain high, middle and low academic achievements. the recapitulation of the comparison of learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media can be seen in the following figure. figure 5. comparation recapitulation graphic of the student`s learning outcomes utilization tests that have been carried out in class x of al-iftitahiyah high school batuputih, sumenep with one group post-test and pre-test method have increased learning outcomes. this is indicated by increasing post-test score compared to the pre-test score. hence, this android-based cai media is effectively beneficial as a learning media for geography subject of the solar system and the universe topic. 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 82 57 60 8 66 100 85 64 ’ marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 74 figure 4. the student`s average learning outcomes figure 4 shows that student learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media have improved; for those who obtain high, middle and low academic achievements. the recapitulation of the comparison of learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media can be seen in the following figure. figure 5. comparation recapitulation graphic of the student`s learning outcomes utilization tests that have been carried out in class x of al-iftitahiyah high school batuputih, sumenep with one group post-test and pre-test method have increased learning outcomes. this is indicated by increasing post-test score compared to the pre-test score. hence, this android-based cai media is effectively beneficial as a learning media for geography subject of the solar system and the universe topic. hight medium low pre-test post-test pre-test post-test 82 57 60 8 66 100 85 64 ’ marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 74 figure 4. the student`s average learning outcomes figure 4 shows that student learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media have improved; for those who obtain high, middle and low academic achievements. the recapitulation of the comparison of learning outcomes before and after using the cai-based android media can be seen in the following figure. figure 5. comparation recapitulation graphic of the student`s learning outcomes utilization tests that have been carried out in class x of al-iftitahiyah high school batuputih, sumenep with one group post-test and pre-test method have increased learning outcomes. this is indicated by increasing post-test score compared to the pre-test score. hence, this android-based cai media is effectively beneficial as a learning media for geography subject of the solar system and the universe topic. pre-test post-test 82 57 60 8 66 100 85 64 ’ marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 75 the development of cai media based android has been proven to be feasible as this learning media suitableupon learning objectives. this mediais also able to provide more positive results for users. asa research conducted by edo and ika (2017: 9) states that android applications in the form the game is very notable in mathematics if managed properly. this is indicated by the items calculation of user questionnaire number 8 which gains83% out of 100%,thatmeans users become more easily understand the contents presented. likewise, the results of edwardo’s study (2015: 27) conveys thatbased on the results of the post-test and pretest, t test is larger than t table which is 9,756> 3,334, thus the animation learning media is feasible and effective. android-based cai media language subjects in java script content in class x smk 2 buduran has been developed and it is feasible and effective for use in learning. arnita et al (2018: 6) cai is utilization of computer as a tool in the field of education and teaching that involves teachers and those who are actively playing a role. learning media in the form of android applications is able to make it easier to operate applications and can be accessed in various places. suwignyo (2016: 87) states that the results of research and discussion of computer assisted instructions (cai) learning application in spreadsheet subjects is able to improve student competency and gives impact towards students activities of accounting x-2 in the christian vocational school of salatiga. setyadi (2016: 52) argues that application of multimedia-based solar system learning media using the cai (computer assisted instruction) method manages to attract students' interest in learning in the solar system topic. since, the differences obtain before and after using learning media increase 26%, from 43% to 69%. rian et al (2016: 183) based on system testing using questionnaires conducted at curup 1 high school and mipa faculty students in chemistry majors in semester 2 and 4 related to android-based learning. it can be seen that the average of all aspects of assessment are 3.90, 4.13 and 3.89 categorized as "good" category. thus, the learning media could increase students' motivation in chemistry subjects, especially realting periodic table of elements and the formulation of chemical compounds. 4. conclusion the results of the overall calculation databased on content experts and media experts shows that the condition of the media is feasible. thus after performing the sequence of activities in this study, it can be conluded that the (1) media cai based android which is used in learning marwiyah, et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 63-77 76 geography that focuses on solarsystem and universe topic for tenth-grade studentsis required to be developed and engaged as learning media that could support the teaching and learning process, and (2) cai based android in the scope of geography, especially in solar system and universe topicfor tenth-grade students can accommodate students who are considered slow in embracing lesson, since cai based on android is effective in an individual way. therefore, students donot easily forget and get bored. this happens sinceandroid-based cai runsassociates to user instructions. references arikunto, suharsimi. 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(2017). pengembangan media cai super-t bebasis aplikasi android materi satuan ukur mata pelajaran matematika kelas iv sd. jurnal penelitoan pendidikan guru sekolah dasar (jpgsd).retrieved from https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/254389/pengembangan-media-cai-super-t-berbasisaplikasi-android-materi-satuan-ukur-mata 61 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.28645 research article risk perception and preparedness in flash flood-affected communities: evidence from bahorok, indonesia furqan ishak aksa* , egianinta sinulingga department of geography education, universitas samudra, jalan prof. syarief thayeb, langsa, aceh, 24415, indonesia *corresponding author, e-mail address: furqanishaksa@unsam.ac.id 1. introduction bukit lawang plantation village is located in bahorok sub-district, langkat regency in north sumatra province, indonesia. it is part of the natural conservation area of gunung leuser national park (glnp), often referred to as the tropical rainforest heritage of sumatra. glnp is the oldest national park in the country, covering 1,094,692 hectares in aceh and north sumatra. at least 3,500 plant species live in various habitats in glnp, an area designated by unesco as a biosphere reserve and a world heritage site. the village is 100-700 meters above sea level and has a hilly to steep topography. although the area has a beautiful natural panorama that makes it a tourist attraction, it has a very high flash flood hazard. it is located in the bahorok watershed, where 68% has a 30% 70% slope. the flash flood risk is also caused by destroying ecosystems in glnp forest. in the last ten years, the area has experienced deforestation of 30,000 hectares caused by illegal logging and land conversion. the construction of home stays, restaurants, and hotels along bahorok river increases the risk of flashabstract the bahorok river basin has a high flash-flood hazard index. this is shown by loss of lives and damage of homes due to floods in recent years, however, no research examined community preparedness on the hazard of flash-flood. this research aimed to assess the effect of disaster experience and flood-risk perception on disaster preparedness of the people of bukit lawang plantation village. a cross-sectional survey design was used to determine the relationship between disaster experience, risk perception and preparedness as the independent and dependent variables, respectively. the results showed that disaster experience and risk perception positively and significantly affect the community preparedness. disaster risk reduction programs in the region only focus on emergency response, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. furthermore, increasing public awareness and preparedness has not been prioritized in reducing flood risk. this is an essential aspect for consideration because mountainous areas are often marginalized and lack access to disaster risk reduction programs. keywords : flood-risk perception; preparedness; flash flood article info article history received : 25 december 2021 revised : 19 march 2022 accepted : 28 march 2022 published : 23 april 2022 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 61-71 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.28645 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5420-2810 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 62 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 flood disasters. most bukit lawang plantation village residents construct houses and buildings on bahorok river banks, hence, the river is their main source of livelihood. mountain areas have a high flash flood hazard (bodoque et al., 2019a; martins & nunes, 2020) caused by topographic relief, slope steepness, soil type, and land use. mountainous river basins with a drainage area often respond quickly to heavy rains, resulting in flash floods. body floods have a short lag time of only a few hours between rain and flooding (bodoque et al., 2019a; martins & nunes, 2020), resulting in many casualties caused by the flash-flood disaster. the bahorok area has experienced repeated flash floods in history. in november 2003, a flash flood caused 300 deaths (bnpb, 2019), and the incident was repeated in 2006, causing six deaths and 17,000 evacuations of people. flash floods occurred again in 2013, causing 3,530 houses to be severely damaged. in 2014, the flood caused damages to 1,976 people's houses and led to one death and 5,293 house damages in five sub-districts in 2015 (saragih, 2016). the probability and frequency of flood disasters in the bahorok watershed (das) are expected to increase in the future. this is due to the high rainfall intensity, the destruction of glnp ecosystem, and the increasing number of hotels, homestays, and restaurants being built along the bahorok river basin. it is important to assess the people's preparedness in the bahorok river basin against the danger of flash-flood. several research found that disaster preparedness is strongly influenced by past disaster experience, knowledge, and risk perception (aksa et al., 2020a; becker et al., 2017). the past flood experience increases resilience in the future (kuang & liao, 2020). according to previous research, disaster experience is directly related to disaster awareness and preparedness (becker et al., 2017; hoffmann & muttarak, 2017; tekeli-yeşil et al., 2011). people who have experienced flashfloods are more motivated to be involved in disaster risk reduction (astuti et al., 2021). disaster experience could be direct or indirect (shaw et al., 2004; wachinger et al., 2013). indirect experience is obtained through disaster education, learning from experience, and acquiring explicit knowledge from teachers, media, and books (aksa, 2020). direct experience is included in tacit knowledge obtained from lessons from previous disaster experiences (aksa, 2020). in this case, direct flooding experience enriches knowledge about specific floods, such as water levels that elevate buildings (kuang & liao, 2020). additionally, direct experience helps detect problems with flood management actions (kuang & liao, 2020). learning from flood experiences increases individual and social capacities (adelekan & asiyanbi, 2016). psychologically, individual learning is a mental process that connects changes in one's knowledge to behaviors (knowles, 2012). however, some research revealed that flood disaster experience does not change community behavior because people do not want to change their routines (lawrence et al., 2014). several research in australia also found that people with flood experiences are less likely to purchase flood insurance or take additional measures to prevent flooding (box et al., 2016). the disaster experience in this research refers to the flash-flood disaster that destroyed most tourist areas in the bukit lawang plantation village in 2003. the worst event in the bahorok subdistrict was hitting tourists on vacation and homestay owners. risk perception also affects the community's preparedness for natural hazards (aksa et al., 2020b, 2020a) because individuals must know the risks to take preparedness actions (muttarak & pothisiri, 2013). it is helpful in understanding and analyzing human behavior when faced with a disaster (muzenda-mudavanhu et al., 2016; naseri & kang, 2017). people respond to disasters according to their hazard view because perceptions and awareness influence behavior (ohtomo et al., 2017). this research aimed to examine the direct experience of witnessing the flash flood disaster that has damaged public facilities, houses, and tourist attractions in the bukit lawang tourist area and the community risk perception concerning the preparedness behavior. this is important because disaster preparedness mitigates the potential losses caused by floods (ao et al., 2020). the plantation village of evidence lawang has a high flash flood hazard, but no research examined community 63 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 preparedness in facing the danger of flash-flood. research on flood disasters mostly focused on control measures and techniques (ao et al., 2020). however, structural flood control measures cannot eliminate the risk of catastrophic flooding and sometimes only transfer the risk. this implies nonstructural measures that reduce flood losses are important in disaster management (ao et al., 2020). this research was conducted in the bukit lawang plantation village in the utilization area of glnp, bahorok district, langkat regency, north sumatra province. the village is located in the bahorok river basin, 100-700 meters above sea level, and has a steep hilly topography. it has a high flash-flood risk index because it is located in a valley (figure 1) exacerbated by the 300 homestays and hotels built along bahorok river. additionally, the area has a landslide hazard index because 68% of the bahorok river basin has a slope of 30% 70%. the village is one of the areas destroyed during a flood in 2003. figure 1. map of research locations figure 2. researh location 64 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 2. methods this research used a cross-sectional survey design (figure 3) to determine the relationship between disaster experience and risk perception and disaster preparedness in the bukit lawang plantation village community. the independent variable were disaster experience and risk perception, while the dependent was disaster preparedness. a total of 208 respondents representing households were selected with a purposive random sampling technique using inclusion criteria. the criteria were the people of the bukit lawang plantation village, aged between 18 and 59, able to read and write, having experience of flood disasters, and are willing to be respondents. data were collected through the household interview technique. the following hypotheses were tested: h1: past disaster experiences significantly and positively affect flood preparedness behavior. h2: flood risk perceptions positively and significantly affect disaster preparedness. bukit lawang plantation village was selected because it was severely affected by the 2003 flash flood disaster that damaged most residents' houses and tourist attractions and caused 300 deaths. figure 3. research flow chart 2.1 measuring and instrument the questionnaire to measure disaster experience, risk perception, and flood disaster preparedness comprised 15 question items, namely 6 about disaster experience, 5 related to risk perception, and 4 about flash-flood disaster preparedness. the flood disaster experience was measured by six items with two answer choices of yes or no which scored as one point (1) and zero (0), respectively. the questionnaire to measure flood disaster experiences was developed from ejeta et al. (2018). this research measured direct flood experience by asking the community whether they experienced damage to their houses, lost property, were victimized, or experienced evacuation. the direct experience was considered to have influenced risk perception and flood disaster preparedness behavior (ao et al., 2020; kuang & liao, 2020; lawrence et al., 2014). disaster risk perception was measured by perceived hazard probability and consequences. probability and consequences are important attributes of people's perceptions of environmental threats (lindell & perry, 2012). the community was asked about the possibility of a flood disaster in the bukit lawang plantation village in the future and the potential impact. the instrument for measuring flood risk perceptions was developed from bodoque et al. (2019b), gobo et al. (2013), martins & nunes (2020), and roder et al. (2019). risk perception helps understand and analyze human behavior when faced with a disaster (muzenda-mudavanhu et al., 2016). according to their view of the hazard, people respond to floods because of perceptions and awareness influence behavior (aksa et al., 2020b). the perception of flash-flood disaster risk was made as a likert scale on a 5 point scale, where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. preliminary research design selection of research location questionnaire development survey (household interview) data analysis (regression) 65 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 the questionnaire to measure flood disaster preparedness was developed from terpstra (2011). the instrument was developed by american-red-cross (2015) and consists of five variables, including storing food and water, having an emergency kit, developing an emergency plan, attending at least one disaster preparedness workshop, and participating in at least one disaster preparedness simulation (amercian-red-cross, 2015). flood disaster preparedness was measured by four-question items, with two answer choices of yes or nowhich scored as one point (1) and zero (0), respectively. additionally,the community was asked to provide a correct response in preparing themselves for the flash flood disaster. the questionnaire was tested on 30 people in the bukit lawang plantation village, not included as respondents. this is in line with flowerdew & martin (2005), which stated that a questionnaire must first be tested by involving at least 20 respondents to ensure it is consistent with the research. the pilot respondents' feedback was modified to ensure that the questionnaire wording could be understood easily.each question item's readability was used to assess the questionnaire. 2.2 data analysis the research instruments were analyzed with validity and reliability tests using the alpha cronbach, followed by regression analysis to assess the effect of disaster experience and risk perception on disaster preparedness. data were processed using software spss 24, while testing was conducted using one degree of freedom and a significance of 0.05. 3. results and discussion 3.1 respondents' characteristics a total of 208 respondents representing households in lawang plantation in north sumatra were interviewed. table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of respondents. table 1. respondents characteristics variable n % age group (years) less than 25 40 19.7 % 25-35 82 39.7 % 35-45 31 14.8 % 45-55 44 21.3% more than 55 11 4.9% gender male 106 50.8% female 102 49.2% most respondents were aged between 25 and 35, and 50.8% were males. the reliability test showed that all variables had high reliability values and a cronbach's alpha > 0.6. this shows that all variables are feasible to use, as shown in table 2. table 2. variable reliability test variable item alpha coefficient information x1 (flood experience) 6 1.000 reliable x2(flood risk perception) 5 0.843 reliable y(flood preparedness) 4 0.721 reliable 66 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 3.2 flood experience interviews on flood experiences found that 46.4% of respondents had direct disaster experiences during the 2003 flash flood. also, 51.4% had witnessed damage to houses and buildings,49.5% stated that their families died due to the flash-flood disaster in 2003, and 47.1% said that their family members were injured (table 3). table 3. respondents' flood experience flood experience frequency percentage 1. have you ever experienced damage to your house due to flooding in your area? 89 42.7% 2. have you ever experienced property loss due to flooding in this area? 89 42.7% 3. have you ever witnessed the damage caused to the house of your neighborhood due to a flood disaster in your area? (have you ever witnessed damage to houses in your neighborhood) 107 51.4 % 4. due to flood disaster in your area? has anyone of your household members experienced injury due to a flood disaster in your area? (has any member of your household suffered injuries as a result of floods in your area? 98 47.1% 5. has anyone of your family members previously died of a flood disaster in this area? (is there a member of your family who previously died from the floods in this area?) 103 49.5% 6. have you personally evacuated due to the flood disaster in your area?) 95 45.5% 3.3 flood risk perception people in bukit lawang plantation village have a high flood risk perception of 87.90% towards flood disasters. most respondents believe in the probability and consequences of a flash-flood disaster, while 91.44% believe that a flash flood would disrupt their daily life. furthermore, 88.46% of the community believed that the flash flood in bukit lawang plantation caused the deaths of hundreds of people, as shown in table 4. table 4. flood risk perception flood risk perception frequency percentage flash floods could recur in the bukit lawang plantation village in the future 182 87.50% when a flash flood occurs in our village, hundreds of people will die 183 88.46% when a flood disaster occurs in bahorok village, their homes, schools, and infrastructure would be seriously damaged 180 86.83% when a flood disaster occurs in bahorok village, daily life is disrupted for a long time 190 91.44% when a flood disaster occurs in bahorok village, my family and i would be threatened with being victims 177 85.28% 3.4 flood preparedness community preparedness for flood disaster in bukit lawang plantation village is low at 35.58%. about 3.85% of respondents stated that the village had not held a workshop on awareness and preparedness for flood disasters in bahorok. only 45.29% stated that their village often regularly conducted flood evacuation drills. the rest stated that the villagehad not carried out flood evacuation drills. 67 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 table 5. flood preparedness flood preparedness frequency percentage assemble an emergency kit (including a first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, food, water) 198 95.19 % we have agreed with neighbors, firends, and family to help each other in evacuation in the event of a flood disaster 68 32.69 % our village often organizes workshops on flash-flood awareness and preparedness in bahorok village 8 3.85% our village often conducts flood evacuation drills regularly at least once a year 94 45.19 % 3.5 multiple regression analysis results multiple regression tests showed that the flood positively and significantly affected disaster preparedness. this is seen from the statistical t-test valueof p = .000 < .050, supporting hypothesis 1. a positive coefficient indicates that an increase in disaster experience significantly increases the disaster preparedness variable. testing hypothesis 2 showed that flood risk perception positively and significantly affected disaster preparedness with p = .006 < .050, as shown in table 6. table 6. multiple regression test results variable b t p-value description constant -0485 x1 (flood experience) 0213 7754 0000 significant x2 (flood risk perception) 0075 2787 0006 significant α = 0.050 determination coefficient (r2) = 0.266 f-count = 37 109 pvalue f = 0.000 simultaneous testing showed that disaster experience and risk perception significantly affect disaster preparedness. the simultaneous influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable has a coefficient of determination (r square) of 0.266 or 26.6%, while factors outside this research influence 73.46%. 3.6 discussion this research showed that 46.4% of the bukit lawang plantation village people had direct disaster experiences during the 2003 flashflood. table 3 shows that most people experienced damage and lost their families due to the flash-flood disaster. witnessing the damage to houses and buildings improves disaster preparedness. table 3 shows that 51.4% of the people witnessed firsthand the damage caused by the flash-flood disaster. some research found that personal experiences such as suffering damage and loss of property increase risk perception and disaster preparedness in the future (adelekan & asiyanbi, 2016). the people also have indirect experience from the bodily flood disaster from stories and experiences conveyed by their parents. the history of the most severe bodily 2003 flood is often told orally by the people in the village. this was evidenced by the community responses during field data collection. the past disaster experience significantly increased flood preparedness, with p = .000 < .050). this finding corroborates ejeta et al. (2018), which showed that past flood disaster experiences positively and significantly impacted preparedness. it stated that people directly affected by disaster 68 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 events in the past had high anxiety that could increase community participation in disaster preparedness activities. furthermore, this finding corroborates (atreya et al., 2017), which found that flood experience is a key driver of disaster preparedness. lawrence et al. (2014) also stated that the flooding experience directly influences protective responses and preparedness. direct experience influences individual risk perception and enhances mitigation behavior (harvatt et al., 2011). there was a high disaster risk perception of 87.90% among the people. they believe in the probability and consequences of flooding, presumably because some have suffered damage to their houses and lost their assets and family members to the flash-flood disaster. furthermore, the high disaster risk perception is thought to be due to the high frequency of flood disasters in the area. the 2020 flood disaster destroyed a homestay restaurant built in the bukit lawang tourist area and damaged the connecting bridge between villages. the flash flood disaster in 2020 influenced the high-risk perception among the people. according to felgentreff (2003), the risk perception increases dramatically after a disaster but fades over time. the high flood risk perception has a positive and significant impact on disaster preparedness. however, disaster experience and risk perception affected preparedness by only 26.6%. this is seen in table 6, which shows the value of the coefficient of determination (r square = 0.266). overall preparedness of the bukit lawang plantation village community for flash-flood disasters is still low at 32.69%. only questions about assembling an emergency kit, including a first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, food, and water, received a percentage of 95.18%. the community prepared emergency kits presumably because they experienced flash-flood disasters. the low community preparedness against the danger of flash-flood is caused by the lack of local government role. the contribution of local government authorities to increase community preparedness against the danger of flash-flood is very low. this is evidenced by the respondents' answers stating that the bukit lawang plantation village has not held a workshop on awareness and preparedness for flood disasters (table 5). field observations showed that no significant effort had been made by local authorities to protect people's lives and infrastructure. additionally, no programs have been initiated by the government or universities for disaster risk reduction in the area. the disaster risk reduction policies implemented in the region only focus on emergency response, rehabilitation, and reconstruction (saragih, 2016). increasing public awareness and preparedness is not prioritized in reducing flood risk. also, mountainous areas are often marginalized and rarely touched by disaster risk reduction programs. mountainous areas remain highly vulnerable and less resilient (tullos et al., 2016) due to the unique challenges associated with flood management. tullos et al. (2016) identified four challenges to flood management in the mountains, including limited data, accessibility, and infrastructure, complex hydrology and limitations to knowledge on flood processes, governance structure, and response resources, and sensitivity to climate and landscape changes. one challenge of reducing flood risk in the mountainous tourist area of bukit lawang is the weak governance structure and lack of planning that increases the community's risk. this research recommends increasing community capacity to improve flood disaster preparedness in the future. additionally, there is a need for good cooperation between the government, ngos, and universities to reduce flash flood risks in the bukit lawang tourist area. 4. conclusion this research confirmed hypotheses 1 and 2 that past disaster experiences positively and significantly affect flood preparedness. flood risk perception also positively and significantly affects disaster preparedness. however, community preparedness is low because the disaster risk reduction 69 furqan ishak aksa & egianinta sinulingga / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 61-71 program only focuses on emergency response. the local government has also not supported community capacity building. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this article. acknowledgment the author is grateful to the lppm universitas samudra for funding this research. references adelekan, i. o., & asiyanbi, a. p. 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(2021). impacts of direct disaster experience on teachers' knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of disaster risk reduction curriculum implementation in central sulawesi, indonesia. international journal of disaster risk reduction, 53, 101992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101992 72 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.27782 research article outdoor learning to improve the wetland ecological literacy of geography education students faisal arif setiawan*, aswin nur saputra geography education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas lambung mangkurat, banjarmasin, 70123, indonesia *corresponding author, e-mail address : faisal.setiawan@ulm.ac.id 1. introduction ecological literacy is understanding the importance of preserving the environment. capra (2007) stated that ecological or environmental literacy is being highly aware of using the environment wisely. to avoid confusion in the definition, ha et al. (2021) stated that ecological literacy is a secondary concept and development of environmental literacy. ecological literacy provides the necessary topics for environmental literacy (ha et al., 2021; loubser et al., 2001) and an understanding of relating to nature for sustainability (hartono, 2020). it contains knowledge, attitudes, and behavior toward ecology (bruyere, 2008; huang & zhao, 2019). therefore, wetland ecological literacy implies knowledge related to wetlands and their sustainability. according to delegates in ramsar 1971, wetlands are areas of swamps, bogs, peatlands, or fresh, brackish, or salty water 6 m or 20 feet deep (moore & garratt, 2006). an example of wetlands is south kalimantan because it is dominated by swamps (soendjoto & dharmono, 2016) and needs good ecological literacy. universitas lambung mangkurat (ulm) geography students are prospective teachers who may reside in kalimantan, meaning they need sufficient knowledge regarding wetland ecology. however, the initial test showed that not all students have sufficient knowledge. teachers candidates should be aware of their ecological environment by teaching utility values from the concepts studied (moral knowing), fostering attitudes (feeling), and good behavior (acting). the goal is for teachers to abstract some geography education students score poorly in wetlands ecological literacy. this study aimed to determine the effect of outdoor learning on wetlands ecological literacy using a pre-experimental design and a sample of 60 geography students. the wetlands ecological literacy instruments were adapted from anderson's cognitive dimensions comprising factual, conceptual, strategic, and metacognitive indicators. data were analyzed using percentages and nonparametric wilcoxon ranked statistical sign tests. the result showed that 2-tailed asymp. sig. was 0.000, smaller than 0.05. the conceptual and metacognitive indicators had the highest and lowest improvement of 21.11% and 13.33%, respectively. furthermore, students’ wetlands ecological literacy improved through outdoor learning. outdoor learning increases students’ attention to their environment through closer interactions, complementing the learning experience. therefore, outdoor learning improves students’ wetland ecological literacy. keywords : outdoor learning; ecological literacy; teacher candidate; wetlands article info article history received : 10 november 2021 revised : 29 march 2022 accepted : 8 april 2022 published : 23 april 2022 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 72-84 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.27782 mailto:faisal.setiawan@ulm.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 73 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 be a role model for students in environmental protection. according to lickona's theory, good character is developed through moral knowing, feeling, and acting (lickona, 2012). teachers are curriculum for forming students’ character. upholding the character of a generation would be in vain without a teacher’s example (musfah, 2012). universities' efforts to develop students' environmental awareness are also conducted in other countries, such as malaysia, which has been integrating environmental education into learning for years. meerah et al. (2010) found that malaysians in general and students in particular, have not reached the desired level of commitment to the environment. this is because there is no material that shows students the importance of environmental care. furthermore, karpudewan & ismail (2012) stated that other causes are external and logistical barriers such as lack of time, awareness of teaching environmental issues, and difficulties related to pedagogical knowledge. the main determining factor is how often educators integrate environmental issues into teaching. ahmad et al. (2015) explained the various universities’ efforts to change digital literacy and overcome the obstacles to changing people’s behavior. it also discussed the supporting factors that affect ecological literacy. consumers in developed countries are trained to reduce the use of plastic by paying for shopping bags. subsequently, buyers are accustomed to bringing their shopping bags, implying environmental concern because plastic is a big enemy for wetlands. this means ecological literacy on wetlands is incomplete when it only focuses on theory and classroom learning. intelligent smart thinking patterns and open mindsets are sometimes difficult when students and educators learn with constraints in traditional classrooms. this limits students’ views within the classroom walls because they lack a broad perspective on their potential to benefit the public. sometimes outdoor study is needed to form new experiences in cognitive development than classroom-based learning (eaton, 2000). fayanto et al. (2019) stated that outdoor learning improve students' spatial intelligence and the ability to observe the surrounding environment. it increases students' attention to their environment through closer interactions. according to salam et al. (2019), outdoor learning complements the theoretical classroom learning considered incomplete. it helps students develop honesty, discipline, responsibility, care, politeness, environment awareness, cooperative behavior, responsiveness, and independence (sejati et al., 2017). outdoor studies bring students closer to nature and society, the real learning resources that help them understand, know and apply subject matter in daily life. it is implemented in the surrounding environment outside the classroom, where the knowledge obtained is real and not the result of a long abstraction. furthermore, it provides freedom for students because their thinking space is not limited by classroom walls. thinking outside the box is sometimes difficult when students and teachers work within the constraints of a traditional classroom. students cannot form exploratory and innovative thinking (yi et al., 2021) and often lack a wide perspective on their potential to have civic consequences. outdoor learning allows students to learn from anyone and anywhere, and it could be an alternative for enriching learning resources (sejati et al., 2017). based on quantitative calculations, nature education improves map literacy and problem-solving skills (aladağ et al., 2021; wahyuni et al., 2017; widada et al., 2019). some studies examined the environment in general or only ecoliteracy, while others focused on wetland ecological literacy associated with activities outside the classroom. therefore, this study aimed to measure the wetland ecological literacy of ulm geography education study program students participating in outdoor learning. the goal was to determine its effect on students’ wetland ecological literacy. 74 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 2. methods this study method was divided into design, data collection, development of instruments, and analysis. 2.1 design this descriptive study used a quantitative method with a pre-experimental design that involved calculating the effect of treatment by comparing the mean preand post-test scores (sugiyono, 2015). the aim was to determine the effect of outdoor learning on the wetland ecological literacy of fkip ulm geography students. table 1 shows the study’s schematic design. table 1. learning design pretest treatment posttest q1 x q2 description: q1 = pre-test x = outdoor learning treatment q2 = post-test 2.2 data collection the study population comprised 2020 geography students who selected because they had the lowest scores than other batches and did not take the wetlands course. the wetland literacy instruments were adapted from anderson's cognitive dimensions comprising the factual, conceptual, strategic, and metacognitive indicators (wilson, 2016). a questionnaire was distributed twice to students, while preand post-test were held before and after outdoor learning activities, respectively. 2.3 instrument development the study instrument was based on anderson's cognitive domain comprising the factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive indicators, as shown in table 2. table 2. wetland ecological literacy indicators indicator sub indicator factual (basic information) knowledge of wetlands terminology knowledge of wetlands details and special elements conceptual (relationships between the parts of a structure) knowledge of wetlands classifications knowledge of wetlands principles and generalizations knowledge of wetlands theories, models, and structures procedural (how to do things) knowledge of wetlands, various special techniques, and methods criteria for when to use appropriate procedures strategy knowledge of wetlands metacognitive (thinking) in general and specifically) knowledge of wetlands various cognitive tasks, including appropriate and contextual knowledge self-knowledge of wetlands source: wilson ( 2016) the wetlands ecological literacy instrument was a questionnaire with 20 questions prepared using the true-false guttman scale. multiple true false (mtf) was used because it produces higher 75 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 reliability and response rate than multiple-choice (mc) tests (kreiter & frisbie, 1989; javid, 2014). also, mtf reveals students' understanding of the material better (couch et al., 2018). the application of the guttman scale in the questionnaire as a checklist consisted of 20 statement items. student answers per question item were measured using the highest and lowest scores of 1 and 0, respectively. the categories for positive statements are true=1 and false=0, while negative statements are true=0 and false=1. the number of lowest and highest scores was formulated as follows: a) lowest total score = lowest score x number of questions total score x 100% = 0 x 20 0 x 100% = 0% b) highest score total = highest score x number of questions total score x 100% = 1 x 20 20 x 100% = 100% c) range = highest score total – lowest score total = 100% 0% = 100% d) interval = range/number of categories = 100%/2 = 50% e) scoring criteria = highest score – interval = 100% 50% = 50 % based on the guttman scale scoring step, a score of 50% or more was good, while less than 50% was not good. the instruments passed the internal and external validation tests. regarding internal validation, material and learning experts stated that the instrument was suitable for collecting data on wetland ecological literacy. external validation was determined using statistical tests on classes other than the study subject. the test was performed on the 2018 class of geography students. table 3 and table 4 shows the validation of test results. table 3. the validation of test results case processing summary n % cases valid 55 100.0 excluded 0 .0 total 55 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. table 4. reability of instruments reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .582 20 the reliability test shows cronbach's alpha value of 0.582, greater than the r-table value of 0.2241, meaning the overall test is reliable. therefore, the instrument was useful for data collection to improve wetland ecological literacy through outdoor learning. 76 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 2.4 data analysis data were analyzed using percentages and paired sample test statistics. a value more than 50% was good, while less than 50% was not good. the non-parametric wilcoxon ranked statistical sign test is used when the data is abnormal and homogeneous (sugiyono, 2015). this study is illustrated in figure 1. figure 1. flow chart of study wetland ecology literacy of students is low. prospective geography teachers must have a good understanding of wetlands outdoor learning wetland ecology literacy: factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive learning directly in the field validated wetland ecology literacy instrument pre-test post-test improving the literacy of students' wetland ecology 77 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 3. results and discussion data were presented regarding the preand post-test of the wetland ecological literacy and students’ improvement. table 5 shows students’ wetland ecology literacy results. table 5. wetland ecological literacy pre-test scores indicator sub indicator score category factual (basic information) knowledge of wetlands terminology 53.33 good knowledge of details and special elements 52.5 good total 52.92 good conceptual (relationship between the part of a structure) knowledge of wetlands classifications 50.00 less knowledge of wetlands principles and generalizations 48.3 less knowledge of wetlands theories, models, and structures 35.83 less total 44.72 less procedural (how to do things) knowledge of wetlands, special techniques, and methods 60.83 good criteria for when to use appropriate procedures 60 good strategy knowledge of wetlands 54.17 good total 58.33 good metacognitive (thinking) in general and specifically) knowledge of wetlands various cognitive tasks, including appropriate and contextual knowledge 67.5 good self-knowledge of wetlands 65 good total 66.25 good the pre-test scores show that the conceptual indicator of the relationship between the structural parts is 44.72%, less than 50%. the knowledge of classification and category sub-indicators obtained 50.00%, principles and generalizations scored 48.3%,while theories, models, and structures scored 35.83%. the highest score is the knowledge sub-indicator on various cognitive tasks, including appropriate and contextual knowledge, at 67.5%. table 6 shows the post-test scores. table 6. wetland ecological literacy post-test scores indicator sub indicator score category factual (basic information) knowledge of wetlands terminology 71.67 good knowledge of details and special elements 70 good total 70.83 good conceptual (relationship between the part of a structure) knowledge of wetlands classifications 69.17 good knowledge of wetlands principles and generalizations 68.33 good knowledge of wetlands theories, models, and structures 60 good total 65.83 good procedural (how to do things) knowledge of wetlands, special techniques, and methods 73.3 good criteria for when to use appropriate procedures 79.17 good strategy knowledge of wetlands 80.83 good total 77.78 good metacognitive (thinking) in general and specifically) knowledge of wetlands various cognitive tasks, including appropriate and contextual knowledge 85 good self-knowledge of wetlands 74.17 good total 79.58 good 78 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 the post-test results showed that all indicators had good scores. the highest sub-indicator is knowledge of cognitive tasks, including appropriate and contextual knowledge, 85%. the lowest subindicator is knowledge of theories, models, and structures, which scored 60%. figure 3 shows the gain value or difference between the preand post-test results. figure 4 is a graph comparing the value of ecological literacy between preand post-test. figure 3. gain score of wetland ecological literacy per indicator figure 4. wetlands ecological literacy in the test result 0 20 40 60 80 factual pre test post test gain score 0 20 40 60 80 conceptual pre test post test gain score 0 20 40 60 80 100 procedural pre test post test gain score 0 20 40 60 80 100 metacognitive pre test post test gain score 79 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 the gain scorein figure 3 shows that all indicators have increased. the highest and lowest increases were 21.11% and 13.33% for the conceptual and metacognitive indicators, respectively. furthermore, a pairwise comparison test was conducted to determine the effect of outdoor learning on students' ecological literacy. the test used the paired sample t-test, with the condition that the data were normal and homogeneous. the non-parametric wilcoxon signed rank test statistical test is used for abnormal data. table 7 shows the results of the normality test of wetland ecological literacy. table 7. result of normality test var00002 kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. var00001 pretest group .189 60 .000 .944 60 .009 posttest group .193 60 .000 .910 60 .000 note : a. lilliefors significance correction table 7 shows that the test data indicated a significance of 0.000, less than the standard 0.05 according to kolmogorov-smirnov, implying abnormal distribution. according to shapiro-wilk, abnormal data are 0.009<0.05 and 0.000<0.05 for pre and post-test, respectively, meaning they did not meet the statistical test requirements. therefore, the wilcoxon signed-rank test was used, and the results are presented in table 8 and table 9. table 8. results of the wilcoxon signed-rank test n mean rank sum of ranks post-test pre-test negative ranks 0a .00 .00 positive ranks 60b 30.50 1830.00 ties 0c total 60 note : a. post-test < pre-test b. post test > pre test c. post test = pre test table 9. the wilcoxon signed-rank test results (statistic test) post-test & pretest z -6.812b asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .000 note : b. based on negative ranks. table 8 indicates 0 as the score of negative ranks, which shows the negative difference between wetland ecological literacy for pre-test and post-test. the n value, mean rank, and sum rank are also 0, indicating no decrease or reduction from two tests. furthermore, table 8 shows 60 as the score of positive ranks, which shows the positive difference between wetland ecological literacy for the two tests. this means 60 students experienced an increase in wetland ecological literacy. the mean ranks show an average increase of 30.50, while the sum of ranks is 1830.00. moreover, the ties 80 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 value of 0 implies no equal value between the two tests. the wilcoxon test facilitates decisionmaking as follows: 1. ha is accepted when the 2-tailed asymp. sig. is <0.05, implying a difference between students’ ecological literacy of the wetlands for preand post-test. 2. ha is rejected when the 2-tailed asymp. sig. is > 0.05, indicating no difference between students' ecological literacy for preand post-test. table 9 shows a 2-tailed asymp. sig. of 0.000 <0.05, meaning ha is accepted. this implies a difference between the students’ literacy for preand post-test. subsequently, outdoor studies improved the wetland ecological literacy among students of 2020 class. the wetland ecology literacy increased because learning outside the classroom directs students to study outside the classroom. jonassen (1991) stated that learning is more effective when conducted contextually outside than in the classroom. the learning in this study creates a real atmosphere relevant to the material on wetlands issues. this makes it easier for students to know the wetland environment. the gain knowledge by listening to teachers’ explanations and linking them with new information obtained from learning outside the classroom. learning outside is enjoyable and creates a pleasant atmosphere for students to examine the real object, helping increase their interest (khan et al., 2020). motivated students follow good learning and obtain high outcomes. however, worksheets should be provided to maintain outdoor study steps to ensure that the activity is authentic science and not risky fun (glackin, 2016). students observe, record, and confirm the wetlands classification and problems presented in the guide for outdoor activities. this provides steps for environmental identification activities that may be overlooked. quibell et al. (2017) stated that contextual learning increases student participation and skills. according to aladağ et al. (2021), these activities are also based on daily situations that become meaningful because of awareness. yokuş (2020) stated that learning outside the classroom facilitates personal development, including greater self-confidence, autonomy, motivation, and curiosity. in the context of this study, it increases curiosity about wetlands. the exploration by students narrows the distance between what is learned in the book and their minds. this supports parsons & traunter (2020), which stated that outdoor studies enrich the learning experience. moreover, extensive exploration promotes the individual's physical, social, and deeper level of learning (yli-panula et al., 2019). according to genc et al. (2018), education in nature provides an opportunity to compare theoretical knowledge with field conditions. the post-test scores for the wetlands ecological literacy were higher than pre-test. students integrated the material obtained during outdoor learning with real field problems, completing the posttest questions correctly. therefore, learning resources from students' environmental conditions make the outcomes more optimal (arisona & utsman, 2018). this is consistent with berg et al. (2021),which stated that field event observations improve students’ performance. learning outside the classroom is beneficial, specifically for prospective geography teachers who need good spatial abilities (fayanto et al., 2019; asiyah et al., 2021). field observation activities conducted during outdoor studies improve students' reasoning skills. this makes them understand the material provided and relate them to their environmental problems. consequently,their outcomes increase because they answer questions that require reasoning in solving problems scientifically. according to lawson (1992), reasoning skills are the most consistent predictors of learning achievement than style, cognitive, mental capacity, and fluid intelligence. outdoor activities also increase students motivation and activities. in line with this, mental promotion or motivation and physical activity affect student learning outcomes. furthermore, learning groups increase motivation, making students more enthusiastic about taking the subject matter (fatchan et al., 2016). learning outside the classroom also makes them find concepts directly 81 faisal arif setiawan & aswin nur saputra / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 72-84 through field observations regarding environmental problems. therefore, it trains them to be creative and self-regulated during learning (waite, 2020). 4. conclusion through closer interactions, outdoor learning significantly increases students’ wetlands ecological literacy score and their environmental attention and complements the learning experience. students need knowledge on the ecological literacy of wetlands because it is part of their environment and is prone to damage from human activities. therefore, students and the community need ecological metacognitive literacy of wetlands’ formation and possible change caused by various activities. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this article. acknowledgments the authors are grateful to the lppm ulm for the funding in line with sk rektor universitas lambung mangkurat number: 697/un8/pg/2021 dated 22 march 2021, and also to nono dwi santoso, s.sos., head of aranio sub-district for permitting this study. references ahmad, j., noor, s. m., & ismail, n. 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(2020). integrating outdoor school learning into the formal curriculum: designing outdoor learning experiences and developing outdoor learning framework for pre-service teachers. international journal of education technology and scientific researches, 5(13), 1330–1388. doi:10.35826/ijetsar.276. j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 247 utilization of gis techniques as decision support system for location of filling stations in minna, niger state, nigeria j. yisa1*, oluwaseun olubadewo-joshua1, oboh satur okosun2 1department of geography, ibrahim badamasi babangida university, lapai minna road. p.m.b 11, lapai, niger state, nigeria 2department of geography, federal university of kashere, p.m.b. 0182. gombe, gombe state, nigeria *corresponding author : saintjacobyisa@gmail.com (j. yisa) received 26 april 2019/ revised 4 august 2019/ accepted 7 august 2019/ published 1 december 2019/ available online 25 november 2019 abstract the study demonstrated that spatial analysis with relevant socio-economic sources and physical parameter from different sources can be evaluated for the filling station sites planning. this has demonstrated the importance of geographic information system (gis) application in predicting and determining of site criteria for filling stations facilities development, most especially in areas where there is land uses competition which requires consumer accessibility, sustainability, environmental safety, environmentally sensitive development solutions, etc. a stratified sampling technique was used to select the sample size and administration of the questionnaire. the data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, bar chart, pie chart and percentage and maps showing the sampled existing filling stations in the study area. the result shows the distribution of filling stations located across the study area. this study shows that gis and multi-criteria analysis are essential tools to assist in correct siting to national planners and decision-makers in deciding the most appropriate filling stations location pattern to apply in minna and its environs. keywords: gis; filling stations; spatial distribution; location; distance 1. introduction a filling station is a place where petroleum products are sold for motorists or a place equipped for servicing automobiles (i.e. selling gasoline or making repairs. the following are some of the products and services rendered by most filling stations in minna; premium motor spirit (pms), diesel (ago), engine oil, liquefied petroleum gas (lpg), kerosene (dpk), car wash and car repairs. filling stations are particularly hazardous workplaces which require to be licensed by local authorities because they store and sell a highly flammable liquid. equipment failures geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 247-263, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.9713 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019 j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 248 in filling stations or gas stations lead to accidents that pose significant threats to people and property. therefore, before commercialization, safety standards for filling station need to be developed based on risk or locational analysis. in this study, the focus is on safety distance and the distribution pattern of filling stations in minna and its environs. there are ministries/agencies responsible for this such as; petroleum products pricing regulatory agency (pppra), department of petroleum resources (dpr), the petroleum equalization (management) fund (pef), ministry of petroleum resources. the position of nigeria in terms of consumption of oil in the world as one of the biggest consumers of oil products in africa with, about 40 million litres said to be consumed every day, because almost every home in nigeria have generating set that work sometimes all day to power their homes, and most of these millions of generating set used in nigeria run on petrol and/or diesel. also, he said nigeria is one of the biggest oil-producing nations in the world with substantial crude oil deposits around the entire south, south east, and south west region of the country, both tapped and untapped. khahro et al (2010) highlighted that, filling stations are associated with the high fire hazard, and improper locations of such services could lead to disastrous consequences during fire outbreak and resulting to pollution, loss of life and property. two dangers are associated with petrol; fire hazard (which include; vapor leaks from appliances and gas cylinders as well as major hazards associated with loss of containment and rapid vaporization of tonnage quantities of the liquefied gas) and health risks(environmental pollution, terminal diseases and death can occur), since petrol is a highly flammable liquid, it must be stored, transported, and handled with care. minna is one of the towns faced with the action of the wrong sitting of filling stations in niger state. the deliberate or intentional location of filling station in unsuitable sites within the metropolis and environs might have highly increased the level of a disaster like fire, environmental pollution, diseases and untold hardship to its citizens. apart from its adverse effect on the environment, the filling station also aids in worsening the already bad traffic problems in some parts of the town. most of the places near filling station usually experience a lot of unfavourable conditions such as fire/explosion, environmental damage, health effects (exposure to them through use, accidental spillage or leakage, can result into health implication), pollution (such as noise pollution and water pollution). also, where these stations fail to comply with the physical planning standards and indiscriminate parking of j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 249 cars leads to the reduction of the width of carriageway meant for efficient movement of automobile and pedestrians. previous studies related are spatial approach is very influential on regional planning by considering various aspects (loidl et al, 2019). gis application is very helpful planning related to safety on urban roads (naboureh, 2019). gis can formulate green spaces, public transportation access, and school distribution which is very effective for urban planning (ma and gopal, 2018). adjacent station distance cause congestion in urban areas (akilu, 2018). geospatial analysis could help the government in deciding on a country's sustainable energy development strategy (jahangiri et al, 2016). the results of the above studies have not discussed the placement of filling stations in an area, even though this has become very important to improve population accessibility. the novelty of this research is the analysis of the planning of refueling stations using gis. based on the gap and problem of improper location of filling stations in nigeria, minna inclusive this, research was birthed to assess the distribution of filling stations in minna city using geospatial technologies (techniques) by looking at, the location and distribution pattern of the filling stations, to examine the conformity of the spatial location of filling stations to the physical planning standard and create maps that will help for decision support, planning and management purpose. the study demonstrated that spatial analysis with relevant socioeconomic sources and physical parameter from different sources could be evaluated for the filling station sites planning. 2. methods the study was carried out within minna metropolis, located approximately between latitudes 09025’n and 09045’n, and longitudes 06015’e and 060 35’e with an average elevation of 272 meters above the sea level. with an estimated population of 201,429 (npc 2006). minna shares borders with the following local government areas; shiroro lga to the north, wushishi lga to the west, gbako lga to the south-west, katcha lga to the south-east and paikoro lga to the east as shown in page, is made up of settlements such as: chanchaga, shango, maitumbi, kpakungu, dutsen-kura, bosso, maikunkere, barkin sale, tudun fulani, keteren gwari. the city is connected to neighbouring cities by road. abuja, the capital of the country, is only 150 km away, is also connected by railroad to both kano in the north and ibadan and lagos in the south which is also boarder by ilorin city. minna airport serves the city. the maps 1, below show the study area. j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 250 figure 1. location of the study area (niger state) the data for the research were sourced from two primary sources. these includes a personal interview/oral interview, distribution of the questionnaire. use of gps to get the appropriate location (longitude, latitude, i.e. x and y) coordinate of each filling station points. these include the use of existing studies; textbook, journal, internet, technical reports, seminar papers, published and unpublished articles. the existing location of filling station from ministry of land and housing minna (minna master plan, the standard of siting a filling station, and street guide map of minna, satellite imageries of minna. these include the location of filling station, the name of filling station, number of filling station, size of the filling station, radius, distance apart. in the process of collecting data, different procedures were adopted such as physical observation, oral interview and administration of the questionnaire to the sampled filling station in minna. global positioning system(garmin etrex) was used to pick the coordinates (longitude and latitude) of each filling stations. in other to have unique information about the filling stations, stratified sampling technique was used to divide the area into four divisions (quadrants) a, b, c and d, of which 58 were sampled and 58 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the sampled filling station. the a quadrant comprises of bosso (7 samples were taken), tundu fulani (6 samples were taken), river basin (1 sample was taken), maikunkele (3 samples were taken) and numunyi (1 sample was taken). b quadrant comprises of dutsen kura (3 samples were taken), keteren gwari (1 sample was taken), kpakungu (6 samples were taken), and sauka kahuta (5 samples were taken). c quadrant comprises mobil (3 samples), m.i. wushishi (3 samples), and maitumbi (6 samples were taken). d quadrant comprises tunga (10 samples), tunga goro (1 sample), and chanchaga (2 samples). gps was used to capture the x and y coordinate of the 58 sampled filling station. j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 251 in all we have 58 sampled filling station across the study area, with a quadrant 18 accounting for 31.03% of the entire total; b quadrant 15 (25.86%), c quadrant 12 (20.69%), and d quadrant 13 (22.41%) of the entire total as summarized in table 1 below: table 1. number of sampled filling station s/n quadrant sampled filling station number % 1 a 18 31.03 2 b 15 25.86 3 c 12 20.69 4 d 13 22.41 total 58 100 the topographic map of the area was imported into arcgis 10.3, georeferenced and each layer was digitized to create maps. the gps points of filling station collected were converted through the gis and displayed as the actual location on the maps. arcgis software was used to determine proximity analysis to find what is close or within a certain distance of one or more features, each filling stations were buffered from the built-up areas, double carriageway, single carriageway, and from the next filling station. the data collected were also analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, bar chart, pie chart. 3. results and discussion 3.1 identification and location of filling station table 2 below help to show the location of filling station, the x and y coordinate and each filling station name, fig 2 below also shows the actual location of the identified filling station as displayed on the map. j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 252 table 2. identification and location of the filling station s/n x y location of station filling station name 1 9.661555556 6.523972222 tudun fulani us koko 2 9.664277778 6.521 tudun fulani microclean petroleum nig. ltd 3 9.668138889 6.515666667 tudun fulani muhabbat t. global resources nig. ltd 4 9.685944444 6.474277778 maikunkele solidmark oil and gas limited 5 9.680916667 6.4855 maikunkele mamman danba koko nig. ltd 6 9.673027778 6.504527778 maikunkele salihi international company limited 7 9.668944444 6.512333333 river basin total 8 9.666722222 6.516833333 tudun fulani salihi international company limited 9 9.661611111 6.522083333 bosso azman oil and gas 10 9.658916667 6.525388889 bosso garima petroleum ltd 11 9.64825 6.536194444 bosso bd petroleum nig. ltd 12 9.647805556 6.536916667 bosso ip oil company nigerial limited 13 9.645805556 6.538555556 bosso conoil 14 9.647361111 6.538416667 bosso ks oil 15 9.647472222 6.538361111 bosso abuhafsah global oil 16 9.61925 6.545833333 mobil forte oil (fo) 17 9.617833333 6.546138889 mobil total 18 9.613638889 6.547361111 mobil mobil 19 9.595305556 6.561638889 tunga total 20 9.595111111 6.561833333 tunga azman oil and gas 21 9.587111111 6.565083333 tunga conoil 22 9.585222222 6.565722222 tunga nnpc 23 9.581444444 6.567166667 tunga oando 24 9.58075 6.567527778 tunga asios and son nig. ltd 25 9.578833333 6.568388889 shango azman oil and gas 26 9.553333333 6.580444444 chanchaga conoil 27 9.541972222 6.581444444 chanchaga conoil 28 9.554527778 6.58125 tunga goro a.t.j nig. ltd 29 9.57425 6.571888889 shango oando 30 9.659305556 6.507611111 numunyi pinochles petroleum nig. ltd 31 9.633083333 6.516611111 dutse kura gwari nasafah global concept pet. ltd 32 9.620722222 6.528083333 opposite kure market first el-shabab nig. ltd 33 9.607694444 6.529305556 along high court ofyelagyi petroleum 34 9.605583333 6.530694444 keren gwari forte oil (fo) service station 35 9.596333333 6.526388889 kpakungu aliyu shaba station 36 9.594277778 6.520277778 gbaganu adamu iliyasu petroluem nig. ltd 37 9.593916667 6.519333333 chankwa jibeco nig. ltd 38 9.584833333 6.508138889 al-bishiri nnpc 39 9.585555556 6.509805556 al-bishiri a.u.g petroleum 40 9.5975 6.532166667 kpakungu oando j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 253 figure 2. location of filling stations as shown in table 2 and fig 2 above, at of all the 58 (100%) filling station sampled; in term of location tunga area has the highest number of filling station of 10 filling station accounting for 17.24% of the entire total, followed by bosso area o of 7 filling station 41 9.601805556 6.553472222 tunga southgate investment 42 9.596166667 6.548361111 tunga gajere multiple links nig. ltd 43 9.595666667 6.548055556 tunga umaru salihu koko nig. (us koko) 44 9.584361111 6.549388889 sauke kahuta garima 45 9.584638889 6.548833333 sauke kahuta garisco investment limited 46 9.582638889 6.552555556 sauke kahuta mobil 47 9.580555556 6.561277778 by-pass sauke kahuta total 48 9.579222222 6.561583333 by-pass sauke kahuta nnpc 49 9.581222222 6.563583333 tunga yebosoko global concept 50 9.593277778 6.574583333 m.i wushishi jazu oil and gas ltd 51 9.594861111 6.574527778 m.i wushishi a.s petroleum ltd 52 9.598222222 6.573833333 m.i wushishi tij ahmed nig. ltd 53 9.635111111 6.580444444 maitumbi a.a erena 54 9.636555556 6.582694444 maitumbi raheem petroleum 55 9.637527778 6.583111111 maitumbi nnpc murmusa 56 9.63825 6.586027778 maitumbi ane oil nigeria ltd 57 9.635583333 6.579444444 maitumbi conoil 58 9.634527778 6.579166667 maitumbi nnpc j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 254 accounting for 12.07% of the entire total, maitumbi has 6 filling station with 10.34%, tundun fulani 4( 6.90%), four areas like maikunkele, mobil, sasuke kahuta and m.i wushishi area has 3 filling stations each with 5.17% each and areas like chanchaja, shango, kpakungu, al-bishiri and bypass sauka kahuta has 2 (3.45%) each. lastly, river basin, tunga goro, numunyi, dutse kura gwari, opposite kure market, along high court, keteren gwari, gbaganu, and chankwa area has the least filling station of 1(1.72%) each. 3.2 the distribution pattern of the filling stations in other to establish the distribution pattern of the sampled filling station, we decided to find their location on both sides of the road, buffer the filling at 450meter, 75meter, 50meter and 35meter. table 3 below shows the number of the sampled filling station that could be found on each street/road both right and left. bosso-zungeru road carried the highest number of the sampled filling stations, 16 accounting for 27.59% of the entire total, followed by western by-pass road of 11 accounting for 18.97% of the entire total, the least is keteren gwari road of 2 accounting for 3.45 % of the entire total. table 3. filling station on both sides of the road. s/n road name sampled number % 1 bosso-zungeru road 16 27.59 2 bosso-paiko road 10 17.24 3 western by-pass 11 18.97 4 eastern by-pass/m. i wushishi road 7 12.07 5 bida road 6 10.34 6 keteren gwari road 2 3.45 7 gwada road 3 5.17 8 shiroro road 3 5.17 total 58 100 j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 255 as shown in table 3 above, relating to filling stations on both side of the road; at bossozungeru road there are about 16(27.59%) filling stations of the entire 58(100%) sampled, bosso-paiko road has 10(17.24%), western by-pass has 11(18.97%), eastern by-pass/m. i wushishi road has 7 accounting for 12.07% of the entire total, bida road with 6(10.34%) filling station, keteren gwari road has 2(3.45%) of the entire total. lastly on gwada road and shiroro road, there are 3(5.17%) each. on the issue of faulted and safe filling stations within and outside the buffer rings were discussed below. the faulted and the safe filling stations that are within and outside 450m buffer rings identified based on the following divisions: 1. division one: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 450 rings are; solid mark oil & gas, salihi international company, micro clean petroleum, salihi international company, muhabbat t. global resources, pinochle petroleum, us koko, garima oil, azman oil & gas, abu hafsah global oil, and ks oil.while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; mamman danba kok, total, ip oil, bd petroleum, conoil and nasafah global concept. 2. division two: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 450 rings are; jibeco, aliyu shaba station, a.u. g petroleum, nnpc gajere multiple links, us koko, garisco investment and garima.while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; forte oil, ofyelagyi petroleum, oando, southgate investment, first el-shabab, and adamu iliyasu petroleum. 3. division three: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 450 rings are; azman oil & gas, and conoil.while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; mobil, conoil, total, total, yebosoko global concept, nnpc, oando, asios & son, azman oil & gas, oando, a.t.j nig. ltd and conoil. 4. division four: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 450 rings are; forte oil, total, mobil, conoil and raheem petroleum. while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; nnpc murmusa, ane oil, a.a erena, nnpc, tij ahmed, as petroleum and jazu oil & gas. the faulted and the safe filling stations that are within and outside buffer of 75m rings were identified based on the divisions: j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 256 1. division one: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 75m rings are; solidmark oil & gas, salihi international company, total, muhabbat t. global resources, microclean petroleum, us koko, garima oil, bd petroleum, ip oil, conoil and nasafah global concept. while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; mamman danba kok, salihi international company, pinochle petroleum, azman oil & gas, ks oil and abuhafsah global oil. 2. division two: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 75m rings are; nnpc, a.u.g petroleum, aliyu shaba station, forte oil, ofyelagyi petroleum, us koko, gajere multiple links, garisco investment, garima and southgate investment. while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; adamu iliyasu petroleum, jibeco, oando and first el-shabab. 3. division third: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 75m rings are; mobil, total, nnpc total, azman oil & gas, nnpc, asios and son, azman oil & gas, a.t.j nig. ltd, conoil and conoil.while the safe filling stations that are outside the buffer rings are; oando, oando, yebosoko global concept and conoil. 4. division four: the faulted filling stations that are within buffer 75m rings are; jazu oil & gas, as petroleum, tij ahmed, nnpc, raheem petroleum, ane oil, mobil, total and forte oil and conoil and a.a erena are outside the buffer, making them the only safe filling station. the faulted and the safe filling stations that are within and outside buffer 50m rings were identified based on the divisions: 1. division one: only solid mark oil & gas, mamman danba kok, salihi international company, nasafah global concept, pinochle petroleum and azman oil & gas are safe in this division, others are within the buffer ring. 2. division two: only conoil filling station in chanchaga, along paiko road, is safe, while the rest of the sampled filling stations in this division are faulty. 3. division three: only first el-shabab filling station in dutsen kura, along with western by-pass is safe, while the rests of the sampled filling stations in this division are faulty. 4. division four: none of the sampled filling stations in this division is safe; they were all because they are found within the buffer zone (ring). j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 257 the faulted and the safe filling stations that are within and outside buffer of 35m rings were identified based on the divisions: 1. division one: only muhabbat t. global resources, ks oil and abuhafsah global oil are faulted, the rest of the filling stations in this division are all safe. 2. division two: only a.u.g petroleum is faulted; the rest of the filling stations are all safe. 3. division three: all of the filling stations in this division are safe from 35m buffer ring 4. division four: all of the filling stations in this division are safe from 35m buffer ring. 3.3 conformity of the spatial location of filling stations to the physical planning standards the table 4 below helps to confirm the spatial location of filling stations as it relates to physical planning standards, as weighted filling stations result by 450 m buffer away from other filling station, 75 m buffer away from building, 50 m away from the dual carriageway, and 35m buffer away from the single carriageway. table 4. union/integration of filling station s/no filling stations 450 m buffers away from other f/s 75 m buffers away from buildings 50 m buffers away from dual carriage 35 m buffers away from single carriage way weighted 1 solidmark oil & gas 1 0 0 1 2 2 salihi international company 1 0 0 1 2 3 salihi international company 0 1 0 1 2 4 microclean petroleum 0 0 0 1 1 5 muhabbat t. global 0 0 0 0 0 j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 258 resources 6 pinochles petroleum 1 1 0 1 3 7 us koko 0 0 0 1 1 8 garima oil 0 0 0 1 1 9 azman oil & gas 1 1 0 1 3 10 abuhafsah global oil 0 1 0 0 1 11 ks oil 0 1 0 0 1 12 mamman danba kok 1 1 1 1 4 13 total 0 0 1 1 2 14 ip oil 0 0 1 1 2 15 bd petroleum 0 0 1 1 2 16 conoil 0 0 1 1 2 17 nasafah global concept 1 0 1 1 3 18 jibeco 0 1 0 1 2 19 aliyu shaba station 0 0 0 1 1 20 a.u.g petroleum 0 0 0 0 0 21 nnpc 0 0 0 1 1 22 gajere multiple links 0 0 0 1 1 23 us koko 0 0 0 1 1 24 garisco investment 0 0 0 1 1 25 garima 0 0 0 1 1 26 forte oil 0 0 1 1 2 27 ofyelagyi 0 0 1 1 2 j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 259 petroleum 28 oando 0 0 1 1 2 29 southgate investment 0 1 1 1 3 30 first elshabab 1 1 1 1 4 31 adamu iliyasu peyroleum 0 1 1 1 3 32 azman oil & gas 0 0 0 1 1 33 conoil 0 1 0 1 2 34 mobil 0 0 1 1 2 35 conoil 0 0 1 1 2 36 nnpc 0 0 1 1 2 37 total 0 0 1 1 2 38 total 0 0 1 1 2 39 yebosoko global concept 0 1 1 1 3 40 nnpc 0 0 1 1 2 41 oando 0 1 1 1 3 42 asios & son 0 0 1 1 2 43 azman oil & gas 0 0 1 1 2 44 oando 0 1 1 1 3 45 a.j.j oil 0 0 1 1 2 46 conoil 1 0 1 1 3 47 forte oil 0 0 0 1 1 48 total 0 0 0 1 1 49 mobil 0 0 0 1 1 50 conoil 0 1 0 1 2 51 raheem 0 0 0 1 1 j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 260 the only filling stations that have a suitable location according to the physical planning standard are mamman danba kok and first el-shabab filling station. the map also showed that only 3.4% of the sampled filling stations are located in a suitable location, while the remaining 96.6% of the total numbers of existing filling stations in minna petropolis and its environs are not located in suitable areas. however, there is similar or relevant research done by various scholars on gis application in filling station as decision support system tools. emakoji and otah (2018), worked on analyzing the location of filling station in afikpo-ebonyi state nigeria against the laws/regulations guiding their establishment; their result shows that about 44.4% of the filling station did not meet the criteria of 15m minimum distance from the pump to the road,22.2% of the filling station was sited too close(lesser than 100m) to the health centre. while 66.7% did not meet the criteria of 400m minimum distance to other stations located on the same roadside. tah (2017) researched on location of filling stations within kaduna metropolis against the physical planning standards set by department of physical planning (dpr) and kaduna urban planning and development agency; his study revealed that there are about 228 filling stations within the 26 roads in the study area of which 74% owned by independent marketers, 18% owned by major marketer and 8% owned by nnpc. that about 86% of the filling station did not meet the standard of 100m from health care facilities. 84% did not meet the 400m minimum distance to other stations on the same road. the essence was to check if it is in line with the physical planning standards set by the department of petroleum resource (dpr) and kano urban planning and development agency, the research shows that there are about 214 filling station along the 43 roads in the petroleum 52 nnpc murmusa 0 0 1 1 2 53 ane oil 0 0 1 1 2 54 a.a erena 0 1 1 1 3 55 nnpc 0 0 1 1 2 56 tij ahmed 0 0 1 1 2 57 as petroleum 0 0 1 1 2 58 jazu oil & gas 0 0 1 1 2 j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 261 study area; the highest number of filling stations is located along zaria, maiduguri, and kastina roads which are major high ways, but access road like sabo bakin, zuwo, and zungeru roads have the highest density of filling station per km2 . however, about 96% of the filling stations meet the 15m from the road criteria; also 98% meet the 400m distance to the health centre. but the majority of the filling station did not meet the criteria of 400m from each other. peprah (2018), investigated the level of compliance to standards set by the ministry of energy, and town and country planning department on existing oil and gas station in tarkwa ghana, using multi-criteria decision analysis and gis approach, the result showed that 75% of oil and gas operators compliant with the standard while 25% did notlastly. mustapha et al (2016) studied the uses of geospatial technologies to determine the distribution pattern and assess the level of conformity of the filling station against the physical planning standards by the regulating bodies in illorin kwara state. their result shows that 225 filling stations in the study area are clustered in nature in terms of distribution. the 15m distance standard from the edge of the road was meant by 71.6% filling stations why 28.4% was not. in terms of 400 m apart, only 2,7% was in compliance while 98.7% was not. conclusively, from these above and in line with the research at hand, shows that about 89.7% of the total filling station in nigeria did not meet the 400m apart criteria; the physical planning standards are not followed. this is a major problem in almost all the state in nigeria, that is why the recommendation highlighted in this research work should be adhered. gis can be used to plan environmentally friendly cities (jelokhani-niaraki et al, 2019). spatial analysis of a city's coastline will improve environmental capability (dhiman et al, 2019). gis helps effectively analyze the distribution of mobile networks in a city (sacramento et al, 2019). suburban areas related to urban problems are very effectively analyzed by gis (vaz et al, 2018). gis can analyze the vulnerability of coastal areas and help the government in making decisions related to sustainable city development strategies (maanan et al, 2018). the results of this study are better than the studies above related to the distribution analysis of filling station services. this will be very beneficial for the growth of the city and facilitate community access to services. 4.conclusion the study demonstrated that integration and spatial analysis with relevant socioeconomic sources and physical parameter from different sources could be evaluated for the j. yisa et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 247-263 262 interpretation of filling station sites planning. the spatial distribution pattern of filling stations in minna was identified through the creation of a geospatial database for the sampled filling stations. the sampled filling stations were confirmed based on the physical planning standard gotten from the ministry of land and housing minna, to be correctly located and improperly positioned filling stations were also identified.gis was integrated into siting of filling station in the study area, and the number of filling stations found in suitable location was identified. in conclusion, this study shows that gis and multi-criteria analysis are essential tools to assist in correct siting to national planners and decision-makers in deciding the most appropriate filling stations location pattern to apply in minna and its environs. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the article. acknowledgement for his enabling grace, divine wisdom and vision for writing this work, the almighty god takes prime position in our expression of appreciation and gratitude. references aklilu, a., & necha, t. 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(2018). potential of geographic information systems for refugee crisis: syrian refugee relocation in urban habitats. habitat international, 72, 39-47. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.02.001 131 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 131-145 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.8384 geography literacy of observation introduction landscape representation place for student experience (ethnomethodology perspective) fahrudi ahwan ikhsan 1 , fahmi arif kurnianto 2 , bejo apriyanto 3 , elan artono nurdin 4 1,2,3,4department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia email: ahwan.fkip@unej.ac.id received: 23 june 2018/revised: 7 july 2018/accepted: 18 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract this study aims to describe the understanding of geography literacy and student experience with landscape recognition observations using an ethnometodology perspective. the subject of this study was the chairman of each landscape recognition practice group student geography education program from university of jember. the results of this study that geography literacy has a dimension of relevance to geographic skills in representing contextual phenomena and places from landscape recognition observation activities. the results of both observational studies provide research experience, motivation, critical and scientific thinking skills for students represented in the mapping of the area. keywords: geography literacy, student experience, ethnometodology 1. introduction geography education is needed in understanding the phenomena, location, and world for prespective geographers. geography literacy has an influence to explain physical information and human activities. geography literacy skills are needed in the observation of landscape recognition. turner and leydon (2012), explained that literacy geography skills are very valuable for students in connecting the concepts and theories that are being learned at this time throughout the world. the component of spatial literacy in geography includes component of the concept of space, representational tools, and thought processes (nrc, 2006). students must be able to visualize the geospatial distribution of culture, economics and natural resources to understand the complexity of the environment globally (guertin et al., 2012). knowledge geography literacy is used to understand, process, and utilize spatial data (turner and leydon, 2012). the implementation of geography literacy is significantly influential in building spatial knowledge of students. every individual has a different structure in processing https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:ahwan.fkip@unej.ac.id 132 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 information and spatial thinking ability in the neurological system (levinson, 2003). one method of observation that can be used to analyze geographic phenomena contextually in the learning of spatial literacy. field observation activities in the introduction of landscapes are more centered on student activity. an integral component of the observation approach taken by students requires lecturers as facilitators and controls in the learning process (chappell, 2007). relations in observation activities will build communication between lecturers and students. reflective participation and attitudes need to be shown by lecturers to students in providing an understanding of the introduction of landscapes. the experience student from the practice of landscape recognition lectures serves to provide a reality picture of geographic phenomena occurring on the surface of the earth. the results of reflection from practice can build students' cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills. geography literacy in the observation landscape recognition requires high-level skills. cotton et. al (2010), stated that geographic observation methods can provide selective, rational experience and behavior as well as arguments from observations. special att ention to observation methods of aspects affective experience in particular include attitudes, motivation, and student responses (boyle et.al, 2007; stokes & boyle, 2009). the purpose of this study was to determine the experience of student literacy geography in landscape recognition practices as a representation of places. the studies observed include physical phenomena and human activities in an integrated manner. the experience of students' geography literacy of landscape recognition practices was identified from their participation during observation activities. 2. the methods the method used in this research is qualitative with ethnometodology approach. this approach is used to understand the natural actions of a particular ethnic group, the study includes social agents of the community, understand their lives (a group of human life), and how they are sustained every day when interacting with their groups (fatchan, 2015). qualitative researchers aim to develop strategies and procedures by considering experience from the perspective of informants (bogdan & biklen, 1998). qualitative research provides an opportunity to develop understanding of subject matter well (denzin & lincoln, 2008). the subject of this study was the head of the landscape learning field practice group as many as 8 students. the information studied is distinguished the reasons: (1) geography literacy understanding of students in the practice of landscape recognition observation lectures which are represented in the volcanology area of the bromo mountain in 133 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 probolinggo region; and (2) the experience gained by students from the observation of landscape recognition as a representation of a place in the volcanology area of mount bromo, probolinggo region. individual experiences and insights are an important part of inquiry and critical thinking to understanding the information from interviews (patton, 2002). data collection techniques are carried out by interviewing and documenting the research subject in depth. the informants in this study were students who took part in a landscape recognition introduction practice program in the volcanology area of the bromo mountain in probolinggo region. data from the interviews were analyzed descriptively with the coding matrix of the informants. the coding technique is used to explore and connect between codes with each other. themes and concepts are interpreted to prepare final reports in research (miles, huberman, & saldana, 2015) 3. results and discussion the informants in this study were taken from the chair landscape recognition practice group student of geography education program in university jember. researchers choose informants according to activities the field in assessing geographic locations and phenomena. researchers get informant with direct interviews with 8 selected students including: (1) rislianta alsabila (ra); (2) cindy eka pratiwi (cep); (3) achmad dwi kurniawan (adk); (4) eva kurniasari (ek); (5) aisyah widatul khoiroh (awk); (6) moh. fajar septarianto (mfs); (7) shandy choirul fatah (scf); dan (8) arum cahyaning utami (acu). the eight informants provided data in the study with the following explanation: table 1: geography literacy in practical observation of field learning introducation landscape recognition in bromo mountain probolinggo regency no. name of informant information the theme found 1. rislianta alsabila (ra) 1. ”the definition and essence of geography becomes difficult to understand when learning in class” 2. ”i understand the use of geographic principles and concepts in accordance with the facts in the field” 3. ”understanding of natural and human phenomena can be studied in an integrated manner” 1. feeling an understanding of the concept of geography 2. easy application in the field 3. studying geography needs as a whole 134 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 4. ”the geographic phenomenon is influenced by the location and place that distinguishes compared to other regions” 5. ”landscape recognition introduction activities need to understand the geosphere study for all” 6. ”observation of landscape recognition uses more applications of concepts and principles from geography” 4. regional differences affect geographic understanding 5. studying geography must be integrated 6. theories about geographic concepts and principles are needed in the field 2. cindy eka pratiwi (cep) 1. ”geography literacy in its application in the field requires an understanding of spatial thinking” 2. ”geography literacy builds on geographic thinking in interpreting phenomena, spaces and locations to study territory” 3. ”i feel the application of field observation is easier in providing knowledge and understanding of geography studies” 4. ”objects of geography studies, principles and concepts needed in interpreting the location of observation” 5. ”group collaboration is needed to study geographic phenomena in an integrated manner” 6. ”the fact is that natural phenomena affect human activities at locations around bromo mountain” 7. ”i have difficulty distinguishing spatial and territorial approaches in the introduction of landscape recognition applications” 8. ”field observations provide valuable experience because they demand critical and scientific thinking” 1. the implementation of geographic literacy is influenced by spatial thinking skills 2. studying the region needs to master geographic literacy 3. understanding and knowledge are more easily obtained from the results of field practice 4. understanding of phenomena can be analyzed with geographic concepts and principles 5. collaboration with key field practice teams 6. natural and human phenomena are interconnected 7. the geographical approach is difficult to apply in observation 8. feel an experience that is hard to forget 3. achmad dwi kurniawan (adk) 1. ”geography literacy means understanding natural and human phenomena, location, place and region” 2. ”i think geography literacy is 1. assessing the location and place requires geographic literacy skills 2. geography literacy is 135 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 part of spatial or geographic thinking” 3. ”observations in the introduction of landscapes provide an illustration that geography studies are in fact very broad” 4. ”field observation applications require spatial thinking skills, geography, and area mapping” 5. ”field observation activities provide experience in studying phenomena, locations and places, and areas on the surface of the earth” 6. ”i feel that geographical literacy is influenced by an understanding of the definition of geography, concepts, principles, and objects of study from geography” 7. ”landscape recognition observations provide experience that implementation in assessing geographic problems requires geological and geomorphology maps” 8. ”observation activities provide lifelong experience” broader in substance than spatial thinking 3. geography discipline as the parent of science 4. need to master geography skills in the application 5. experience in studying facts and concepts in discipline geography 6. understanding theoretically influences the application of geography literacy 7. thematic mapping of regional phenomena 8. lifelong experience 4. eva kurniasari (ek) 1. ”the geography phenomenon in the field includes physical and human” 2. ”principles and concepts of geography of the main provisions in observing the introduction of landscapes in the field” 3. ”observation activities must bring maps as material to understand the phenomena” 4. ”observation activities also provide experience in researching geographic phenomena” 5. ”i understand geography literacy part of the way of looking at phenomena with environmental conditions in certain regions” 6. ”geography literacy is useful 1. phenomena 2. the essence of geography concepts and principles 3. map as supporting application research 4. research experience 5. geography literacy part in understanding phenomena at a particular location 6. regional potential 136 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 for studying regional potential” 7. ”introduction to the landscape provides an overview of the geosphere study as a whole” 8. ”i understand the concepts and principles of geography after the field observation application” can be analyzed by geography literacy 7. geosphere study 8. concepts and principles are easy to understand through practical learning 5. aisyah widatul khoiroh (awk) 1. ”geography literacy part of understanding phenomena in the field” 2. ”geography literacy forms the use of geographic concepts and principles in analyzing cases in the field” 3. ”i feel that field observation activities are easier to understand the essence of geography” 4. ”i think geography literacy is useful in building spatial thinking in studying the region” 5. ”essential geography literacy skills in location observation” 6. ”the experience of geographic literacy can be seen from the way of spatial thinking” 7. ”i feel the observation of more landscape recognition activities to study regional phenomena” 8. ”regional mapping needs to build geographic literacy” 1. phenomena part of geography literacy 2. concepts and principles of geography literacy analysis 3. the essence of geography is easy to learn 4. geography literacy relates to the region 5. literacy skills in assessing location 6. spatial thinking 7. assessing regional phenomena specifically 8. region mapping 6. moh. fajar septarianto (mfs) 1. ”geography literacy skills are useful in understanding all phenomena in the area of bromo mountain” 2. ”i feel the logic of geography thinking is needed in studying phenomena” 3. ”i find it very difficult to develop geography literacy thinking skills” 4. ”as a geographer i feel the need for spatial thinking and literacy skills in studying the region” 5. ”natural and physical phenomena are easy to learn as a geosphere study” 6. ”field observations provide 1. phenomena part of geography literacy 2. interpretation phenomena requires geography thinking 3. difficulties applying geography literacy 4. provision of geographers includes spatial thinking skills and geography literacy 5. geosphere study 137 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 experience in looking at the use of geography concepts” 7. ”geography thinking, analysis and application skills are needed in building geography literacy” 8. ”i find it a valuable experience that landscape recognition observations provide an illustration that geography studies the region supported by maps” 6. application of the concept of geography 7. geography literacy is influenced by individual skills in analyzing and applying study geography 8. mental experience map to study the region 7. shandy choirul fatah (scf) 1. ”i feel geography literacy is useful in analyzing regions such as bromo mountain” 2. ”field observation activities provide an overview of geography phenomena” 3. ”geography literacy requires understanding geographic concepts and principles” 4. ”geography literacy skills are useful in analyzing phenomena and regions as a whole” 1. geography literacy to study the region 2. geography phenomena 3. application of geography concepts and principles 4. analysis of regional studies requires individual geography literacy skills 8. arum cahyaning utami (acu) 1. ”i feel that geographical literacy not only means studying location, but also places, relationships, activities, and regions” 2. ”implementation of geographic literacy requires geography thinking skills, geographic analysis, and geography applications”” 3. the observation of the introduction of landscape in the bromo mountain area is more on understanding the concepts, principles and objects of geography study” 4. ”the geosphere phenomena has various forms in fact in the field” 1. the study of geography literacy interpretation the location and place, the relationship of natural and human phenomena in certain regions 2. geography literacy skills 3. understanding of the concepts, principles and object of geography studies 4. the form and facts of the geosphere phenomena at the observation site based on the findings in matrix i, we can find the following propositions as follows. the practice geography literacy through field observations includes studies of phenomena, locations, places, interactions, activities, and environments for regional studies. the application of geography literacy needs to be supported by spatial thinking skills, analytical 138 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 thinking, and application of geography for prospective geographers. the essence of geographic concepts and principles is needed in contextual practice supported by maps as a support to understand geography literacy. landscape recognition observation activities provide experience for prospective geographers in interpretation geographic locations and phenomena in the spatial, environmental and territorial viewpoints for certain places on the earth's surface. in research the application of geographic concepts and principles plays a role in building the dynamics of geographic literacy, especially with the support of geographic skills. table 2: the student experience of result observation the introduction landscapes in bromo mountains probolinggo regency no. name of informant information the theme found 1. rislianta alsabila (ra) 1. ”understanding concepts and theories is easier with field observation learning activities” 2. ”i feel the introduction of the landscape provides a valuable knowledge experience in understanding phenomena, locations, activities, and regions” 3. ”i think that field observation activities are very helpful in critical research and thinking skills” 4. ”field observation activities provide experience in building geographical understanding for prospective geographers” 1. learning observation 2. experience and knowledge about the essence of location, place and region 3. research and critical thinking skills in field learning 4. geographical skills 2. cindy eka pratiwi (cep) 1. ”learning field observation is more interesting in providing experiences to build geography thinking” 2. ”the way of thinking in geography in my opinion includes the study of phenomena, location, place, activity, environment, and region” 3. ”i think field observation activities provide experience in examining physical and human 1. the experience of applying geography thinking in the field 2. the experience geography thinking 3. research experience through observation learning activities 139 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 phenomena as part of the analysis and application of geography” 4. ”i feel the field observation activities train in scientific thinking, especially in writing field practice reports and making scientific articles” 4. the scientific thinking skills 3. achmad dwi kurniawan (adk) 1. ”observation activities give me more contextual experience than learning in class” 2. ”the practice of field lecture observation learning provides an overview of phenomena formed due to the activity in certain areas” 3. ”i feel that the practice of introducing landscape recognition provides understanding and knowledge about phenomena, location, place, interrelationships, activities within the scope of territory” 4. ”i have more motivated in studying geography, especially related to integrated geography” 5. ”i feel observation activities provide valuable experience in researching and field testing” 6. ”observation activities at bromo mountain help in scientific thinking which is realized in the form of practicum reports and scientific articles” 1. contextual learning experience 2. the essence of geography to study the region 3. understanding and knowledge of geography disciplines about location, place, environment and region 4. the motivation to learn geography 5. the experiences of research and testing in natural laboratories 6. the geographical scientific thinking skills 4. eva kurniasari (ek) 1. ”i have real experience related to the essence of geography which includes phenomena, locations, places, activities, relationships, environment and regions” 2. ”i feel that spatial thinking skills are more easily applied in the field directly than through classroom learning” 3. ”research activities train geography skills especially in analyzing physical and human 1. the substance studies discipline geography 2. the benefits of practical learning in the field 3. the competence and skills to examine geographical 140 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 phenomena specifically” 4. ”the experience of observation activities motivates me to apply geography concepts, principles and perspectives in studying the region for all geography learning” problems 4. motivation implementation of concept, principle and perspective in studying geography 5. aisyah widatul khoiroh (awk) 1. ”field observation learning provides an experience that is not easily forgotten” 2. ”more observation activities use geographic analysis skills” 3. ”the first landscape recognition research experience for me” 4. ”observation practices critical and scientific thinking skills so that i am very motivated to be a geographer in analyzing facts and cases at bromo mountain” 1. life-long experience with contextual field observation 2. the experience analytical skills 3. the experience research 4. geographers need critical and scientific thinking skills in studying phenomena 6. moh. fajar septarianto (mfs) 1. ”landscape recognition observation activities provide experience in testing, measuring, researching and analyzing geographic phenomena” 2. ”group collaboration is important in collaborative observation in the field” 3. ”landscape recognition observations provide first time experience while studying geography in applications” 4. ”in my opinion, the application of concepts, principles, and point of view of geography is easier in the introduction of landscape recognition applications in bromo mountain” 5. ”i am as r geographers requires an understanding of the way of geography thinking in its entirety which includes understanding the phenomenon, location and place, activities, relationships, spatial, environmental, and territories as a whole” 1. the experience of field observation learning 2. learning collaboration 3. the experience geography learning applications 4. the geography applications are easier to apply directly in the field 5. the geography thinking for geographs includes phenomena, locations and places, and regions 141 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 6. ”field observation activities provide an overview to me in developing thematic maps such as geological maps, geomorphology and land suitability” 7. ”observation activities require students to be more active, think critically, and think scientifically in analyzing problems in the field” 6. making thematic maps from field measurements 7. student activity for critical and scientific thinking in observation learning 7. shandy choirul fatah (scf) 1. ”observation activities give me more lifelong experience in studying geography” 2. ”i see geosphere studies need each layer to have a relationship in its application in the field” 3. ”field observation activities provide me with the experience of testing and research both physical and human aspects for the first time” 4. ”i look at the results of more observations on applications in the interpretation of phenomena, location, place, interaction and interrelation, activity, environment, and territorial” 5. ”i feel that observation activities require geography thinking, analysis, and geography applications with cartographic support” 1. the experience of lifelong learning 2. the relations between the layers of the geosphere 3. the first experience of trials and research 4. the field observations of application geography disciplines in location and place, environment and region 5. the geography skills require maps as a medium of interpretation 8. arum cahyaning utami (acu) 1. ”observation activity on mount bromo is the first experience of research in studying geography for me in analyzing location and region” 2. ”understanding geography studies is easier by application through field observation practices compared to theories in classroom learning” 3. ”i feel that observation activities are easier to translate into maps supported by scientific reports” 4. ”i feel that group 1. the experience geography research 2. the advantages of observation learning with field practice 3. the results of observation learning with scientific reports supported by mapping the area 142 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 collaboration is very important every observation application research activities practice of introducing landscapes in in bromomountain" 4. collaboration research group based on the form of student experience as in matrix ii new prepositions can be built. landscape recognition observation activities provide experience for students throughout life in representing a place. observation learning is very interesting to be applied directly in the field for geography disciplines. the applications of observation learning provide learning motivation for students to think critically and scientifically in interpreting geography phenomena. observation serves to provide a research learning experience in constructing geographic thinking for each individual geographer contextually. trial and measurement activities from observation activities are useful in the preparation of scientific reports and mapping of the area. location and place need cartographic assistive science to interpret phenomena in studying the region. the experience of students from observation activities has a function in building skills and thinking geography. geography skills representation of the competencies expected activities by students in observation introduction landscape. students as geographers will get new information as result of observation activities. the new information is knowledge for students which is useful for building a geographic thinking perspective. understanding of views about geography from more observational activities on scientific attention. the interpretation of the concept of landscapes and culture provides special strength in building spatial understanding for students. the findings minca (2013), explained that the concept of landscape was at the core of scientific attention from generation to generation from geographers. the nature of geography with the power of phenomena and landscape provides knowledge in understanding the relationship of spatial theory and spatial analysis expressed from spatial systems. conceptually understanding geographic phenomena can be easily understood as a whole according to the results of the reflection of the observation of the introduction of landscapes in the field. understanding of natural and human relations is needed by geographers with survey activities and descriptions as an alternative in studying the potential of place and location (boogaart, 2001). field observations affect the learning experience in particular student psychology in the field. aspects of field experience will influence the development of cognitive, affective, and psychomotoric dimensions of students' thinking. the findings of boyle, et al. (2007), 143 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 aspects of field learning will have an impact on student affective development which includes attitudes, motivation, and feelings. the development of psychology of students provide to experience in geography studies both in theoretical learning in the classroom and in field applications through landscape recognition activities. the spatial thinking of students has a relationship with the role of geography literacy improving for understanding the geographical concept of "sense of place". geography literacy give students more insight into: analysis of location, place, relationship, activity, environment, and region. the dynamics of increasing geographic literacy in k-12 challenge students to deepen geographical knowledge. thinking geographically provides a connection between humans and places of contact with events, cases and facts from geographic phenomena. the findings hunter (2016), geography literacy is more effective in interacting and collaborating among students to broaden experiences in different environments. geography literacy provides an overview of phenomena as problem solving skills and motivating students. the view of geographic literacy information cannot be transferred in proving the phenomena that is examined directly in a particular place and location. the findings of johnston and webber (2003), the emphasize landscape learning requires maps in interpreting physical and social aspects of relationships. information obtained by students is useful in exploring the geographic literacy of both the theory and practice of landscapes with contextual skills (lyold, 2006). geographical literacy skills of each individual student can be ascertained differently despite conducting joint observation activities in groups. the findings ottati (2015), that exploration of learning can provide different experiences related to geography literacy, attitudes, and experiences according to k-12. experience in representing the place obtained by students after conducting observation activities is to train research skills, trial, survey, critical thinking, scientific thinking, and thematic map making. the findings comber (2017), geography literacy has a relationship between pedagogic, social skills, geography, and poverty to build a culture of shared learning in the world of education. student experience from observation in the form of lifelong learning, pedagogic development, geography skills, research skills, critical and scientific thinking, and writing scientific reports and articles. this experience shows that observation activities generate new knowledge can shape thinking patterns for students as geographers in landscape recognition practice activities. 144 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 131-145 4.conclussion geography literacy is easier to apply directly in the field with practical learning activities. students as geographers experience lifelong experiences that are difficult to forget. the experience gained includes the implementation of concepts and principles in the field, measurement, trials, surveys, and research learning. the number of experiences spurred students to develop geographic ways of thinking represented or described from the location and place observed. student activities in the field require thinking, analysis, and applications geography especially in studying the region. these skills will build the pedagogical dimension of students in analyzing all aspects of literacy which include: phenomena, place, relationship, activities, environment, and region. all these aspects will give a description of the place in a particular area or what is known as "sense of place". students as geographs are motivated to think critically and scientifically in solving problems in areas that are the target of the introduction of landscape recognition in bromo mountain, probolinggo regency. the natural and human phenomena studied were realized in the form of regional mapping. the aim is to describe all the problems and phenomena that exist in the observation location of landscape recognition. the application of observation activities needs to be mentally supported by each student so that it is easy to describe and analyze the problems faced. thus, geographic literacy and skills thinking geography of students are useful to interpretation places and locations that are realized through mapping the area. the result is an analysis of both natural and human potential found in the area of observation activities. references bogdan, r. and biklen, s.k.(1998). qualitative research for education: an introduction to theories and methods. boston: allyn and bacon, inc. boogart ii, thomas a. 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international university. patton, m.q.(2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). thousand oasks ca: sage publications. stokes, a. & boyle, a.p.(2009). the undergraduate geoscience fieldwork experience: influencing factors and implications for learning, in: s.j. whitmeyer, d.w. mogk & e.j. pyle (eds) field geology education-historical perspectives and modern approach, 461, geological society of america, 313-321. turner, s., & leydon, j.(2012). improving geography literacy among first year undergraduate students: testing the effectivess of online quizzes, journal of geography, 111(2), 54-66. 47 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 flood vulnerability mapping using geographic information system (gis) in gajah wong sub watershed yogyakarta a. ardiansyah¹* and dyah respati suryo sumunar² ¹geography education master program, yogyakarta state university, jl. colombo no.1, karang malang, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia ²department of geography education, yogyakarta state university, jl. colombo no.1, karang malang, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *corresponding author : ardiansyah.2016@student.uny.ac.id received 18 march 2019/ revised 18 september 2019/ accepted 23 november 2019/ published 10 april 2020 abstract gajah wong sub watersheds frequently hit by floods which are potentially damaging. therefore, a study on a flood vulnerability of the area is deemed necessary. this study aims to map floods vulnerability, to know the level and its spread in gajah wong sub watershed of yogyakarta county province by using geographic information system (gis). the methods implemented in this study was weighting and scoring analysis and overlay of parameter attributes data of flood vulnerability framer, consisting of land use, slope of mountain, rainfall, soil type, geology, height of location and river buffer. each parameter of flood vulnerability framer is classified based on the magnitude of effect towards flood vulnerability. the results of this study indicate that there were three levels of flood vulnerability in gajah wong sub watershed, i.e. low flood vulnerability of 338.34 ha (6.86%), medium flood vulnerability level of 4,595.62 ha (93.13%) and high flood vulnerability level of 0.76 ha (0.02%). low flood vulnerability level is ditributed randomly to all areas of gajah wong sub watershed cover of ngaglik sub-district, depok sub-district, small part of pleret sub-district and was predominantly in banguntapan sub-district, an area with rainfall. medium flood vulnerability areas dominated gajah wong watershed. meanwhile, high flood vulnerability level occupied small portion of the area and spread in the southern part of pleret sub-district which was taken as the area of river buffer analysis. keywords: gis; gajah wong; sub watershed; yogyakarta. 1. introduction climate change has seriously affected the environment and human life. change in climate would contribute to increasing frequency and severity of disaster and cause flood (jia et al., 2016). generally, flood is caused by natural and non natural factors. flood occurs as a result of heavy rain effect and natural water channel having no capacity to collect water (ramdhan et al., 2018). area with lowland condition and near a river tends to have higher geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 47-64, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.9959 accredited by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 48 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 floods vulnerability (kourgialas & karatzas, 2016). flood disaster may have negative effects on social-economic, loss of human and properties, problems associated with health, and ecosystem functions (sein & myint, 2016). gajah wong sub watershed covers an area of 49.34 km², consisting of three areas of district/city, namely, districts of sleman, yogyakarta city and bantul which cover 9 areas of sub-districts, i.e. pakem, ngemplak, ngaglik, depok, umbulharjo, kota gede, gondokusuman, bantul, and pleret (hartono, 2014). observation results indicate the frequent occorrence of annual floods in gajah wong sub watershed, with some major floods which may occur twice a year. these frequently occurring floods were caused by overflow of gajah wong river and these have cause damages to houses and some other losses. flood is considered one of the most common natural disasters contributed to losses and damage to infrastructure and the environment (santillan et al., 2016). flood disasters carry serious implications for humans; hence, there is a crucial need to manage and determine areas having flood vulnerability (stoica & iancu, 2011). vulnerability is associated with a condition determined by social, economical, and ecological factors or processes, resulting in higher vulnerability of people in dealing with hazard (christiawan & wesnawa, 2014). social factors include social conditions such as population density, sex ratio, poverty ratio, disability rate, and the ratio of vulnerable age groups. economic factors include the condition of productive land area and gross regional domestic product (grdp). environmental vulnerabilities generally relate to land use conditions (bnpb, 2012).vulnerability concept is generally associated with natural hazard, disaster and ecology (beevers & strathie, 2016). knowledge and understanding of flood vulnerability are paramountly crucial for the government and people. map is a good instrument to present data and information. mapping areas with flood vulnerability interval is essential as it can be the basis for the government to make appropriate policy to prevent it. gis provides support especially for policy and decision makers. flood can be mapped by attribute analysis using weighing and scoring methodaiming at giving specific values to spatial data phenomena. this mapping activity aims at knowing the effects of components on flood vulnerability in gajah wong watershed. geographic information system (gis) is an integrated software, designed specially to be used with geographic data to perform tasks of data processing comprehensively consisting of input, storage, retrieving and output of data with various analytical and descriptive types (weng, 2010). recent disaster analyses are inseparable from gis and the role of remote sensing. the use of gis with remote sensing combination can widely be used and applied to 49 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 analyze disaster with provision of spatial data networks nationally and entirely (manfré, 2012). with these attributes, gis may be functional and may have positive impacts on human life. gis can be an essential tool in decision making of sustainable development, because gis provides information to decision making for spatial database and analysis (suryantoro, 2009). previous related research stated that spatial databases include flood inventory, slope, flow power index (spi), topographic wet index (twi), altitude, curvature, distance from rivers, geology, rainfall, land use / cover (lulc), and types soil (tehrany et al., 2014). remote sensing is effective for analysing trends in environmental change related to biodiversity in recent years (pettorelli et al., 2014). lowland with 10-15% slope and with a sewage disposal network is the most vulnerable to flooding (igović et al., 2017). analysis related to geology and distance from the river using digital elevation models is most influential on reducing flood risk (lee et al., 2017). the distance from the fault and the type of soil also greatly affects the level of flood vulnerability (tehrany et al., 2017). previous studies did not examine flood vulnerability in karst and quarterly volcanic areas such as those in yogyakarta. therefore, this study carried out on watersheds with a combination of quarter volcanic land and karst land in the provincial capital contributes in this regard. this study aims to map the vulnerability of floods to know the level and its spread in gajah wong sub watershed of yogyakarta county by using a geographic information system (gis). 2. methods this is a descriptive quantitative study with the aims to disclose facts available accompanied by interpretation and analysis (tika, 2005). this use of quantitative methods was mainly because data in this research is mainly attribute data that is dominated by numerical data.the data are used to carry out weighting, scoring and overlay analysis to produce flood vulnerability maps.this study aims to map flood vulnerability by viewing the level and its spread through results of flood vulnerability paramater data. this study aimed to provide reliable and accurate results. analysis by weighing, scoring and overlay are more popularly used today, especially related to the use of a geographical information system (gis). some government institutions such as regional development planning board, public work office, meteorological, climatological, and geophysical agency often use this method to perform spatial analysis, especially related to natural disaster study. the methods used are easier and are compatible to use with varied parameter attributal data/variable that will be overlaid. however, this analysis 50 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 also has weaknesses because it greatly depends on the availability, data update and paramater data generalisation process to be used. hence, it can decrease the accuracy of a flood vulnerability data output yielded. 2.1 sites this study was conducted in gajah wong sub watershed of yogyakarta county province. gajah wong sub watershed is a part of opak watershed through three areas of regency/city and nine sub-districts. this study was performed for three months from january through march 2018. figure 1. map of gajah wong sub watershed 51 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 2.2 data source data used in this study were secondary data collected from some institutions such as development planning agency at sub-national level (bappeda) available to gis portal (sig.jogjaprof.go.id), mlati climatology station (bmkg) and center for water resources management (bpsda). 2.3 data processing this study used weighing and scoring method with overlay technique of attribute data of each flood vulnerability arrangement parameter. data obtained were then adjusted, reclassified and analysed to obtain final results in form of flood vulnerability map. mapping of flood vulnerability needs some basic parameters/variables functioning as arrangement parameters. flood vulnerability parameters in this study focuses on modified environmental vulnerability such as land use, slope inclination, rainfall, soil type, geology, location height and river buffer. each of the parameters is rated for weighing and classification based on magnitude of effect on flood. the following are weighing and scoring of flood vulnerability parameter. 2.3.1 land use classification of land use is based on indonesian national standardisation agency no. 7645/2010 with modification based on scale of 1:50,000 – 1:25,000 (sni, 2010: 13-28). previously, these data were tested for accuracy using confuse matrix method. land use is classified into five criteria with the highest score of 15 and lowest score of 3. table 1. weighing and scoring of land use land use value weight score reservoir, river, swamp, open land, water body, pond, freshwater pond 5 3 15 settlement, industry, mixed plantation, pier, port, field 4 12 agriculture, irrigation fields, rainfed rice fields, yards, airports 3 9 farm / moor, plantation, shrub, grass / empty land, graveyard 2 6 production forest, protection forest 1 3 52 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 2.3.2 slope inclination classification of slope inclination is based on social forestry and river flow zone management development-general director’s decree no. p. 3/v-set/2013 on river flow zone. slope inclination is classified into five criteria, namely: flat, sloped, waved, steep, very steep. the highest score is 25 and lowest score is 5. table 2. weighing and scoring of slope inclination slope inclination (%) criteria value weight score 0 – 8 flat 5 5 25 >8-15 sloped 4 20 >15-25 waved 3 15 >25-40 steep 2 10 >40 very steep 1 5 2.3.3 rainfall data of rainfall are based on average rain/year for 14 years. analysis used was inverse distance weighted (idw) interpolation. classification of rainfall are based on social forestry and river flow zone management development-general director’s decree no. p. 3/vset/2013 on river flow zone characteristic identification guidance. data of rainfall are classified into 5 criteria, namely: low, rather low, medium, high and very high. highest score is 20 and lowest score is 4. table 3. weighing and scoring of rainfall rainfall (mm/year) value weight score 1500-2000 1 4 4 >2000-2500 2 8 >2500-3000 3 12 >3000-3500 4 16 >3500-4000 5 20 2.3.4 soil type classification of soil type is based on classification system issued by modified farming land resource research & development-big hall head (subardja, ritung, anda, suryani & subandiono, 2014: 12-19). soil type consists of grumosol, mediterranean, latosol, kambisol & alluvial, regosol. highest score is 10 and lowest score is 2. 53 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 table 4. weighing and scoring of soil type soil type value weight score grumosol 5 2 10 mediterranean 4 8 latosol 3 6 kambisol /alluvial 2 4 regosol 1 2 2.3.5 geology rating of geology refers to sigit and paimin. condition of geology consists of andesite, breccias, limestone & sandstone, sediment rock mountain & deposit, conglomerate, colluvium, alluvial (sigit, 2016; paimin et al., 2010:). the highest score is 15 and lowest score is 3. table 5. weighing and scoring of geology geology value weight score andesite 5 3 15 breccias 4 12 limestone / sandstone 3 9 sediment rock mountain & deposit, conglomerate, 2 6 colluvium, alluvial 1 3 2.3.6 location height location height is classified into 5 criteria, namely: low, rather low, medium, high, and very high (ariyora et al., 2015). the highest score is 20 and lowest score is 4. table 6. weighing and scoring of location height location height (m) value weight score < 12 5 4 20 >12-50 3 12 >50-75 2 8 >75-100 1 4 >100 1 4 2.3.7 river buffer river buffer is classified into three distances, namely: 25 meters, 50 meters and 100 meters. the highest score is 25 and the lowest score is 5. 54 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 table 7. weighing and scoring of river buffer distance (m) criteria value weight score 0 – 25 close 5 5 25 >25-100 medium 3 15 >100-500 far 1 5 the collected data were then quantified in parameters of the highest and lowest score or in flood vulnerability variable, which would be used further to find interval scores to classify flood vulnerability levels. table 8. quantification of highest score and lowest score variable highest score lowest score land use 15 3 slope inclination 25 5 rainfall 20 4 soil type 10 2 geology 15 3 location height 20 4 river buffer 25 5 total 130 26 results of the highest score addition and lowest score of a flood vulnerability variable was thencalculated intervally as manuals of a flood vulnerability level classification. vulnerability level was classified into three classes. quantification of interval class classification was done by the following equation (hermon, 2012:). i = (c-b)/k (1) where i = class interval distance, c = total highest score, b = total lowest score and k = desirable class. desirable class is classified into three classes, namely, high, medium and low. obtainable interval is 35. table 9. classification of flood vulnerability class class interval vulnerability score i high >96-130 ii medium >61-96 iii low 26-61 55 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 processing of data used gis software, arcgis 10.3.1 with research flowchart (see the following flowchart) figure 2. flowchart of research 56 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 3. results and discussion 3.1 parameters of flood vulnerability gajah wong sub watershed consists of 13 types of land-uses dominated by residences, wet fields and yards. the wider portion of land-uses are residences and irrigated fields, namely, 3,562.75 ha and 1,000.56 ha. the lowest land-uses are lakes/dams and conserved forests, reaching less than 1% of total area of gajah wong sub watershed. the condition of slope inclination in sub gajah wong watershed was dominated by plain criteria with slope inclination interval of 0 – 8% having area of 4933.33 ha. therefore, this conditionis categorised into high vulnerability because it becomes overflow target zone of rain water from highlands. meanwhile, the sloped and waved criteria have very little portion, i.e. less than 0.1%. data of rainfall were collected from dadapan gununganyar observation post, ngaglik observation post, sonayan observation post, maguwoharjo observation post/santan observation post, and sda potorono observation post, where these were distributed to some sub-districts. the results of interpolation indicated that distribution of average rainfall would tend to be low in direction of south and increase in northern direction leading to merapi mount. dadapan gununganyar observation post with averagely high rainfall reached 3,020 mm/year. while, the lowest rainfall was recorded in observation post of sda potorono, reaching 1873 mm/year, distributed to southern parts of gajah wong sub watershed. soil type in gajah wong sub watershed only consisted of regosol and kambisol. entirely, gajah wong sub watershed was dominated by regosol soil type distributed to upstream zones of merapi mount zone directing to south, consisting of all yogyakarta city zones and ending in downstream segment zones of gajah wong sub watershed, including pleret sub-district. while, kambisol soil type was distributed to eastern and western zones of sleman district, and covering bantul district. geological condition of gajah wong sub watershed was more dominated by rocks as a result of volcano mount deposits (qmi), nearly reaching 99% of total area of gajah wong sub watershed, and less structured by results of old volcano mount deposits (qmo) located near merapi mount. gajah wong sub watershed location height was sufficiently varied ranging from > 12 m² to > 100 m². the location height of more than 100 m² has the highest area reaching 61.94% of total area of watershed. while height > 12 – 50 m² has the lowest area reaching 0.51%. based on the results of river buffer analysis, 44.64% of the area has a distance from river of 500 m², 9.12% area has 100 m² distance from the river.. while zonal areas consisting 57 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 of the distance of 25 m² from river has area of only 2.30%. therefore, the farther the distance from river, thewider the coverage. figure 3. map of land-uses in gajah wong sub watershed 58 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 3.2 flood vulnerability all parameters of flood vulnerability were analysed by overlay to gain end scores aiming at determining vulnerability and distribution intervals. flood vulnerability intervals are more dominated by medium, low and high intervals of flood vulnerability occupy smaller portion. low vulnerability has area of 338.34 ha, reaching 6.86% and medium vulnerability has area of 4,595.62 ha, reaching 93.13% and high vulnerability only has 0.76 has, reaching 0.02%. these cases were caused by data of ecologic vulnerability parameters of gajah wong sub watershed, having less varying scores and criteria, such as, data of slope inclination, soil type, geology and location height. therefore, these were dominated by medium vulnerability criteria. figure 4. percentage of flood vulnerability intervals the results of analysis indicate that distribution of low flood vulnerability intervals seemed random, covering all administrative areas of gajah wong sub watershed, having smaller area than medium flood vulnerability intervals. low flood vulnerability intervals were dominated by sub-district of banguntapan which is the ishoyet zone of idw interpolation for rainfall data. the medium flood vulnerability intervals were more dominated by all zones of gajah wong sub watershed starting from upstream zone to downstream zone. meanwhile, the high flood vulnerability intervals were distributed to pleret sub-district being zone of river buffer analysis results in distance from 0 to 25 m² and in location height scope ranging from >12 to 50 m². 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00% low medium high 59 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 the result of flood susceptibility mapping above is obtained from an overlay analysis of attribute data of flood susceptibility parameters. those attribute data consist of land use, slope tilt, rainfall, soil type, geology, altitude, and river buffer. the utilisationof those parameters is in accordance with the provisions of the analysis of bnpb regulation no 12 of 2012 which has been modified. figure 5. map of flood vulnerability in sub watershed gajah wong 60 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 in general, those analysis result shows that middle level of susceptibility is more dominating while the high level of susceptibility is only about the meeting area of the gajah wong river and opak river. this condition is affected by the existence of mount merapi and the slope tilt so that rainwater runoff tends to dominate to the southward towards the downstream area. in this case, the flood tends to be dominated by submission flood. the middle and the downstream area are more impacted so that the water quality in the downstream is stained as the case in umbulharjo sub-district which was marked with the increasing of e.coli bacteria parameter (winata & haryanto, 2013). to date, the slums that are susceptible to flooding are still found along the gajah wong river because they live in the lowland and it is close to the river (ropingi, 2004). the flood may hit the residential area around papringan village, catur tunggal. the rainfall area also shows the significant influence such as in the banguntapan area which has a low average of rainfall. to date, based on the result of the observation, the government only issued the stroke policy in form of increasing and broadening embankment and also building the green open space to prevent the flood from hitting the residential area (rachmawati & budiarti, 2017). other mitigation efforts had also been implemented even though it was not yet optimum. the preventive action is needed to decrease the futureimpacts. flood mitigation and not – structurally (heryanti & kingma, 2012) through the organization empowerment and the local disaster communities such as gajah wong care community, pokdarwis need to be maximised in terms of the budget and coordination (ardiansyah, 2018) especially the people in the riverbank. therefoe, people can adapt such as with the flood-like, the higher house, the boat owning, etc. (thanvisitthpon, 2017). the synchronisation and synergy are needed by the local government policymakers because the true problem of flooding is complex and involves various aspects of the environment, social, legal, economic and cultural (kodoatie, 2014). this study has some limitations, hence it is necessary to add and update data, such as data of rainfall that only consists of rain average during 14 years, at least 20 to 30 years. other disadvantages such as land use, slope of mountain, land type geology and height of location are data from 2016. therefore, it should be updated to at least last year. dem data used to make a map of location height is only sourced from contour interpolation, this data should be obtained through interpolation of height point based on the results of a direct field survey. analysis of river buffer has also a weakness related to a strong generalisation. 61 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 analysis of buffer should be a buffer of vulnerability map issued by related institutions, however, limited availability of data is one of the obstacles in this study. people residing in side of gajah wong river need understanding on mitigation and readiness to deal with flood. flood occurring annually will result in physical damages. physical development is flood resistance dam, groundsill and dam needs checking to anticipatethenext flood disaster. care for keeping and maintaining rivers is also necessary to create clean and good river zone. urban flooding can be effectively analysed using buffer analysis (lyu et al., 2018). city centers are generally the areas with the highest flood hazard with the main parameters of land use (abebe et al., 2018). poverty level in an area affects flood vulnerability because it is related to the mindset and land ownership (szewrański et al., 2018). the quality of buildings in urban areas affects flood vulnerability because it is associated with disaster risk reduction facilities in each house (darabi et al., 2019). flood vulnerability is related to the previous history of flooding in the nearest area and to consider the similarity of geographical characteristics of the region (wang et al., 2019). this study differs from the previous ones in that it involves analyses relating to quarterly volcanic products and the influence of karst areas in the downstream watershed. the results of previous studies focused on land use, human behavior, and aspects of landform. this study can be used to analyse other risks, hazards, and mitigation of flood in gajah wong sub watershed, aiming at minimising the scales of the next damage results by implementing structural and non-structuralmitigation activities . 4. conclusion flood vulnerability level in gajah wong sub watershed consisted of three intervals, namely: high, medium, and low flood vulnerability intervals. the high flood vulnerability interval covered an area of 0.76 ha (0.02%). the medium flood vulnerability interval covered an area of 4595.62 ha (93.13%). the low flood vulnerability interval covered an area of 338.34 ha (6.86%). the medium flood vulnerability interval was more dominated by distribution to zone of gajah wong sub watershed. the low flood vulnerability interval dominated the sub-district of banguntapan. the high flood vulnerability interval occupied smaller area distributed to pleret sub-district which was an area of river buffer analysis in distance from 0 to 25 m². 62 a.ardiansyah and dyah respati suryo sumunar / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 47-64 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references abebe, y., kabir, g., & tesfamariam, s. 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(2013). “kualitas air tanah di sepanjang kali wong ditinjau dari pola sebaran eschericjia coli (studi kasus kecamatan umbulharjo),” j. fis. ilm., vol. xvii, no. tabel 1, pp. 8–11. felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 90 flash card media utilization to improve student activity and learning outcomes of fauna distribution subtopic in class xi ips i sma xin zhong surabaya felisia ferra ristanti1 and fajar arianto1 1department of educational technology, postgraduate, universitas negeri surabaya, indonesia email: felisia.17070905012@mhs.unesa.ac.id received 18 march 2019/ revised 15 may 2019/ accepted 27 may 2019/ published 1 august 2019 abstract the purpose of research to determine and describe whether the concept of flash card utilization is able to increase students activity students in learning in geography subject. though geography is a very important subject, particularly in determining the ample number of fauna found in indonesia, which is even categorized as an endemic fauna. in addition, the manner in delivering subtopic which is considered monotonous by relying solely on reading books and summarizing what they have read are two things that are not surprising. hence, those two facts encourage students not perform geography lessons enthusiastically. considering the problems that occur, therefore i am interested in engaging the learning media "flash card" in delivering subtopic of fauna distributions, especially in indonesia. in each of these flash cards there is information regarding the fauna, starts from the picture, name, location of the distribution area, and animal characteristics. after performing the learning process engaging flash cards, students were divided into several groups and present indonesia map along with regions name in front of the class. then, the teacher would provide some questions related to the fauna characteristics and the groups were asked to answer questions by mentioning names and showing the origin of the fauna asked in the map. during this learning, students will likely compete againts other groups, but happened to be a pleasant circumstance without pressure. and at the end of the chapter, students will take a written test related to fauna distribution subtopic. the final result after applying the media "flash cards" turned out to be succeesful in improving student learning outcomes, especially upon fauna distribution subtopic in indonesia at class xi ips 1 sma xinzhong surabaya. as many as 28 students out of 36 students who did not accomplishminimum standard of 75 points, after engaging the media "flash card" they decreased up to only 3 students who did not meet the minimum criteria. thereby, this result indicates that "flash card" mediautilization helps students to understand properly, embrace the subtopic adequately, and assist students to obtain better grades. keywords: geography subject, flash card, pretest, posttest geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 90-104, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.9968 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 91 1. introduction geography is one of the subjects provided in the high school level and alesson that is plotted as a national exam subject for geography specialization. significant geography lessons are delivered to students in order to assist themin developing and providing knowledge toward everything related to the condition of the earth, namely social, natural, economic, political, and health. hence, students would get insight of these conditions appropriately in term of daily life. but unfortunately, most students are reluctant to learn and examine geography lessons due to broad scope of the subtopics and most of them are quite distant and unreachable into their reach. this encourages students being hesitant inexamining geography lessons, especially fauna distribution in indonesia. subtopic of fauna distributions is assumed to be difficult for students, since some students are required to be able to obtain understanding regarding the names, characteristics, and location of each fauna in indonesia. this will certainly reduce their passion for the nation as part of the effort to preservemotherland assets in the form of fauna variety. based on the issue mentioned above, the teacher is expected to be able to provide the best solution to establish geography lesson to be more enjoyable and beneficial lessons for them. teachers must be able to encourage and motivate students to enjoy geography lessons by providing appropriate and fun media for students, especially subtopic of fauna distribution. by applying the suitable media will likely fostering student learning passion, therefore students will be more understand regarding the subtopic. a solution can be applied is media utilization, namely flashcard. it will help to increase students' interest in learning, as stated by erwin putra permana (2015: 4) argues that the overall interest of studentsusing snake ladder media in cycles i, ii and cycle ii has increased. learning media is a tool that helps teachers to deliver subtopic more easily and effectively, hence students will obtain faster understanding towards subtopic given to them, in this case learning media is a tool for learning aids. one of the media that may support is a picture card/flash card. this factassociates to the research conducted by lailatulmaghfiroh (2013: 14) stating that media engagement in the flashcard learning process is very significant. the average student learning outcomes increased by 11.4, namely from 76.4 in the first cycle to 87.8 in the second cycle. student learning accomplishness also increased by 24.3%, namely from 69.6% in the first cycle to 93.9% in the second cycle. this statement is supported byfitri (2009: 12) which reveals that student learning outcomes increased from cycle i, to cycle ii felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 21 and from cycle ii to cycle iii. the results of the learning process (affective) of the classical average value of the first cycle is 79.86, cycle ii is of 84.19, and the third cycle is 87.64 after picture card media application. therefore, in term of this problem, the researcher conducts a study entitled "flash card media utilization to improve students activity and learning outcomes of fauna distribution subtopic in class xi ips sma xin zhong surabaya.” table 1. list of cycle i pre-test values (before media) no id student student name pre-test (cycle 1) 1 36160342 audrey kowara 72 2 36160344 celine angir 65 3 36160345 celine morgan gemiartha 90 4 36160346 chelseywinardi 44 5 36160347 christopher bertrand 88 6 36160348 felicia catherine kusuma 66 7 36160349 jessica theodora 89 8 36160350 kanayaaudyphwa 65 9 36160351 kayla soewito 54 10 36160352 kent hartono pranoto 86 11 36160353 kevin christoval 68 12 36160354 kevin tjokro 56 13 36160355 leonard minarto karman 68 14 36160356 reynerawstengonia 62 15 36160357 ryan william 67 16 36160358 victoria britney kairupan 88 17 36160359 wirawancipta 67 18 36160360 yessikavania 70 19 36160361 alexander jevanwinarjo 56 20 36160362 angelina karen 85 21 36160363 celine 40 22 36160364 christopher ibrahim 66 23 36160365 evangeline chevonna 77 24 36160366 giovanna jessica karren 85 25 36160367 isabel elginapramana 73 26 36160368 james wijaya 78 27 36160369 javier wibowo 53 28 36160370 justin clement leonard 64 29 36160371 laeticiamcdonnelylijiazeng 82 30 36160372 leonard chandra 67 31 36160373 lysiavalentinagani 65 32 36160374 michelle stephanie wijaya 70 92 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 22 33 36160375 roger keijikurniawan 67 34 36160376 sabrina vanessa pradibta 60 35 36160377 steven winner faith 40 36 36160378 vicky jonodihardjo 60 not fullfill yet complete the purpose of research to determine and describe whether the concept of flash card utilization is able to increase students activity students in learning in geography subject, especially 11st grade ips 1 students of sma xin zhong surabaya and to determine and describe whether the concept of flashcardutilization is able to improve student learning outcomes in geography subject, especially 11st grade ips 1 students of sma xin zhong surabaya. 2. the methods 2.1 subject this study engages classroom action research. the subjects of the study were 36 students of ips xi ips i sma xin zhong surabaya. the subject selection was considering average grade level of geography subject the xi ips 1 between two other classes. 2.2 data source this study engages primary data sources, which are directly taken in the field (class). 2.3 data collection technique data collection technique engaged in this study is observation towards the students’ score of fauna distributions subtopic using the media "flash card.” this amis to determine the development of students' understanding within subtopic through the provision of written tests. the test was given 2 (two) times at the beginning of the meeting (pretest) and after the media application of "flash cards" (posttest). 2.4 place and learning schedule a. place: research wasconducted in sma xin zhong surabaya b. schedule: learning wasperformed during geographic and gradual subjects. 93 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 23 table 2. place and learning schedule no. date time cycle 1 monday, october 8, 2018 3-4 i 2 monday, october 29, 2018 3-4 ii 3. results and discussion 3.1 respondents' initial conditions the condition of the research subjects prior to the treatment/treatment was as follows: a. students experience learning difficulties, especially in understanding the concept of learning. this is indicated by students ability to answer questions given by teacher during learning process was relatively low. b. the ability to obtain basic competencies that have not been satisfied. this shows that the teaching conditions established by teachers were less interested for students which affected learning oucomes. there was few teaching techniques performed by the teacher tend to maintain classical method. it affects students’ interest to learn. c. tasks completed by students could notmeet the factualmatter of the task. this shows that the students level abilitywas still relatively low, because both the conditions of student interest and the learning process undertaken by the teacher wererelated upon actual circumastanceand students conditions. d. the results of student learning tests are relatively low. this is showed by the results of learning outcomes achievements which that were not meet the expected minimum standard of 75. 3.2 description of cycle a. cycle i 1) planning arranging learning planning (syllabus and lesson plan/rpp) identifying learning resources providing facilities needed preparing the matter of the pretest 94 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 24 2) action initial activities: student perceptions of the subtopic were to be discussed, by asking what they had known about the definition of fauna, and trying to identify the kinds of fauna in the surrounding environment, then conveying the learning objectives. core activities: teacher explained the outline of fauna distribution subtopic in indonesia, then providedquestions about the subtopic that has been delivered closing activity: teacher performed the pretest 3) observation table 3. results of students observations and geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya cycle i information cycle i the average percentage of students activity 72.79 the average percentage of students result 68.64 the graph of students observations and learning outcomes in the first cycle are presented as follows: figure 1. graph of students observation results and geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya on cycle i 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 cycle 1 95 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 24 2) action initial activities: student perceptions of the subtopic were to be discussed, by asking what they had known about the definition of fauna, and trying to identify the kinds of fauna in the surrounding environment, then conveying the learning objectives. core activities: teacher explained the outline of fauna distribution subtopic in indonesia, then providedquestions about the subtopic that has been delivered closing activity: teacher performed the pretest 3) observation table 3. results of students observations and geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya cycle i information cycle i the average percentage of students activity 72.79 the average percentage of students result 68.64 the graph of students observations and learning outcomes in the first cycle are presented as follows: figure 1. graph of students observation results and geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya on cycle i student activity 95 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 24 2) action initial activities: student perceptions of the subtopic were to be discussed, by asking what they had known about the definition of fauna, and trying to identify the kinds of fauna in the surrounding environment, then conveying the learning objectives. core activities: teacher explained the outline of fauna distribution subtopic in indonesia, then providedquestions about the subtopic that has been delivered closing activity: teacher performed the pretest 3) observation table 3. results of students observations and geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya cycle i information cycle i the average percentage of students activity 72.79 the average percentage of students result 68.64 the graph of students observations and learning outcomes in the first cycle are presented as follows: figure 1. graph of students observation results and geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya on cycle i result 95 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 25 4) reflection learning in the first cycle was considered insufficient which was indicated through the number of students who have not met the minimum criteria. b. cycle ii 1) planning arranging learning plans (sylabus and rpp) identifying learning resources determining measures must be taken to examine the subtopic preparing the means needed, in this case the learning media "flash card" preparing the posttest questions 2) action initial activity: apperception of students by repeating the subtopic that was discussed last week, by asking what was known about the meaning of fauna. and then attempting to identify the kinds of fauna that remains in the surroundings and some contents that were discussed last week, then conveying the learning objectives . 3) core activities students were divided into 6 groups, the position of each group surrounds the board which had a map of indonesia, teacher provided learning media "flash cards" containing subtopic of the fauna distribution in indonesia and prepared maps of indonesia in front of the class along with map descriptions (city names, etc.) each group was given as many as 20 flash cards that proposed information regarding fauna in indonesia (pictures, names, locations of distribution areas, and animal characteristics), and learn each item in a group teacher delivered questions to students about the location of the fauna distribution area by pointing directly to the map, with the fastest system students would get an additional point last, a question and answer session was conducted regarding the subtopic that has been delivered 4) closing activity: teacher carried out the posttest 5) observation 96 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 26 the results of students activities observation and evaluation of the learning outcomes in the second cycle can be seen in the following table table 4. results of students observation and students geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya cycle ii information cycle ii the average percentage of students activity 83.13 the average percentage of students result 79.33 then the results are presented in the form of graph. the results of students observation and students learning outcomes in the second cycle can be seen below; figure 2. graph of students observation and students learning outcomes of geography subject in sma xin zhong surabaya cycle ii questionnaires propose 10 statement items displaying students responses to the learning models using mind mapping methods or concept maps. the statement items within the questionnaire are as follows: 1. geography is attractive and saturating. 2. i get excited during learning process by engaging a learning model with mind mapping methods or concept maps. 3. the classroom atmosphere is more composed and more conducive/supports the learning process. 4. makes it easier for me to understand subject matter and i feel better at mastering geography. 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 cycl e 2 97 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 26 the results of students activities observation and evaluation of the learning outcomes in the second cycle can be seen in the following table table 4. results of students observation and students geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya cycle ii information cycle ii the average percentage of students activity 83.13 the average percentage of students result 79.33 then the results are presented in the form of graph. the results of students observation and students learning outcomes in the second cycle can be seen below; figure 2. graph of students observation and students learning outcomes of geography subject in sma xin zhong surabaya cycle ii questionnaires propose 10 statement items displaying students responses to the learning models using mind mapping methods or concept maps. the statement items within the questionnaire are as follows: 1. geography is attractive and saturating. 2. i get excited during learning process by engaging a learning model with mind mapping methods or concept maps. 3. the classroom atmosphere is more composed and more conducive/supports the learning process. 4. makes it easier for me to understand subject matter and i feel better at mastering geography. student activity result 97 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 26 the results of students activities observation and evaluation of the learning outcomes in the second cycle can be seen in the following table table 4. results of students observation and students geography learning outcomes of sma xin zhong surabaya cycle ii information cycle ii the average percentage of students activity 83.13 the average percentage of students result 79.33 then the results are presented in the form of graph. the results of students observation and students learning outcomes in the second cycle can be seen below; figure 2. graph of students observation and students learning outcomes of geography subject in sma xin zhong surabaya cycle ii questionnaires propose 10 statement items displaying students responses to the learning models using mind mapping methods or concept maps. the statement items within the questionnaire are as follows: 1. geography is attractive and saturating. 2. i get excited during learning process by engaging a learning model with mind mapping methods or concept maps. 3. the classroom atmosphere is more composed and more conducive/supports the learning process. 4. makes it easier for me to understand subject matter and i feel better at mastering geography. result 97 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 27 5. growing creativity and thinking power in students. 6. i become more courageous in expressing opinions or answers 7. i like to do assignments from the teacher. 8. students are active in groups and work together in answering quizzes 9. i am pleased to work on geography questions. 10. with this method my geography score has increased. furthermore, to be clearer and easier in identifying students' responses to each student response, there are categories.which are strongly agree (ss), agree (s), disagree (ts), and strongly disagree (sts), these categorieswere analyzed descriptively in terms of percentages for each category. the form of a percentage chart for each category of students' responses questionnaire to the learning model with the flash card can be seen in the following picture: figure 3. graph percentage of each category towards student responses to the learning model engaging the flash card. 3.3 reflection the results obtained during the implementation of the second cycle are presented below; (1) improvement of the student learning outcomes basedon student competency analysis test values indicates the percentage of the average value of 68.64% in the first cycle and 79.27% in the second cycle with completeness level of the first cycle of 79.17% and cycle ii amounting to 97.8%. the percentage of average value and class accomplishment has increased by more than 10%. the number of students who completed, compared to the first cycle result, students learning outcomes were increased in the second cycle.whereas, in the 0 20 40 60 80 ss s 98 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 27 5. growing creativity and thinking power in students. 6. i become more courageous in expressing opinions or answers 7. i like to do assignments from the teacher. 8. students are active in groups and work together in answering quizzes 9. i am pleased to work on geography questions. 10. with this method my geography score has increased. furthermore, to be clearer and easier in identifying students' responses to each student response, there are categories.which are strongly agree (ss), agree (s), disagree (ts), and strongly disagree (sts), these categorieswere analyzed descriptively in terms of percentages for each category. the form of a percentage chart for each category of students' responses questionnaire to the learning model with the flash card can be seen in the following picture: figure 3. graph percentage of each category towards student responses to the learning model engaging the flash card. 3.3 reflection the results obtained during the implementation of the second cycle are presented below; (1) improvement of the student learning outcomes basedon student competency analysis test values indicates the percentage of the average value of 68.64% in the first cycle and 79.27% in the second cycle with completeness level of the first cycle of 79.17% and cycle ii amounting to 97.8%. the percentage of average value and class accomplishment has increased by more than 10%. the number of students who completed, compared to the first cycle result, students learning outcomes were increased in the second cycle.whereas, in the s ts sts respon category 98 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 27 5. growing creativity and thinking power in students. 6. i become more courageous in expressing opinions or answers 7. i like to do assignments from the teacher. 8. students are active in groups and work together in answering quizzes 9. i am pleased to work on geography questions. 10. with this method my geography score has increased. furthermore, to be clearer and easier in identifying students' responses to each student response, there are categories.which are strongly agree (ss), agree (s), disagree (ts), and strongly disagree (sts), these categorieswere analyzed descriptively in terms of percentages for each category. the form of a percentage chart for each category of students' responses questionnaire to the learning model with the flash card can be seen in the following picture: figure 3. graph percentage of each category towards student responses to the learning model engaging the flash card. 3.3 reflection the results obtained during the implementation of the second cycle are presented below; (1) improvement of the student learning outcomes basedon student competency analysis test values indicates the percentage of the average value of 68.64% in the first cycle and 79.27% in the second cycle with completeness level of the first cycle of 79.17% and cycle ii amounting to 97.8%. the percentage of average value and class accomplishment has increased by more than 10%. the number of students who completed, compared to the first cycle result, students learning outcomes were increased in the second cycle.whereas, in the 98 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 28 second cycle it was only asingle student was considereduncomplete. classical accomplishment has met the predetermined indicator of 80% and, (2) the most responses of students to learning are agree (s) with a percentage of 61.3%, strongly agree (ss) 28.7%, disagree (ts) 8.9%, and strongly disagree (sts) 1, 1%. the number of percentages strongly agree and agree gain 90% largercompareto the disagree and strongly disagree category. students activities and learning outcomes improvement of class xi ips 1 sma xin zhong surabaya in the form of tables and graphs can be observed as follows: table 5. students activity and learning outcomes improvement of class xi ips 1 sma xin zhong surabaya. information cycle i cycle ii the average prosentase of student activity 72.79 83.13 the average prosentase of student result 68.64 79.33 graphical form of students activity and learning outcomes improvement can be seen as follows: figure 4. graphical form of students activity and learning outcomes improvement the learning model with the flash card method allows students to develop more active manner in problem solving, the accuracy of scientific thinking, interacting in groups, and understanding the material through direct demonstration. based on observational data analysis in the first cycle, the closing section was not implemented due to the lack of learning by using the flash card. for this reason, implementation planning for flash card contains questions and answers that must be solved well in the second cycle. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 cycle 1 99 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 28 second cycle it was only asingle student was considereduncomplete. classical accomplishment has met the predetermined indicator of 80% and, (2) the most responses of students to learning are agree (s) with a percentage of 61.3%, strongly agree (ss) 28.7%, disagree (ts) 8.9%, and strongly disagree (sts) 1, 1%. the number of percentages strongly agree and agree gain 90% largercompareto the disagree and strongly disagree category. students activities and learning outcomes improvement of class xi ips 1 sma xin zhong surabaya in the form of tables and graphs can be observed as follows: table 5. students activity and learning outcomes improvement of class xi ips 1 sma xin zhong surabaya. information cycle i cycle ii the average prosentase of student activity 72.79 83.13 the average prosentase of student result 68.64 79.33 graphical form of students activity and learning outcomes improvement can be seen as follows: figure 4. graphical form of students activity and learning outcomes improvement the learning model with the flash card method allows students to develop more active manner in problem solving, the accuracy of scientific thinking, interacting in groups, and understanding the material through direct demonstration. based on observational data analysis in the first cycle, the closing section was not implemented due to the lack of learning by using the flash card. for this reason, implementation planning for flash card contains questions and answers that must be solved well in the second cycle. cycle 1 cycle 2 student activity result 99 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 28 second cycle it was only asingle student was considereduncomplete. classical accomplishment has met the predetermined indicator of 80% and, (2) the most responses of students to learning are agree (s) with a percentage of 61.3%, strongly agree (ss) 28.7%, disagree (ts) 8.9%, and strongly disagree (sts) 1, 1%. the number of percentages strongly agree and agree gain 90% largercompareto the disagree and strongly disagree category. students activities and learning outcomes improvement of class xi ips 1 sma xin zhong surabaya in the form of tables and graphs can be observed as follows: table 5. students activity and learning outcomes improvement of class xi ips 1 sma xin zhong surabaya. information cycle i cycle ii the average prosentase of student activity 72.79 83.13 the average prosentase of student result 68.64 79.33 graphical form of students activity and learning outcomes improvement can be seen as follows: figure 4. graphical form of students activity and learning outcomes improvement the learning model with the flash card method allows students to develop more active manner in problem solving, the accuracy of scientific thinking, interacting in groups, and understanding the material through direct demonstration. based on observational data analysis in the first cycle, the closing section was not implemented due to the lack of learning by using the flash card. for this reason, implementation planning for flash card contains questions and answers that must be solved well in the second cycle. student activity 99 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 29 there is still insufficient of shared thinking activities in the first cycle, possibly because students were not quite familiar towards learning which emphasizes the importance of interacting, convincing others, and equating perceptions. another reason is the deficiency of teacher guidance in term of nurturing the significant cooperative working (social skills) within groups. the teacher only guided the demonstration and answers the quiz. learning cycle results of the second cycle performs suitable results better than cycle i. intensive guidance both in terms of analyzing and answering each question in the flash card in groups and teaching social skills (by reminding them to think together), encouraging activities to demonstrate, think cooperatively (interact, convincing each member, equating perceptions), and answering questions quite prominently. these activities are notable points in student activities. thereby, student activities criteria increases from suitable criteria in the first cycle to be very suitable in cycle ii. these facts imply that students performance have been above the specified performance indicator which is suitable. in addition, the positive impact is student activity and student learning outcomes have improved. the incompleteness of student learning outcomes in cycle i has to do with students who performed alone in learning flash cards or answer questions that were less heterogeneous and grouped. thereby, there are groups of some students who were considered weaker than excellent students. forms of questions were designed by researchers based on demonstrations relating to the concept, motivating students to concentrate on embracing the demonstration and listening to the questions.thus, students tend to not making mistake in answering and also spurring students to think scientifically on the demonstrations presented. hence, students were able to answer quiz questions in groups, later find out the answer through evidence of the demonstration that was displayed, then students' understanding upon material being taught was increasing. students understanding improvement has a direct effect on students' ability to work on competency test questions given, thus that it would possibly improve student learning outcomes. the students' incompleteness in the first cycle was encouraged by the fact which was students inability to understand and not yet accustomed to engage learning model using flash card, thereby they did not master the material taught. in cycle ii students became more enthusiastic about learning, therefore there is an increase of students activities and students learning outcomes which also inclineslearning accomplishment level. improvement occurs towards student activities and student learning outcomes from cycle i to cycle ii. the questionnaire used to determine students' responses to the learning model is flash card method which was disseminated to each student after the learning activity concept map 100 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 30 cycle ii was carried out. according to the responses given by students, it can be concluded that the learning performance is rather new, students feel pleased to do lessons, quizzes are easier to understand, motivate to do tasks, feel ready to answer questions, more focus and think critically, and be more passionate. this shows that physics learning using the flash card learning model receives a positive response from students. during teaching and learning activities, learning outcomes obtained by students can be influenced by the presence of the learning media. gagne & ely (in arsyad, 2002 : 83) argue that the media if defined broadly are human, material, or events that build conditions, which causes students to be able to obtain knowledge, skills, or attitudes. media has a significant role in building students' understanding and knowledge more effectively and efficiently. one medium that can be used in studying fauna diversity material is a picture card. picture cards, or better known as flash cards, are small cards that display images, text, or symbol signs that remind or guide students to something related to that image (arsyad, 2009 : 75). according to the indonesian dictionary, cards are thick rectangular paper for various purposes. cards are flat-field graphic media that comprise certain writings, images, and symbols. in term of learning media, cards can be made in various shapes and models. according to mugiyanto (2007:57) cards include props that works to facilitate students in understanding a concept, thereby achievement results can be better, learning is more enjoyable and more effective.the benefits of picture card media in instructional processes according to rohani (1997: 76) are "the delivery and explanation of information, messages, ideas and so on without significant use of the verbal languages, but it could provide more impression". based on the findings and reflections results which can be analyzed and concluded by the author, it is necessary to reflect themselves to know firsthand the success of using the flash card learning media, as indicated by an increase in learning outcomes within testpriorto media usage (cycle i) and test following media use ( cycle ii). this results associate to the research studytittled‘influence of drawing card media on student learning outcomes in mushroom materials in high school’ by windaastuti, lailifitriyeni, ekaaryati (2013:23) there are differences in learning outcomes of students taught using pictorial card media and taught without using media picture cards on mushroom material in class x of sma negeri 1 ketapang. the decent learning outcomes of students in the experimental class after picture card media utilization that possesses images and mushroom material, these images represent the concepts of mushrooms according to the learning objectives. the argument of students failure 101 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 31 in achieving suitable grades in accordance with the minimum criteria,since students have not been able to receive the material properly, enjoy less, and were not ready to learn material that has never been obtained before. while the thing that makes the success of students in the second cycle (after the use of media) is the media engagement. it gave students the opportunity to discuss with group friends to establish answers to the questions from the flash card. in addition, students were ablelearn while competing with friends from other groups in examining answers. but, despite competing with friends between other groups, they could still learn casually and there was no pressure. there were 26 students who did not meet the minimum criteria of 36 students in total of the first cycle (before media use), all students could succeed well in increasing the learning value in the second cycle test after learning process engaging the flash card media. based on the pretest conducted in the second cycle, the learning outcomes of students who obtained under the 75 (minimum criteria) were only 3 students from 36 students in a single class, and as many as 33 students had scored above the 75 (minimum criteria). 4. conclusion the provision of learning media in term of delivery of subtopic in effective learning to improve children's learning outcomes and understanding is increasing. particularly due tostudents behavior tend to be enthusiastic when delivering subtopic in less monotonous according the teacher explains and everything is in the book only, but there should be some variations. a competitive but not pressing learning atmosphere and tends to be comfortable circumstance are two things that generate improvement of students' enthusiasm in taking lessons and understanding them. students in general will be very interested and willing to try if only the subtopic taught is given in a different way and not in monotonous way. discussion activities with group by giving opinions were also effective in completing students' knowledge, hence the right and expected conclusions were obtained. in addition, the bound between teachers and students themselves was also able to provide an injection of enthusiasm and motivation for students to want to learn. teacher must be creative in delivering subtopic. there is a compulsory for variations in the media used to attract students' enthusiasm in taking lessons. teacher should provide opportunities for students to participate as much as possible in the acquisition of value. despite getting a value, students will indirectly add to the understanding of what they have asked and answered. according to the study result, it can be 102 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 32 concluded that the flash card method is capable in improving geography learning outcomes in fauna disttibution topic for students of class xi ips 1 sma xinzhong surabaya. the daily repetition rate before the action is 55.71 rose to 68.64 in the first cycle and 79.33 in the second cycle. the average percentage of student activity before threatment is 60.43 increases to 72.79 in cycle i and 83.13 in cycle ii. references agung, a.a.gede. (1998). pengantar evaluasi pendidikan. singaraja: stkip singaraja. anggarwati, a. (2014). pengaruh make a match berbantuan media kartu gambar terhadap hasil belajar ips sd.jurnal (diterbitkan).universitas pendidikan ganesha astuti,w.(2013). pengaruh media kartu bergambar terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi jamur di sma.jurnal (diterbitkan). untan. dimyati & mudjiono. (2006). hakikat belajar dan pembelajaran..jakarta: rineka cipta depdikbud.(1995). metodik khusus pengajaran ips di sekolahdasar. jakarta: depdikbud handayani, f.(2009). cooperative learning type team game tournament (tgt) to increase the learning outcome of the student of class vii at smp negeri 1 purwodadipasuruan to consept kinds of form the earth surface. thesis, geography education departement. post graduate program, state university of malang hidayat, m, et al. (2008). development of geography education in elementary schools. jakarta: ministry of national education. joni. (1984). teaching and learning strategies. jakarta: ministry of education and culture maghfiroh, (2013).penggunaan media flashcard untukmeningkatkanhasilbelajar ips padapembelajarantematik di sekolahdasar.surabaya : pgsd unesa ministry of education and culture.(1995). special methodology for geography teaching in elementary schools. jakarta: ministry of education and culture mugiyanto.(2007). penggunaan kartu konsep untuk meningkatkan hasil pembelajaran sejarah.onlineat.http://jurnaljpi.wordpress.com/2007/ 11/14/mugiyanto.(2 januari 2009). noor, j. (2010). metodelogi penelitian. jakarta: kencanaprenada media group. permana.(2015). penerapan pembelajaran ips dengan media ular tangga untuk meningkatkan minat belajar siswa. kediri: universitas nusantara pgri kediri. 103 felisia ferra ristanti and fajar arianto /geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 90-104 33 rohani, a. (1997). media instruksional edukatif. jakarta: rineka cipta. 104 165 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.29372 research article the carrying capacity analysis of rice plants agriculture to fulfill food needs in pati regency mitha fitria anggraini*, eva banowati department of geography, faculty of social sciences, universitas negeri semarang, sekaran, gunungpati district, semarang city, 50229, indonesia *corresponding author, e-mail address : mithafitria15@students.unnes.ac.id 1. introduction carrying capacity is closely related to the balance of supply and demand. availability is generally limited, while demand is unlimited (muta'ali, 2015). the environment, natural resources, and population have a very close relationship in development, which is reflected in the environmental carrying capacity of an area that has an unstable nature. carrying capacity can change due to the influence of technological developments, but that often occurs due to changes in massive population pressure. the development of the agricultural sector, especially rice commodities, is important and strategic because, in addition to meeting food needs, it also provides job opportunities for farmers in rural areas (saparto et.al, 2021). the scarcity or non-fulfillment of rice food needs in the community has an impact on inflation and social turmoil (rohman & maharani, 2017). abstract the fulfillment of food needs is one indicator of community welfare. the calculation of the carrying capacity of food crops is used to determine the extent to which an area meets its food needs. the aims of this study were: (1) to calculate the level of carrying capacity of rice plants in pati regency, (2) to plan land that has the opportunity to be used as a lp2b area, and (3) to find out the maximum population and year in pati regency to meet food needs. the technique of analyzing the carrying capacity of rice plants uses the calculation of the carrying capacity of natural resources and the analysis of determining land that has the potential to become sustainable food cropland using an overlay map analysis with arcgis. the results showed that the value of the rice plant commodity had a carrying capacity value of more than 1, which was 1,371. the results of the mapmaking, the land that has the opportunity to be used as permanent rice fields is 50.635 hectares. the maximum population that can be met by annual rice production is 1.622.356 people. the results of population projections using the geometric method, the maximum year pati regency can be self-sufficient in food is 2040. the fulfillment of sustainable food needs can be realized through monitoring the implementation of the lp2b program so that the conversion rate of agricultural land can be minimized. keywords : carrying capacity; rice plants; food needs article info article history received : 21 january 2022 revised : 7 july 2022 accepted : 5 august 2022 published : 28 august 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 2, august 2022, 165-179 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.29372 mailto:mithafitria15@students.unnes.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 166 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 pati regency is one of the 5 largest contributors to rice production in central java after grobogan, sragen, cilacap, and demak regencies (bps jawa tengah, 2020). in 2020, rice production in pati regency reached 602,806.71 tons from a harvested area of 102,085.94 hectares (bps kabupaten pati, 2020). during the 2015-2019 period, the average rice harvested area increased by 1.75 percent (bps kabupaten pati, 2019). in addition, the average food balance surplus between the production and consumption of pati regency for rice commodities is 237.030,63 tons per year, equivalent to 1.05 percent of the national rice consumption needs (suroso, 2018). pati regency has geographical conditions that support agricultural activities. the agricultural potential in pati regency can be seen from the green land that is still able to support agricultural production optimally. it is recorded that the rice fields area of 56.660,04 hectares or 37.68 percent of the 150.368 hectares of the total area (bps kabupaten pati, 2020). the role of the agricultural sector as a contributor to grdp after the processing/manufacturing industry. food crops are the most widely cultivated plants in addition to meeting the population's consumption, they are also developed as raw materials for regional industries (sitindaon, 2017). agricultural land which is one of the agrarian objects has a strategic and dominant nature. it is said to be strategic because the area of agricultural land is limited from time to time and even tends to decrease, and is dominant because humans from time to time always need agricultural land to increase (pareke, 2020). as the population continues to grow, land use becomes disrupted and is considered to be starting to experience problems. the complexity of the problem from the explosive population increase, the discovery and use of technology, as well as the dynamics of development, have caused land that originally functioned as a planting medium to turn into a multifunctional use (satria et. al, 2018). the population of pati regency continues to grow. in 2019 there were 1.259.590 people and experienced growth in 2020 to 1.324.188 (bps kabupaten pati, 2021). the increase in population has the consequence of increasing food needs but is not accompanied by an increase in land area (mubarokah et.al, 2020). if allowed to continue, it is not impossible if production does not match the needs of the population (kuncoro, 2017). in this study, the minimum physical need of the population is one of the variables used in determining the food needs of the population in pati regency (ministry of health ri, 1981). the limited availability of non-agricultural land for the development of various sectors causes the threat to the existence of paddy fields to increase (muryono & utami, 2020). although the land area does not always affect productivity, it cannot be denied that overall land shrinkage affects food crop production (janti et. al, 2016). development and the direction of political policies that are often oriented towards capitalistic economic growth often ignore the distribution of welfare (handari et al., 2012; kartini, et al. 2017) often at the expense of agricultural land for food whose availability is increasingly limited. this condition can certainly cause a threat to food security (santoso et al, 2017; taufik et al, 2018). many areas that were previously self-sufficient in rice are now importing rice from other regions (fikri et. al, 2021). the existence of increasingly narrow agricultural land will also encourage massive urbanization because in rural areas the agricultural sector is the sector that absorbs the most labor (muta'ali, 2019). in java, a lot of land conversion occurred during the period 1979 to 2013. it was recorded that there were 625,459 (38.43%) or 31,273 ha/year of converted paddy fields in java (apriyanto et.al, 2021). rice fields are the main target in cases of land conversion because agricultural land rent is the lowest compared to the non-agricultural sector (pribadi et al, 2017). good land use must still pay attention to the physical limitations of land because it has different capabilities and characteristics to support its use (duri, 2016). the activity of changing the function of agricultural land to non-agriculture is a natural thing, but of course, this activity must also remain under supervision and of course regulated by the government (dhimas, 2018). 167 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 efforts to suppress the rate of conversion of paddy fields and maintain sustainable food availability, the government made a policy of law no. ri. 41 of 2009 concerning the protection of sustainable food agricultural land (abbreviated lp2b). in addition to law no. 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning also explains the importance of allocating land for food agriculture on an ongoing basis. protection of agricultural land is inseparable from agrarian reform (arnawan & surata, 2019). the law is one of the efforts to overcome the problems of degradation, conversion, and fragmentation of agricultural land due to an increase in population, economic development, and industrialization that have the potential to threaten food security, independence, and sovereignty (prasada & priyanto, 2019). in addition, the policy also aims to regulate the existence of agricultural land so that it remains stable, does not narrow, and is not easily or quickly damaged due to human use (ikhwanto, 2019). the problem that arises is that no policy provides information related to (operational) methods to support the establishment and determination of lp2b (pridasari & muta'ali, 2018). another problem that also arises is the inaccuracy of planning and determining which is in the wrong corridor because some districts place lp2b in the rtrw, whereas lp2b and lcp2b or sustainable food agricultural reserves (lcp2b). must be in the detailed spatial plan (rdtr) (rusono et al, 2015). the policy for the protection of sustainable food agricultural land is carried out by the state as an effort to guarantee the right to food as a human right of every citizen and in the context of realizing selfreliance, resilience, and food sovereignty as well as the welfare of farmers (pitaloka, 2020). the implementation of lp2b in the pati regency is also expected to maintain the existence of agricultural land and food crop production, especially in rice fields. the vigilance of the pati regency government is strengthened through the pati regency regional regulation number 5 of 2011 concerning the pati regency spatial plan for 2010-2030. furthermore, a plan for the establishment of lp2b in pati regency is needed while still paying attention to development by providing space for the development of other sectors. a study related to the balance of resource-based agricultural land and population is important to be able to predict food availability for the population. guaranteed food needs as an indicator of community welfare. analysis of agricultural carrying capacity in the pati regency is used to determine current and future food demand scenarios (sriutomo & christanto, 2015). several studies have discussed the issue of the carrying capacity of agriculture and focused on the problem of the ability of agricultural land or the production of crops. in this study, the researchers tried to combine the two variables so that sustainable results can be obtained. in this study, the researchers tried to conduct a similar study in pati regency. this study aims to determine the extent to which the pati regency can be self-sufficient in food through the calculation of food crop production and land determination for lp2b. so that the objectives of this study are (1) to calculate the level of carrying capacity of rice plants in pati regency, (2) to plan land that has the opportunity to be used as a lp2b area, and (3) to find out the maximum population and year in pati regency to meet food needs. 2. methods the research was conducted in pati regency (figure 1) using a quantitative approach, data collection techniques using the method of observation, and documentation related to the research (figure 2). observation techniques are used to find out how the agricultural conditions in pati regency are and documentation is used to collect the data needed for research. 168 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 figure 1. study area data analysis using 5 steps as follows : a. the calculation of the carrying capacity of rice plants agriculture using eq. 1 (odum, 1967). 𝐷𝐷𝑆𝐷𝐴 = ∑ pi x nini=1 pd x kfm (1) where ddsa is carrying capacity of natural resources (in indonesian called daya dukung sumber daya alam – abbreviated ddsda), pi is commodity production i, ni is commodity selling value i, pd is total population, and kfm is minimum physical need is equal to 2100 calories/capita/day (in indonesian called kebutuhan fisik minimum – abbreviated kfm) (kfm value is calculated in rupiah and each resident is considered the same) 169 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 classification of agricultural carrying capacity of food crops: ddsda < 1 indicates that the carrying capacity of rice plants agriculture is exceeded ddsda > 1 indicates that the carrying capacity of rice plants agriculture is not exceeded b. calculation of the area of agricultural land needed using eq 2 and eq. 3 (sriutomo & christanto, 2015). lp = (pdxkfm)/ni land productivity (2) kl = harvest area harvest land capability(per year) (3) where kl is land requirement (ha), lp is minimum harvest area required (ha), pd is total population, and ni is commodity selling value i. c. the criteria for determining land that has the opportunity to be used as sustainable food agricultural land refers to subroto & susetyo (2016). determination of land for lp2b is done by selecting paddy fields through spatial data using arcgis. then the determination of rice fields according to the lp2b criteria is carried out. the criteria used to determine lp2b are as follows: (1) conformity with the pati regency spatial planning map; (2) it is a wetland agricultural land, both irrigated and rainfed rice fields; (3) land located on a stretch of rice fields with an area of > 5 hectares; (4) have basic infrastructure such as irrigation system and road access; and (5) the suitability of the type of soil suitable for agriculture. d. prediction of maximum population self-sufficiency in food (sriutomo & christanto, 2015) at eq. 4 and eq. 5. pr_ricefield = (ls/lu) x pi (4) where pr_ ricefield : production produced by perpetual rice field plan, ls is eternal rice field area, lu is the current area of rice fields, and pi is current commodity production. pd_m = (pr_ricefield x ni) / kmf (5) where pd_m is maximum population, pr_ricefield is production produced by the perpetual paddy field plan, and ni is commodity selling value i. e. calculation of the geometric population projection for the maximum year of food self-sufficiency referring to (eq. 6) pn = po.(1+r)n (6) r = 1/n.ln(po/pn) 170 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 where pn is population in year n, po is population base year, n is number of year intervals, and r is population growth rate. figure 2. research flowchart 3. results and discussion the problem of food and its sufficiency is a national problem and a global problem as stated in sdg's goal 2, namely eliminating hunger, achieving food security and good nutrition, through the achievement of sustainable agriculture. the targets listed in the sdgs are unresolved targets in the mgds which only increase income and end poverty and hunger (erwandari, 2017). in this study, the results of the analysis were obtained as follows. 3.1 value of carrying capacity of food crops the carrying capacity analysis is carried out with the availability-needs approach which is used to show an area can be self-sufficient or not (kunu, 2020). overall, the carrying capacity of rice plants is 1.371 (table 1). this carrying capacity value shows that pati regency can still meet the food needs of its population. the carrying capacity of high rice plants in pati regency is distributed in 6 subdistricts: pucakwangi, jakenan, sukolilo, jaken, winong, and gabus. the six sub-districts have the calculating the carrying capacity of rice plants in pati regency calculating land area eternal rice calculating the prediction of eternal rice production results calculating predictions number of population and year maximum rice selfsufficiency data collection observation documentation lp2b base map overlay lp2b map 171 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 carrying capacity of rice crops more than 2, in the high carrying capacity classification. indicates having agricultural land and production of rice commodities that can meet regional food needs, and are sold to other regions. the value of high carrying capacity is built by the optimal planting area and harvested area. the existence of the juwana river which crosses three sub-districts, namely jakenan, gabus, and kayen makes the area fertile. table 1. value of rice commodity carrying capacity in pati regency no districts rice plants 1 sukolilo 2.519 2 kayen 1.910 3 tambakromo 1,896 4 winong 2.293 5 pucakwangi 3.206 6 jaken 2.286 7 batangan 1.036 8 juwana 0.426 9 jakenan 2.696 10 pati 0.748 11 gabus 2.079 12 margorejo 1.353 13 gembong 0.270 14 tlogowungu 0.535 15 wedarijaksa 0.418 16 trangkil 0.532 17 margoyoso 0.882 18 gunungwungkal 1.266 19 cluwak 1.013 20 tayu 1.356 21 dukuhseti 0.924 total 1.371 the carrying capacity of the rice crop on a district scale is still fulfilled, but only a few subdistricts can meet the food needs of the population. the uneven distribution of the population is one of the causes of the carrying value that is exceeded in some sub-districts and not exceeded in some other sub-districts. the more people in an area, the higher the need for food. there are 13 sub-districts with a carrying capacity value > 1 and there are 8 sub-districts with a carrying capacity value < 1 (table 2). table 2. carrying capacity of rice plants in pati district no. value districts 1. >-> 1 sukolilo, gabus, kayen, winong, tambakromo, pucakwangi, jaken, jakenan, batangan, margorejo, tayu, cluwak, gunungwungkal. 2. < 1 juwana, tangkil, wedarijaksa, gembong, pati, dukuhseti, margoyoso, tlogowungu. spatially the difference in the carrying capacity of each sub-district in pati regency cannot be separated from the geographical influence of a region (figure 3). differences in soil type, slope, rainfall, 172 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 temperature, and water network affect rice production and population activities. most of the subdistricts located on the coast have low carrying capacity because the population is mostly engaged in fish cultivation and salt farming. in highland areas, such as gembong district and tlogowungu district, the land is mostly used for the cultivation of fruit crops and biopharmaceuticals. planting for food crops is not too extensive and not all types of food crops are suitable for cultivation in highland areas. figure 3. classification map of commodity carrying capacity rice plants in pati regency food availability cannot be separated from the existence of land in producing food (abrori & priyana, 2021). the conversion of agricultural land has a wide impact in various fields, so control efforts are needed to control the rate of conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural uses (andriawan et. al, 2020). the calculation of the minimum harvested area of rice per year is 76,653.28 hectares. until now, pati regency requires a minimum of 38,326.64 hectares of agricultural land in order to be selfsufficient in rice food crops. calculation of the minimum need for paddy fields is used to determine areas that have the potential to be used as sustainable food agricultural land (lp2b). determining potential lp2b areas is based on consideration and suitability of criteria. considerations are made by 173 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 calculating the minimum land requirements needed. this determination aims as a reference in determining the area of lp2b land. the lp2b land area must be wider than the minimum required paddy field area of 38,326.64 hectares. 3.2 mapping of land that is likely to be used as lp2b land or land has a close relationship in agricultural activities (jocom, 2017). the negative impact caused by land conversion is a decrease in production which can interfere with achieving selfsufficiency (wiyanti & purnomo, 2018). with the lp2b policy, it is hoped that each region can meet food needs through agricultural land owned by the region. thus, agricultural land as a natural resource needs to be maintained in development activities (sadali, 2018). making a map of the area plan (figure 4) that has the opportunity to be used as perennial rice fields in pati regency is an area of 50,635 hectares consisting of 49,101 hectares of lp2b and 1,534 hectares of sustainable food agricultural reserves (lcp2b). in addition to lp2b, it is also necessary to determine lcp2b as potential land for lp2b in the future (muryono, 2016). figure 4. lp2b area plan map 174 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 determination of the area of land that has the opportunity to become permanent rice fields is based on the assumption that the land is a stretch of rice fields of at least 5 hectares, in accordance with the regional spatial plan (rtrw) of pati regency, which has basic infrastructure such as a network of roads and rivers, as well as the suitability of soil types for agriculture. the agglomeration element is an additional consideration in determining lp2b. the consideration is based on the fact that the agglomeration makes it easier to monitor and supervise the implementation as well as the facilities needed to protect lp2b. the administrative areas of the sub-district that have extensive agricultural land to support lp2b in pati regency are the sub-districts: sukolilo (6,603 ha), kayen (4,491 ha), and winong (4,868 ha). control of land change needs to be done to maintain the existence of agricultural land so that the food needs of the community can still be met from the area (ragil, 2017). the sub-districts that have not been able to meet the needs of lp2b in pati regency are: juwana, pati, gembong district, tlogowungu district, trangkil district, margoyoso district, gunungwungkal, cluwak, tayu, and dukuhseti (table 3). table 3. lp2b land area of each district in pati regency no. districts total population rice field (ha) explanation bps data lp2b (dpupr) need (calculate) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1. sukolilo 90,270 7,253 6,603 2,612.73 surplus 2. kayen 78,540 4,937 4,491 2,273.22 surplus 3. tambakromo 55,616 2,947 2,716 1,609.72 surplus 4. winong 63,638 4,221 4,868 1,841.91 surplus 5. pucakwangi 47,934 5,023 3,994 1,387.38 surplus 6. jaken 46,174 3,595 3,578 1,336.44 surplus 7. batangan 44,619 2,088 2,051 1,291.43 surplus 8. juwana 95,933 1,536 776 2,776.64 deficit 9. jakenan 47,568 3,963 3500 1,376.78 surplus 10. pati 108,398 2,558 1,806 3,137.42 deficit 11. gabus 62,279 4,075 3,494 1,802.57 surplus 12. margorejo 64,091 2,750 2,149 1,855.02 surplus 13. gembong 47,370 823 188 1,371.05 deficit 14. tlogowungu 54,300 1,829 1,105 1,571.63 deficit 15. wedarijaksa 63,808 2,178 2,221 1,846.83 surplus 16. trangkil 63,275 1,040 667 1,831.40 deficit 17. margoyoso 74,267 1,265 878 2,149.55 deficit 18. gunungwungkal 37,898 1,627 1,015 1,096.90 deficit 19. cluwak 47,338 1,344 1,094 1,370.13 deficit 20. tayu 70,022 2,184 1,775 2,026.68 deficit 21. dukuhseti 60,850 2,063 1,666 1,761.21 deficit total 1,324,188 59,299 50,635 38,326,64 surplus the results of calculations that apply the formula from sriutomo and christanto (2015), as stated in column 6, show that the overall results of lp2b covering an area of 50.635 hectares can meet the food land needs of the pati regency population of 38.326,64 hectares. several sub-districts that have a deficit lp2b area include the following sub-districts: juwana, pati, gembong, tlogowungu, trangkil, margoyoso, gunungwungkal, cluwak, tayu and dukuhseti. based on the rtrw and other lp2b criteria, the area is not good enough to be designated for lp2b. 175 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 3.3 number of population and maximum year of food self-sufficiency regional development planning cannot be separated from studies related to population. the existence of population information will make development plans more accurate and on target (huda et al, 2017). an area that has a good carrying capacity is an area that can provide and ensure the sustainability of food supply for its population and can carry out food self-sufficiency (pratama et.al, 2021). the consumption needs of the people must be fulfilled to avoid the occurrence of turmoil in society. it is necessary to do a plan to prepare for future community needs by analyzing needs and predicting future community needs (rohman & maharani, 2017). based on the results of calculations that have been carried out, the maximum population that can be met by perennial rice production in pati regency is 1,645,016 people. this amount is used as a reference for calculating population projections in pati regency. the calculation uses the geometric population projection method (geometric growth rate). the calculation results show that the population in pati regency in 2040 is 1,609,968 people. the projection calculation can be seen in the table 4. table 4. population projection of pati regency no. year r projection (1) (2) (3) (4) 1. 2020 1.03% 1.324.188 2. 2030 1.467.078 3. 2040 1.609.968 the results of the maximum population projection for food self-sufficiency in pati regency are still considering if at any time there is a population explosion. population growth in the last 10 years (2010-2020) reached 1.03 percent. population growth has increased quite drastically from the previous 10 years (2000-2010) which was only 0.37 percent. the population explosion has made the demand for rice plants higher because the population is increasing. in addition, the decline in production and landuse change is also one aspect that poses a threat to food availability in pati regency. the results of the calculations carried out have the opportunity to cause the prediction year to go forward or backward. land management to maintain its fertility needs to be considered so that productivity does not decrease and affect rice production. the participation of related parties is needed to maximize agricultural potential as an effort to maintain food availability in pati regency. the results of this study are relevant to previous studies that the value of carrying capacity of food crops is influenced by the amount of food crop production and population. land area also affects the production of food crops produced. therefore, to realize the condition of food self-sufficiency, the condition of agricultural land in an area also needs to be considered. the increase in population needs to be controlled so that there is no population explosion that will have an impact on food availability in an area. 4. conclusion the value of the carrying capacity of rice crops in pati regency is 1.371 which indicates the fulfillment of rice plants in pati regency. the results of the lp2b map show that the potential lp2b land in pati regency is 50,635 hectares. the lp2b map-making is based on several assumptions such as a stretch of rice fields with an area of > 5 hectares; having basic infrastructures such as access roads and river networks; conformity with the pati regency rtrw map; and has the type of soil suitable for agriculture. the agglomeration element provides additional consideration in monitoring the lp2b program. the maximum population that can be met for food needs is 1,622,356 people. pati regency 176 mitha fitria anggraini & eva banowati/ geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 165-179 can meet the food needs of the population until 2040 or the next 20 years with a population of 1,609,968 people. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. acknowledgements the researcher expresses his gratitude to the chancellor of the state university 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(2018). prediksi kebutuhan pangan pokok padi dan jagung terhadap perubahan jumlah penduduk tahun 2018–2038 di kabupaten pasuruan. swara bhumi, 5(7). https://doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.7.2.184-194. https://doi.org/10.32585/ags.v5i1.1027 https://doi.org/10.29244/jurnal_mpd.v10i2.27786. https://doi.org/10.15294/edaj.v6i1.22202 http://dx.doi.org/10.12962/j24423998.v13i1.3679 85 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.28082 research article impact of geographic conditions on sirri marriage phenomenon in situbondo district singgih susilo 1, *, budijanto budijanto 1 , ifan deffinika 1 , novia fitri istiawati 2 1department of geography, faculty of social science, state university of malang, malang, 65145, indonesia 2geography study program, faculty of teacher training and education, lampung university, bandar lampung, 35145, indonesia *coresponding author, e-mail address : singgih.susilo.fis@um.ac.id 1. introduction the human-earth relationship (sun et al., 2016) is a natural relationship that has existed since humans were born and reproduced, because human survival, reproduction, development cannot be separated from the geographical environment. soil is the land that gave birth to humans. especially in rural communities, humans have a strong dependence on land. with the continuous development of science and technology, humans have a greater ability to change nature and are less dependent on the geographical environment. however, it cannot be denied that the geographical environment has abstract this study aims to determine the impact of the geographical conditions of an area on the phenomenon of sirri marriage through a qualitative study. data analysis was carried out inductively from the results of observations, in-depth interviews and fgds. the results of the study indicate that the phenomenon of unregistered marriage occurs in sumber malang, situbondo, east java as a result of the geographical conditions of the area. the topographical conditions of the area in the form of mountainous areas with an altitude of 500-1,250 meters above sea level, very steep with a slope of 45%, rocky and dry soils make the sumber malang area difficult to develop economically. this is because agricultural cultivation is difficult to develop. furthermore, the accessibility of areas that are difficult to reach because they are far inland, narrow roads, no public transportation, far from the center of economic activity have caused people in this area to choose to stay in their environment. topography and regional accessibility have an impact on adolescent marriage behavior in the sumber malang community. adolescents and parents view unregistered marriage as something that is done to avoid sin, the certainty of a relationship, economic motives (because the cost of marriage is considered expensive by the community) and as a result of the remote location of the area; because the teenager only has a circle of friends in sumbermalang. there are two patterns of sirri marriage that occur, namely teenagers will marry sirri and live together and teenagers will marry sirri then stay with their parents and still continue their education. the implication of this research is to provide an illustration that geographical space can affect the pattern of marriage that occurs in society. based on this, the relevant government can provide adequate access to education at the research sites. keywords : sirri marriage; geographical condition; topography; accessibility article info article history received : 30 november 2021 revised : 24 march 2022 accepted : 12 april 2022 published : 23 april 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 85-95 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.28082 mailto:singgih.susilo.fis@um.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 86 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 always been the material basis for production and people's lives. except for physical activity, geographical environment, climatic conditions, political conditions, economic conditions, and cultural conditions in an area have a great influence on people's lives, one of which is marriage (leke et a1., 1993). marriage is an important episode in life. this marks the transition to parenthood with childbearing potential and one of the most important determinants of fertility (dimastiwi, 2021). however, the phenomenon of unregistered marriage before a woman reaches a sufficient age to marry still persists among women. sirri marriage is the norm in some traditional societies which have strong intergenerational ties with an agricultural economic base (ardila, 2014; faiz, 2013; muhajarah, 2015). in indonesia, especially in the horseshoe area, namely situbondo regency, sirri marriages are still common (tamam, 2010). the pattern of adolescent marriage that occurs in the study area is more in unregistered marriages or unregistered marriages. the phenomenon of sirri marriage is very common among teenagers in madura society. as is the case in situbondo regency, the majority of teenagers get married before they are 20 years old. sirri marriages are very difficult to trace because of their unregistered status, but many are carried out in the community (tahir et al., 2019). sirri marriages in madurese youth begin with self-introductions by teenage girls and boys and introductions by parents. furthermore, when they feel like each other or match, the couple will perform a sirri marriage. there are teenagers who are married in a sirri manner, some continue to study and some stop going to school and choose to become housewives. according to the belief of some people, the implementation of marriage should be widely announced to the public. it aims so that the public can know the union between two different human beings, and know about the changes in the status of the two. marriage must also be legalized by state law and also religious law in order to create peace between the two parties. however, on the other hand, in the madurese community there are couples who choose to marry according to religious law by carrying out unregistered marriages and not registering their marriages under state law (leahy & o'sullivan, 2019). the word sirri means secretly or not published with a wedding ceremony (maloko, 2015). sirri marriages are carried out according to islamic law, however are not registered according to state law and are not announced to the surrounding community (irfan, 2011). the implementation of sirri marriages has also been recorded in several countries such as england, the netherlands, malaysia, the philippines, tunisia and russia and also occurs in indonesia. in the uk in 2016 at least from 287 marriage records there were 27% of marriages that were not registered in state law because their citizens performed unregistered marriages (suleiman, 2015). in 2017 in a survey conducted by true vision aire and channel 4 of 903 muslim women in the uk who were respondents, 60% of them married only based on religious law or unregistered marriage (adillah, 2011; cranmer, 2019). there are several reasons for sirri marriages in england. first, a man and a woman perform an unregistered marriage due to avoid adultery (suleiman, 2015). second, couples who want to live together, but are not ready to legally marry. third, couples who have previously married religiously with the intention of registering their marriage but do not have the free time to register their marriage according to state law (fairbarin, 2020; leahy & o'sullivan, 2019). fourth, sirri marriages are also carried out to fulfill sexual desires in a way that is allowed by religious law, namely marriage, especially for people who are far apart from their official partners (nisa, 2018). for islamic countries such as tunisia, it is very difficult to prevent sirri marriages, because islamically such marriages are permissible (mustasaari & al-sharmani, 2018; voorhoeve, 2018). besides england and tunisia, unregistered marriages also occur in malaysia and mostly occur among foreign workers (leng et al., 2012; nisa, 2018). workers from abroad, including from indonesia, generally have binding contracts with their place of work, most of which do not allow them 87 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 to get married first. for this reason, they choose to carry out a sirri marriage so that the parties where they work are not known (nisa, 2018). another reason for foreign workers such as from indonesia, bangladesh, the philippines, india, vietnam and nepal in malaysia who carry out sirri marriages with native malaysian educators with the aim that foreign workers have convenience if they will become local residents in the future because they have married local residents with how to legally legalize their marriage (leng et al., 2012). in indonesia itself, sirri marriages are also rife in several areas. marriage in indonesia is said to be a sirri marriage if it is not performed in front of kua officers for muslim citizens and the civil registry office for non-muslim citizens (saleng et al., 2017). in 2012, the number of known sirri marriages was around 25% of the total number of marriages in indonesia (nisa, 2018). although it is religiously legal, legally sirri marriage is not recognized in indonesia (razak et al., 2019).the practice of unregistered marriage for the madurese in sumber malang is a common practice. instead for residents in this area, sirri marriages seem to have become a culture so that carrying out unregistered marriages is no longer a taboo subject and considers that sirri marriages (unregistered or underhanded marriages) are the same as officially registered marriages. the government through the kua in situbondo regency has actually made efforts to overcome this problem, but has not given maximum results. therefore, this is a common problem and should be a priority to find a solution immediately. sumbermalang district is one of the sub-districts located in situbondo regency. most of this sub-district is located at the foot of the mountains, namely mount argopuro with an altitude of 1,200 meters above sea level. most, ie 65% of the population in this sub-district work as farmers and farm laborers. the community of farmers and farm laborers also have a low educational background, as many as 76.3% of the population only finished elementary school. based on data obtained in the field, the number of sirri marriages in sumbermalang district is the highest in situbondo regency. this data has only been successfully collected and clearly known through information from local residents and there are still some that have not been and/or are unknown or only vaguely known by the residents. that is, the number of perpetrators of unregistered marriages in situbondo district, could be more than the data. previous research conducted in 2015 also showed data for as many as 200 people, only in one district of sumbermalang (nur et al., 2020). however, in 2020, the number of perpetrators in the region has not decreased and has actually increased to 210 people who are involved in unregistered marriages. as we know, that the geographical conditions of an area can have an influence on human social life. this also applies in the sumbermalang district, where the location of the area is at the foot of the mountain, the road conditions are not good (partly asphalt and part onderlah), agricultural land that is less developed causes the economic condition of the people here to be at the lower middle level. in addition to having an effect on economic conditions, the geographical location of this subdistrict also has an influence on the pattern of teenage marriage. based on this, researchers are very interested in knowing more about how the geographical conditions of the sumbermalang district area can affect the social life of the community, especially the pattern of teenage marriage. geographical conditions of the area to be analyzed include; topography, accessibility, and community behavior as a result of the geographical conditions of the area. this research needs to be done to find out more about the role of geographical conditions in people's social life, especially in the pattern of teenage marriage. by knowing this, young women who undergo sirri marriages will gradually be free from marriage patterns that are not in accordance with statutory regulations. in addition, by knowing the root cause of the relationship between geographical conditions and adolescent marriage patterns, the relevant government can provide solutions to reduce the number of unregistered marriages that occur in sumbermalang district. thus, the education level of young women will be better along with reducing the number of sirri marriages. this will also have 88 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 an impact on various dimensions, such as adolescent reproductive health, maternal and child mortality and adolescent household life. 2. methods the location of this research is sumbermalang district, situbondo, east java. this district is located at coordinates 7,849133° south latitude and 113.704650° east longitude. the northern subdistricts are jatibanteng, besuki and suboh sub-districts, in the east and south by bondowoso regency and in the west by probolinggo regency. the area of sumbermalang district is 129.47 km2 which is divided into 9 villages, namely alastengah, baderan, kalirejo, plalangan, sumberargo, taman, tamansari, taman kursi and tlogosari (sumbermalang in figures. 2020). the research location in detail can be seen in figure 1. this study uses a qualitative approach. qualitative data were obtained from one sub-district, namely sumber malang, situbondo, east java. there were 247 sirri marriages in 2019-2020 in sumber malang district. this study was conducted in this sub-district because it has a high incidence of sirri early marriage in situbondo, east java. all research participants for the qualitative method were selected purposively with a snowball technique that included various groups. the question guide aims to obtain information on topographic conditions, accessibility and community behavior as a result of the geographical conditions of the area. the guidelines also include questions to understand the context that influences young men to marry early and what role they play in these situations that lead to their marriage, in the decisionmaking process. figure 1. administration map of sumbermalang district, situbondo 89 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 the interview informants consisted of young women aged 15-24 years who had early marriages in a sirri manner as many as 16 young women and 16 young men. interviews were also conducted with parents of perpetrators of early marriage in a sirri manner, community leaders, teachers, kua (official marriage agency) officers and village or sub-district officials. fieldwork was carried out between june and september 2021. in addition to in-depth interviews with 32 youth aged 15-24, who married before the age of 18, eight focus group discussions (fgds) were conducted. each fgd session was mixed gender and consisted of three women and three men. informants were initially briefed on the scope and objectives of the study and their consent was received for audio recording and visual image-taking during the interviews. in-depth interviews mainly focused on the impact of geographical conditions on the cultural behavior of early marriage in a sirri manner. 3. results and discussion three themes were identified from in-depth interviews and data analysis: (1) geographical conditions of the region, (2) regional accessibility, and (3) community behavior as a result of regional geographical conditions. 3.1 geographical conditions of the region sumbermalang district is part of situbondo regency which can be said to be a remote subdistrict because it is far from situbondo regency, which is as far as 55 km. sumbermalang district is located in the western part of situbondo regency, which has a northern border with besuki district, in the east with suboh district and bondowoso district, in the south with bondowoso district and probolinggo district and the western boundary is jatibanteng district. the area of sumbermalang district is 42.44 km2 which does not include state forest and most of the area is mountainous, dry, rocky, steep land with an average height of between 500-1,250 meters above sea level. but there are also rice fields which are located on the edge of rivers, valleys and steep. the district of sumbermalang consists of 9 villages and is divided into 32 hamlets, 55 rw and 161 rt. the villages are alastengah, baderan, taman kursi, sumberargo, kalirejo, tamansari, tlogosari, taman, and plalangan. tlogosari village, which is part of the sumbermalang district, is the capital of the subdistrict, which is 52 km to situbondo regency. meanwhile, the village with the farthest distance from the sub-district capital is alastengah village (20 km). so with the long distance it can be said that sumbermalang district is a very remote area. the topographical conditions of the sumbermalang district have an impact on agricultural activities in this area (mubarak et al., 2017). the steep mountainous terrain, dry soil, and rocky soil make several types of agricultural commodity crops undeveloped in this area. some of the agricultural crops that are cultivated by the community on a small scale are tobacco and corn. these two types of plants are widely planted, but have not been able to become the main community that can generate income for the community as the main source of income. the main income of the people in this sub-district comes from working as laborers and farmers. the heads of families work as laborers for laying hens/broilers, foragers for grass for cattle, loggers for bamboo trees as raw material for plaiting, construction workers. the women and housewives work as woven bamboo makers, measuring pxl 20cmx10cm and sold to the market at a price of rp. 1,500.00 per ten plaits. this activity is very commonly carried out by family heads and women in this sub-district. therefore, economic activity in this sub-district has not varied. this is also due to the level of education of the community, most of which have finished elementary school. thus, society has not been able to innovate in economic activities (ekamper et al., 2011) 90 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 residents in the sub-district work as laborers and farmers. the education level of the population in sumber malang district is seen from the number of students, including: the number of elementary school students as many as 5,156, the number of junior high school students as many as 1,050 and high school equivalents as many as 829 (bps, 2020). when compared to the population of situbondo regency of 685,967 people, the ratio of the population who are still in school at the twelveyear basic education level reaches 3.72% of the total population of situbondo regency (bps, 2020). the community in sumber malang district is known as a santri community with various religious cultures that surround it. the religious culture that has been built over the years by these northern coastal communities is evident in various patterns of community life. islam is the dominant religion and colors the people of sumber malang district. this is reinforced by data that of the total population of 35,967 people, 34,628 are muslims or (96.2%) and 1,342 non-muslims or (3.7%) (bps, 2020). the culture of the santri that has been constructed into the realm of people's thinking eventually fosters local religious values. the local religious values of the sumbermalang district community which were constructed by the local culture of the coastal community who incidentally were santri for many years, were transferred from generation to generation and greatly influenced the behavior and life of the community. the muslim community of sumbermalang district has a tendency to strongly believe in the figure of the kiai. anything that is said by a kiai or religious figure in the form of "wrong or right", "according to or not in accordance" with the current conditions is a fatwa and belief that is difficult to change. this condition simultaneously produces and produces a patriarchal culture that has become a 'spirit' in various aspects of community life at large and has an effect on family institutions, the community environment, educational institutions, and individuals as members of the community of sumber malang district. 3.2 regional accessibility the determination of accessibility is determined, among others, based on factors of distance/area location, road network, and the existence of transportation facilities. in addition, it also includes topographical conditions or the height of the area as a factor that hinders accessibility. based on the distance/regional location factor, the value of accessibility is closely related to the location of an area from other areas, especially from the center of community activities which are usually related to the presence of a market (irwan et al., 2018). in sumbermalang district, there is one market location which is the center of community activity. the center of activity on the first level is the market in tlogosari village. when viewed from the road network, the road network in sumbermalang district is divided into 3 classes, namely collector roads, local roads that connect between villages/kelurahan, and environmental roads within the village. there is only one collector road in sumber malang district, namely the road that connects sumbermalang district with situbondo district. its function is not as the main route between districts but only as an alternative route. the width of this collector road ranges from 5 6 meters with an asphalt road. there are several local roads in sumbermalang district that connect one village/kelurahan with other villages/kelurahan. the width of the main road in sumbermalang district is 4 m. meanwhile, environmental roads are roads within the village that connect between hamlets in the village. environmental roads in the village are mostly still rocks and gravel with the width of the main road in the village mostly between 2 3 meters. even in some sections, footpaths are still found which only have a width of less than 2 meters and are still in the form of dirt. this makes it difficult for vehicles to access the area, especially to the remote hamlets in these villages. the topography of most areas in sumbermalang district has a very steep topography. when viewed from the percentage of the slope of the land, 30.65% of the sumbermalang sub-district has a 91 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 slope of more than 40% or very steep, while for areas with flat topography with a slope of 0 8% it is only about 8.91%. this steep topography has made access to some villages even more difficult. this is because in addition to the road conditions that have suffered a lot of damage, the steep topography makes it difficult for vehicles to pass through the road 3.3 community behavior as impact of regional geographical conditions community behavior is formed not only from the interaction between fellow humans but also related to physical strength. pinto (2015) suggests that the main factor in the process of behavior occurring is interaction while other factors such as climate, geographical location and conditions, politics and economy are modifying factors. so in this case environmental characteristics are one of the factors that greatly influence the formation of community behavior. the behavior of the community will also have its own uniqueness that is formed due to the peculiarities of the community's culture, different climatic conditions, topographic characteristics, the influence of the spiritual values adopted, and the political or security conditions of an area. based on the results of indepth interviews with the subject, the theoretical interpretation of the findings is as follows: a. sirri's marriage as an effort to avoid sin teenage girls in sumbermalang sub-district decided to have an unregistered marriage for fear of sin, too long "runtang runtung" or courtship. the motivation for carrying out a sirri marriage is to legalize the relationship between a man and a woman so as to avoid committing sins. this mindset of fear of sin is the reason for the perpetrators of sirri marriages. this is a positive implication of understanding islamic religious doctrines about sin-reward, heaven-hell, haram-halal, legalillegitimate and so on. however, this was later applied partially without paying attention to the principles of other islamic teachings. another reason is to avoid adultery. this reason is almost the same as the fear of sin. whereas the real concept of marriage does not only stop at the issue of avoiding adultery, but there are other things that are also very important, namely that the marriage bond is a very strong bond and family life as much as possible gives birth to sakinah or tranquility for all its members. the motivation of teenage girls who decide to marry in a sirri way is because they are afraid of being abandoned or by their boyfriends. so to make sure that the boy who is the girlfriend of a teenage girl will not leave her is to ask her to marry in a sirri way. b. sirri marriage as an economic motive the motivation of teenage girls to decide to marry sirri is because of the poor condition of their parents. parents will immediately marry off their daughters even though they are still minors if the child already has a boyfriend or match her if the child does not have a boyfriend. this motive is carried out so that the daughter's family can reduce the burden of dependents, because a married daughter will be dependent on her husband. c. sirri marriage as a result of the remote location of the region teenage girls and boys who do unregistered marriages here because they are left behind in access to information and technology. they are deep inland and in remote and mountainous areas. due to their reluctance to leave their neighborhood, after finishing school they chose to marry and most of them in a sirri way. the reality in the field shows that there is a cultural logic that is the basis for why unregistered marriages occur. that this reality does not grow from an empty space that only exists instantaneously, but that it exists and is present from a logic that is constructed through the logic of the physical, cultural and religious environment. sirri marriages find their logic of legitimacy in the construction of culture, environment and religious understanding. 92 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 sirri marriages occur because of poverty motives. many madurese in sumbermalang subdistrict live in lower-middle economic conditions, especially rural communities. poor in this case has two meanings. first, the community cannot afford to pay for administration at kua (religious affairs office). this inability gets worse when village-level brokers exist. they would send people to take care of various administrations because he had to pay twice as much as usual. second, they married sirri because of the inability of the economy to finance their lives. in public affairs, especially in their work, they still depend a lot on men. in this context, sirri marriages seem to be legal to do in situbondo. the geographical location of sumbermalang district provides its own challenges for its residents. the phenomenon of sirri marriage which has become entrenched for teenagers in this area is also greatly influenced by geography, steep nature and remote location which is certainly one of the obstacles in people's creativity. dry soil conditions and the difficulty of developing agricultural activities make the people here poor. the location of the sub-district which is far from the center of community activities makes the youth not have friendly relations with teenagers from other areas. the circle of friends of teenagers in this sub-district is only limited to teenagers who are in the same area. most teenagers in sumbermalang sub-district prefer to live permanently in sumbermalang subdistrict rather than having to look for work outside the area. teenagers choose to stay in their hometowns because they feel reluctant to be away from their families. this reluctance is because, if they work in the morning, in the afternoon they want to return to their home and meet their families. the distance from their residence to various community/economic activity centers is very far, so they have to live in a rented house/boarding house at the work location. based on this description, geographical conditions in the sumbermalang sub-district have a very serious impact on the behavior of its people (ansell et al., 2017; elbaar et al., 2019; boyce et al., 2019; niamba, 2020 ). people, especially teenagers, do not have access to adequate education in the vicinity of their homes. this is because the distance of a public or private secondary school from the sub-district is 34 km. furthermore, both teenage girls and boys only go to school up to the level of junior high school education and even only elementary school. this causes a lot of teenagers who when they finish school, prefer to marry sirri with their male friends. sirri marriages in sumbermalang district are divided into two patterns. the first pattern, teenage girls and boys marry in a sirri and then live in a household like a marriage officially registered at the kua. the second pattern, adolescent girls and boys marry in a sirri and continue their education at the high school level and even college. in this second pattern, most of the youth do not live in the same house. they still live with their parents. after completing their education, they will only live and settle in one of the parents of a girl or a boy. 4. conclusion in general, the geographical conditions of the area tend to influence people's behavior. the steep topography, dry and rocky soil make the community's economic and agricultural activities not varied or difficult to develop. the accessibility of remote areas, located in the mountains with an average altitude of 500-1,250 meters above sea level makes sumbermalang district difficult to access by outsiders and at the same time causes the community to have little contact with outsiders. these two geographical conditions lead to the unique behavior of the people. one of them is the existence of sirri marriages among teenage girls and boys. teenagers who are reluctant to leave their neighborhood due to limited access and unable to get a suitable job make them decide to marry in a sirri way. the pattern of unregistered marriage that occurs, firstly, teenagers marry sirri and settle in one house, second, teenagers marry sirri and continue their education by living in the residence of their respective parents. after completing their education, they will live together. 93 singgih susilo et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 85-95 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this article. acknowledgments the author would like to thank lppm state university of malang which has provided research funds 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(2018). law and social change in tunisia: the case of unregistered marriage. oxford journal of law and religion, 7(3), 479–497. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojlr/rwy027. eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 201 the compatibility of outdoor study application of environmental subject using psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning in senior high school eko harianto1*, la ode nursalam2, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan3, zakaria4, damhuri5, andri estining sejati6 1department of agrobusiness, terbuka university, kendari, indonesia 2department of geography education, halu oleo university, kendari, indonesia 3department of geography education, university of jember, jember, indonesia 4department of english education, sembilanbelas november kolaka university, indonesia 5department of biology education, halu oleo university, kendari, indonesia 6department of geography education, sembilanbelas november kolaka university, indonesia *email: eharianto@ecampus.ut.ac.id received 12 march 2019/ revised 21 august 2019/ accepted 26 august 2019/ published 28 august 2019 abstract the problem in this research relates to the learning theory that rarely considered as a basis in learning in indonesia. learning plans and syllabus structure in the national curriculum is not included learning theory point. learning theory only has been less studied in the subjects in geography education undergraduate. this makes learning theory material less explored. learning theory is also often forgotten in educational research undergraduate and postgraduate programs. many research did not allude to the relevance of learning theory in learning. after graduating, they less develop or linking learning theory with the teaching profession. that condition makes learning essence should be strengthened to become weak or even disappear.this research aims to describe the compatibility when applying outdoor study environment subjects with the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning theory in senior high school. this research used a qualitative methodology with the type of descriptive exploitative research. data sources are students and geography teachers. the process of collecting data uses the method of observation and interviews. data were analyzed with the 6 cresswell's qualitative analyzing steps. the results show that the application of outdoor study is suitable both the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning. the compatibility is reflected in the learning activities, there are: before, during, and after working in the outdoor. the teacher's ability to implement the basis of psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning makes learning more easily understood and meaningful for students. keywords: meaningful learning, outdoor study, psychological theories. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 201-216, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.9903 eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 202 1. introduction education aims to increase student skills in all domains, and there are: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. the domain that has been formulated by bloom and perfected by (anderson & krathwohl, 2015) can be achieved through the application of a variety of learning methods. one of the method being developed around the world, such as united kingdom, germany, australia, united states of america, and indonesia are outdoor study. outdoor study in the england, according to (dillon et al., 2017) in the examined 150 pieces of research on outdoor learning published between 1993 to 2003, field studies council and partner organisations commissioned focus developing applying outdoor study. the outdoor study learniing more effective because experiencing or that the time not always spent in the classroom. the student with outdooe scored higher 72 per cent than traditional school. implementation outdoor study in england also impact on student’s attitude toward environment. australia is closely connected with the england because it is one of the commonwealth countries. it causes learning in australia is also developed and implementing the outdoor study. according to (dillon et al., 2017) an australian study of school student’s perception of learning in natural environments both primary and secondary school students experienced the new experience in learning. according to (miles and wattchow, 2015), one of the outdoor study application in australia is sea kayak adventuring and implications for outdoor adventure education, in this case focus on people and culture trawn to the idea of adventure through adventure stories. outdoor study program in the united states of america is the outward bond. this program became the forerunner to outdoor study implementation in indonesia. according to (muhsin, febriany, hidayati, & purwanti, 2015) indonesia implemented the outward bond indonesia and build great hall eco campus with the bamboo material that awareness in environment. the curriculum in indonesia (national curriculum) is student-centered. the way to develop the student's activity makes the teacher not only applying the learning in the classroom. the outdoor study is one of alternative learning makes students more active, enthusiastic, and motivated in the learning process. according to (sudjana & rivai, 2015) the advantages learn the environment in the more attractive learning process, so student motivation higher. according to (thomas, 2019) 28-day outdoor education programmes in eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 203 australia can construct student naturalistic inquiry, the students active, enthuasiastic, and experiential learning. the outdoor study also makes learning more contextual as direct observing the surrounding environment. direct observation makes students understand and appreciate the neighborhood environtment. thats because students directly interact with subjects in the field related to the environment, both damage and preservation. this allows students to avoid destructive behavior and continue conservation efforts. besides the outdoor study, there is also a laboratory nuanced testing activity in it, in this case, the karst rock test, although the test is not carried out in the laboratory but directly in the field. according to (sejati et al, 2016), students can compare the goods and bad efforts areas representing damage and environmental preservation, the good efforts on the environment can improve the environmental awareness character. according to (rowe, dadswell, mudie, & rauworth, 2014) the outdoor study in the form of sailing ships could developed good character in the maritime environment. according to (erika & satu, 2018) in the outdoor education students connect with nature and their environment surrounding. the problem in this research relates to the learning theory that rarely considered as a basis in learning in indonesia. first, learning plans and syllabus structure in the national curriculum is not included learning theory point. second, learning theory only has been studied by geography education undergraduate students in subjects the development of learners and or educational psychology. this makes learning theory material less explored in geography education undergraduate program curriculum. third, learning theory is also often forgotten in educational research bachelor and master's, both classroom action research and quasi-experiment. many research did not allude to the relevance of learning theory in learning. fourth, after graduating, they no develop or linking learning theory with the teaching profession again. that condition makes learning essence should be strengthened to become weak or even disappear. according to (sumarmi, 2015) the learning application must understand the basic or theoretical, for example, geography learning with mind maps must understand the noted methods developed by buzan since 1970s. outdoor study in this research is practiced on environment subject. the environment, in this case, is the kendeng karst hills zone near the student school location in babat. according to bemmelen in (harsolumakso et al, 2019), one of the seven physiographic units in java is kendeng zone with the karst formations. according to (sumarmi, 2015) the basic competencies that can be done with field study which describes the environment used related to sustainable development. eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 204 the authors are linking learning theory with outdoor study in every step of learning. outdoor study learning steps according to (sumarmi, 2015) include class preparation, selecting area, group dynamics, managing equipment in the field, working in the outdoors, back in the classroom, and final student report. this research aim is to discuss the compatibility between outdoor study environment subjects with learning theory in senior high school. the outdoor study is important in the application of learning theory. first, to uncover facts and data in the field. students directly observe the object learned in class or reference. facts and data found on objects in the field are important to construct the dimensions of their knowledge. according to (spillman, 2017), the apllying australian outdoor education can explore students understanding about local aboriginal people from the data and the fact they collect in the field. the outdoor study encourages student motivation in learning. motivation arises when students interact directly with the objects. student’s curiosity to find phenomena in the field is harder, because what they have encountered is found in books. the changes they found related to environmental material hone their accommodation abilities. according to (sudjana & rivai, 2015), the benefits of environment studying are learning more interesting, so that student’s motivation is higher. according to (gough, 2016) outdoor and environment education is cobined from physical and conceptual that make students collect powerful ideas and motivated to enter the field. the outdoor study can develop the student’s abilities in cognitive, physical, and social. cognitive is obtained through observing objects as a complement to the material being studied. physical activities throughout the field directly activities such as walking and climbing. social is in the form of sensitivity when observing the human element in the object. these three elements train meaningful learning dimensions in the environment around students, as well as the stage of assimilation of material and accommodation, in this case, the development of the field. according to (boyes & potter, 2015) outdoor study create student to improve their cognitive decision about the problems such as environment subject, outdoor study take student to the physical activities such as rock-climbing, and outdoor study improved their social in the form of interaction with people in the outdoor location. according to (cooper, 2015) outdoor learning environment supports social emotional development such as social gathering. the outdoor study makes student learning more meaningful. meaningful learning because students can understand the importance of science in real life. according to sudjana eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 205 & rivai (2015), that there are many benefits derived from field study activities (especially the environment), one of which is the essence of learning is more meaningful because students are faced with real situations and circumstances. the outdoor study method is suitable for geography subjects because geosphere phenomena are available directly in the field. the national curriculum by incorporating elements of learning theory is compatible with outdoor study in environmental material. according to (sumarmi, 2015), for geographer fieldwork, is a key component for understanding objects. 2. the methods this research used quantitative methodology with the type of descriptive explorative research. the descriptive explorative research aims not manipulation one of the variable. the descriptive research means analyzing and presenting data systemically so that it can be more easily understood and concluded, while explorative means finding something new from the results of grouping symptoms, facts, and certain data. according to (arikunto, 2016) explorative descriptive research does not aim to test certain hypotheses, but only describes the existence of a variable, symptom, or phenomenon. subjects were geography teacher and students xi iis 1 class in senior high school muhammadiyah 1 of babat-lamongan second semester of 2015/2016. that class was got applying outdoor study (observations, interviews, images, and maps media). the data collected in this research is to get the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning theory underlying outdoor study is reflected in the outdoor learning activities. data obtained by observations and interviews on the research subject. implementation of the data collection carried out for six weeks. according to (cresswell, 2016), one of data collection on qualitative research is observation and interviews, then analyzed in descriptive ways. according to (moleong, 2014) qualitative research methodology as a research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of words both written and oral from people and also observable behavior. research instruments related to the application of outdoor studies in the form of learning devices with observation sheets, karst rock test equipment, and scientific work guidelines for reports. instruments and tools in research to explore linkages with the outline of developing interview questions, cameras, and catalogs of data collection for coding processes. observations in the form of observations by researchers during the process of applying outdoor study steps, both before in the outdoors (class preparation, selecting area, group eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 206 dynamics, managing equipment in the field), when working in the outdoors, and after outdoors (back in the classroom, and final student report). interviews were conducted with geography teacher related to the outdoor study implementation from the educator's view, interviewing students regarding the outdoor study implementation from the educator participants' views. data were analyzed with qualitative steps (cresswell, 2016). first, process and prepare data by transcribing all verbal data or behavior collected for analysis. second, read the entire data by examining all data collected. third, reduce data by selecting, concentrating, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming data that appears in the transcript. fourth, analyze in more detail by setting units and coding data into components of the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning. fifth, analyze in more detail the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning components based on the categories of coding results. sixth, analyze things that are unique, interesting, and draw conclusions. the phenomena were described in this research is applying outdoor study with the environment subject. then it explored compatibility with all the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning theory component. below is the research flow diagram. figure 1. research flow diagram 3. results and discussion the results showed that outdoor study learning suitable with the psychological theories of intelligence by piaget and meaningful learning by ausubel. compatibility reflected in the learning activities before, during, and after working in the field. the teacher ability to implement the basic psychological theories of intelligence makes learning easy to understand because it appropriates student cognitive development. students cognitive geography teacher xii iis 1 students applying outdoor study environment subject classroom (before and after in the outdoor steps) outdoor (working in the outdoor step) observation interviews psychological theories of intelligence meaningful learning theories 6 cresswell’s qualitative analysing steps qualitative data eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 207 development grade xi (aged between 16-17 years) this case include the formal operational stage. this stage, students are able to experience the outdoor study learning with scientific research as a student report. students are also directed by teachers to experience assimilation and accommodation process. the assimilation process is obtained by students before, during, and after working in the field. the accommodation process is obtained by the student after working in the field step. the step before working in the field (preparation) includes: class preparation, selecting area, group dynamics, and managing equipment in the field. the step in the field (implementation) includes the step of working in the outdoor. the step after the field (evaluation) includes back in the classroom and final student report. below are the results of interviews with research subjects related to outdoor study environment to the psychological theories of intelligence stage before in the outdoors, there are: class preparation, selecting area, group dynamics, and managing equipment in the field. table 1. the matric forms of the compatibility the outdoor study with the psychological theories of intelligence before working in the outdoor steps no. informant name information obtained theme founded 1 elya rosyidah (geography teacher) ”in implementing the outdoor study, the preparation step is important, can attract students' interest, provide initial knowledge, and determine the success of using this method” the teacher understands the outdoor procedure so that students can reach the assimilation process in the before in the field steps. 2 agam budi prasetya ”learn instruments to field preparation makes me comfort in learning” students experience the assimilation stage at the managing equipment in the field step. 3 arif rohman hakim ”the concepts in books and jobsheet are easily understood by the practice of this equipment” student experience the assimilation stage at the managing equipment in the field step. 4 liya indah wahyuni ”instruments that distributed plus my study book are very complementary” student experience the assimilation stage at the class preparation step. 5 mufidatul ummah ”i can't wait go to the field” student experience the assimilation stage at the class preparation, selecting area, group dynamics, dan managing equipment in the field steps. 6 nanda imroatus s. ”it's nice to learn new things with group number 3” student experience the assimilation stage at the group dynamics step. 7 rieke indah triwahyuni ”i've passed on the gunung pegat but i never went inside, so i'm curious” student experience the assimilation stage at the selecting area step. eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 208 sources: ginsburg & opper (2016) through this matrix, it can be found that the compatibility of the outdoor study with the psychological theories of intelligence stages when before in the field steps. in step preparation class, students learn the subject. students also understand and able to fill out instruments and also using the equipment. this step student experience assimilation process, in this case, the students begin to understand the object generally like prior knowledge they have. selecting area step, the students know the location will be observed: karst hills districts babat-lamongan (damage) and district baureno-bojonegoro (preservation). students also understand the focus of the observed (physical and social). this steps students experience assimilation process, in this case, the students understand the object in a specific location, including focus observed. group dynamics step, the students divided into 11 groups of three to four for the interview process. this step students experience assimilation process, in this case, the students understand the object study in groups. managing equipment in the field step, students understand and practice using the instrument to be used to collect data. students also determine the equipment to be used (hcl, pipettes, and cameras). this stages students experience assimilation process, in this case the students understand the object and relate it to the way data collection. below are the results of interviews with research subjects related to outdoor study environment to the psychological theories of intelligence stages when working in the outdoors steps. table 2. the matric forms of the compatibility the outdoor study with the psychological theories of intelligence stages when working in the outdoors step no. informant name information obtained theme founded 1 elya rosyidah (geography teacher) ”supervision in the field is very important, preventing students from playing outside this outdoor study context” the teacher understands the function when in the outdoor, so that students can reach the assimilation and accommodation process when working in the outdoors steps. 2 agam budi prasetya ”oh it turned out that the gunung pegat was full” students experience the accommodation stage at the working in the outdoors steps step. 3 arif rohman hakim ”the karst rock test is a lot of foam” student experience the assimilation stage at working in the outdoors step. 4 liya indah wahyuni ”horrified when hear that the miners have been hit by landslides, nature can destroy student experience the assimilation and eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 209 too, like in the disaster chapter book” accommodation stage at the working in the outdoors step. 5 mufidatul ummah ”i really understand what damage and preservation are” student experience the assimilation stage at working in the outdoors step. 6 nanda imroatus s. ”the better the sendang gong spring water source from karan hill planting, suitable with the material in the class” student experience the assimilation and accommodation stage at the working in the outdoors step. 7 rieke indah triwahyuni ”tired too up and down the hill, but exciting” students experience the accommodation stage at the working in the outdoors step. source: ginsburg & opper (2016) through this matrix, it can be found that the compatibility of the outdoor study with the psychological theories of intelligence stages when working in the outdoors steps. working in the outdoor step, students take the data and observe the facts on the field. this stages students experience assimilation and accommodation process. assimilation process occurs when students understand the object directly by observation and interviews. the accommodation process occurs when students know the changes that occur on the object. below are the tabel of the results of interviews with research subjects (geography teacher and students) related to outdoor study environment to the psychological theories of intelligence stages after work in the outdoor. table 3 the matric forms of the compatibility the outdoor study with the psychological theories of intelligence stages after working in the outdoors step no. informant name information obtained theme founded 1 elya rosyidah (geography teacher) ”after working in the outdoor assistance is a finishing that makes the outdoor study perfect” the teacher understands the function after work in the outdoor, so that students can reach the assimilation and accommodation process when back in the classroom and final student report step. 2 agam budi prasetya ”this fits in with the extracurricular activities of the muhiba high school, the hill is clearly changing” student experience the assimilation and accommodation stage at the back in the classroom and final student report step. 3 arif rohman hakim ”mrs elya patiens to help our group, so it's easy to understand this material” student experience the assimilation stage at the back in the classroom and final student report step. 4 liya indah wahyuni ”my friend was very enthusiastic about the group discussion, i got excited to not be shy when presenting the work” student experience the assimilation stage at the back in the classroom and final student report step. 5 mufidatul ”because i finished practicing yesterday on student experience the eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 210 ummah the field, i really understood everything. when answering the questions in the presentation it was also clear” assimilation stage at the back in the classroom and final student report step. 6 nanda imroatus s. ”we want to aspire preservation solutions in this scientific work to the school so that they are given to the head of lamongan regent” student experience the assimilation and accommodation stage at the back in the classroom and final student report step. 7 rieke indah triwahyuni ”hopefully with this work i can take part in a scientific research competition” student experience the assimilation stage at the back in the classroom and final student report step. source: ginsburg & opper (2016) through this matrix, it can be found that the compatibility of the outdoor study with the psychological theories of intelligence stages when after work in the outdoor steps. back in the classroom and final student report step, students make scientific research related to damage and preservation karst hills environment. teachers provide guidance at the same time, observing the students' activity in the working scientific research process. this step students experience the assimilation and accommodation process. the assimilation process occurs when students understand the object after processing data from the field and link it with the literature. the accommodation process occurs when students know the object changes from the field were examined in-depth by the literature. the teacher ability to implement meaningful learning makes learning more meaningful for students, in the sense that students are able to apply the benefits of learning in daily activity. students experience two dimensions of meaningful learning. the first dimension is obtained by students before and after working in the field. the second dimension obtained by student after working in the field and during working observations report. below are the results of interviews with research subjects related to outdoor study environment to the meaningful learning theory. table 4 the matric forms of the compatibility the outdoor study with the meaningful learning theory no. informant name information obtained theme founded 1 elya rosyidah (geography teacher) ”i try from this outdoor, students can understand the meaning of environtment subject in daylife” the teacher understands the function all outdoor steps, so that students can reach the first and second dimention of meaningful learning theory. 2 agam budi prasetya ”material complement each other during this activity” student experience the first and second dimention before and eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 211 when working in the outdoor. 3 arif rohman hakim ”before on the field made me more prepared by learning material and practice tools and interview simulations” student experience the first and second dimention before in the outdoor. 4 liya indah wahyuni ”when see the difference in gunung pegat and karan hills, it seems clear that its function is preservation” student experience the first and second dimention when working in the outdoor. 5 mufidatul ummah ”i don't want to damage the environment of my village like in gunung pegat” student experience the second dimention when and after working in the outdoor. 6 nanda imroatus s. ”quite complicated looking for literature that is suitable for my group's scientific research” student experience the second dimention after working in the outdoor. 7 rieke indah triwahyuni ”i'm glad it turns out that my planting in a home is as beneficial as on the karan hills” student experience the second dimention when and after working in the outdoor. source: agra et al (2019); gunarsa & ningsih (2014); levy, peralta, pozzi, & tovar (2018) through this matrix, it can be found that the compatibility of the outdoor study with meaningful learning dimensions. in class preparation step students enter in the first dimension, in this case, the students prepare to get information input individually. selecting area step students to enter the first dimension; in this case, the students prepare and obtain information object location to visit. group dynamics step students enter the first dimension; in this case, the students prepare to receive input information in the groups. working in the outdoor step, students enter the first and second dimensions. the first dimension when students get information in the form of data and facts on the field. the second dimension when students collaborate the information with temporary knowledge that obtained class preparation step. back in the classroom and student final report step students enter on the second dimension, in this case, the students collaborate information with a comprehensive knowledge through discussion and literature study. the compatibility is between outdoor study with the psychological theory of intelligence by piaget. piaget is a cognitive psychological scientist from switzerland who became one of the pioneering constructivist learning theories. piaget's theory begins from disagreeing against empiricism and rationalism. the empiricism theory or seen from the biology view that the knowledge gained from the activity of the sense on the surrounding environment. the rationalism or general view is that knowledge comes from logical reasoning. according to (ginsburg & opper, 2016) it is therefore natural that the psychological theories of intelligence should come to be placed among biological theories of adaptation and theories of knowledge in general. piaget theorized that the process of gaining eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 212 knowledge is a combination of empiricism and rationalism view is referred to as the psychological theories of intelligence. the outdoor study is observation process with senses directly and also conducting logical reasoning. direct observation of geography objects in the field involves many senses experienced by students, rather than just in the classroom. student reasoning process can be obtained on all of the outdoor learning steps. that reasoning there are when before to the field, during working in the field, and after from the field. the activities related to karst hills environment subject. this indicates that the outdoor study in suitable with the psychological theories of intelligence. according to (badakar et al, 2017; ensar, 2014) piaget describe that prelogical reasoning and observating are important to construct more elaborate concept and more complex images. observation and logical reasoning according to (ginsburg & opper, 2016) through two processes, namely assimilation and accommodation, is an essential point in the learning. assimilation is a process to understand the object. accommodation means that the student thought process against the object changes. this is consistent with the student aim doing the outdoor study in order to understand the real environment directly and observe the change. according to (gunarsa & ningsih, 2014) "that assimilation and accommodation occur together and complement each other, each time the child adaptation with the environment." according to (zhou & brown, 2015), assimilation and accomodation can formed and return to students equilibrium. the psychological theories of intelligence are also discussed the cognitive or intellectual development stages or namely construction of operations. the first stage at age <2 years, second aged 2 to 7-8 years, the third 7-8 to 11-12 years, and the fourth> 11-12 years. each stage has a certain ability to acquire knowledge. the higher stage, the child receives knowledge of more complex (ginsburg & opper, 2016; hebe, 2017). these research subjects age between 16-17 years, or enter the four stages of intellectual development. the fourth stage or the formal operational stage, children have the ability to think hypothetically, logical, and based on the theoretical. that ability consists at the making scientific research elements. this is shown that learning by piaget theory at this stage suitable for training student writing ability scientific researchs. according to (zhou & brown, 2015) in the formal operational stage students understand well about abstract, concept, using the systematic ways, and formulating hypotheses. according to (sumarmi, 2015) outdoor study has the power to test the hypothesis with empirical methods. eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 213 the compatibility is between outdoor study with meaningful learning theory by ausubel. meaningful learning has two dimensions. the first dimension is knowledge input gained by self or with the teacher's guidance: the second dimension, student linking input on existing cognitive structure. according to (voogt & knezek, 2015) with two dimensions can help students to assess the significance of matter, in this case relating to computer science. according to (levy, peralta, pozzi, & tovar, 2018) in interdiciplinary environment teacher can ekslpore the meaningful learning multidimensional. the compatibility this theory with the outdoor study is currently at two learning dimensions. the first dimension is information input (observations and interviews) obtained by self and with little teacher guidance while working in the field. the information is then processed by the student at second dimension, meaning students collaborating information with geography material in the school (concepts that already exist). the second process can be put in the form of the scientific research. both of these things make student field observations process meaningful for students self. according to (gunarsa & ningsih, 2014) that ausubel and sullivan in 1968 show interactional relation between concept and basic structurally development. according to (arsyad, 2014) that direct observations provide the complete impression and meaningful on existing information and ideas. the outdoor study makes students learning meaningful. meaningful learning is because students can understand the importance of knowledge to real-life after observing the phenomenon in the field. knowledge, in this case, the importance of the karst hills environment to life. according to (sudjana & rivai, 2015) that the many benefits can get from field study activity (specially environment), one of which is the essence of learning more meaningful because the students are faced with the situation and the real situation. according to (becker et al, 2017) outdoor study can developed the social skill and a favourable attitude toward the environment. meaningfulness of learning is reflected in the student scientific research, especially in the preservation solution. students write alternative solutions that demonstrate concern and awareness of their surroundings karst hills environment. giving solutions according to what is observed in the field (contextual) to be more value in student scientific research. according to (prasetya, 2014) the process of learning in outside the classroom can provide a direct experience so that lessons more concrete and real, means of learning more meaningful. according to (gilchrist, passy, waite & cook, 2016), outdoor environment learning can construct the positive attitude towards the natural environment. eko harianto et al/geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 201-216 214 based on observations by the author that piaget and ausubel is the most powerful learning theory that was underlying the outdoor study. in addition to the two theories, small linked especially behaviorism learning theory. the figures are such as, watson, pavlov, thorndike, hull, guthrie, and skinner. the theory of these figures generally says that learning comes from changes in the behavior of children (students) committed by an adult (teacher). the theory is obtained mostly from testing on animals first. according to (zhou & brown, 2015) that the behaviorism theory children rule be object, the response only using habituation and can be more powerful if there is reward-punishment. teachers knowledge to effort suit the learning theory with learning process make learning more structured and leads to a clear purpose. in fact, teachers tend to ignore the theoretical basis of existing learning and doing teaching activities as usual. this makes the learning process tends to be routines activity and dominated memorize. the history of education is important and should be the basis for learning. according to (dillon et al., 2017), outdoor stype from school gardens to school journey, then developed in the form of field work and outdoor educational or outdoor study. this means that the development of education today should not forget the concept of the past, which it is based. 4. conclusion the results showed that outdoor study implementations suitable to the psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning. the compatibility is reflected in the learning activities before, during, and after working in the field. the teacher ability to implement the basic psychological theories of intelligence and meaningful learning makes learning more easily understood and meaningful for students. teacher, when implementing learning models or method should consider the basic theory underlying the study. it aims to learn more structured and leaded to a clear purpose. references agra et al. 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(2015). educational learning theories: 2nd edition.georgina: galileo open learning materials. 194 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.28233 research article vulnerability dynamics and urban flood hazardscape pattern: a geospatial analysis in gombe city, nigeria faiza mahdi doho, julius afolabi falola, sulaiman yunus* geography department, bayero university, kano, nigeria *corresponding author, email address : syunus.geog@buk.edu.ng 1. introduction floods are a type of natural calamity that cause both property damage and loss of life. they are said to be the most frequent and pervasive disaster in the globe, resulting in fatalities and severe economic and environmental damage (wang et al., 2011; mojaddadi et al., 2017). extreme weather event’s frequency and intensity (such as drought and rainfall) that causes floods and landslides, are unavoidable, particularly due to human intervention with the climate system (hardoy et al., 2013). between 1995 and 2015, according to estimates from the united nations (un), floods affected over 2.3 billion people and claimed 157,000 lives worldwide (wahistrom et al., 2015). floods around the world cost the economy close to 386 billion us dollars within the last three decades of the 20th century (wang et al., 2011). abstract in many nigerian states, urban flooding has resulted into the death of numerous people and destruction of properties worth billions of naira. this study examined the vulnerability dynamics and urban flood hazardscape pattern within gombe city with a view to providing bases for policy formulation (where necessary), enforcement and decision making on flood risk reduction for enable sustainable urban development. aster dem and landsat images (2000, 2010 and 2019) was used to generate digital terrain model (dtm) and impervious surface areas. rainfall data for 2000-2018 was used to examine rainfall trend using regression analysis. the result revealed that flood hazardscape and vulnerability dynamics are largely influenced by physical and social factors. the results for vulnerability dynamics shows that as at 2000, about 1.4km2 lies on the relatively low vulnerable area,4.1km2falls within the moderate, and about 14.6km2 falls on critical area. by 2010, only about 1km2 lies on the relatively low area, 5.2km2 occupied the moderate and about 15km2was found within the critically vulnerable area. in 2019, the vulnerability dynamics depicts that about 33.4km2, impervious surface (builtup area) existed, out of which 2.8km2 lies on the low vulnerable area, 9.4km2 on the moderately vulnerable and 21.2km2 in critically vulnerable areas. it is concluded that flood hazardscape and vulnerability dynamics in gombe city is influenced by both physical and anthropogenic factors. it is recommended that planning departments should put into consideration urban flood hazardscape maps for future development so as to reduce the risk and control future exposure flood impact. keywords : impervious surfaces; feature extraction; hazardscape; urban flood; vulnearbility dynamics article info article history received : 10 december 2021 revised : 11 july 2022 accepted : 3 august 2022 published : 28 august 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 2, august 2022, 194-206 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.28233 mailto:syunus.geog@buk.edu.ng https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 195 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 studies on flood vulnerability have utilized both physical and socioeconomic indices (clark et al. 1998). according to dewan (2013), there are four physical signs that a region is more susceptible to flooding: elevation (low-lying lands are riskier and residents' infrastructures exposure to flooding are greater); distance from channels because susceptibility is increased by closeness to active channels; given the fact that the potential impact of floods is greater in built-up regions, landuse and or land cover are not a negligible predictor of susceptibility. lastly, drainage systems: insufficient canalization is likely to exacerbate vulnerability (balica et al., 2012). assessing the spatial flood susceptibility is greatly influenced by the elevation and slope. flooding is more likely to occur in low-lying plains with gentle slopes than in high-lying places with steep slopes (huq et al. 2017). a approach to evaluate flood risks was developed by karmakar et al. (2010) and includes exposure to flood water, vulnerability to floods, and the likelihood that a flood will occur. this study used a conceptual framework of flood vulnerability from the hazard of place theory of vulnerability by cutter et al. (2012) to evaluate flood hazardscape, vulnerability, and its dynamics in gombe city (figure 1). figure 1. conceptual framework on flood vulnerability indicators source: adapted from cutter et. al (2012) the chambers (1989), wisner et al. (2004) and other vulnerability models are among those that the hazard of place model of vulnerability tries to combine. by merging biophysical and social vulnerability theory, cutter (1996) enables a comprehensive understanding of vulnerability. the biophysical vulnerability theory views vulnerability as an already-existing environmental situation and focuses on the environmental processes that produce dangerous conditions. by evaluating how close people are to the threat, estimates of biophysical vulnerability are primarily determined (cutter, 1996). according to the social vulnerability theory, a wide range of variables, such as economic conditions, development, social interactions, and political power, as well as indicators such as race, gender, age, and income variables, have an impact on patterns of susceptibility (wisner et al., 2004). based on this, this study combined a social factor (built-up or impervious surfaces) with a physical factor (elevation and rainfall) to determine the dynamics of flood hazardscape and susceptibility in gombe city from 2000 to 2019. urbanization's rise in impermeable surfaces, the expansion of informal settlements within lowlying floodplains, improper waste management, lack of adequate and well-connected drainage system, flood vulnerability indicators physical indicator rainfall elevation social indicator built environment (impervious surfaces) 196 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 and inadequate maintenance are only a few human activities that significantly enhance the danger of flooding (douglars et al. 2008, agbola et al., 2012, eguaroje et al. 2015). because of the location of informal settlements, urban poor in most developing nations who reside in cities are affected by the hazards of climate change resulting in floods (baker, 2012). flood as the most common disaster in africa affects about 500,000 people on average each year in west africa (douglas et al 2008). urbanization-related anthropogenic effect has a significant impact on urban flood risk in african cities. cities in developing nations are frequently at high risk and vulnerable because of socioeconomic issues and poor physical infrastructure (henderson, 2004). floods have been devastating practically all of nigeria's states, from riverine regions in the south to northern states, causing infrastructure to collapse, sinking structures in both rural and urban areas, killing people, and compelling many to leave their homes temporarily or permanently (adedeji et al., 2011). due to fast population change which creates high demand for land and ensuing urban development processes, particularly the increasing number of settlements on floodplains, gombe is one of the cities afflicted by urban flooding, making the urban poor vulnerable to flood risk (daniel et al., 2012). there have been numerous studies on flooding in nigeria and gombe city, including those by dabara et al., (2012); abashiya et al., (2017); daffi, 2014; agbonkhese et al. 2014; webster et al. 2014; ejikeme et al. (2015) ; emmanuel (2016); chan et al. (2011); biondi et al. (2013); eze et al. 2018; bamidele & badiora, 2019 and azua et al. 2019. to influence the creation and implementation of planning and policy aimed at preventing, reducing, and mitigating the risks associated with urban flooding for sustainable urban development, none of these researchers examined the pattern of urban flood hazardscape based on physical factors (location, terrain, and rainfall) and the vulnerability dynamics. therefore, this study examined the vulnerability dynamics and urban flood hazardscape pattern within gombe city. 2. study area gombe city is geographically located within latitude 10° 15′ 02” n and 10o20′00′′ n and longitude 11°05′00′′e and 11o15′05′′e (figure 2). the city shares a common border with kwami from the north, yamaltu-deba local government area to the east, and akko to the south and west. being the capital of gombe state, the city has about 52 km2 total area of land (ministry of lands and survey gombe, 2009). centrifugal expansion, building densification, and changes to the urban design were shown by the geographical and chronological examination of gombe city's layout. due to this expansion, the traditional town and 60 peri-urban settlements were combined in 1997 to form one urban area, which grew to a size of 30 km2 in 2000 (balzerek et al., 2003). this growth has caused urban areas to encroach far beyond the designated town boundaries, which was followed by considerable change in land use that increased the impervious surface and decreased the pace at which rainwater infiltrated into the ground. the gombe urban area has good road access to other regional hubs. the town is home to many residential neighborhoods, including pantami, gra, arawa, state low cost, kumbiya-kumbiya, madaki, federal low cost, tudun wada, dawaki, yalanguruza, bolari, jekadafari and shamaki, among others. 197 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 figure 2. gombe state and the study area (gombe city) the inter-tropical convergence zone's movement mostly determines the dry and wet seasons of gombe's climate (itcz). it receives 835mm of precipitation on average annually (between may and september), with its peak occurring in august (amos et al., 2015). the relative humidity follows a similar trend throughout the year, peaking in august at about 94 percent and falling to less than 10 percent during the harmatan season. the average yearly temperature is roughly 260°c (balzerek et al, 2003). flooding is due to a change in the weather (rainfall pattern) (abashiya et al., 2017). sandstones make up most of the bedrock, which is then covered by tertiary and quaternary deposits. the city is situated on a low-lying and undulating terrain that slopes from the liji hill in the east to the akko escarpment in the west. the city is continuously expanding into areas with mountainous terrain because of urbanization (with elevation of about 622m). the city was built on a complex geologic relief made up of crystalline bedrock, much of which is supported by sedimentary formation and old crystalline basement complexes. the northern limit of gombe city is marked by the kerri-kerri formation, which forms a plateau. a breached and irregular cliff that rises over 150 meters above the surrounding plain in certain places serves as the southern edge's defining feature. the area is surrounded by terrain that is hilly and with steep sides along the lower portions of the gently undulating slopes (east-facing at 2°–3°). gombe and lijji hills located within a section of the benue trough (zambuk ridge), are two of the region's most notable landforms. alluvium deposits make up most soils created in-situ by the bedrock's chemical and physical breakdown. the alluvium covered area rises westward; however, it has been estimated that about 10% of the gombe formation is beneath alluvium (obaje, 1999). urban gombe's population has increased by 6.79 percent from 266,844 in 2006 to the estimated 542,012 in 2019, according to the national population census. from 1900 to 1952, gombe town's population grew slowly (by 300 to 18,500 people), but from 1964 to 1991, it grew dramatically (by 47,000 to 138,000 people). high demographic pressure on the land because of this population growth led to subsequent development activities like home construction. indigenous tribes including the fulani, tera, tangale, bolewa, and other minority tribes live in gombe. flooding is a concern in gombe city, and it is related to urbanization and population growth. flood disasters will continue to have negative effects on the urban poor as urbanization increases (alam et al., 2008). urban flooding has been the 198 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 main environmental disaster in terms of ecological risks, leading to the loss of life, property, and homes as well as the eviction of residents in gombe city. 3. methods 3.1 types and sources of data the study's data sources include original sources of qualitative, quantitative, and remotely sensed data. through interviews, the qualitative data was collected. the remotely sensed data are in the form of satellite images (landsat images) and digital elevation models, whereas the quantitative data are rainfall data (aster dem). the data's description is shown in table 1. table 1. characteristics of satellite images and digital elevation model used data type date resolution acquisition source landsat (tm) p186/52, p187/52 and p187/53 dec-2000 30m usgs earth explorer website landsat (tm) p186/52, p187/52 and p187/53 dec-2010 30m usgs earth explorer website landsat (oli) p186/52, p187/52 and p187/53 dec-2019 30m usgs earth explorer website aster dem dec-2019 30m lp daac other types of data included rainfall data from nimet for the years 2000 to 2018, which was utilized to assess the trend in rainfall during the research period. gps was employed for ground truthing and to capture the coordinates of vulnerable locations discovered through vulnerability analysis. this makes it possible for validation of the identified dynamics. figure 3. methodology flow chart digital elevation model (dem) landsat 7(2000) landsat 7 (2010) landsat 8 (2019) image pre-processing feature extraction (impervious surface) impervious surface extraction (2000) impervious surface extraction (2010) impervious surface extraction (2019) digital terrain model (dtm) dtm and impervious surface overlay urban flood vulnerability mapping and dynamics urban flood hazardscape map (dtm) 199 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 3.2 data analysis clipping the dem of gombe city, from which the dtm was created, is the first step in the data analysis process as outlined in the methodology flowchart (figure 4). in order to establish the pattern of urban flood threats, the dtm was divided into three elevation zones, referred to as low (360–461), intermediate (461–531), and high (531-622) (based on natural breaking). due to its significance as a physical factor, flood hazardscape pattern was determined based on these elevation zones and divided into three categories (i.e relatively low hazard, moderate and critical). integrating factors exposed to the dangers, such as built-up areas (impervious surfaces) and the people residing there, is necessary to determine vulnerability and its dynamics. the research area was cut out using the extraction tool in arcmap 10.2 after the landsat pictures had first undergone preprocessing (to remove cloud and noise). using the example-based feature extraction tool in envi 5.3 software, impervious surfaces were retrieved from all pictures taken at decadal intervals between 2000 and 2019 at each location. this was based on the spectral signature of the impervious surfaces and the textural features of the surfaces. to get intersections of impervious surfaces with the indicated hazard zones at different elevation levels, the classified digital terrain model and the extracted impervious surface data were combined, and the raster calculator tool (arcmap 10.2) was used to run several queries. this made it possible to identify sensitive regions and how they changed over time because of urban growth. the area of the extracted impervious surfaces from the three time periods at different vulnerability levels was calculated using a zonal statistics program. to study the trend in rainfall pattern and the relationship with the dynamics of urban flood susceptibility, the rainfall data for gombe city from 2000 to 2018 were studied using linear regression. results were presented in tabular form, graphs, and maps to present the analysis' findings. 4. results and discussion 4.1 urban flood hazardscape based on physical factors (elevation and rainfall) as rainfall receiving amounts are nearly consistent throughout the study area, it was discovered that the terrain's characteristics and elevation have a significant impact on the flood hazardscape. figure 4 shows the pattern of urban flood dangers, which were classified into three zones: comparatively low, moderate, and critical. figure 4. flood hazardscape map 200 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 this, therefore, signifies that flood hazardscape pattern in gombe city is largely influenced by elevation which defines the terrain into flood hazard zones (table 2). table 2. flood hazardscape zones elevation hazardscape zone 380-461m critical hazardscape area 461-531m moderate hazardscape area 531-622m low hazardscape area arowa, pantame, and wuro shijji gabukka's environs were discovered to be particularly exposed to flooding, because they are in regions with very low elevation (ranging from about 380-461m above sea level). on the other hand, locations inside the extremely high elevation of roughly 531-622m between latitude 10016′03′′ n and longitude 11007′6′′ e and 11008′6′′ e are nearly exempt from flooding (low vulnerability). figure 5. annual total rainfall trend in gombe city (2000-2018) regarding the distribution of rainfall and how it affects flooding, figure 5 illustrates a trend line that depicts variations in the rainfall pattern, particularly over the past ten years. a positive trend line showing an increase in rainfall reception in gombe city is shown by the trend analysis. the increasing rainfall trend in gombe is consistent with studies by abaje et al. (2014) and abashiya et al. (2017). these researches confirmed that gombe is seeing an increase in rainfall, which also contributes to the occurrence of floods. regression analysis depicted rainfall trend/pattern the area, which is shown in table 3. for the 19-year study period, the p-value derived from the rainfall slope is 0.2143; the value is greater than 0.05 and indicates that there is no statistically significant link between rainfall over time. only 8.9% of the rainfall values match the regression analysis, according to the r2 statistic (coefficient of determination), which is 0.08915. given that rainfall intensity is one of the primary causes of urban floods in gombe city, a rise in rainfall inevitably has an impact on the vulnerability of built-up areas to flooding. table 3. summary of linear regression analysis showing rainfall trend in gombe (2000-2018) variable regression equation p-value significance r2 gombe y=7.9442x-15003 0.214344409 no 0.089152663 y = 7,9442x 15003 r² = 0,0892 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 r a in f a l l a m m o u n t ( m m ) 201 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 4.2 impervious surfaces (social factor) and urban flood vulnerability dynamics according to the analysis of impervious surface and flood vulnerability dynamics, there were approximately 20.1 km2 of impervious surfaces in the study area as of 2000, of which 1.4 km2 fell within a relatively low hazard area, 4.1 km2 fell within a moderate hazard area, and approximately 14.6 km2 fell within a critically flood hazard area (table 4). this relates to the vulnerability levels because the degree of vulnerability of built-up regions is determined by how exposed they are to different flood danger landscapes. in other words, this means that the vulnerability patterns represent the built-up places that are most often located in severely sensitive environments. table 4. impervious surface and vulnerability dynamics impervious surface dynamics area (km2) level and extent of vulnerability (km2) critically moderately relatively low impervious (2000) 20.1 14.6 4.1 1.4 impervious (2010) 21.2 15 5.2 1 impervious (2019) 33.4 21.2 9.4 2.8 when compared to the change in the distribution and area of impervious surfaces across the three danger zones by 2010, which encompassed a total of 21.2km2, it was discovered that the dynamics of the vulnerability to floods were more vivid. in this instance, the comparatively low hazard area is only around 1 km2, the moderate hazard area is about 5.2 km2, and the critical hazard area is about 15 km2. according to the vulnerability dynamics, there were approximately 33.4 km2 of impervious surface (built-up area) by 2019. of that, 2.8 km2 are in low vulnerability areas, 9.4 km2 are in moderate vulnerability areas, and 21.2 km2 are in critically susceptible areas (table 4). figures 6 and 7 show the impervious surface dynamics from 2000 to 2010 and 2019 respectively. figure 6. relatively low (a) and moderate flood vulnerability (b) dynamics for the years 2000, 2010 and 2019 against flood hazardscape map (a) (b) 202 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 figure 7. critical flood vulnerability dynamics (a) and composite map of vulnerability distribution (b) across the study period against flood hazardscape map the overall finding indicates that impervious surfaces have increased from 20.1 km2 in 2000 to 21.2 km2 in 2010 and 33.4 km2 in 2019, which has led to vulnerability dynamics as built-up areas have increased in all danger zones. due to the area's elevation, there has been a 100 percent change in the extent of impervious surfaces inside the relatively low risk zones between 2000 and 2019. similarly, there has been a 129.3 percent change in impervious surfaces covering moderately sensitive areas from 2000 to 2019. the terrain's potential for both residential and commercial use meant that the rate of change was rapid in this area. finally, the critically susceptible area's percentage is 45.20 percent (i.e from 14.6.1km2 to 21.2.4km2). despite the fact that people live mostly in places that are extremely susceptible, they nevertheless regard these areas to be more suited because there is no height and a steep slope. some portions of the wards of nasarawo, bolari east, dawaki, herwagana, ajiya, and some portions of tudun wada shamaki were identified on the 2000 urban flood vulnerability map as being among the most vulnerable. jeka da fari and federal lowcost are considered to be slightly vulnerable, whereas the high stream sections of gra are considered to be less vulnerable. in 2010, shongo estate is in the low vulnerable area, whereas parts of madaki are very vulnerable. the same zones are shown on the 2019 map of urban flood vulnerability with increased impervious areas, which has increased urban flood sensitive areas. most of the the city's areas are susceptible to urban flooding, however between 2000 and 2018, there was a significant urban expansion and rise in impervious surfaces from 19 km2 to 25 km2. the moderate and critical zones contain most of the increases. the main causes of flood recurrence are an increase in impervious surfaces and altered rainfall patterns. the changes are significant because more places are becoming vulnerable to flooding because of the construction of additional buildings in the most densely populated, most vulnerable locations, which lack proper drainage infrastructure and amenities. the dynamics of flooding vulnerability are directly correlated with the amount of built-up area (impervious surfaces) within the hazard zones. the results of zhang et al. (2018), who discovered a significantly positive link between the dynamics of impervious surfaces and urban waterlogging risk areas in guangzhou, south china, are similar to those of this study. therefore, in order to direct urbanization toward the low sensitive areas, as also discovered by sohn et al. (2020), planners and policy makers must take into account impervious surfaces of various types in relation to the hydraulic system under specified rainfall depths. (a) (b) 203 faiza mahdi doho et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 194-206 4.3 factors influencing the vulnerability dynamics the elements impacting the flood vulnerability dynamics were determined using the findings from the analysis of flood hazardscape and vulnerability dynamics. another element impacting the dynamics of vulnerability is the increase in rainfall amount brought on by a shift or variability in the pattern of precipitation. this agrees with research such as abashiya et al (2017) who also found that rainfall in gombe metropolitan area increased from 2000 to 2014, which may have contributed to the floods of august 20, 2004, july 12, and september 5, 2014. the nature of urban expansion, which shows an increase in impervious surfaces from 2000 to 2019 is mostly in peri-urban settlements like arawa, burundi, bye pass, bogo, tumfure, kagarawal, and shongo idrisa despite its lying on floodable areas, is another factor that influenced the vulnerability dynamics. this increase in impervious surfaces can be attributed to land value. this supports the findings of acheampong & anokye (2013), who found that affordable housing costs and cheap land prices are two factors that affect where people choose to build their homes in metropolitan areas. despite the locations' vulnerability to flooding, individuals nonetheless choose to live there. 5. conclusion the study concluded that physical and social elements, particularly elevation, rainfall, and the distribution of impervious surfaces (built-up area) within gombe city, had a significant impact on the urban flood hazardscape pattern and susceptibility dynamics. increased rainfall combined with an uneven growth in impervious surfaces and their distribution across all hazard zones continue to affect the dynamics of flood susceptibility. the study suggests that when planning for future development, the planning authorities should take urban flood hazardscape maps into account. to remove the increasing surface runoff brought on by the rise in impermeable surfaces, the city should have effective and efficient drainage systems. additionally, city growth should be managed and directed toward the less vulnerable areas, namely the western side of the city. to make land inexpensive and accessible to urban poor and avoid constructing on flood-prone locations, the state government should reform the land use act. finally, it's important to enforce building codes, especially in flood-prone areas. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references abaje, i.b., ogoh, a.o., amos, b.b. and abashiya, m. 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(2018). effects of impervious surface on the spatial distribution of urban waterlogging risk spots at multiple scales in guangzhou, south china. sustainability, 10(5), 1589. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051589. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2017.1294113 https://doi./ https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9866-2 https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051589 geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia, vol. 7 no. 1 (2022) accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 . editorial board editor in chief fahmi arif kurnianto (scopus id: 57208473928) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia international advisory editorial boards mihai ciprian margarint (scopus id : 36698019400) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania fahrudi ahwan ikhsan (scopus id : 57208469257) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia mustafa ustuner (scopus id : 56246446800) department of geomatics engineering, yildiz technical university, turkey bashkim idrizi (scopus id : 55937683800) department of geodesy, university "mother teresa" -skopje, macedonia guillermo hector re (scopus id : 7102894803) department of geology, universidad de buenos aires, buenos aires, argentina laras tursilowati (scopus id : 55317967300) indonesian national institute of aeronautics and space (lapan), indonesia elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia m. asyroful mujib (scopus id : 57217104177) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia lyubka pashova (scopus id : 6506546577) national institute of geophysics, geodesy and geography, bulgarian academy of sciencesdisabled, sofia, bulgaria mohmadisa hashim (scopus id : 55214571400) department of geography & environment, universiti pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia fajar rizki widiatmoko (scopus id : 57218205475) faculty of mineral & marine technology, institut teknologi adhi tama surabaya, indonesia era iswara pangastuti (scopus id :57208469549) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia copyright (c) 2022 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember focus and scope geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, naturesociety and gis) to resolve human-environment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction publication information geosfera indonesia (geos. ind.) : | issn: 2598-9723 (print)| issn: 2614-8528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. its published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020. this journal has been covered by following indexing and abstracting services: (1) cabi : cab abstracts ; (2) directory of open access journal (doaj); (3) ebsco; (4) google scholar (5) one search (national library of republic of indonesia), (6) web of science. secretariat of geosfera indonesia department of geography education, university of jember, fkip building, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, east java, 68121, indonesia. telp. (0331) 334988 / 330738 email : geografi.fkip@unej.ac.id website : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi copyright (c) 2022 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember table of contents surface groundwater pollution dynamics over 2015-2020 in the salt drying pond of pademawu subdistrict, madura, indonesia 1-17 wisnu arya gemilang, ulung jantama wisha, mas agus mardyanto spatio-temporal variability analysis of rainfall in kumadugu-yobe river basin, nigeria 18-41 ahmed abubakar jajere, ajiya bulus sawa, usman ado kibon, bibi umar muhammed, modibbo babagana-kyari performance of soil quality: indicator-based gis analysis of jamunadhaleshwari and surma-kushiyara floodplain regions, bangladesh 42-60 tanbi tanaya sarker, sameena begum, md. shohel khan, mohammed abdus salam, shehan tawsif risk perception and preparedness in flash flood-affected communities: evidence from bahorok, indonesia 61-71furqan ishak aksa, egianinta sinulingga outdoor learning to improve the wetland ecological literacy of geography education students 72-84 faisal arif setiawan, aswin nur saputra 85-95 impact of geographic conditions on sirri marriage phenomenon in situbondo district singgih susilo, budijanto budijanto, ifan deffinika, novia fitri istiawati rain station network analysis in the sampean watershed: comparison of variations in data aggregation 96-108 entin hidayah, gusfan halik, minarni nur trilita local wisdom values of the pulo traditional village community in environmental management 109-118 yani sri astuti, revi mainaki, anita eka putri copyright (c) 2022 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember cover geosfera 71.pdf (p.1) editor.pdf (p.2) focus and scope april 2022.pdf (p.3-4) 264 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.30169 research article performance of uav image for flood mapping with 2 dimensional model in kaliputih river, panti district icha derka, entin hidayah * , gusfan halik department of civil engineering, university of jember, jember, 68121, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : entin.teknik@unej.ac.id 1. introduction jember regency, precisely in panti subdistrict, is one of the flood-prone areas; it can be seen on the disaster-prone map of the jember regency by bpbd. in 2006, a flash flood had occurred in panti district on january 1. this incident resulted in around thirty-one people dead and seven people missing, 120 houses, rice fields, and plantations were damaged, and bridges were cut (khusniani, 2006). flash floods resulted in fatalities and damage to some facilities and infrastructure. according to bpbd, panti sub-district was the area most severely affected by flash floods compared to 10 other sub-districts, which was due to the lack of a disaster information system. in addition, in 2011, the panti was hit by another flood, precisely on friday, march 4, 2011, which damaged roads and injured four people (seno, 2011). in 2016, to be precise, on sunday, february 4, there was an overflow of river water in panti district, which damaged roads and clean waterways (luqmanto, 2016). abstract in january 2006, the flash flood in panti sub-district was a national disaster, causing damage to building infrastructure and fatalities. from this incident, it is necessary to have flood mitigation by providing a map of the distribution of flood inundation using a 2d hydraulic model to provide information regarding the extent of flood inundation in the study area. due to the limited dem data for 2d modeling, it is necessary to use uav images to provide a dsm with good and higher resolution. this study aims to assess the performance of 2d flood modeling results using hec-ras equipped with ras mapper through uav processing as input. there are 21 gcp in the study area as an increase in accuracy, the rmse value in the horizontal direction is 0.3853m, and the vertical direction is 0.1836m. from the ce90 accuracy test results for a horizontal accuracy of 0.58m and le90 for a vertical accuracy of 0.30m, it can be concluded that the map accuracy test meets the 1:2500 scale. terrain maps are input to hec-ras; selected meshes are 5x5m and 2x2m. the modeling results can show the inundation depth in each gcp from the min-max depth. the model calibration shows an rmse value of 0.183, while the flood depth validation shows an rmse value of 0.13. in other words, modeling can represent the distribution of flood inundation in the study area and provide benefits for the community to be more alert in the event of a flood in the coming year. keywords : uav; gcp; dsm; hec-ra; flood mapping article info article history received : 11 february 2022 revised : 16 july 2022 accepted : 1 june 2022 published : 24 december 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 3, december 2022, 264-276 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.30169 mailto:entin.teknik@unej.ac.id https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1233-6850 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 265 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 in 2019, the head of the emergency and logistics division of bpbd said that the water discharge of the kaliputih river increased to 3m, causing hundreds of residents to flee to safer places. moreover, on sunday, january 26, 2020, there was a flood in panti district, which inundated residential areas and agricultural land, making it difficult to evacuate (simbolon, 2020). on january 28, 2022 bpbd recorded flood events in several sub-districts, one of which was in panti sub-district which submerged two residents' houses. from the various events, mitigation efforts are needed by providing a map of the distribution of flood inundation using a 2d hydraulic model to provide information regarding the extent of flood inundation in the study area (ongdas et al., 2020). the modeling required terrain input in dem data (tunas et al., 2019). however, the lack of topographic data in the study area makes flood modeling require the use of uav images (karamuz et al., 2020), because the results of uav processing can produce a good dsm (bhandari et al., 2015). for this reason, uav image technology is very support in this study, which can produce high-resolution data that is smaller than 1m. the use of uav imagery in previous studies has resulted in high accuracy on high-resolution maps. orthophoto data was used to test the accuracy of x,y, and dsm, which was converted to dtm to test the accuracy of the z value (taufik et al., 2020). to get a good level of accuracy, it is necessary to plan gcp points that are spread evenly in the study area (gindraux et al., 2017). gcp points must be clear, easily visible, and not easily changed. besides that, the gcp is in the wgs-84 datum coordinate system and is made of non-destructive materials with contrasting colors (national land agency, 2017). based on the success of uav images in producing high resolution, this study uses uav images with a resolution smaller than 50cm/pixel according to big for flood hazard mapping. this study aims to perform flood modeling using hec-ras equipped with ras mapper. in general, the advantages of hec-ras 2d itself are that it can simulate flooding in various flood scenarios (ongdas et al., 2020) and estimate the level of flood depth. the results of uav processing are used as terrain input in hec-ras (mourato et al., 2017), and the discharge value is also inputted so that it can produce flood inundation modeling through simulation of the desired scenario (kim et al., 2020). in this way, the flood modeling map produced will be much better at representing the geometry of the kaliputih river in kemiri village, panti-east java district. then the results of flood inundation modeling can be used to inform the surrounding community about vulnerable areas and the distribution of flood inundation. the location of kaliputih was chosen in panti district because there was a large flash flood in 2006 and resulted in many fatalities in this area. in addition, almost every year, floods occur in the study area. the absence of an early warning system at the study site results in a lack of knowledge among the residents about anticipating hazards. therefore, flood mitigation efforts by providing a map of the distribution of flood inundation using a 2d hydraulic model through the results of uav processing need to be made in the study area to provide information to the public regarding the distribution of flood inundation. 2. methods the research process is divided into three stages: the first stage of collecting topographic data to obtain a terrain map, the second stage of hec-ras 2d modeling is to obtain the distribution of flood inundation and the third stage of modeling validation for the first and second stages of the process. 2.1 study area the location of the research was carried out in the kaliputih subwatershed, which is included in the bedadung watershed, and has an area of 27.32 km² (consisting of 21.92 km² of the forest, 0.02 km² of vacant land, 0.59 km² of settlements, 0.05 km² of irrigated rice fields, 1.98 km² of shrubs, 2.10 km² of gardens and 0.66 km² of fields). the selected area is the kaliputih river along 3.13 km with a 3 266 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 uav photo area. 83 km², which is used as the determination of the gcp point. figure 1. study area topographic data collection at the case study is carried out by field survey, determining and placing gcp points as control points for uav recording to obtain terrain maps. the discharge and water level data were obtained from pu sda jember in 2020 on the makam dam discharge records which were used for the model calibration process. at the same time, the field survey and the filling out the form by respondents were used to determine the distribution of floods and depth in the model validation process. 2.2 unmanned aerial vehicle (uav) recording recording of study locations was carried out with the dji phantom 4 pro camera uav as a tool for taking aerial photos. smartphones are used to plan the placement of gps per gcp point (via google earth) and retrieve data in the form of field photos and stationery as data recording. aerial photography will be taken on tuesday, november 23, 2021, until november 27, 2021, starting at 07.00 wib finish according to the weather conditions on the spot. uav flights are carried out according to areas that have defined boundaries. the determination of the uav’s flying height can be done using pix4d_gsd_calculator. taking into account the target resolution, camera type, and uav sensor. ground sample distance (gsd) is obtained from equation (elkhrachy, 2021): gsd = (sw x h x 100) / (fr x imw) (1) dw = (gsd x imw)/100 (2) dh = (gsd x imh)/100 (3) 267 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 gsd is a measure of the resolution of the uav results obtained from the comparison between values; sw = sensor width of the camera (dji phantom 4 pro camera is 1” = 25.4 mm); h = flight altitude (maximum 120 m = 12000 cm), then divided by; fr = focal length of camera (24 mm resolution); imw = image width (width of the resulting image (4096 pixels). while dw = width of single image footprint on the ground (m) obtained from the multiplication value of gsd with imw per 100; and dh = height of single image footprint on the ground (m) is obtained by multiplying gsd with imh (image height = 2160 pixels) per 100. from the above equation, the gsd value is 3.10 cm/pixels, the dw value is 127 m, and the dh value is 67 m. 2.3 ground control point (gcp) before starting aerial photography, it is necessary to define the boundaries and placement of gcp points. in its determination, the gcp must be evenly distributed and can represent the selected study area (sanz-ablanedo & chandler, 2018). gcp points must be clear, easily visible, and not easily changed. besides, the gcp is in the wgs-84 datum coordinate system and is made of non-destructive materials with contrasting colors. gcp points were made by using white pylox for placement areas on paved roads. areas located in fields or open land used blue tarpaulins and were marked with a white (o) and nailed so that they are not easy to slide and disappear (national land agency, 2017). the gcp used in this study was intentionally selected by considering some aspects: land conditions, access to the gcp location, land cover and minimizing gap errors on gps by not measuring below the slope, as well as references and gps working concepts based on big tools (stöcker et al., 2020). coordinates points were determined by using a gps geoexplorer 3000 series trimble. it is a gps mapping that has an accuracy of 3m, using the l1 static observation method for 15 min, and made 2 observations at one point to show the accuracy of the observations. the determination of the height was calculated orthometrically using big 's geoid modeling. the limits and gcp determination can be seen in figure 3. figure 2.marking and reading of gcp points 268 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 figure 3. gcp boundaries and points 2.4 uav image product for generating digital terrain model (dtm) the products produced from the uav were exported into two primary data: the orthophoto rgb band as an interpretation of the existing appearance and dsm. the dsm data generated from the uav still contained data errors (spikes) on the water surface. the dsm data was then improved by removing points and interpolating according to the geometric measurements of the river. in this study, dtm can be generated from the schema filtering method using a tool with the help of pix4d (stöcker et al., 2020). the data were obtained from the rendering of agisoft through uav images, which were then calculated for the data accuracy assessment process (azmi et al., 2014; prayogo et al., 2020). 2.5 hec-ras modeling hec-ras was created by the hydrologic engineering center (hec), where the program is used to model flow in rivers. it was developed by the head of the hec-ras development division, gary w. brunner, and mark r. jensen, as user interface developers. the development of hec-ras accommodates several model components such as analysis of permanent and non-permanent flow face profiles, sediment transport analysis, and water quality analysis (usace, 2018). the program is equipped with ras mapper, which can assist in modeling the geometry, while the geometric data to be created are flow area, river, and cross-section (harman et al., 2008; traore et al., 2015). hec-ras 2d hydraulic model can provide simulation results, while the 1d model is only in the form of tables and graphs (bailey, 2019). 2d modeling input data in the form of dem (digital elevation model) data and terrain represented by mesh cells, 2d hydraulic models are considered better than 1d models because they can show simulations and flow movements around floodplain areas (hamdi et al., 2019). therefore, in this study, 2d hydraulic modeling was chosen in order to show the distribution area in the floodplain area. the 2d equation can be seen in equation (4) regarding volume conservation and equation (5) regarding momentum conservation which is governed by the saint-venant equation: 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑡 = 0 (4) 269 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 1 𝐴 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑡 + 1 𝐴 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝑄² 𝐴 ) + g 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑓) = 0 (5) where a = flow area; x = flow path distance; q = lateral flow per unit length of the channel; g = speed of gravity; t = time; y = hydraulic depth; so = base slope; sf = frictional slope. the method used was the reconstruction of the dsm, which was based on terrestrial measurements and reconstructed to obtain the close-actual elevation mode. to set the 2d flow area mesh and brake line, several alternatives were used to get the best model performance. bc line upstream and downstream of the river was set through the geometric data menu. in the 2d inundation modeling process, the type of unsteady flow was chosen because the river flow in the study area is a natural flow that flows in an unstable/constant manner. 2.6 model performance measurement model performance measurement is carried out in two stages: providing terrain maps by calculating data accuracy and calibrating model performance by comparing observations and modeling. calculation of data accuracy from uav images can be seen in equations (6-10) below (azmi et al., 2014; prayogo et al., 2020). mse = (σδxi² + σδyi²) / n (6) rmser = √ 1 n ∑ (δxi2 + δyi2)ni=1 (7) rmsez = √ 1 n ∑ (δzi2)ni=1 (8) ce90 = 1,5175 x rmser (horizontal) (9) le90 = 1,6499 x rmsez (vertical) (10) rmse = √(x² − y²) / n (11) mse is mean squared error; rmser is root mean square error horizontal; rmsez is root mean square error vertical; xi is number of x errors; yi is total y error; zi is number of z errors; n is the number of data, and ce90 is a measure of horizontal geometric accuracy defined as the radius of a circle indicating that 90% of the error is not greater than that radius, and le90 is a measure of the vertical geometric accuracy of the distance value indicating that 90% of the altitude error is not greater than that distance. the calibration accuracy of the model performance can be calculated using equation (11) above, where rmse is root mean square error; x is the existing condition; y is optimization, and n is the amount of data. 3. results and discussion 3.1 dtm accuracy accuracy calculations were obtained from gps measurement results and the results of the x,y calibration model and the z value which have been converted from ellipsoid modeling to orthometric modeling using big's geoid modeling facility. this orthometric value was then used to calibrate the z value in dsm modeling (taufik et al., 2020). the type of tool used was a gps l1 mapping tool without an additional antenna, so the accuracy was also low. to maximize this accuracy, repeated observations were made with two times literacy and 2 hours of observation time at each gcp point. dtm accuracy is seen from the rmse value based on the difference in coordinate values read by gps and uav (azmi et al., 2014; villanueva & blanco, 2019), which can be seen in equations (7) and (8). each coordinate and the resulting rmse value is in table 1. for dtm, accuracy values based on map scale accuracy (khaulan et al., 2021), can be seen in table 2. 270 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 table 1. horizontal and vertical accuracy test gcp coordinate gps coordinate uav wgs 84 utm zone 49s x longitude y latitude z x longitude y latitude z x error y error z error 1 790735.57 9103116.93 407.19 790735.83 9103116.78 407.20 0.069 0.021 0.000 2 790819.88 9103096.53 412.47 790819.55 9103096.19 412.77 0.106 0.118 0.091 3 790893.30 9103087.20 419.34 790892.94 9103086.86 419.05 0.127 0.113 0.084 4 790874.16 9102901.91 421.24 790874.11 9102901.96 421.30 0.003 0.003 0.003 5 790592.56 9103068.20 410.67 790592.98 9103068.56 410.78 0.173 0.131 0.011 6 790543.97 9102755.17 391.19 790543.71 9102754.94 390.96 0.067 0.055 0.053 7 790561.12 9102529.76 378.59 790561.41 9102529.52 378.84 0.087 0.056 0.064 8 790535.82 9102153.72 356.28 790535.61 9102153.50 356.55 0.045 0.048 0.070 9 790508.53 9101985.98 343.85 790508.88 9101985.60 343.70 0.123 0.146 0.022 10 790254.69 9101883.98 344.36 790254.91 9101883.72 344.17 0.050 0.066 0.037 11 790498.20 9101777.70 332.61 790498.38 9101777.42 332.66 0.032 0.078 0.002 12 790748.82 9101733.27 339.27 790749.10 9101733.49 339.03 0.081 0.048 0.060 13 790310.47 9102331.53 378.88 790310.20 9102331.29 378.88 0.075 0.059 0.000 14 790691.66 9102853.21 391.05 790691.53 9102852.98 391.09 0.017 0.053 0.002 15 790826.87 9102474.25 362.97 790826.52 9102474.63 362.78 0.123 0.147 0.037 16 790542.59 9101872.48 337.38 790542.27 9101872.04 337.33 0.104 0.191 0.003 17 790435.73 9101331.81 316.64 790435.57 9101332.03 316.96 0.025 0.047 0.104 18 790360.28 9101021.24 313.54 790360.55 9101021.39 313.33 0.073 0.023 0.048 19 790204.83 9100710.68 283.29 790204.51 9100711.01 283.39 0.103 0.112 0.011 20 790240.30 9101741.09 336.08 790240.46 9101741.37 336.17 0.025 0.078 0.007 21 789815.10 9100849.74 296.49 789815.22 9100849.80 296.46 0.015 0.004 0.001 sum square 1.52 1.60 0.71 mse 0.15 0.03 rmser 0.3853 rmsez 0.1836 ce90/le90 0.58 0.30 from the calculation above, the value of rmser is 0.3853m and rmsez is 0.1836m. while the standard of accuracy according to nmas (national map accuracy standard) obtained ce90 values for horizontal accuracy of 0.58m and le90 for vertical accuracy of 0.30m. the accuracy of dtm based on big regulation (geospatial information agency) no. 6 of 2018 can be seen in table 2 below. table 2. dtm accuracy based on big accuracy test result scale map accuracy 1:2.500 class 1 (m) class 2 (m) class 3 (m) vertikal (le90) 0.30 0.5 0.75 1 horizontal (ce90) 0.58 0.75 1.5 2.5 from the test results on the accuracy above, it can be concluded that the vertical and horizontal accuracy tests of map accuracy meet the 1:2500 scale. both are in the order of class 1, with the maximum accuracy of the vertical accuracy test of 0.5m, while the maximum accuracy of the horizontal 271 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 accuracy test is 0.75m. previous research regarding the accuracy of dsm using uav imagery conducted by khaulan et al. (2021) resulted in a ce90 of 1.474m with a map accuracy meeting a scale of 1:5000, while in this study, a ce90 result of 0.58m was obtained with a map accuracy meeting a scale of 1:2500. the difference in values in previous research is because this research has gone through the process of adding the natural neighbor interpolation method to get better results than before. uav imagery is considered better for representing the topography of mountainous areas, as in this study (bhandari et al., 2015; karamuz et al., 2020; tsunetaka et al., 2020). previous researchers revealed that the accuracy and reproducibility of the digital elevation model obtained through uavsfm (structure from motion) were considered better than demtls (digital elevation model terrestrial laser scanning). meanwhile annis et al. (2020) through a comparison of lidar's dem and tinitaly's dem inputs, showed that the resolution of the uav results was better, namely 15 cm-30cm, while in this study, an even better resolution of 4 cm was obtained. the map accuracy-test value will be much better if the tools used are more adequate, such as the uav image accuracy assessment that has carried out using the dji mavic pro with gps rtk can produce a map accuracy test level that meets a scale of 1:200 (elkhrachy, 2021). while in this study 1:2500, this is due to the limitations of tools that can affect the level of accuracy. for further research, we can use better uavs and gps. 3.2 flood distribution map the inundation model simulation uses hec-ras equipped with a ras mapper, inputting the terrain and discharge values. the first step to modeling in ras mapper is to modify the terrain raster first and then create a polygon for the boundary of the flood-affected area in the geometric-2d flow area menu. after that, select the best grid using several scenarios of changing the 2d flow area mesh and break lines. there are several scenarios of mesh changes made from 2d flow area 15m x 15m, break line 10m x 10m; 2d flow area 10m x 10m, break line 7m x 7m; 2d flow area 10m x 10m, break line 5m x 5m; 2d flow area 5m x 5m, break line 3m x 3m; up to 2d flow area 5m x 5m, break line 2m x 2m. the selected mesh is 5m x 5m for the plain inundation area (2d flow area) with an entire grid of 39557 grid cells. then for the break line along the river, the selected mesh is 2m x 2m for the river area with a combined total grid of 42697 grid cells. compute run is done to see if the 2d modeling is successful. the success or failure of the mesh scenario can be seen from the 2d modeling as a result of comparing the discharge value and water level based on the information from observations in the field. the result of the flood inundation distribution map can be seen in figure 5, while the validation of the flood inundation depth can be seen in table 3. before validating the model, it is necessary to calibrate the discharge and water level observations and models, and the calibration results can be seen in figure 4 below. figure 4. calibration results q observat ion model rmse 32.652 1.500 1.190 0.096 45.233 1.630 1.400 0.053 50.272 1.700 1.480 0.048 55.058 1.750 1.550 0.040 56.833 1.750 1.570 0.032 59.986 1.800 1.620 0.032 70.257 1.900 1.760 0.020 81.055 2.000 1.900 0.010 86.644 2.050 1.980 0.005 104.137 2.200 2.200 0.000 0.183t ot al 272 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 figure 4 shows the calibration curve of the relationship between discharge and water level. the blue curve shows the results obtained from 2d modeling, while the red curve shows the results obtained from field observations. the release of 32.652m³/second in the model shows the water level is 1.19m, while field observations are as high as 1.5m. the discharge of 45,233m³/second in the model shows a water level of 1.4m, while field observations are as high as 1.63m. the calibration results between discharge and water level observations and the model show an underestimate, and the rmse value is close to 0, which is 0.183. in other words, the modeling can represent a map of the distribution of flood inundation in that location. figure 5. flood inundation depth by hec-ras modeling the results of flood mapping using a 2d hydraulic model through the hec -ras program resulted in a flood distribution in the study area of the kaliputih sub-watershed, kemiri village of +60.7 ha (affected land includes settlements, rice fields, gardens, and other open lands). gcp points are used as validation points for the inundation height between the results of running modeling and the natural conditions in the study area. hec-ras modeling shows that gcp 1 (river area) at the time of the incident had a depth of 5.07m, point 2 (footpath near the river) was inundated to a depth of 1.49m, 7,8,9 point (road area) was flooded as high as 0.07m, 0.51m, and 0.35m. point 11 (a market area with a concave area) was flooded to a depth of 2.75m and caused damage to bridges and market buildings at the time of the incident. point 14 (river bed area) shows a depth of up to 5.25m, causing damage to agricultural land and plantations. point 16 (residents’ house area) offers a depth of 2.03m, causing damage to cages and buildings. unflooded areas exist at gcp points 3-6, 10, 12-13, 15, 17-21, where the modeling shows a depth of 0m. the flood inundation depth in the modeling is different from the actual depth at each gcp. therefore, the comparison between the natural field conditions and the modeling needs to be validated, as shown below. the method of validating the height of the 2d flood inundation was carried out by surveying and measuring signs of physical damage that can still be detected and interviewing people in the research location. 273 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 table 3.validation of flood depth gcp coordinate inundation height hec-ras difference (m) rmse 1 790735.57 9103116.93 5 m 5.07 m 0.07 0.005 2 790819.88 9103096.53 1.4 m 1.39 m 0.01 0.000 3 790893.30 9103087.20 not flooded not flooded 4 790874.16 9102901.91 not flooded not flooded 5 790592.56 9103068.20 not flooded not flooded 6 790543.97 9102755.17 not flooded not flooded 7 790561.12 9102529.76 0.1 m 0.07 m 0.03 0.001 8 790535.82 9102153.72 0.5 m 0.51 m 0.01 0.000 9 790508.53 9101985.98 0.4 m 0.35 m 0.05 0.003 10 790254.69 9101883.98 not flooded not flooded 11 790498.20 9101777.70 2.5 m 2.75 m 0.25 0.063 12 790748.82 9101733.27 not flooded not flooded 13 790310.47 9102331.53 not flooded not flooded 14 790691.66 9102853.21 5 m 5.25 m 0.25 0.063 15 790826.87 9102474.25 not flooded not flooded 16 790542.59 9101872.48 2 m 2.03 m 0.03 0.001 17 790435.73 9101331.81 not flooded not flooded 18 790360.28 9101021.24 not flooded not flooded 19 790204.83 9100710.68 not flooded not flooded 20 790240.30 9101741.09 not flooded not flooded 21 789815.10 9100849.74 not flooded not flooded total 0.130 the rmse value is the magnitude of the prediction error rate, while the validation is the accuracy between the observation data and the simulation results. some of the model simulation results do not show 100% similarity with the actual situation; of course, each simulation result must have some differences or differences in values. therefore, the rmse value for validation can be used as a model suitability test based on the difference between the actual depth and the simulation depth of the model. the smaller the rmse value is close to 0, the better the validation between the observed value and the modeling (brunner et al., 2018). mani et al. (2020) have proven and verified the performance of a calibrated and validated model through several indicators, one of which is the rmse with a lower value and > 0, indicating that the simulation results of the model are superior and match the actual depth with the depth of the simulation results. from the validation of the flood inundation depth in table 3, it can be seen that for areas that are not flooded, neither the field conditions nor the hec-ras have any difference. however, in inundated areas, there is a difference between the conditions in the field and the hec-ras modeling. the above inundation validation states that the rmse value is close to 0, 0.130. in other words, the modeling can represent the inundation depth in the study area. yalcin, (2019) have previously carried out 2d flood modeling using uav imagery by mapping the 50-year, 100-500year return period. however, several studies (bailey, 2019; elkhrachy, 2015; mourato et al., 2017) did not perform validation tests related to the previous flooding, so the validity of the return period mapping model is still questionable. 4. conclusion with the topographical conditions in the study area, unmanned aerial vehicle (uav) data can provide a resolution of 4 cm/pixel for orthophoto and 12cm/pixel for dsm. the map accuracy test meets the 1:2500 scale so that the uav results can be used as dem input for 2d flood modeling. the limitations of gps significantly affect the accuracy of the model. therefore, for further research, it is 274 icha derka et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 264-276 necessary to use geodetic gps in the hope that the model's accuracy is much better. the results of the hec-ras modeling can show areas that are not inundated and inundation depths from < 1 m to close to conditions in the field. the rmse value is 0.130, in other words, the performance of uav processing as input for 2d flood modeling is considered good because the modeling can represent the distribution of flood inundation in the study area. flood inundation mapping modeling is expected to be developed for making maps in flood disaster mitigation efforts, such as making risk maps and mapping evacuation routes in the study area. the hope is that it can provide information to the relevant agencies to pay more attention to flood-prone areas and become an early warning system that provides a sense of security for the community. conflict of interests the author states that there is no financial conflict of interest in research and writing, either individually or in group. references annis, a., nardi, f., petroselli, a., apollonio, c., arcangeletti, e., tauro, f., ... & grimaldi, s. 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(2019). two-dimensional hydrodynamic modelling for urban flood risk assessment using unmanned aerial vehicle imagery: a case study of kirsehir, turkey. journal of flood risk management, 12(s1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12499. 398 research article development of creative handicrafts industrial zones in rajapolah district, tasikmalaya regency: spatial recommendation for village areas ari djatmiko*, deden syarifudin, zulphiniar priyandoko, meyliana lisanti, tyara kusuma diena department of urban and regional planning, faculty of engineering, universitas pasundan, bandung, indonesia received 2 november 2021/revised 13 december 2021/accepted 20 december 2021/published 30 december 2021 abstract the creative craft industry in rajapolah district as the main driver of the regional economy in supporting facilities that still concentrated in one particular area. there have been limited studies concerned on spatial functions in creative spaces. this article addresses the criteria for functions and facilities for the development of creative industrial areas and their application in spatial recommendation for village areas. this research used a quantitative method using instruments on statistical data. data analysis was divided into three stages namely identification, determining the criteria, and determining spatial functions. the study used the form of production data includes raw materials, labor, product size, product diversity, as well as the distribution of production houses, marketing facilities and education and training. the results showed that the development of creative industrial zones can be identified on criteria functions in the provision of raw materials, production, research and development, and marketing. some villages have fulfilled the criteria for the function of creative spaces, which are relatively scattered in craft production houses close to the center of village activities. besides that, it is also relatively far away, however supported by adequate road access. creative promotion centers in the form of markets, outlets and shops are mostly concentrated on the main road network. meanwhile, creative education centers in the form of multi-purpose building are relatively concentrated in some villages. articles contribute to the field of creative industry science which is practically used as a consideration for the government in preparing detailed urban masterplans. keywords: creative industry; handicrafts; spatial; development zone 1. introduction the creative industries emphasize creativity, individual skills, and talent in creating jobs and well-being. the focus of this industry is on empowering the inventiveness and creativity of an individual (ministry of trade of the republic of indonesia, 2008). creative economy has been widely debated in academic and public policy spheres due to the growing geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 398-425 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.27679 *corresponding author. email address : aridjatmiko@unpas.ac.id (ari djatmiko) 399 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 relevance of the creative sectors in the economy and its relation to development (luiz et al, 2019). in the age of knowledge-based economies, open innovation has increasing importance (yun et al., 2018). economic growth around the world has been influenced by the creative industries. (liang & wang, 2020). creativity, cultural policy, and public places are factors influencing the development of the creative industry (novak, 2019). organizations, especially within the creative industries, are increasingly faced with limitations while applying classical strategy theories due to changes in social and economic environmental factors (schmidt et al., 2018). creative hotspots have become a key role for urban policies to stimulate social, cultural, environmental and organizational growth of creative and knowledge-based clusters, districts and hubs. however, their functional and spatial characteristics vary due to their different evolving structure as new spaces of economic activity in a different contexts (mengi et al., 2020). the pioneering role of more bottom-up initiatives and innovative urban concepts, springing from the creative industries and movement initiators (jansen et al., 2021). the creative economy will become a global economic trend in the next few years. stagnation of economic growth and environmental degradation are increasingly worrying, encouraging the whole world to prioritize creativity in economic life that maximizes the added value of a product of goods and services in the context of the sustainability of human life and civilization (arifianti et al., 2017). the development of the creative industry as a driving force for economic growth for the economies (bilan et al., 2019). creative economy development is the right choice to maintain economic resilience in conditions of global crisis (romarina., 2016). creative individuals need to be accommodated by the provision of places or regions that can enhance the creative industries (richards., 2020). the organically grown, village-based artist clusters can be better nurture creative people than planned arts districts, for these clusters feature a flexible and autonomous land development arrangement, frequent interactions between artists and village residents, and a broad spectrum of entrepreneurial opportunities (li & liu, 2019). a presence of creative class attracts other members and further strengthen establishment of other creative sectors which can result in the formation of creative cluster (baculáková, 2018). the forms of creative industries will create new markets for the indonesian trade industry (lucky, 2014). the indonesian government promotes "traditional" handicraft businesses that have long been established as creative industries, however pays little attention to the creation of new knowledge and only focuses on heritage value as a selling point (zul & koster, 2017). large-scale industries with excessive promotion can hinder the development of local products 400 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 and creative industries (zhan & walker, 2018). however, it has often been invisible in the eyes of policy and policymaking (comunian & england, 2020). government policy can support the sectors through subsidies, regulations, standardization, and protections at regional and national level (liu, 2021). the creative industry in indonesia is growing rapidly and could not be separated from the support of new media. the use of new media by the creative industry attracts potential consumers not only from within the country but also from abroad (rusdi & genep, 2018). cooperation with competitors does not have a significant impact on innovation, have substantial implications for both practitioners and policymakers interested in enhancing innovation among small creative firms mainly craft sector (shafi et al., 2019). craft practices are unique in accommodating local wisdom values (zhan et al., 2017). the government has established a creative economy agency (bekraf) to improve quality and competitiveness with other types of industries. bekraf will strengthen cross-sector cooperation to ensure the existence of creative industries. creative industry concepts can accommodate the interests of science, society, and politics simultaneously (afrianti & aditya, 2020). when viewed from these conditions, small businesses and the informal sector actually have a big role in the economy of tasikmalaya regency during the crisis. it can be said that these two types of businesses support economic activity when large-scale businesses experience a downturn due to the crisis. therefore, the activities of small businesses and the informal sector need to be fostered and developed primarily to meet local needs by using local resources (tasikmalaya regency spatial plan 2011-2021). this is in line that the concept of the creative industry itself is a creativity-based activity that affects the economy and welfare of the community, such as handicrafts in batu city (fitriana, 2014). sme's currently have a significant impact on the economy of tasikmalaya regency even during the current economic crisis and covid-19 pandemic (romano, 2021).when conditions are unfavorable for other economic activities, creative industries in most types of creative industries become the backbone of the driving force of the community and regional economy. therefore, small businesses and the informal sector need to be fostered and developed especially, to meet local needs by utilizing local resources. in the tasikmalaya regency spatial plan (rtrw 2011-2021), creative economic activities need to be developed and allocated in a more explicit space. this implementation will undoubtedly be complex for the government to compile a more detailed plan document. the allocation of space needs to be done to ensure a sustainable environment which is a source of raw materials for the creative economy, creative activities, education for the initiators of creative ideas, markets 401 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 and of course also an attractive shopping tourism outlet that characterizes an area (furtwengler, 2021). creativity always brings exciting things, especially problem-solving ideas, artistic ideas, and ideas that please everyone interested in enjoying and owning creative goods and services produced by individuals or groups. therefore, a creativit y-based economy has always been attractive because it involves the creation of individuals and groups in a location, region, and agglomeration that impacts business (corazza et al., 2021; hardman, 2021). pandan woven craft is a superior product as a milestone and macroeconomic driver in rajapolah district, because based on the calculation the production value of this commodity exceeds the value of agricultural products. this commodity is able to absorb quite a lot of labor and has a special characteristic that is not owned by other regions, so it has a long opportunity to continue to be developed. the designs produced on bamboo crafts are the same as patterns made in other sundanese areas such as garut, ciamis, pangandaran, kuningan, cirebon regencies. the difference is in the design of the pandan weaving craft pattern, which has a different designation even though the shape is the same. the creative industry is essential in developing the city at the sub-district scale (khoirunnisa & aprianingsih, 2019), which already has an activity whose identity grows from the creativity of its people (inggriyani et al., 2018; muhtadi et al., 2017). culture and customs become thematic cities the cultivation (achdiani et al., 2019; tuitjer & dirksmeier, 2021), culture and customs become thematic cities that have a significant impact on regional development (mantri, 2021; maryati & prahmana, 2019). based on several previous researchers, they found and published the viewpoint of production management (achdiani et al., 2019), knowledge management (cowen & hodgson, 2015; fouts et al., 2016; munns et al., 1996; nonaka & peltokorpi, 2006; takey & carvalho, 2015), the use of culture as a source of increasing economic activity in the tourism sector (mckercher, 2020; rahmat, 2017; shehade & stylianou-lambert, 2020), and the last of which is also widely published is cultural and social (beghetto, 2021; puozzo & audrin, 2021; sawyer, 2021). so far, publications on how creative industries are framed in geographic and spatial space have not been studied by previous researchers. then, from a social and cultural point of view, this article is presented to strengthen the development of creative industries in the temporal space. the temporal space is related to having a creative area, namely an area with certain geographical boundaries that provide space for creative 402 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 actors, government, business, community, and society to express themselves in production, and it increases economic activities by respecting creativity. the scope of the creative zone can be divided into creative villages and cities/districts that have at least one or more creative areas that have: space, center, and creative center. based on the ministry of tourism and creative economic, creative areas can be created or packaged to become tourist objects with unique attractions that can be created to attract several tourists. to explain the creative zone in a city, we consider the criteria for determining it based on the bandung city medium term development plan (rpjmd). in one of the targets of the bandung city rpjmd, there are five indicators of a creative city, namely creative policies, creative infrastructure, law, ethics, and intellectual property rights; creative capacity and economic contribution (arifianti et al., 2017). interpreting development under an overarching framework of innovative entrepreneurial governance, the creative reconfiguration of the built environment (spatial fix) and temporal deferral of crisis and long term speculation on land (re)development (temporal fix) are in place to cope with the crisis of capital accumulation (he, 2017). this article contributes to the field of study of the creative economy and creative industries from a spatial point of view. it helps consider the preparation of a detailed urban master plan. 2. methods this study reveals aspects of performance based on quantitative data such as the number of workers, production, the existence of creative facilities (kementerian pariwisata dan eknonomi kreatif ri, 2014; rajagukguk, 2018), classification and grouping of space functions (pipirigeanu et al., 2014). then, the data needed is more numeric, although some facts are obtained based on interviews and observations, especially social-entrepreneurship skills (imran, 2013; yulaikhah et al., 2019). we used a quantitative approach based on the facts needed in researching the problem and the research results. quantitative research has the character to test theories through the variables used, usually carried out with research instruments consisting of numerical data that can be analyzed based on statistical procedures (baxter & jack, 2015; creswell, 1991). there are several analyzes carried out, namely (1) identifying the characteristics of the existing conditions in the handicrafts of tasikmalaya regency, which consist of the number of creative handicraft industries, namely the availability of labor, the number of production of the creative handicraft industries, the availability of raw materials, the 403 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 marketing of the creative handicraft industries, transportation conditions, and the availability of supporting facilities for the creative handicraft industry; (2) determining the criteria for the creative industry area space in accordance with the characteristics of the creative handicraft industry. determination of the criteria for functions and zones for creative industries based on the existence of the number of creative handicraft industries consisting the availability of labor, the number of production of the creative handicraft industries, and the availability of supporting facilities for the creative handicraft industry including craft production houses, craft centers, shop, outlet, market, village-owned enterprises, banks, and cooperative. (3) determination of the functions and zones of creative industry development consisting of creative spaces, creative education centreand creative promotion centrefor handicraft industries in rajapolah district in tasikmalaya regency. in determining the functions and zones of this creative industry, it is carried out through the following stage: 1) classification of the characteristics of creative industry criteria by using a scoring technique. scoring is given from the lowest score to the highest score on each creative industry criteria. to calculate the classification analysis on each variable, it is calculated in eq. 1: class grouping = highest number−lowest number interval group (1) then, 2) determination of the functions and zones of the existing creative industries in each village based on the classification of criteria for assessment of both space, creative promotion centre and creative education centre. the function of the creative industry in each village is determined based on a high criterion class value. (4) the formulation of the proposed function of the creative industry in each village is based on the results of determining the existing functions in the previous stage. the proposed creative industry function is in the form of adding functions that do not yet exist or are still low based on an analysis of the existing service functions. 3. results and discussion 3.1 characteristics of the existing conditions of the handicrafts in rajapolah district 3.1.1 amount of creative industries of pandan woven handicrafts, rajapolah district the pandanus woven handicraft industry in tasikmalaya regency is one of the handicrafts of tasikmalaya regency which is able to create jobs and absorb quite a lot of labor, especially for the people of tasikmalaya regency itself. the area known as the center for the creative industry of pandanus woven handicrafts in tasikmalaya regency is rajapolah district. for more details can be seen in the table 1. from the table 1, it can be 404 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 seen that the pandan weaving creative industries per village for the last 5 years has neither increased nor decreased. table 1. amount of pandan weaving creative industries per village in rajapolah district in 2013-2017 (department of industry and trade of tasikmalaya regency, 2021) village business unit 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 manggungsari 57 57 57 57 57 manggungjaya 54 54 54 54 54 sukaraja 55 55 55 55 55 rajapolah 73 73 73 73 73 dawagung 30 30 30 30 30 rajamandala 26 26 26 26 26 tanjungpura 16 16 16 16 16 sukagalih 12 12 12 12 12 total 323 323 323 323 323 the increase in labor that affects the number of handicraft industries is also influenced by an increase in the number of workers who increase their skills. creative industries are usually related to tourist destinations in a region (ferreira et al., 2018). intellectual creation offering is a major element and is related to creativity, expertise, and potentially improving the welfare of society (yunianto et al., 2021). the need for efforts in creating new knowledge and increasing the value of local heritage in the development of handicrafts in the future. expectations can further increase the impetus for driving the regional economy (fahmi & koster, 2017). the development of handicrafts in rajapolah has also expanded these efforts, although improvements are needed at a later stage. 3.1.2 amount of raw materials for pandan weaving creative industry in obtaining raw materials for the creative industry of woven pandanus, rajapolah district, it was obtained from tasikmalaya district such as cipatujah and gombong districts, central java province. the raw materials for cardboard and glue are obtained from the districts of tasikmalaya, tangerang and china. the raw materials used in the process of making woven pandanus rely on raw materials from outside the tasikmalaya regency, namely relying on gombong, central java. to find out the existing condition of the place for selling raw materials for the pandanus woven creative industry, it can be seen in the table 2. 405 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 3.1.3 pandan weaving creative industry marketing the tasikmalaya regency government through the industry and trade office provides assistance to entrepreneurs to be able to promote and sell pandanus woven products by holding a special exhibition for the creative industry in tasikmalaya regency. this event is held 1-2 times a year. from the results of the exhibition and sales, it can increase sales and special requests that are tailored to the wishes of consumers. the development of information technology in this millennial century must certainly be captured by businesses as a new strategy in marketing their products to be wider and be able to reach all levels of consumers, especially for creative economic actors (romdonny & maulany, 2020). entrepreneurs market their products by promoting them through online media such as social media such as instagram and facebook. the entrepreneurs sell the pandanus woven to the industrial center located in rajapolah district, precisely in rajapolah village. entrepreneurs sell their products outside the tasikmalaya regency such as to the city of bali, tanah abang market, senen market jakarta, lombok, central java and others. in addition to the national market, this pandanus woven product in rajapolah district has also penetrated the international market; of which are exported to japan, china, spain, saudi arabia, the netherlands, italy, egypt and others. the widespread sales of woven pandanus can not be separated from the price of the woven which is relatively cheap and of good quality. table 2. amount of raw materials for creative industry of pandan weaving in rajapolah district in 2017-2021 (department of industry and trade of tasikmalaya regency, 2021) village quantity of raw materials (sheets) 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 manggungsari 4,509,600 4,509,600 4,509,600 4,509,600 4,509,600 manggungjaya 4,447,200 4,447,200 4,447,200 4,447,200 4,447,200 sukaraja 4,473,600 4,473,600 4,473,600 4,473,600 4,473,600 rajapolah 5,522,400 5,522,400 5,522,400 5,522,400 5,522,400 dawagung 780,000 780,000 780,000 780,000 780,000 rajamandala 528,000 528,000 528,000 528,000 528,000 tanjungpura 441,600 441,600 441,600 441,600 441,600 sukanagalih 384,000 384,000 384,000 284,000 284,000 total 21,086,400 21,086,400 21,086,400 21,086,400 21,086,400 406 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 figure 1. shop selling pandan woven products in rajapo lah district 3.1.4 amount of supporting facilities for pandan weaving creative industry rajapolah district is designated as the center of the pandanus woven creative industry, so it is not surprising that pandanus woven products from rajapolah district have reached national and international markets. as an area that is the main road for the province of west java that connects tasikmalaya regency and bandung city, the location of the rajapolah craft center is in rajapolah village. the explanation regarding the support of raw materials and the marketing of handicraft products as described previously is in line with the important aspects of the supply chain management approach. holistically, a professional approach with adequate governmental support could spur the demand while activating the supply-chain. this sector still suffers due to its being unorganized, lack of education, low capital, inadequate usage of new techniques, and flawed institutional framework (dayinee, 2021). rahmasari (2011), explained that through this supply chain management approach, small and medium-sized businesses, especially those based on creative industries, can use this approach to increase the competitiveness of their industry. because this approach is quite strategic in winning the competition, by focusing on the procurement of logistics. efficient integration between suppliers, factories, warehouses, and storage, so that goods are produced and distributed in the right quantity, to the right location and at the right time (table 3). furthermore, this integration will also affect marketing performance as an important element in the development of handicraft products. 407 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 table 3. amount of supporting facilities for pandan weaving creative industry (tasikmalaya regency central bureau of statistics, 2021) village store village owned enterprises total manggungjaya 1 1 2 manggungsari 3 1 4 sukaraja 16 1 17 rajapolah 36 1 37 dawagung 1 1 2 rajamandala 0 1 1 tanjungpura 0 1 1 sukanagalih 3 1 4 total 60 8 68 3. 2 determination of criteria for creative industry zones based on previous research, the criteria for determining the zone are limited. one of the literatures, according rahmasari (2011) reveals the need for efficient integration between suppliers (suppliers), factories (manufactures), warehouses (warehouses), and storage (stores).but the literature also does not describe the criteria for assessing creative industry zones. we formulated that the assessment criteria for the three spaces in the form of a creative room, a creative promotion center and a creative education center, can be explained based on the industrial development functions in the form of creation and production functions, promotion and marketing, and product development. the three functions and their space can be identified with the assessment criteria. creative space assessment criteria in the form of amount of pandan weaving production; pandanus weaving creative industries; availability of manpower for the creative industries; product diversity and have a creative individual. the criteria for evaluating creative promotion centers are the presence of showrooms, shops/markets, factory outlets and financial institutions (bumdes and cooperatives). meanwhile, the criteria for creative education centers are the existence of pandanus weaving training facilities and research and development facilities. these criteria are used to study the determination of creative industry zones. 3. 3 characteristics and classification of creative craft industries 3.3.1 analysis of the classification level distribution of the amount of pandan weaving creative industries 408 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 the location of the pandanus woven creative industry is spread across all villages in rajapolah district. each village has several different pandanus woven creative industries and most of them were located in rajapolah village. for more details can be seen in the table 4. table 4. classification levels of distribution of pandan weaving creative industries in rajapolah district village business unit percentage information manggungsari 57 17.70 high manggungjaya 54 16.77 high sukaraja 55 17.08 high rajapolah 73 22.67 high dawagung 30 9.32 low rajamandala 25 7,76 low tanjungpura 16 4,97 low sukanagalih 12 3.73 low total 322 100 3.3.2 analysis of classification level availability of number of labors the availability of labor in an industrial company has a very important role, because the role of labor is needed in the production process. in the location of the pandanus woven creative industry, most of the workers are local residents or natives of the area. the development of the pandanus woven creative industry in rajapolah district can absorb quite a lot of labor, especially for women so that it can reduce unemployment and increase community income, especially people in rajapolah district, for more details can be seen in the table 5. table 5. classification levels of availability of availability of manpower for the creative industries of pandan weaving in rajapolah district 2017-2021 village total manpower percentage category manggungsari 1,879 21.39 high manggungjaya 1,853 21.09 high sukaraja 1,864 21.22 high rajapolah 2,301 26.19 high dawagung 325 3.70 low rajamandala 220 2.50 low tanjungpura 184 2.09 low sukanagalih 160 1.82 low total 8,786 100 409 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 3.3.3 analysis of the classification level of pandan woven product diversity in the development of the creative industry, especially the pandanus woven creative industry, one must have high creativity in developing its products. completely new and unique creations have the potential to create diverse products. although it is in the form of doing creations, the unique style of local products still needs to be a concern. this is in accordance with the view that the economy (society) must be carried out by local actors and does not prioritize profit alone in the development of the creative industry (putri et al., 2020). innovation is also needed in the development of creative industries. the concept of innovation geography includes innovation elements in the form of actors, organizations including production processes. actors in innovation include not only individual scientists and inventors, but also the organizations that employ them, such as universities and companies. entrepreneurs are very decisive for innovation to be developed (malecki, 2021). the development of handicrafts in rajapolah has also expanded these efforts, although improvements are needed at a later stage.in rajapolah district, there are various kinds of products produced from pandanus woven entrepreneurs scattered in villages in rajapolah district. to be able to know the diversity of the products of the pandanus woven creative industry, it can be seen in the table 6. table 6. classification levels of pandan woven product diversity in rajapolah district village types of products number of product types information manggungsari handbags, handbags, shoulder straps, purses, boxes, tissue boxes, flip flops, high heels, sandals, wallets, shoe racks, parcel boxes, aqua boxe, wedding gifts, multipurpose baskets, multipurpose tubes, mini drawers, places makeup 18 moderate manggungjaya hand tote bag, shoulder strap handbag, box, tissue box, flip flops, sandals, high heels, wallet, shoe rack, parcel box, multipurpose basket, multipurpose tube, food placemat 13 moderate sukaraja hand tote bag, shoulder strap handbag, sling bag, multipurpose basket, mini drawer, makeup holder, folder holder, office desk top mat, curtain fastener, food placemat, sofa cushion, box, tissue box, wallet, shoe rack, parcel box , glass frame, hat, trash can, aqua box, night light 22 high rajapolah tote bag, shoulder strap handbag, clutch bag, multipurpose basket, mini drawer, makeup 24 high 410 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 village types of products number of product types information holder, folder holder, office desk top mat, curtain fastener, food placemat, sofa cushion, box, tissue box, wallet, shoe rack, parcel box , flip flops, flip flops, high heels sandals, trash can, aqua box, bed lamp, photo frame, mat dawagung multipurpose basket, multipurpose box, delivery box, multipurpose tube, tissue box, wallet, purse, tote bag, shoulder strap handbag 9 low rajamandala multipurpose basket, multipurpose box, delivery box, multipurpose tube, tissue box, wallet, purse, tote bag, shoulder strap handbag, parcel basket, food placemat, multipurpose tube, makeup holder 13 moderate tanjungpura multipurpose basket, multipurpose box, delivery box, multipurpose tube, tissue box, wallet, purse, tote bag, shoulder strap handbag 9 low sukanagalih multipurpose basket, multipurpose box, tissue box, clutch bag, tote bag, shoulder strap handbag 6 low total 12 3.3.4 analysis of classification level amount of production of pandan weaving creative industry the pandanus woven creative industry does not experience an increase or decrease every year, it tends to remain constant, only the value of the investment price changes. the production of plaiting in rajapolah district is very diverse depending on the products produced, the more diverse the products, the higher the production will be. for more details, see the table 7. table 7. classification levels of amount of pandan weaving production in rajapolah district in 2017-2021 village production/year (unit) percentage cetegory manggungsari 72,153,600 21.39 high manggungjaya 71,155,200 21.09 high sukaraja 71,577,600 21.22 high rajapolah 88,358,400 26.19 high dawagung 12,480,000 3.70 low rajamandala 8,448,000 2.50 low tanjungpura 7,065,600 2.09 low sukanagalih 6,144,000 1.82 low total 337,382,400 100 411 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 3.3.5 analysis of facility classification level the pandanus weaving training facility available in rajapolah district is the multipurpose building. for more details, see the table 8. table 8. classification levels of number of pandan weaving training facilities in rajapolah district village multipurpose building total percentage information manggungjaya 1 1 12.5 high manggungsari 1 1 12.5 high sukaraja 1 1 12.5 high rajapolah 1 1 12.5 high dawagung 1 1 12.5 high rajamandala 1 1 12.5 high tanjungpura 1 1 12.5 high sukanagalih 1 1 12.5 high total 8 8 100 3.3.6 analysis of supporting facilities classification level the pandanus woven support facilities available in rajapolah district are shops and village owned enterprises. for more details, see the table 9. table 9. classification levels of number of pandan weaving training facilities in rajapolah district village shop/fo village owned enterprises total percentage information manggungjaya 1 1 2 2.94 low manggungsari 3 1 4 5.88 low sukaraja 16 1 17 25.00 moderate rajapolah 36 1 37 54.41 high dawagung 1 1 2 2.94 low rajamandala 0 1 1 1.47 low tanjungpura 0 1 1 1.47 low sukanagalih 3 1 4 5.88 low total 60 8 68 100 from several analyzes that have been carried out, it is necessary to conduct an assessment to produce a proposal for the development of creative industrial space in rajapolah district. for more details can be seen in the table 10. 412 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 table 10. assessment and proposed development of pandan weaving creative industry no village creative space creative education centre creative promotion centre existing conclusion development proposal have a creative individual high number of labors high product diversity number of places for research and development and training high production quantity there are factory outlets/ showroom /shop/market there are financial institutions (bumdes and cooperatives) 1 manggungsari       creative education centre and creative space directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre 2 manggungjaya        creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre 3 sukaraja        creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre 4 rajapolah        creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre 5 dawagung    does not meet the directed as a creative space and creative promotion centre 6 rajamandala     does not meet the directed as a creative space and creative promotion centre 7 tanjungpura    does not meet the directed as a creative space and creative promotion centre 8 sukanagalih    does not meet the di directed as a creative space and creative promotion centre note : creative space: 3 criteria for creative space are met; creative education centre: 2 criteria for creative education centre are met; creative promotion centre: meets 3 criteria as a creative promotion centre. the analysis in this study provides an overview of the assessment of creative industry zones and spatial distribution in the sub-district area. from several previous studies, it is very limited to provide an explanation of the creative industry zone and only choose one or two criteria in assessing the creative industry. through the assessment of the creative industry zone, three creative spaces can be determined that show the link between production and marketing, and are related to the supply chain concept. each creative space shows a different dominant function, first, a creative space that shows creative and production functions which are realized with objects in the form of handicraft production houses. the second room is a creative promotion center that shows promotion and marketing functions, which are realized by the objects of showrooms, shops/markets, factory outlets and financial institutions (bumdes and cooperatives). while 413 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 the third room is a creative education center that shows the function of product development, realized by an object in the form of a multi-purpose building that functions for training facilities as well as research and development. based on table 10, it produces an assessment for the direction of developing creative spaces, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre. the concentration of activities and creative spaces in 4 (four) villages/kelurahan in rajapolah district is influenced by the agglomeration economy. concentration of activities in the form of an agglomeration economy is important for creative industries. the urbanization economy that results from the diversity in the service industry is the main source of the agglomeration economy. furthermore, the availability of communication, represented by digital access and the convenience of transportation, increases knowledge and thereby improves the urbanization economy (tao et al., 2019). this is also reinforced by the tendency that creative companies are more clustered than producer service companies and other urban facilities, including in shanghai. the results show that urban amenities are stronger in explaining local attractiveness, including co-location, accessibility, and high density clusters. this condition strengthens the relationship between industrial agglomeration and creativity (wu et al., 2022). this condition strengthens the agglomeration of creative activities in rajapolah district. the three spatial functions that can be explained by their spatial distribution also show relatively rare results from previous studies. based on figure 2, it can be seen that the distribution of creative zones in the form of creative spaces, creative education centre and creative promotion centre is found in 4 villages/kelurahan, namely manggungsari village, manggungjaya village, sukaraja village, and rajapolah village. creative space is relatively spread out in handicraft production houses which are close to village activity centers and at a relatively longer distance but with adequate road access support. creative promotion centre in the form of markets, outlets, and shops are mainly concentrated on the main road network. meanwhile, the creative education centre in the form of gsg (multipurpose building) is relatively concentrated in the area of 3 villages. 414 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 figure 2. map of the pandan weaving creative industry zone in rajapolah district 3.4 assessment analysis and recommendations for creative industry space development the results of the analysis that show the determination of the creative industry zone in the rajapolah district region, can be input for the proposed development of the creative industry zone. this proposal is of course also an enrichment of the limitations of previous studies related to development directions based on the analysis of the determination of the three creative spaces that have been formulated previously. analysis of assessments and recommendations for the development of creative industrial space is prepared by looking at the existing conditions and proposed developments, so that an assessment is obtained from each village by providing recommendations for the development of the function of the creative industry space. for villages whose existing conditions do not meet the criteria for creative industry spaces, the initial proposal is directed as creative spaces and creative promotion centre first as supporters of villages that are directed as creative education centre. the following are some recommendations for additional facilities to meet the criteria for creative spaces according to the development proposals that have been directed. to increase the economic potential in this regency, it is necessary to map the creative industries as dynamic sectors. currently, there is no mapping data available about the creative tasikmalaya regency 415 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 industry development to be used as a basis for government policy-making and or decisionmaking in developing the creative economy (rahmah et al., 2020). efforts to improve the performance of creative spaces are also influenced by strategic policy approaches that encourage successful development of cultural products and for job creation and poverty reduction. therefore, non-governmental organizations, provincial governments, and private organizations who cannot afford, but willing, needs help to provide the support and basic infrastructure needed to implementation of the program towards the development of the craft sector and continue to create more training program (oluwayemisi et al, 2020). this also needs to be developed in rajapolah district in developing its creative industry. the first stage in creative industry product innovation is often found to be in the form of agglomeration and is characterized by: 1) the need to meet the required inputs and the need to change inputs as often as possible during the innovation period, 2) the need for entrepreneurs to market products to a wide market. these two signs are in line with the criteria for creative spaces and creative promotion centre as existing functions which are recognized in the pandanus woven creative industry as the focus of this study. taking into account the existing conditions, a proposal for the development of the pandanus woven creative industry was determined in each village, so that to realize the proposed development, several recommendations for additional facilities were given. villages that are directed as a creative space, creative education centre and creative promotion centre of the village manggungjaya, manggungsari village, talbot village, and the village rajapolah. the surrounding villages as supporters of the creative education centre are dawagung village, rajamandala village, tanjungpura village, and sukanagalih village.the creative industry development proposal is also in line with the creative economydevelopment model, especially in the form of efforts to increase the number of industries, the number of workers (hr), product diversity and financial and marketing support institutions. thecreative economy development model must be based on the development of skilled, trained and empowered human resources to develop knowledge and creativity. apart from hr, there are 5 other pillars in the form of (1) industry; (2) technology; (3) resources (raw materials); (4) institutions; and (5) financial intermediary institutions (puspitasari, 2013). 416 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 table 11. assessment and recommendations for the development of the pandan weaving creative industry no village existing conclusion development proposal recommended addition of facilities 1 manggungjaya creative education centre and creative space directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre need additional shops/fo (shops where pandan woven products are sold) 2 manggungsari creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre it is appropriate between the existing conditions and the proposed development 3 sukaraja creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre it is appropriate between the existing conditions and the proposed development 4 rajapolah creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre directed as creative space, creative education centre, and creative promotion centre it is appropriate between the existing conditions and the proposed development 5 dawagung does not meet the directed as creative space, and creative promotion centre 1. need to add: a. number of industries b. total manpower c. product diversity d. shops/fo (shops where pandanus woven products are sold) 2. need to improve road network condition 6 rajamandala does not meet the directed as creative space, and creative promotion centre 1. need to add: a. number of industries b. total manpower c. shops/fo (shops where pandanus woven products are sold) 2. need to improve road network condition 7 tanjungpura does not meet the directed as creative space, and creative promotion centre need to add: 1. number of industries 2. total manpower 3. product diversity 4. shops/fo (shops where pandanus woven products are sold) 417 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 no village existing conclusion development proposal recommended addition of facilities 8 sukanagalih does not meet the directed as creative space, and creative promotion centre need to add: 1. number of industries 2. total manpower 3. product diversity 4. shops/fo (shops where pandan woven products are sold to further increase the success of the development of creative industry zones, a bottom-up approach needs to be considered. this bottom-up approach prioritizes input from community groups and industrial business actors, especially in terms of determining the functions, criteria and facilities that need to be provided. this is in line with li & liu (2019) which conveys the success of bottom up compared to top down in developing creative industries, especially supported by considerations of flexibility and autonomy in structuring industrial land as well as frequent interactions between business actors/artists and villagers as well as increasing the spectrum of entrepreneurial opportunities. in addition, the government needs to provide support to improve the ability to implement production, marketing and distribution strategies. this capacity improvement is needed in line with wondirad (2021), because the community still practices handicraft production with its relatively traditional business development strategy. increasing the added value of the handicraft industry is also carried out through improving relations between local and international producers or consumers. this pattern of linkage also occurs in rajapolah district, especially in the development of overseas marketing. this is in line with the results of oyekunle & sirayi (2018) which describes the relationship of the south african government with foreign companies that can play a key role in developing creative businesses and can shift to higher quality products and processes. however, a supporting development strategy must still be carried out around empowering local companies and building a full range of fiscal, trade, financial and competitive strategies intended to strengthen links between local and international producers. this is done with the specific end goal of increasing understanding of the creative industries in south africa and to better educate policymakers and support evidence-based policy and decision-making. increasing the competitiveness of the handicraft industry on a broad scale can be improved through efforts to increase access to transportation, products and increase information to both suppliers and consumers. it is also explained by dou et al. (2021) that 418 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 efforts to increase industrial competitiveness through improving transportation services, increasing intellectual property even though it only has a positive and significant effect on industry in developed countries and improvements in information technology also play an important role. the conditions in rajapolah are in line with these conditions, although it is necessary to increase competitiveness in the future. the hand woven crafts in rajapolah also show advantages over other areas in west java. this is in line with fan & feng (2019) that the handicraft industry can show a competitive advantage in this period which is influenced by the style or style of products, materials, and skills, as well as government contributions and consumer demand. therefore, the development of traditional crafts today requires government protection and internal transformation and industrial innovation. the development of the craft industry is also related to preservation that can be passed on to the next generation as also happened in rajapolah district. this is in line with yang et al. (2018) that most of the related literature focuses on the preservation of the built heritage. the development of traditional crafts contributes to the sustainability of livelihoods so it is necessary to ensure the transmission of skills and practices related to handicrafts from generation to generation. the development of traditional crafts triggers spatial changes including local public spaces, the re-establishment of local architecture, and the development of cultural landscapes. all three can also be observed in the conditions in rajapolah tasikmalaya handicrafts. traditional crafts can develop the local economy and be involved in cultural construction. this will ensure the natural continuation of the local heritage and culture and the strengthening and development of the premises (zhang et al., 2021). the development of the handicraft industry in rajapolah is also related to the development of local wisdom. this is in line with the development of the creative industry in the special region of yogyakarta, which is motivated by local cultural wisdom originating from customary law communities (yunianto et al, 2021). not only talking about local culture but information technology is also a form of creative industry. the development of creative industry business activities or small and medium industries (ikm) in the yogyakarta region experienced significant production growth, sourced from the ministry of industry (kemenperin) in the 2017 quarter. there was a growth of up to 17.28 percent compared to the same period in 2016. this growth exceeded the growth industry at the national.local level and engage in cultural construction. with the various descriptions that have been submitted, this study can enrich the four contents of the development of creative industrial zones and fill in the limitations of previous studies. the first content relates to the determination of the criteria for three creative industry 419 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 zone spaces; the second content relates to determining the function of the creative industrial zone space which is supported by creative and production functions, promotion and marketing as well as the development of creative industrial products; the third content is in the form of determining the spatial/spatial distribution of the creative industry zone which is realized with various relevant zone objects and the fourth content is the enrichment of efforts to develop creative industrial zones based on the results of the analysis of the determination that has been produced previously. 4. conclusion the formulation of assessment criteria for the three spaces in the form of creative space, creative promotion center and creative education center, can be explained based on industrial development functions in the form of creation, production functions, promotion, marketing and product development. in more detail, the criteria for assessing creative space functions and zones consist of the size of the industry, production, workforce and creative individuals; existence of marketing facilities and training facilities. several villages have met the criteria for the function of creative spaces, which are relatively scattered in craft production houses which are close to the center of village activities and are also relatively far away but supported by adequate road access. creative promotion centers in the form of markets, outlets and shops are mostly concentrated on the main road network. meanwhile, creative education centers in the form of multi-purpose buildings are relatively concentrated in several villages. recommendations for further studies are in the form of further identification of supporting infrastructure in the development of creative industrial zones and their integration with development directions based on detailed spatial planning directions for the development of related areas. suggestions that can be submitted for the implementation of this report are that in the future it is suggested that the government can focus more on developing creative industries, especially weaving and other types as regional potential, it is hoped that this report can be a consideration in industrial development and be a consideration in the formulation of determining service centers in the product of the detailed spatial plan. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in this article. 420 ari djatmiko et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 398-425 references achdiani, y., widiaty, i., suciati, nikmawati, e. e., & rahmafitria, f. 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village, sanden district, bantul regency, yogyakarta, indonesia hendry edy 1), m. baiquni 2), bambang triatmodjo 3) 1doctoral student in environmental sciences doctoral study program postgraduate school of universitas gadjah mada 2lecturer in doctoral program in environmental sciences postgraduate school of universitas gadjah mada and lecturer in regional development study program at the faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada 3lecturer in doctoral program in environmental sciences postgraduate school of universitas gadjah mada and lecturer in civil engineering study program, faculty of engineering, universitas gadjah mada email: 1hendry_edy@yahoo.com, 2baiquni99@gmail.com, 2bambang.tsipil@yahoo.co.id received 23 march 2019/ revised 22 july 2019/ accepted 24 july 2019/ published 1 august 2019 abstract infrastructure development jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) is a national program that passes through 5 provinces in java, which is one of the provinces passed through the special region of yogyakarta. one of the villages passed by the jjls development in the special province of yogyakarta is gadingsari village, sanden district, bantul regency. in this study, it will be seen how changes in land use in gadingsari village before and after jjls. the purpose of this study was to analyze changes in land use that occurred in gadingsari village. the analytical method used is a qualitative descriptive analysis method. changes in land use were obtained from the satellite image overlay analysis in the span of time, namely before jjls was built in 2013 and after jjls was built in 2017 and strengthened with field surveys and in-depth interviews. from the results of the research, it was found that the land area for settlements in gadingsari village before and after the jjls had changed. before the existence of jjls residential area was 78.90 hectare and it expanded to 104.93 hectare after the construction of jjls, there was an increase of around 32.99% . key words: infrastructure, overlay, jjls, land 1. introduction java island belongs to the group of developing regions in its good economic growth, generally located along the northern coast of java island such as semarang, pati, rembang and jepara. the opposite condition occurs in the southern part of the island of java where geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 78-89, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.10014 78 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 economic growth is slow and there is not much activity and movement of people or goods that occur. this happens because the road infrastructure is on the north coast where the code is good so the traffic is very heavy. in addition, when viewed from a landscape perspective the north coast is a lowland with many deltas, while the south coast coastal area is dominated by steep and thick beaches interspersed with sandy beaches. geographically, the south coast region of java consists of karts mountains and the condition of the region is dry.this condition creates a gap between regions, namely between the northern region and the southern region of java. the southern part of the island of java actually has great economic potential including fertile land, mining resources, marine resources, coastal tourism, karst cave tourism, natural and mountain tourism, forest tourism and cultural tourism (historical and cultural heritage) . these potentials have not been worked out well due to the limited infrastructure available on the south coast of java. to overcome these problems, infrastructure development is needed that can support the development of existing potentials. the availability of infrastructure can have an influence on increasing people's access to resources, thereby increasing access to productivity of resources which ultimately drives economic growth.the construction of roads in an area will open access to the area with other regions so that the flow of vehicles, goods or products can be transported quickly. with the existence of this road, there will be a lot of community efforts in order to fulfill the necessities of life such as opening stalls, restaurants or other businesses which will then move the economy of the local community. if the community along jjls cannot take advantage of this opportunity, investors will take over to take advantage of this opportunity. one of the infrastructure that is needed in this case is the road infrastructure. roads are the driving factor for economic change, regions that have a lot of road access tend to encourage land change in a direction that cannot be reversed (kubangun et al, 2016). road is one of the most important infrastructures to support economic activities to overcome the gap in the northern part of java and the southern part of java. in this southern part of java, the government built the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls). road is one of the most important infrastructures to support economic activities to overcome the gap in the northern part of java and the southern part of java. in this southern part of java, the government built the southern cross road (jjls). the construction of the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) is one of the government's efforts through the ministry of public works to increase the availability of infrastructure in the southern part of java. the southern crossroad road was built to reduce the density of transportation on the north java coast (pantura) and to spur the development of the region in the south java region. in addition, the construction of the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) is 79 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 also expected to increase access to mobility so that it can encourage economic growth in the areas traveled by jjls. the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) will connect 5 provinces in java, namely banten, west java, central java, yogyakarta and east java. the implementation of infrastructure development especially roads is expected to provide a variety of positive impacts on the community. the construction of the southern cross roadway is expected to be able to provide various implications for the surrounding communities. in principle, every implementation of development will always be an interaction or conflict of interest between the components of activities and environmental components so that it will cause changes in the environment. the land affected by jjls construction in gadingsari village is the sultan ground which belongs to the sultanate of yogyakarta. although its ownership is the sultanate of yogyakarta, the yogyakarta sultanate gives the opportunity to the community to manage and utilize the land for the benefit of the community. regulations that must be obeyed by the community are not allowed to build permanent buildings on the sultan ground land, so that there are no permanent buildings along jjls in gadingsari village.road construction will be able to exert influence on the area it passes through, both social, economic and other impacts. plans for the construction of the java southern cross road network of the special province of yogyakarta are carried out through 3 (three) stages of work, namely short-term, mid-term and long-term programs. in further developments the short-term program (20052007) connected between congot (central java province boundary) srandakan poncosari kretek parangtritis girijati klampok planjan baron duwet (central java province boundary) along 130, 305 kilometers by utilizing existing roads through widening the road to 7 m. the long-term program (2008-2025) connects between congot (central java provincial boundary) srandakan kretek parangtritis baron-duwet (central java province boundary) along 117.60 kilometers with a road body of 24 m (2 x 7 m asphalt ), make roads and bridges and tunnels. especially for tunnel construction, it is still in the discourse so that it is not included in the amdal study study. the target for the construction of the southern cross road in the special region of yogyakarta is divided into 2 programs, namely short-term programs and long-term programs. the short term program is basically to connect the road network across the southern island of java by utilizing the existing road network. while the long-term program is the construction of a long-term road and bridge network not entirely through network routes in short-term programs due to several technical matters and other considerations. the route used in the long-term program in the bantul regency area has a slight shift in the route with a road 80 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 length of 6.82 kilometers (dirt road) connecting through the srandakan iii bridge, the total length for the segment congot-srandakan is 25.65 kilometers. the route from srandakanprangtritis passes an existing road network with a segment length of 23.40 kilometers. the route from srandakan parangtritis passes an existing road network with a segment length of 23.40 kilometers. parangtritis route baron is still awaiting the results of further studies to determine the final route (there is a separate study of the possibility of making tunnels) baron route duwet uses an existing route in accordance with the route developed for short-term programs. the length of this route is 41.09 kilometers. one of the villages passed by the construction of the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) is gadingsari village, located in sanden district, bantul regency, special region of yogyakarta. the construction of the road in gadingsari village began in 2013. road construction was carried out by widening the existing roadway. after the completion of the construction of the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) in gadingsari village, land use changes occurred, especially the increase in land used for settlements. the purpose of this study is to find out changes in land use that occurred in gadingsari village before the construction of the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) in 2013 and after the existence of the jalur jalan lintas selatan (jjls) in 2017. the construction of jjls is expected to support economic activities and will tackling the gap in the northern part of java and the southern part of java. in this study we will look at the impact of jjls development on changes in land use. most of the land before the construction of jjls was land in the form of moor, gardens or rainfed rice fields which would be transformed into residential land. 2. the methods gadingsari village is located in sanden subdistrict, bantul regency with an area of 811.74 hectares with regional boundaries as follows: north side: caturharjo village, pandak district south side: indonesian ocean west side: poncosari village, srandakan district east: murtigading and gadingharjo village, sanden district the research location is gadingsari village, sanden district, bantul regency can be seen in figure 1. 81 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 figure 1. map of research location in gadingsari village in this study the tool used is a computer (hardware) that is used to digitize maps, software (gis software) to process spatial data: arcgis 10.2 and google earth take digital images and gps (global positioning system) used in fieldwork to shows the position so that it matches the predetermined point. the material used in this study is the map of sindutan village administration, maps of sindutan village land use in 2013 and 2017 sourced from existing images on google earth, secondary data of sindutan village monograph and other data related to research. data collection techniques in this study are documentation, image interpretation, observation and in-depth interviews. as the primary data in this study are the images obtained from google earth sindutan village, sanden subdistrict, bantul regency in 2013 and 2017. the primary data in this study is satellite imagery for the sindutan village area. furthermore, for secondary data can be obtained directly through the agency government agency at the research location. imagery can be interpreted as a visible picture of an object being observed, as a result of coverage or recording of a monitoring device / sensor, both optical, electro optical, optical-mechanical, or electromagnetic (kusumaningrat et al, 2017). image requires a process of interpretation or interpretation in advance in its use. in this research, image interpretation is done using the arcgis 10.2 program. in the form of visual interpretation, by interpreting or digitizing images to separate certain objects to produce a 82 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 map of land use change. based on image interpretation, it can be seen land use, and area of use in each year of shooting, so that from this interpretation results obtained two tentative maps of land use (in 2013 and 2017). the results of this interpretation are tentative and incomplete maps. this tentative map so that it becomes a complete map and has a high level of trust, it is necessary to do a field check (observation). observation is a way to collect research data through observation, recording, and visiting agencies to get the data needed. from the observation activities data can be obtained that may not be obtained from the image so that the map of the interpretation results can be corrected according to the latest data and can become the actual map. during this observation, in-depth interviews were also conducted. the purpose of the interview was to look at land use in the research area when conducting field checks. is the condition appropriate or not in accordance with the appearance shown in the image. interviews were conducted with residents around the land use and knowing the history of the land use. the data analysis technique in this study was carried out by analysis of the geographic information system. analysis of changes in land use by utilizing temporal spatial data is very useful, especially to find out the locations where changes in land use occur (nuraeni, et al, 2017). in this study data was obtained from the results of image interpretation analyzed, namely the 2013 land use map and 2017, then the data was analyzed. the analysis at this stage is the reinterpretation (reinterpretation) of the map done after testing the accuracy and observation. from the reinterpretation process, an overlayed land use change map will be produced (data for 2013 and 2017). analysis of changes in land use, area of each land use, extent of change, with analysis of geographic information systems. each of the different land use maps is stacked with the overlay technique, so that changes in type, area, and area of land change can be identified to produce information in the form of land use change maps in sindutan village, sanden district, bantul regency. after doing the geographic information system (gis) analysis technique with the overlay technique then qualitative descriptive analysis techniques were carried out. descriptive analysis is used to explain the findings in the field. the findings of the study included extensive changes in land use and types of land use. 3. results and discussion the land use map is taken from the imagery that is on google earth temporal, then a visual interpretation of each temporal is carried out with the arcgis 10.2 program. from the 83 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 results of the land use map analysis in 2013 which can be seen on the land use map in gadingsari village in figure 2 and the area for each land use in table 1. the lake area is 0.50 hectares, bushes of 3.39 hectares, for gardens covering 281.73 acres of settlement covering 78.9 hectares, irrigated rice fields covering 226.09 hectares, moorlands covering 94.59 hectares, land sand covering an area of 78.72 hectares and grass area of 6.05 hectares. table 1. table of 2013 land use maps no land use large (hectares) 1. lake 0,50 2. bushes 3,39 3. garden 281,73 4. settlement 78,90 5. irrigated rice fields 226,09 6. moorings 94,59 7. land sand 78,72 8 grasses 6,05 source: interpretation of google earth images 2013 figure 2. map of land use in gadingsari village in 2013 whereas the land use of gadingsari village in 2017 can be seen on the land use map in figure 3 and the area of each land use can be seen in table 2. lake area is 0.50 hectares, bushes are 3.39 hectares, for gardens covering 259.95 hectares, settlement 104.93 hectares, irrigated rice 84 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 fields covering 226.09 hectares, moorlands covering 94.59 hectares, land sand covering an area of 75.74 hectares and grasses covering an area of 6.05 hectares. table 2. table of 2017 land use maps source: interpretation of google earth images 2017 figure 3. map of gadingsari village land use in 2017 changes in land use in 2013 to 2017 can be seen in figure 4. the extent of land use change that occurred from 2013 before the jjls and in 2017 after the jjls can be seen in table 3. no land use luas ( hectares ) 1. lake 0,50 2. bushes 3,39 3. garden 259,95 4. settlement 104,93 5. irrigated rice fields 226,09 6. moorings 93,32 7. land sand 75,74 8. grasses 6,05 85 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 the change in garden land into a settlement of 21.78 hectares, changes the dry land is a settlement of 1.27 hectares while the land sand is a residential area of 2.98 hectares. table 3. table of changes in land use in 2013 to 2017 source: interpretation of google earth images 2013-2017 figure 4. map of changes in land use of gadingsari village from 2013 to 2017 in the study of land use change in gadingsari village, land use changes occurred before the south cross road (jjls) occurred in 2013 and after the existence of jjls in 2017. changes in land use that occurred on agricultural land turned into residential land and land no land use large (hectares) change (hectares ) 2013 2017 increase reduced 1. lake 0,50 0,50 2. bushes 3,39 3,39 3. garden 281,73 259,95 21,78 4. settlement 78,90 104,93 26,03 5. irrigated rice fields 226,09 226,09 6. moorings 94,59 93,32 1,27 7. land sand 78,72 75,74 2,98 8. grasses 6,05 6,05 86 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 changes. the road along the jjls gadingsari village found many flower gardens that were deliberately made by the surrounding community. these botanical gardens are tourist attractions for tourists, tourists can take pictures in the park with payment of retribution, so that this retribution can provide information for people who manage the land around jjls gadingsari village. there are several other studies related to changes in land use. fadilla restu et al, 2018 agreed on the conformity analysis of changes in land use to spatial / regional plans in the districts of penjaringan, north jakarta administration, using geographic information systems. this study discusses the suitability of the plan with the existing conditions in the field with mapping. this study focuses more on 2013 land use suitability for the jakarta spatial planning (rtrw) in 2030. ahardi m. ardhi et al .'s research in 2015 on the effect of changes in land use on changes in land value zones in gayamsari sub-district, semarang city in 2004 and 2014. the results of this study indicate the total area of land use change in gayamsari subdistrict in 2004 to 2014 was 106 ha. the biggest change in land use occurs in the use of dry land into settlements with an area of 24 ha. beatus m. laka et al., 2017 examined the changes in land use in sirimau district, ambon city. based on the results of the study it was concluded that the change in the area of land use in sirimau district, ambon city, in the last 10 years was very large for settlements of 1036.1 ha from the previous year amounting to 966.9 ha.another researcher who examined the related changes in land use was sadewo m nur et al, 2018 which examined simulation of changes in land use due to cellular automata-based kendal industrial estate (kik) development. based on the results of the research that has been done, it can be concluded that the cellular automata model is able to predict land use in 2031 in east kendal with the influence of kik development with a model accuracy rate of 95.68%. murdaningsih, et al., 2017 conducted a study on spatial analysis of changes in agricultural land use to support food independence in indramayu regency. the results showed that land use in indramayu in 1994 was dominated by paddy fields with an area of 133,716 ha (65%), farms covering an area of 18,780 ha (9%) and settlements covering an area of 16,627 ha (8%). in 2015, wetland area fell to 132,097 ha (64%) and settlements increased to 18,625 ha (9%). changes in paddy fields will affect food availability.nuraeni, r., et al., 2017 examined the analysis of changes in land use and regional land use directives in bandung regency. the results showed that land use in bandung regency experienced a change with the pattern of dominant change, namely forest into built land, plantations into built land, wetland agricultural plants (tplb) 87 hendry edy, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 78-89 into built-up land, tplb became dry land agricultural crops (tplk) and tplk became builtup land . the existing condition of land use in 2012 shows a mismatch with a space allocation of 54 ha. kusumaningrat m., et al 2017 examined the analysis of changes in land use and utilization of the 2009 and 2017 regional spatial planning (case study: boyolali regency). from the results of the study there was a change in land use to get results, economic activities decreased by 1275.9 hectares, social activities increased by 91.41 hectares, utilization of dwellings increased by 1363.16 hectares and classification of no use decreased by 210.61. changes in land suitability over a period of 8 years increased by 1291.19 hectares or 1.18%. another researcher who examined land use change was kubangun, et al. 2016 who conducted a study on the change / land use change model for critical land identification in bogor regency, cianjur regency and sukabumi regency.the results of this study indicate that land classified as critical includes sloping land with converted land use / land use. the main factor causing land conversion is the high demand for food, clothing, and shelter, due to increasing population density. 4. conclusion from the results of the research conducted by the authors it can be concluded that the construction of the southern cross road (jjls) which passes through gadingsari village, sanden district, bantul regency has an impact on land use in gadingsari village. changes in land use occurred before the construction of jjls in 2013 and after the construction of jjls in 2017. prior to the jjls settlement area of 78.90 hectares and expanded to 104.93 hectares after the construction of jjls, there was an expansion of 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(2014). analisis perubahan penggunaan lahan dan penutupan lahan tahun 2003 dan 2013 di kabupaten dairi. jurnal online agroekoteknologi, 2, 1310–1315. wahyunto, m.z. abidin, a. priyono &sunaryo (2001). studi perubahan penggunaan lahan di sub das citarik, jawa barat dan das kaligarang, jawa tengah. in prosiding seminar nasional multifungsi lahan sawah (pp. 39–40). 89 136 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.30236 research article the effect of gender and academic levels differences on disaster preparedness knowledge of pre-service teachers rima meilita sari1,* , ridhwan ridhwan2 1geography education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas samudra, langsa, aceh, indonesia 2geography education study program, stkip al-washliyah, banda aceh, aceh, indonesia *corresponding author, e-mail address : rima.melita.sari@unsam.ac.id 1. introduction in the aftermath of the 2004 earthquake and tsunami, all attention was paid to aceh province as the region most affected and suffered heavy losses causing the death of 166,541 people (bnpb, 2012). there have been 5 earthquakes in aceh in the last five years, from 2018-2022. these include the earthquakes in sabang, semeulue, and pidie in june 2020, january 2020, and february 2008, abstract the earthquake and tsunami experienced in aceh created the importance of disaster preparedness. efforts to improve disaster literacy, including knowledge of its effects, should be conducted. the aims of this study are 1) knowing the level of student’s disaster preparedness knowledge, 2) obtaining gender differences in disaster preparedness knowledge, 3) knowing the difference in academic level on disaster preparedness knowledge, 4) knowing the effect of interaction between gender and academic level on disaster preparedness knowledge. this research involved geography pre-service teachers on stkip al-washliyah. the results were quantitative data obtained from a disaster preparedness knowledge test, and data collection used multiple-choice tests. a knowledge test instrument was created and validated for data validity and reliability using a wondershare quiz generator. data were analyzed using an index to decide the extent of knowledge on disaster preparedness. the ancova approach was evaluated to examine the relationship between gender and educational degree. the results indicate that 1) the score for knowledge of disaster preparedness is 49.11, which indicates that knowledge is still in the low category, 2) there is a difference in knowledge of disaster preparedness between male and female pre-service geography teachers with a significant value of 0.004 (<0.05), 3) there is a difference in knowledge of pre-service geography teacher with different academic levels and significance value of 0.000 (<0.05), 4) when viewed from the interaction between gender and academic level, no significant relationship was found on knowledge of disaster preparedness with a score of 0.185 (p> 0.05). according to the findings, it is crucial to increase disaster preparedness knowledge in basic and advanced courses of geography education study programs. therefore, pre-service geography teachers have good knowledge and skills in disaster preparedness. one of the steps to increase knowledge is providing teaching materials and disaster simulation programs. keywords : disaster preparedness knowledge; pre-service teacher; gender; academic levels article info article history received : 19 february 2022 revised : 16 july 2022 accepted : 27 july 2022 published : 28 august 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 2, august 2022, 136-149 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.30236 mailto:rima.melita.sari@unsam.ac.id https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1252-9513 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0466-6040 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 137 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 respectively. five disaster events from 2018 to 2022 caused property losses, including damage to 82 houses and 9 public facilities (bnpb, 2022). the loss experienced after the 2004 earthquake and tsunami showed that community disaster mitigation is still less than optimal. meanwhile, the aceh disaster risk index is in the high class with a value of 153.58 (bnpb, 2021). the high hazard and vulnerability levels cause the increased disaster risk index, but the management capacity is still low due to a lack of information and revel of screw-ups (havwina et al., 2016). knowledge and experience will shape and influence actions against disasters to be faced. they provide data that determine catastrophic response, and a mature attitude formed from this knowledge will directly shape disaster preparedness actions (pribadi et al., 2021; tkachuck et al., 2018). therefore, knowledge is needed as an initial effort to build resilience to disasters (fatouros & capetola, 2021; ferdous & mallick, 2019; fuhrmann et al., 2008; gouramanis & morales ramirez, 2021; hoffmann & muttarak, 2017; oktari et al., 2021). one concrete effort to instill understanding in the network is through disaster education. catastrophe training has become the focal point of knowledge for improvement in indonesia (desvandi, 2014; irawan et al., 2018). the development of disaster learning is found in law no. 24 of 2007 regarding disaster management. particularly in aceh province, a regional regulation (qanun) for the governor integrates disaster education into the curriculum (sakurai et al., 2018). disaster education is also supported by increasing public consciousness of capacity failures. education was determined to be an effective means of enhancing knowledge preparedness. students and schools are better prepared for disasters when they have adequate information (amirudin et al., 2015; tkachuck et al., 2018). education at the tertiary level is a remedy for initiatives to build catastrophe resilience capabilities. instilling knowledge of disaster preparedness in pre-service teachers is one of the basic steps. they will teach in several schools later to provide disaster education and counselling to students (tkachuck et al., 2018). in addition, they are the most effective resource for instilling awareness through training, simulations and disaster management education (kawasaki et al., 2022; sakurai et al., 2018). therefore, training pre-service teachers to know about disaster preparedness is very important. the background above illustrates the importance of instilling disaster preparedness knowledge through geography (gong et al., 2021). research from pribadi et al. ( 2021) explained that the lack of knowledge of earthquake-resistant infrastructure hinders decision-making and planning. therefore, it requires increasing knowledge of earthquake-resistant information and infrastructure. research results from cvetković et al. (2015) showed that sources of disaster information would affect students’ perceptions. the mature knowledge will directly form an attitude toward disaster preparedness (syuaib, 2013). understanding pre-service teachers’ fundamental knowledge is critical to creating disaster preparation expertise. the issue of gender differences and education levels is interesting to study. this study provides information on the influence of gender and academic level on disaster preparedness knowledge. the assessment is crucial to tally decision-making according to the conditions (ferdous & mallick, 2019). several previous studies have examined gender differences in vulnerability to disasters (fatouros & capetola, 2021; ferdous & mallick, 2019; fujii & kanbara, 2019; khan et al., 2020; khandekar et al., 2019; phan et al., 2019; rahman et al., 2021; ruszczyk et al., 2020; sikandar & khan, 2018). other studies have investigated the effect of schooling on vulnerability and disaster preparedness (alim et al., 2015; amini et al., 2021; baytiyeh & naja, 2015; ersoy et al., 2015; hoffmann & blecha, 2020; tkachuck et al., 2018). the influence of gender and education on disaster preparedness has been examined. however, there is no report on the academic level in formal and pre-service teacher education or the relationship between gender and education level on disaster preparedness knowledge. therefore, the combined perspective of gender and academic level on knowledge of disaster preparedness was analyzed. the aims of the study were: (1) knowing the level of disaster preparedness knowledge; (2) knowing the different knowledge of disaster preparedness in terms of gender differences; (3) knowing 138 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 the difference in disaster preparedness knowledge in terms of differences in academic levels. (4) determining the interaction effect between gender and academic level on knowledge of disaster preparedness. 2. methods 2.1 research design the research data was quantitatively generated from the answers to the disaster preparedness knowledge. a descriptive method was used to describe the data, compare, and draw conclusions comprehensively. the data utilized are the results of a disaster preparation knowledge assessment of pre-service geography teachers regarding gender disparities and academic levels. 2.2 data collection the study involved 137 students of the geography education study program in stkip alwashliyah who were still active, consisting of a 2016 – 2020 academic level. the pre-service geography teacher at stkip al-washliyah selected the course since the school is located in an earthquake and tsunami-prone location. the population of teachers from aceh regions was tormented by the earthquake and tsunami, such as on the west coast of aceh province (nagan raya district, west aceh district, southwest aceh district, aceh singkil district, and south aceh district). another problem for selecting the research subjects is due to the condition of the disaster vulnerability of the coastal areas of aceh is classified in the high category (disaster risk index = 153.58)(bnpb, 2021). based on these reasons, this research can be part of the basic information in designing policies to increase disaster preparedness expertise in schools, teachers and students. the examination lasted three months, consisting of needs analysis, preparation of test instruments, and implementation. for clarity, the research subjects can be visible inside the following table 1. table 1. research subject academic level male female 2016 9 8 2017 11 10 2018 23 5 2019 16 8 2020 20 27 based on data from table 1, a total of 137 research subjects comprised 79 males and 58 females aged 18-34. a personal identity form is provided in the test, and the study’s anonymity was greatly appreciated. therefore, the respondent’s name was not attached in writing this manuscript. statistics series strategies the usage of a questionnaire with the help of a wondershare quiz creator software, and the test consisted of 50 multiple choice questions. a. research instrument instruments given to pre-service teachers amounted to 137 people, and the tests were given at the same time. the instrument used was similar to sari et al. (2020) and was tested by material and language experts. furthermore, it was developed with an academic qualification level under the subject of this research (pre-service teacher). the instrument has been integrated with the wondershare quiz creator, a web assessment. therefore, testing disaster preparedness knowledge is not limited by space 139 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 and time. the instrument contains four indicators focused on disaster knowledge of earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods. the indicators are 1) basic knowledge of disaster, 2) planned activities during disasters, 3) disaster warning systems, and 4) resource mobilization (hidayati et al., 2011). the assessment of the instrument uses a scoring technique on multiple choice questions. a value of 0 and 1 means the answer is inaccurate and correct, respectively. validity and reliability tests were conducted to assess disaster preparedness knowledge accurately. the test was conducted on 30 pre-service teachers who had taken a disaster geography course. the validity and the statistics reliability tests use pearson and cronbach alpha, and the results analyzed the four indicators showing a range of 0.000 – 0.028 and 0.970 > 0.306 (r table). the test instrument is considered suitable to test knowledge of disaster preparedness when the value is valid and reliable. b. data analysis the data is generated in the shape of quantitative facts. quantitative records become data consisting of numbers as the main material for conducting analyses to answer research questions (sugiono, 2015). the level of students’ disaster preparedness knowledge was determined by using the disaster preparedness knowledge index, which can be identified through the eq. 1 : index = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 maximum value 𝑥 100 (1) source: hidayati et al., (2011) disaster preparedness knowledge level was determined by using a disaster preparedness index. it was divided into 3 categories: low, medium, and high, which are viewed in table 2. table 2. disaster preparedness index index value category 80 – 100 high 60 – 79 medium < 60 low source: hidayati et al., (2011) ancova data analysis was used with the assistance of spss 23 for windows to answer the question on disaster preparedness knowledge differences in gender and the level of academics. figure 1 explains the framework of the research flow. 140 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 figure 1. research flow 3. results and discussion the section provided answers to four research focuses, namely 1) the level of students’ knowledge preparedness, 2) the students’ preparedness knowledge viewed from gender differences, 3) the differences in students’ knowledge when viewed from academic years, and 4) the effect of interaction between gender and years of academic to students’ disaster preparedness knowledge. 3.1 disaster preparedness knowledge level the parameters of disaster preparedness knowledge were used to decide the level of preparedness. it consisted of knowledge of disaster preparedness, planned activities during disasters, early caution systems, and useful resource mobilization (table 3). table 3. disaster preparedness knowledge level variable indicators of disaster preparedness knowledge total basic knowledge planned activities during disasters early warning system resource mobilization male 52.20 52.00 51.00 58.00 52.68 female 45.70 41.00 45.00 43.70 44.70 2016 57.20 55.46 66.18 60.78 58.82 2017 58.29 59.86 61.90 69.04 60.38 2018 59.85 66.33 52.23 67.85 60.50 2019 43.10 39.29 47.91 52.78 44.50 2020 39.62 27.96 34.31 31.21 36.13 total 49.41 46.10 48.54 51.95 49.11 141 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 table 3 shows that disaster preparedness knowledge is covered within the low class with a total value of 49.11. male and female preparedness knowledge level is in the low category of 52.68 and 44.70. from the perspective of academic level, students who entered in 2017 and 2018 had scores of 60.38 and 60.50 in the medium category. meanwhile, those who entered the college in 2016, 2019 and 2020 have low levels with grades of 58.82, 44.50, and 36.13, respectively. the indicator of planned activities during a disaster is the lowest value compared to others, with a value of 46.10. the indicator of the plan of activities included actions taken when a disaster occurred. resource mobilization is the indicator with the highest score, including knowledge of training, simulation, outreach and evacuation of the disaster site. the low index of disaster preparedness knowledge in planned activities was caused by many students who did not know the action to be taken during a disaster. in the case of an earthquake, they did not know what to do while in the classrooms, tall buildings and open fields. all indicators assessed in the test have a low disaster preparedness knowledge index. the lowest knowledge index is on the activity plan indicators. the test analysis found that prospective teachers were unprepared for an earthquake hazard. for example, they were confused about giving directions to students to evacuate. teachers should be prepared to lead the evacuation process to the assembly point in an emergency. disaster education is needed in the form of technology and learning methods that support simulations and exercises for teacher readiness (torani et al., 2019). pre-service teachers do not have knowledge related to disaster conditions contextually. for example, in the question of the location of the meeting point in banda aceh city in the event of a disaster, many of them do not know the specifics. they can provide basic knowledge to students about the causes of earthquakes and tsunamis, as well as an overview of the conditions (cabello, 2022). this is reinforced by research from seddighi et al., (2021) & syuaib (2013) which stated that knowledge of actions in the occasion of a disaster is important to prepare for attitudes in the occasion of a disaster. 3.2 the differences in disaster preparedness knowledge when viewed from gender the research generated was in the form of gender data, academic year, and disaster preparedness knowledge. normality and homogeneity tests were carried out on data analysis. the normality test on the disaster preparedness knowledge showed a p-value of 0.085, greater than the asiymp.sig (2tailed) value of 0.05. the results show that data was normal with homogeneity of 0.303, greater than the value of 0.05. in conclusion, the variance of disaster preparedness knowledge data was homogeneous. the ancova test can be continued based on the prerequisites for normality and homogeneity tests, as summarized in table 4. table 4. ancova test for disaster preparedness knowledge dependent variable source type iii sum of squares df means square f sig ηp2 knowledge preparedness disaster corrected model 3631.056a 3 1210.352 55.456 .000 .556 intercept 8007.135 1 8007.135 366.872 .000 .734 gender 187.490 1 187.490 8.590 .004 .061 academic level 3088.317 1 3088.317 141.501 .000 .516 gender*level academic 38.834 1 38.834 1.779 .185 .013 error 2902.783 133 21.825 total 89136.000 137 corrected total 6533.839 136 note: ar squared= .556 (adjusted r squared = .546) 142 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 table 4 shows that there have been variations in disaster preparedness knowledge between male and female students. the value of effect test was f = 8.590 with the level of significance at 0.004 (p> 0.05). however, the effective contribution of gender differences to disaster preparedness knowledge was very small at 0.061. furthermore, the findings were described more deeply through the percentage of knowledge achievement seen in figure 2 . figure 2. percentage of disaster preparedness knowledge based on gender according to figure 2, male students are superior in disaster preparedness knowledge than females. this can be seen in the percentage of men totaling 52.68, confirming the findings of prior research by norris et al. (2001), which stated the responsive attitudes of men are better than women in disaster mitigation efforts. the same is supported by research from lavigne et al. (2008), where women are more panicked and have trauma to the incidence of disasters than men. research findings from fatouros & capetola (2021); ferdous & mallick, (2019); khandekar et al., (2019); phan et al., (2019); sikandar & khan, (2019) explained that women have vulnerability to disasters, especially extreme climate events and natural disasters. men have more knowledge of disaster preparedness than women because of wider access to information. research by bhadra (2017); cvetković et al., (2018); sun & sun, (2019) explained that men have better communication skills since they gather in communities, seek information, discuss, and provide solutions than women. furthermore, research by bhadra (2017) and cvetković et al. (2018) stated that stress, fear of loss, anxiety, job security, and family welfare are very vulnerable to women during disaster. another factor that lowers women’s knowledge is limited access to information (cvetković et al., 2018; fatouros & capetola, 2021). research from rahman et al. (2020) showed that women have better knowledge than men. roder et al., (2015) & ruszczyk et al., (2020) reported that the duty of women is greater in disaster management, especially in small communities. this is because disaster education involves increasing knowledge, not physical strength (hoffmann & muttarak, 2017). therefore, it provides an overview of the disaster situation with cultural changes and technological developments to obtain the same information related to disasters (jose & dufrene, 2014). 3.3 disparity in knowledge of disaster preparedness when seen from the academic level results on the academic level variables ancova test indicate differences in disaster preparedness knowledge between different academic levels (2016 2020). the value f = 141.501 has 52.2 52 51 58 52.68 45.7 41 45 43.7 44.7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 basic knowledge of disasters planned activities during disaster disaster warning systems resource mobilization total percentage of disaster preparedness knowledge based on gender (%) woman man 143 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 a value p> 0.05, and academic level makes an effective contribution with a value of ηp2 = 0.516. therefore, the differences in academic levels can affect knowledge of disaster preparedness. further details for each indicator in terms of academic level can be seen in figure 3. figure 3. percentage of disaster preparedness knowledge based on academic level according to figure 3, disaster preparedness knowledge differs from an academic level. this is evidenced by the percentage of total knowledge that appears to be significantly different. in the 2020 academic year students, the total achievement percentage was the lowest among the 2016-2019 academic years. this was because students at the 2020 academic level had less experience and knowledge. this is likely due to not yet taking a disaster subject and being relatively much younger than students of the previous batches. research by syuaib (2013) supported this finding by stating that a person’s age influences the level of thinking maturity. age is also related to the amount of life experience gained. in this context, the disasters that had been experienced build more mature knowledge and readiness. research from cui & han (2018); hoffmann & blecha (2020); hoffmann & muttarak (2017) explained that experience has a significant relationship to disaster knowledge. the average age of pre-service teachers at the 2020 academic level ranges from 18-20 years, and they did not have direct experience as in aceh tsunami 2004. on average, when the disaster occurred, they were still toddlers and did not remember how their parents and the community carried out the evacuation process. 57.2 55.46 66.18 60.78 58.82 58.29 59.86 61.9 69.05 60.38 59.85 66.33 52,23 67.86 60.5 43.1 39.29 47.92 52.78 44.5 39.62 27.69 34.31 31.21 36.13 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 basic knowledge of disasters planned activities during disaster disaster warning systems resource mobilization total percentage of disaster preparedness knowledge viewed from academic level (%) 144 rima meilita sari & ridhwan ridhwan / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 136-149 at a higher academic level, the knowledge of disaster preparedness is also better. this is because pre-service teachers have received various experiences and training courses from seniors and lecturers in classroom education. research from yeon et al. (2020) stated that experience could provide an emotional response impacting the effectiveness of disaster education. the same result was reported by daud et al. (2014), where learning makes students more prepared to anticipate future disasters. widjanarko & minnafiah (2018) stated that students who had been taught in disaster education are more aware of the conditions in the field. educational support facilities, such as teaching materials, learning media, and simulation training, are needed to provide better disaster education (wahyuningtyas et al., 2021; yeon et al., 2020). furthermore, research by cabello (2022); sakurai et al. (2018); sari & ridhwan (2019) suggested that a compulsory disaster education curriculum is needed for all levels of education. 3.4 the effects of gender and academic levels on disaster preparedness knowledge table 4 shows that the interaction between gender and academic level did not find a significant difference, as evidenced by the value of 0.185 (p> 0.05), and other external factors play a role in disaster preparedness knowledge. vasques et al. (2018) stated that disaster preparedness could be caused by experience and knowledge. furthermore, desvandi (2014) & permana et al. (2011) reported that it could also arise from regional conditions that provide natural learning to cope with disasters. this learning can be obtained through fairy tales and poetry, which are included in local wisdom. according to overton (overton, 2014), social and cognitive conditions can affect disaster management activities through physical and psychological actions. disaster experience factors, response to disaster events, economic level, welfare, and information acquisition are important factors to be considered (cui & han, 2018; ferdous & mallick, 2019; hoffmann & blecha, 2020; yeon et al., 2020) 4. conclusion pre-service teachers’ knowledge of disaster preparedness is still low, especially in the indicators of activity plans during a disaster. based on the findings, it was found that pre-service teachers still cannot determine the initial rescue steps when a disaster occurs, such as not knowing how to evacuate when they are with students. the findings show that the difference in knowledge of disaster preparedness differs from a gender perspective. the value of the findings on knowledge between different genders found that women’s knowledge differed from men’s, with women getting lower scores. furthermore, higher academic levels relate to disaster knowledge and simulation activities in geography courses. pre-service teachers with lower academic levels do not receive training or disaster geography courses. other external factors are economic level, experience, equality of treatment during tests and learning or disaster simulations. conflicts of interest the authors are not involved in a conflict of interest from funds, personal and institutional or any other relationships from this article. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to the universitas samudra and stkip al-washliyah for supporting this research. the gratitude is also for all people who helped in the research. references alim, s., kawabata, m., & nakazawa, m. 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(2020). the effects of earthquake experience on disaster education for children and teens. international journal of environmental research and public health, 17(15), 5347. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155347 42 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.30234 research article performance of soil quality: indicator-based gis analysis of jamuna-dhaleshwari and surma-kushiyara floodplain regions, bangladesh tanbi tanaya sarker 1 , sameena begum 1, 2 , md. shohel khan 3, 4, * , mohammed abdus salam 3 , shehan tawsif 5 1department of geography and environment, shahjalal university of science and technology, sylhet-3114, bangladesh 2department of geography and environment, jagannath university, dhaka-1100, bangladesh 3department of environmental science and disaster management, noakhali science and technology university, noakhali-3814, bangladesh 4institute of bangladesh studies, university of rajshahi, rajshahi-6205, bangladesh 5department of geography and environmental studies, university of rajshahi, rajshahi-6205, bangladesh *corresponding author, e-mail address: sajibicb@gmail.com abstract bangladesh is an agriculture based economic country formed by sediment deposition from upstream rivers. this riparian country covered with fertile soil that supports agricultural diversification. the study aimed to compare current soil quality of jamuna-dhaleshwari (manikganj) and surma-kushiyara (sylhet) floodplain physiographic regions to forecast about agricultural productivity. soil quality was assessed through physical (soil texture and moisture), and chemical (ph, electrical conductivity (ec), salinity, soil nutrients (n, p, k), and organic matter content) indicators. a total of 36 soil samples in three different depths (015cm, 15-50cm, 50-100cm) from 12 sites were collected from manikganj and sylhet districts. the average particle size and moisture content ratios of manikganj: sylhet were gravels (7.88:5.8), very coarse sand (6.85:8.53), coarse sand (7.45:13.2), medium sand (7.35:14), fine sand (6.12:16.4), very fine sand (24.3:19.9), silt (39.56:20.57), and clay (29.3:32.81), followed by, ph (7.61:6.31), and ec (0.24:0.18), respectively. the result revealed that the soil was bit alkaline for manikganj, compared to range from alkaline to acidic in sylhet and non-saline for both areas that was suitable for agriculture. the average concentration of nitrogen (n), phosphorous (p), potassium (k) nutrients in manikganj and sylhet districts were 0.14%, 3.73 meq/100g, 0.07 µg/g; 0.16%, 3.11 meq/100g, 0.08 µg/g and organic matter were 3.65% and 4.7%, respectively. the results of nutrients in both areas indicated that nutrients were very poor but soil organic matter content was sufficient for agricultural activities. the study concluded that soil texture, ph, salinity and organic matter content in both areas were suitable for agricultural purposes, but a significant declined was found in soil moisture and nutrients quality. finally, it was recommended that soils of manikganj were more sustainable for agricultural activities. keywords : soil quality; soil texture; organic matter; spatial distribution article info article history received : 19 february 2022 revised : 26 march 2022 accepted : 11 april 2022 published : 24 april 2022 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 42-60 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.30234 mailto:sajibicb@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6937-7696 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0769-2180 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3394-000x https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 43 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 1. introduction soil quality is the functioning capability of soil within any ecosystem including land use patterns for sustaining productivity, maintaining conservational superiority, and developing floral and faunal health (idowu et al., 2008; bünemann et al., 2018). the relations between different biotic and abiotic components with soil fertility determined the potentiality of the production of healthful crops (gong et al., 2015). this combination of soil characteristics and the output level of efficiency is also denoted as soil quality (parr et al., 1992). many soil indicators accelerates one another and correlated to each other (arshad & martin, 2002). the prime indicators of soil quality can be denoted as physical properties (soil texture, bulk density, moisture), and chemical properties (soil ph, salinity, soil nutrients (n,p,k), electrical conductivity) and organic matter (arshad & martin, 2002). the soil quality indicators in a sampling site could be compared with reference values or threshold levels for each soil quality (bünemann et al., 2018). soil ph, electrical conductivity (ec), nitrogen (n), phosphorus (p), potassium (k) and sometimes, zinc (zn) and iron (fe) contents of soil were mostly done to evaluate the fertility status or quality of soil but other physical and biological indicators were also necessary for complete soil quality assessment (çelik et al., 2021). bangladesh is a land of agricultural diversity having a large part of its economy depend on it (afrin et al., 2018). it’s also called a country of rivers with its floodplain land as a contributor to vegetation and crop variations. the total agricultural land is around 9.10 million hectares in bangladesh with 179% yearly mean cropping intensity (khan et al., 2021a). the quality of soil may help in making decisions about agricultural production (yang, 2017). bangladesh is situated at the lower adjoin of three mighty river systems, i.e., ganges river system (grs), brahmaputra river system (brs), and meghna river system (mrs). the brs and the mrs are the main reasons for the creation of the jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain (jdf) and surma-kushiyara floodplain (skf) regions. they played a huge role in the creation of agricultural land and the quality of the soil of surrounding areas (rashid, 1991). manikganj district is situated in jdf region, has non-calcareous alluvium and some calcareous dark grey and brown floodplain with texture of clay loamy soil (datta & subramanian, 1997) with sandy/silty, grey/olive and neutral to slightly alkaline whereas sylhet district is located on skf region with a texture of silty loam soil of non-calcareous and calcareous grey and brown floodplain soils. loamy sand can also be detected in the brown hill soils with grey to dark grey, heavy clays, and strongly acidic (brammer, 1996). sylhet consisted of silty loamy soils whereas manikganj had sandy loamy soils. the saline soils were found mostly at the southern parts of the country and the major parts of the country contained medium amount of organic matter but sylhet district existed high amount of organic matter (islam et al., 2017). this study was conducted in manikganj and sylhet districts to compare current soil quality with selected indicators of jdf and skf physiographic regions for forecasting agricultural production. there have been many studies for soil quality in industrial areas, mining zones, agricultural lands, etc. (islam, 2012; hussain et al., 2013; rahman et al., 2017; shaibur et al., 2017; ataullah et al., 2017; hossain & bin salam, 2019). however the researchers supposed that there might be no research on comparing the soil quality between two different physiographic regions. the study would be helpful in forecasting agricultural productivity based on the result. the study aimed to compare current soil quality of jamuna-dhaleshwari (manikganj) and surma-kushiyara (sylhet) floodplain physiographic regions to forecast about agricultural productivity. 44 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 2. methods 2.1 study area jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain is the largest sub-classed left bank floodplain of the brahmaputra-jamuna floodplain (rashid, 1991) which is frequently flooded during the monsoon (june-october). the district manikganj, situated mainly in this flood plain region in dhaka division. it comprises an area of 1383.06 km 2 , located in between 23°38'-24°03'n latitudes and 89°41'-90°08'e longitudes. the kaliganga river is one of the largest among several distributaries flowed from jamuna river (sayed & haruyama, 2016). sylhet district is located between 24°36'-25°11'n latitudes and 91°38'-92°30'e longitudes, in the northeastern region of bangladesh in sylhet division. this region is mainly situated in the skf which consists the rivers flowing from eastern border near the haor basin occurs flash floods almost round the year in deep flooding in a very small number of days (khan et.al., 2021b). the physical geography of sylhet entails dominantly hills and a small number of depressions,regionally named as beels as well as haors.it is lithologically multifaceted with varied morphology and from top to bottom land scape of plio-miocene age like khasi and jaintia hills with some small hillocks.the limestone depositions in several parts of this areaproved that the entire area was underneath the water in oligomiocene period (rashid, 1991;khan, 1991).the map of the study area was shown in figure 1 with sampling points of two different locations. figure 1. study area and sampling stations of manikganj and sylhet district 2.2 sampling soil profiles were dug in each site and soil samples were collected from 12 profiles (6 from riverside cultivation land of manikganj and 6 from riverside cultivation land of sylhet) for analysis. soil samples were collected from depths of 0-15cm (topsoil, a1-l1), 15-50cm (mid soil, a2-l2), and 50-100cm (bottom soil, a3-l3) from each profile. the collected samples were warehoused in plastic bags and sent to the laboratory for physical experiments using typical methods. sampling locations (table 1) were geographically identified using global positioning system (gps) in a map (figure 1). 45 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 the samples were collected from july-august, 2019 and were tested between august and october, 2019. table 1. geographical position of sampling stations sampling stations geographical position longitude latitude a (a1-a3) 89.93724e 23.86964n b (b1-b3) 89.79701e 23.97537n c (c1-c3) 89.71774e 23.98572n d (d1-d3) 89.95365e 23.94731n e (e1-e3) 90.06072e 23.76922n f (f1-f3) 89.96225e 23.73557n g (g1-g3) 91.98571e 25.09513n h (h1-h3) 92.25567e 25.00035n i (i1-i3) 91.93003e 24.69506n j (j1-j3) 91.77587e 24.90779n k (k1-k3) 92.20853e 24. 88556n l (l1-l3) 91.79994e 24.95047n 2.3 soil quality indicators soil particle size, soil texture, moisture, ph, electrical conductivity (ec), salinity, nitrogen (n), phosphorus (p), potassium (k), and organic matter (om) contents were the indicators measured by the respective methods (table 2) to compare with various critical limits to find the soil quality in this study. table 2. methods of parameter/indicators in laboratory experiments parameter/ indicators methods particle size sieve method soil texture hydrometer method and soil texture triangle moisture oven dry method soil ph digital ph meter electrical conductivity digital ec meter salinity digital ec meter soil nutrients (n, p, k) titrimetric method soil organic matter combustion method 2.4 statistical methods and geostatistical analysis data were analyzed by using ms excel 2016. the spatial distribution of the indicators (moisture, ph, n, p, k, om) were showed in maps using geostatistical analyst tools, inverse distance weightage interpolation method, in arc gis (version 10.3) software. 3. results and discussion 3.1 soil texture the combination of various proportions of sand, silt, and clay size particles in a soil sample is called soil texture. the international system of naming soil separates indicates clay particles as the 46 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 smallest (<0.002mm); silt as a medium-size particle (0.002-0.02mm) and sand as the largest particle (0.02-2.0mm) which is divided into fine sand (0.02-0.2mm) and coarse sand (0.2-2.0mm). soils that have large amount of clay were called fine-textured soils and the soils having larger particles were characterized as coarse-textured soils (eluwole et al., 2018). soil texture is important in identification of soil characteristics and suitability for different crops (shaibur et al., 2017). a soil textural triangle was formulated (figure 3) to specify and compare the soil textures of the jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain and the surma-kushiyara floodplain. (a) (b) figure 2. average percentage of particle size (a) manikganj districtand (b) sylhet district the study resulted that manikganj district consisted of higher percentage of silt and clay compared to sylhet district (figure 2). sylhet region consisted of more fine sand than manikganj. plants grew well in manikganj in loamy soil with more percentage of silt and clay than sand. some of the soils in sylhet were clayey and some sandy, which may be resulted in difficulties for agriculture compare to manikganj district. note: the red dots indicate the soil texture of samples from manikganj district and the green dots indicate the samples from sylhet district. figure 3. soil textural triangle of manikganj and sylhet district 8% 7% 8% 7% 6%24% 40% 6% 9% 13% 14% 17% 20% 21% gravels (2mm) very coarse sand (1mm) coarse sand (500 micron) medium sand (250 micron) fine sand (125 micron) very fine sand (63 micron) 47 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 loamy soil but clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam, and loamy sand could only be presented in sylhet whereas manikganj had silty loam soil which was not available in sylhet district (figure 3). loamy soils were known as to exist more moisture, nutrients, and organic matter than sandy soil and it would be better for water and air runoff and permeation compared to silty and clay dominated soils. this means the soil was favorable for the cultivation of crops. the percentage with textural classification was cited in table 3. table 3. percentages of sand, silt, and clay with textures in the study area sampling stations sand silt clay texture a 43.12 42.18667 14.69333 loam b 43.06667 46 10.93333 loam c 47.86667 39.86667 12.26667 loam d 61.33333 28.34667 10.32 sandy loam e 42.58667 38.18667 19.22667 loam f 32.13333 54.34667 13.52 silty loam g 41.17333 34.64 24.18667 loam h 45.78667 30.02667 24.18667 loam i 45.54667 30.69333 23.76 loam j 45.09333 36.53333 18.37333 loam k 40.82667 37.84 21.33333 loam l 72.37333 16.82667 10.8 sandy loam 3.2 moisture content soil moisture is an important factor in crop production because of its necessity in supporting plant growth. plants should be died for less moisture contents and too much moisture led to root disease and waste of water.the widely accepted ideal moisture levels for three major types of soil is showed in table 4. the study revealed that the average percentage of moisture was higher (32.81%) in sylhet district compared to manikganj district (29.37%) showed in fig. 4(a). the percentage of individual moisture contents of soil samples were shown in fig. 4(b) that claimed 100% sampling stations showed dangerously low (<42%) moisture content which might recommended that soils needed irrigation and to be rise in moisture level for better cultivation and plant growth in both study areas. table 4. percentages of ideal moisture levels (laurenzi, 2018) soil type no irrigation needed irrigation to be applied dangerously low soil moisture fine (clay) 80-100 60-80 <60 medium (loamy) 88-100 70-88 <70 coarse (sandy) 90-100 80-90 <80 3.3 soil ph soils can be acidic, alkaline, or neutral. soil ph indicates the type of the chemical reactions occurring in the soil. the ph value ranges from 0-14 where 7 is the neutral. values <7 and >7 depicted acidity and alkalinity, respectively. the soil ph 6.5-8.5 was good for agricultural cultivation (shaibur et al., 2017) and too acidic/alkaline was unsuitable for good crop production. soil with ph <5.5 and >9.5 were considered very acidic and very alkaline (yang, 2017), respectively. 48 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 (a) (b) figure 4. average (a) district wise (b) individual sample wise moisture content in the study area. note: individual sample (table 3) (a) (b) (c) figure 5.variations of ph value in (a) top soil, (b) mid soil and (c) bottom soil in the study area. note: sample stations (table 3) the variation of ph in top soil, mid soil, and bottom soil of both manikganj (sample a-f) and sylhet (sample g-l) can be noticed distinctly (figure 5). the ph values of soil from sylhet district tend to be lower than the minimum standard in comparison to the soil from the manikganj district. the average ph value of soil in manikganj is 7.61 and sylhet is 6.31 which resulted that 29.37 32.81 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 manikganj sylhet m o is tu re c o n te n t (% ) 0 10 20 30 40 50 a b c d e f g h i j k l m o is tu re c o n te n t (% ) 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 a1 c1 e1 g1 i1 k1 p h sample 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 a2 c2 e2 g2 i2 k2 sample ph min standard max standard 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 sample 49 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 manikganj had alkaline and sylhet had acidic soil. the ph level is considered good in manikganj compare to sylhet because all of the samples from manikganj district were within the standard limit but in sylhet some samples were lower than minimum standard, evensome areas were high acidic to high alkaline. plants roots were unable to absorb nutrients when the ph level is high, and when it is too low, they absorb too much nutrients which causes it to die (kumar et al., 2019). 3.4 electrical conductivity and salinity electrical conductivity (ec) of soil is the measurement of its electricity conducting ability in a solution which also deduct its salinity levels. ec increases with the increase of amount of salt in any solution. the salts form ions in water, so, ec of a solution provides a measure of total amount of salts (yang, 2017). when the value >0.75 ds/m, is considered hazardous for plants and organisms. plant growth is affected by soil salinity because of the osmotic tension is increased in soil due to increasing salinity and it becomes more difficult to absorb water from the soil (van tan et al., 2020). the average ec value of soil was greater in manikganj (0.24 ds/m) compared to sylhet (0.18 ds/m) and the average percentage of soil salinity is also greater in manikganj (0.04%) compared to sylhet (0.02%). so, the soil of manikganj is much more saline than that of sylhet. this type of non-saline soil is considered perfect for plant growth and agriculture for both areas (hossain & bin salam, 2019) and does not affect soil nutrients and plant growth in any way. 3.5 soil nutrients soil contains the major mineral nutrients for plant growth are divided into two separate macro and micronutrients. the macronutrients have two groups which are primary and intermediate nutrients (kumar et al., 2020). plants need large amount of primary nutrients (datta & subramanian, 1997) which are nitrogen (n), phosphorus (p), and potassium (k). the average available n (%), p (meq/100g), k (µg/g) nutrients ratios in manikganj: sylhet were 0.14:0.16, 3.73:3.11 and 0.07:0.08, respectively (figure 6). the results concluded the low amount of nutrients available in the soil in both study areas. figure 6. average nitrogen (%), phosphorous (meq/100g) and potassium (µg/g) nutrients the available n, p and k nutrients ranged from 0.13%-0.18%, 0.77-9.21 (meq/100g) and 0.05-0.12 (µg/g), respectively in both areas. the low amount of n may be resulted in reduced growth and less chlorophyll production. the low amount of pin soil might reduce, growth occurs, turn leaves 0.14 3.73 0.070.16 3.11 0.08 0 1 2 3 4 n p k a m o u n t manikganj sylhet 50 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 darker green or purplish, and older leaves might become brown as they died. the low amount of k in soil might be responsible to make leaf margins appear spotted and leaf surfaces might have chlorotic (yellowing) spots and might develop weak stems, collapsing easily (gondwe et al., 2020). table 5.available n,p and k by sampling stations in the study area sampling stations nitrogen (n) (%) phosphorous (p) (meq/100g) potassium (k) (µg/g soil) a 0.13 3.60 0.07 b 0.13 5.38 0.06 c 0.14 3.21 0.05 d 0.13 3.69 0.06 e 0.17 3.32 0.09 f 0.14 3.20 0.09 g 0.14 3.26 0.07 h 0.16 9.21 0.07 i 0.18 2.40 0.07 j 0.16 1.82 0.10 k 0.17 1.17 0.12 l 0.14 0.77 0.05 3.6 organic matter soil organic matter (om) is one of the main factors that controls the major properties of soil (fazekašová & fazekaš, 2020) and plays a vital role in maintaining soil quality because it helps in the structural maintenance and development of soil, acts as a storage of nutrients and organic carbon, and maintains the biological activities (hussain et al., 2013) and soil organic matter contains plant or animal tissue in several phases of decay (agronomy fact sheet, 2008). most prolific cultivated soils ranged between 3-6% organic matter contents. table 6. standard levels for organic matter (barc, 2012) class organic matter (%) very high >5.5 high 3.5-5.5 medium 1.8-3.4 low 1.0-1.7 very low <1.0 the average value of the organic matter in manikganj (3.6497%) was lower than sylhet (4.7126%). figure 7 showed the variation in organic matter content throughout all the samples in various depths of soil. the percentage of om in soils from manikganj tends to be nearer to critical value whereas in sylhet it tends to be nearer maximum standard value. this meant that the soil of sylhet had more water infiltration, water holding capacity, and ability to hold soil nutrients than manikganj and also enriched with food for living organisms. however both areas were favorable for plant growth and agriculture as adequate percentage of organic matter existed in the soil (ye et al., 2011). the spatial distribution of organic matter content in soil samples from both areas were presented in figure 8. the soil organic content in some areas ranged from medium to high ranges with 51 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 2.14-5.21% in manikganj and considered as low to very high ranges with 1.00-6.17% in sylhet (table 6). (a) (b) (c) figure 7. organic matter content in (a) top soil, (b) mid soil and (c) bottom soil in the study area 3.7 summary of the indicators the result of various indicators like moisture content, ph, ec, salinity, n, p, k and om were summarized with mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values of soil quality indicators (table 7). the table resulted that moisture content in both areas had relatively high standard deviation meant the data points were distributed over a large range of values (rahman et al., 2017) and the soil samples had a lot of variability with moisture content. the amount of p and om content in soil from sylhet showed a relatively higher level of standard deviation. table 7. descriptive statistics of the measured soil quality indicators of manikganj and sylhet district parameters moisture content (%) ph ec (ds/m) salinity (%) nitrogen (n) (%) phosphorous (p) (meq/100g) potassium (k) (µg/g soil) organic matter (%) manikganj district mean 29.37 7.61 0.24 0.04 0.14 3.73 0.07 3.65 standard deviation 5.48 0.35 0.10 0.05 0.02 1.70 0.02 0.996 maximum 42.63 8 0.41 0.1 0.19 8.17 0.12 5.21 minimum 17.12 6.66 0.13 0 0.11 1.01 0.03 2.14 sylhet district mean 32.81 6.31 0.18 0.02 0.16 3.11 0.08 4.71 standard deviation 6.07 0.75 0.11 0.04 0.03 3.69 0.03 1.15 maximum 44.38 8.02 0.49 0.1 0.24 15.42 0.16 6.17 minimum 22.33 4.76 0.06 0 0.10 0.13 0.03 1.00 critical limit <60 ph<5.5 ph>8.5 >0.75 0.12 5 0.12 3 0 2 4 6 a1 c1 e1 g1 i1 k1 o rg a n ic m a tt e r (% ) sample 0 2 4 6 a 2 b 2 c 2 d 2 e 2 f 2 g 2 h 2 i2 j2 k 2 l 2 sample organic matter content (%) maximum standard value critical value 0 2 4 6 a3 c3 e3 g3 i3 k3 sample 52 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 3.8 geostatistical analysis the spatial distribution of various soil quality indicators was showed in different varieties in two different areas (figure 8). the percentage of moisture was higher in southern part in which it decreased to eastern part to northern part for manikganj district but it was higher in ‘k’ and “l’ sampling stations and decreased from these stations to the other sampling stations in sylhet. the ph level decreased from southern to northern and eastern also for manikganj but it was higher in two sampling stations named ‘j’ and ‘h’ respectively, in sylhet. available n content was higher in northwest zone and decreased to south eastern for both areas. this also represented that higher n based crops were dominated in this area. (a) (b) 53 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 (c) (d) 54 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 (e) (f) figure 8. spatial distribution of (a) moisture content, (b) ph, (c) total nitrogen, (d) potassium, (e) phosphorous and (f) organic matter content in manikganj (left) and sylhet (right) districts 55 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 the amount of p decreased from south eastern to north western part of manikganj but same as from western part to southern part of sylhet. this also resulted that p dominated crops would be more suitable in this region. k and om were similarly distributed in manikganj but om decreased from western to eastern areas of sylhet. k were decreased from north to southern and great variations in eastern part of sylhet district. the maps showed that there was noticeable relationship among n, p, k and om contents (figure 8). it was observed that where there was low amount of n and k, there was high p content. areas with high amount of organic matter contained higher n, k but lower amount of p. the maps also demonstrated the regions which had comparatively higher moisture, n, p, k and organic matter content which would mean better agricultural activities in those areas. 3.9 comparison of soil indicators between the regions the variation of different indicators between two floodplain regions of the study were summarized and compared with other similar studies conducted in various regions of bangladesh (table 8). the result showed that both manikganj and sylhet district had loamy soil like the sitalakhya floodplain and jaintia hills in meghalaya, india. the higher organic matter percentage resulted that the soil of sylhet had higher infiltration capacity, water holding capacity compared to manikganj. the soil was also enriched with food for living organisms but both areas were enough to favorable for plants development and agriculture as they had existed sufficient amount of organic matter in the soil (chen & hseu, 1997). the ph value of soil in jdf region showed similarity with ganges river floodplain soil and was higher compared to skf soils which showed quite similarity to barapukuriya and sitalakhya floodplain. ec was higher in jdf compared to skf and the values were very little consistent with ec values from ganges river floodplain soil. salinity in soil was also higher in jdf compared to skf but there was not much salinity data found near these regions. the percentage of nitrogen, organic matter and potassium were higher in sylhet district compared to manikganj district. the results of nitrogen content were quite consistent with tangail district and barapukuriya coal mine area. phosphorous content was higher in jdf compared to skf and they were quite similar to jaintia hills, tangail district and tamabil areas. potassium contents in the soils of both areas showed similarity to tangail district and tamabil areas. organic matter content is quite consistent throughout the regions though it was found a bit higher in sylhet. table 8. comparison of soil indicators between various regions of bangladesh study area *st *mc (%) ph *ec (ds/m) *s (%) *n (%) *p (meq/100g) *k (µg/g) *om (%) sources jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain (manikganj) loamy 29.37 7.61 0.24 0.04 0.14 3.73 0.07 3.65 this study surma-kushiyara floodplain (sylhet) loamy 32.81 6.31 0.18 0.02 0.16 3.11 0.08 4.7 this study ganges river floodplain (jashore) silty loamy and silty clay loamy 7.47 0.81 0.38 129.14 74.34 0.73 khan et al. (2021a) madhupur tract (tangail) 5.61 0.12 7.37 0.18 2.24 kumar et al. (2020) jaintia hills, meghalaya, india loamy 32.49 5.5 0.028 0.369 3.550 0.612 2.59 lamare & singh (2020) dumuria upazilla (khulna) silt loamy 6.47 1.7 0.11 1.95 8.14 62.64 1.32 hossain & bin salam (2019) tangail district 5.33 0.08 5.83 0.19 1.74 kumar et al. (2019) tamabil coal stockpile (sylhet) 4.93 0.28 6.48 0.31 3.57 howladar et al. (2018) sitalakshya river (dhaka) loamy 6.66.97 65.7 99.83 0.43 0.66 bhuyan et al. (2018) 56 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 study area *st *mc (%) ph *ec (ds/m) *s (%) *n (%) *p (meq/100g) *k (µg/g) *om (%) sources barapukuria coal mining industrial area (dinajpur) 5.74 0.12 23.20 5.95 2.14 rahman et al. (2017) shyamnagar (satkhira) silty clay loamy 6.57.50 7.9715.34 4.21 8.02 0.034 0.091 0.02-0.08 0.001 0.002 0.871.82 shaibur et al. (2017) note : *st, mc, ec, s, n, p, k and om indicate as soil texture, moisture content, electrical conductivity, salinity, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and organic matter, respectively. the quality of soil in manikganj showed less variation with the soil of sylhet. the average loamy soil found in both areas were good for cultivation of crops. the available moisture in the soil of both the areas is less than the standard amount needed for cultivation. the ph of the soil indicated that the soil of manikganj is alkaline and nearly all the samples showed quite same ph value which is favorable for agriculture. the soil of sylhet was acidic showing much variation in ph value throughout the area. this might be a limitation of cultivation in sylhet. the nutrients (n,p,k) were present in very less amount in the soil from both the areas. the results indicated that soil texture, ph, salinity and organic matter content in both areas were suitable for agricultural purposes, but a significant decline was found in soil moisture and nutrients quality. both areas need supervision for increasing their moisture level and nutrient contents for better agricultural activities in these areas. the textural classification result (table 9) showed that total silt and clay particles (tested by hydrometer) were higher in manikganj district (55.0%) compared with sylhet district (51.5%). the overall assessment showed that soil of manikganj is more fertile than that of sylhet. therefore, jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain region is better for cultivation of different agricultural crops. table 9. comparison of textural classification (average values) in two regions methods jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain (manikganj district) surma-kushiyara floodplain (sylhet district) particle size (%) by sieve gravels (7.88), very coarse sand (6.85), coarse sand (7.4), medium sand (7.3), fine sand (6.1), very fine sand (24.27), silt and clay (39.56) gravels (5.81), very coarse sand (8.53), coarse sand (13.2), medium sand (14), fine sand (16.4), very fine sand (19.9), silt and clay (20.57) soil texture (%) by hydrometer sand (45), silt (41.5), clay (13.5) sand (48.5), silt (31.1), clay (20.4) 4.conclusion soil nutrients are essential for growing plants. deficiency or excessive concentration of macro/micro elements of the nutrients may be harmful for agricultural cultivation. the crop production rate depended upon the optimum level of soil nutrients. the quality of soil may reduce due to low percentage of organic matter and excess/absent of moisture content but all indicators were required at optimum/reference level for better production of crops. the soil of manikganj was more loamy compare to sylhet. jamuna-dhaleshwari floodplain region is better for agricultural practices and this should be reason for increasing the cropping intensity and cropping pattern. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this article. 57 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 acknowledgement the authors would like to acknowledge to authority of soil resource development institute, sylhet for supporting the laboratory facilities to complete this research. references afrin, s., khan, a. t., mahia, m., ahsan, r., mishal, m. r., ahmed, w., & rahman, r. m. 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(1991). geography of bangladesh. in geography of bangladesh. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429048098. sayed, m. ben, & haruyama, s. (2016). urbanization impact on agricultural land of manikganj pourashova, bangladesh. international journal of sciences: basic and applied research (ijsbar), 28, 243-253. shaibur, m. r., shamim, a. h. m., khan, m. h., & tanzia, f. k. s. (2017). exploration of soil quality in agricultural perspective at gabura and buri goalini union: shyamnagar, satkhira, bangladesh. bangladesh journal of environmental science, 32, 89-96. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340754828. van tan, l., tran, t., & loc, h. h. (2020). soil and water quality indicators of diversified farming systems in a saline region of the mekong delta, vietnam. agriculture (switzerland), 10(2), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10020038. yang, j. (2017). soil assessment. in environmental management in mega construction projects, 27-47. springer, singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3605-7_5. https://doi.org/10.3329/dujbs.v30i1.51815 60 tanbi tanaya sarker et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 42-60 ye, c., li, s., zhang, y., & zhang, q. (2011). assessing soil heavy metal pollution in the water-levelfluctuation zone of the three gorges reservoir, china. journal of hazardous materials, 191(1-3), 366-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.04.090. 2.1 study area 2.2 sampling 3.1 soil texture 3.2 moisture content 3.3 soil ph 3.4 electrical conductivity and salinity 3.5 soil nutrients 3.6 organic matter the result of various indicators like moisture content, ph, ec, salinity, n, p, k and om were summarized with mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values of soil quality indicators (table 7). the table resulted that moisture content in both a... 3.8 geostatistical analysis the spatial distribution of various soil quality indicators was showed in different varieties in two different areas (figure 8). the percentage of moisture was higher in southern part in which it decreased to eastern part to northern part for manikgan... 3.9 comparison of soil indicators between the regions luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 175 improving the learning outcomes of knowledge and inquiry skill domain of third grade students at smp negeri 14 kendari using guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit luh sukariasih1*, i gede purwana edi saputra2, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan3, andri estining sejati4, khaerun nisa1 1department of physics education, halu oleo university, indonesia 2department of physics education, sembilanbelas november kolaka university, indonesia 3department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia 4department of geography education, sembilanbelas november kolaka university, indonesia *email: luhsukariasih@yahoo.com received 29 march 2019/ revised 13 august 2019/ accepted 18 august 2019/ published 23 august 2019 abstract the study aims to improve the learning outcomes in the field of knowledge and inquiry skill in class viii 5 smp negeri 14 kendari on the subject matter of light in atmosphere as the effect of applying the guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit. the method of the study used a classroom action research with research design is cycle model. the research subject is the students of class viii 5 smp negeri 14 kendari in the academic year 2016/2017 which consist of 26 students. the learning data achievements of the learners' realm were obtained through the learning result test (cycle test), the skill data of the learners were obtained through the inquiry sheet, and then was analyzed used the descriptive statistics. results of data analysis are: 1) learning outcomes increased from 60,31 in cycle i to 75 in cycle ii; 2) the students group inquiry skill increased form average value 2.68 (enough category) in the cycle i to 3.15 (good category) in cycle ii; 3) the students mastery learning percentage increase from 42.31% (11 students) in cycle i to 77% (20 students) in cycle ii. it could be concluded that the implementation of guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit could improve the learning outcomes of knowledge and inquiry skill domain on class viii 5 smp negeri 14 kendari in the subject matter of light in atmosphere. keywords: guided inquiry, inquiry skills, learning outcomes,science kit. 1. introduction education science is a branch of science that is built on observation and classification of data, and is usually compiled and verified in quantitative laws, which involve the application of mathematical reasoning and data analysis to natural phenomena. natural events are included in the study of physical geography. in essence, education science is a science of natural phenomena that is poured in the form of facts, concepts, principles, and laws that are validated and through a series of activities in the scientific method (depdiknas, 2004). according to aksa et al. (2019), geography spesification are physical geography, social geography, and technical geography. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 175-187, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.10097 luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 176 one of physical geography study way through mathematics or counting. this is often feared and tends to be disliked by most students which has an impact on the low level of understanding of teaching material. according to sohibun (2014), learning with a count is still to understanding in the form of conceptsand formulas. the results of preliminary observations made on viii class students in smp negeri 14 kendari on 6th december 2016, found low learning outcomes in the realm of students' knowledge especially in the subject matter of light in atmospherein class viii 5. this can be seen from the average daily test results obtained by the value of 67.3. 13 out of 23 students (57%) scored below the minimum completion criteria (68 points) and only 10 students (43%) completed. the results of interviews with teachers in class viii 5 obtained learning outcomes in the realm of students' knowledge more on factual knowledge, while for conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge were only a few that students could understand. students rarely ask questions in the learning process, meaning that the ability of students to be involved in formulating problems or questions is also lacking. experimental activities in atmosphere light material that lack make competent skills in this case the skills to carry out experiments, collecting observational data and formulating conclusions are also lacking. according to anderson & krathwohl (2015), the knowledge dimension consists of: four types: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. the low average learning outcomes of atmosphere light material according to observation and interviews viii 5 class smp negeri 14 kendari caused in the learning process the model used by the teacher is teacher centered. teacher is very active while the students tend to be passive in the learning process which makes learning monotonous and less student participation. this learning process makes it students difficult to understands the material taught by the teacher. teacher teach less of experiment activities on material that requires experimental activities made students think abstractly about the material. according to sanjaya (2014), in conventional learning the position of students as objects of learning with the role as recipients of information passively. the students are only faced with concepts and formulas without any learning activities that demand the full activity of students in understanding the knowledge taught. the learning process at the junior secondary level is still dominated by teachers compared to students with one-way communication especially in the viii 5 class smp negeri 14 kendari. this is thought to be one of the factors causing low understanding of subject matter for junior high luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 177 school students. according to amaliana (2017), in teacher-centeder learning, teachers play important roles in the learning process as information providers or evaluator, and students are viewed as learners who passively receive information. the solution about the lack of student learning process and outcome is using leaning model. one of learning model that can make students more active and the learning process more interesting is the guided inquiry. the guided inquiry emphasizes students to be active and find their own knowledge. this relates to conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge is easier to understand if students can find their own knowledge through experiments. a good learning process is that students are more active than teachers, because the learning process like this is more interesting and the material is easier to understand. according to hidayati et al.(2016), in formulate problems and make hypotheses stages the student become active thinking direcly confronts the issues to be resolved. according to hardianti & kuswanto(2017), learning through inquiry gives learnenrs independence by encouraging them to have a more active and responsible role in various stages of investigation. guided inquiry can improve the inquiry skills and students learning outcome. guided inquiry can more effective if use experimental equipment in the school like science kit tools. there is science kit tools in the science laboratory in smp negeri 14 kendari. based on the analysis of the problem, the teacher obtained the appropriate model to solve the student problem in the class with the guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit. according to greenwald & quitadamo (2014), inquiry learning model combine with clinical case namely ibcc in the health matter in the neuro anatomy cursus students learn by using process skills, attitudes, and rational thinking knowledges. according to kuhlthau et al.(2015), inquiry directly connects between matter and the real world. many people think that the light in atmosphere material is quite difficult because some of the sub-material makes students think abstractly so that there is needed for direct activity to finding concepts. the use of guided inquiry learning assisted by science kit is very suitable in learning atmosphere light material. guided inquiry learning model is learning that involves all the ability of students to search and investigate systematically and logically so that they can formulate their own findings. guided inquiry learning will be more effective with practical activities in this case utilizing science kit. application of this model is carried out in two cycles of learning in the classroom to improve learning outcomes in the realm of students' knowledge and skills. guided inquiry learning model that is a model that emphasizes more on students to actively train courage, luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 178 communicate and try to find their own knowledge to solve problems faced through an experiment with direct guidance by the teacher. the combination of inquiry and science kit models is very suitable, because this model will make students find their own knowledge through direct activities of students in this case the experiment using science kit teaching aids. according to piaget (1970), by using real experience, a person's cognitive development will be better than just using language to communicate. according to sapriya (2014), guided inquiry learning has the advantage of developing thinking skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values in students compared to the classical approach. the research by ahmadi (2015) conducted at sdn 1 telaga, gorontalo district showed that learning by using kit teaching aids in science learning can make students more easily understand the material being taught, and students are more enthusiastic in learning learning. based on this description, the purpose of this study is to improve learning outcomes in the realm of knowledge and skills in the form of students ofclassviii 5 of smp 14 kendari in learning the subject matter of light in atmosphere through a guided inquiry guided model science kit. 2. the methods this study used a type of classroom action research. the research was conducted from 10 may to 24 may 2017 in 2016/2017 academic year with the subject matter of light in atmosphere. the subjects of this study were all students on class viii 5 in the even semester of smp negeri 14 kendari with 26 students. the research design is a cycle model. before each cycle phase is carried out first a preliminary study is carried out. the data in this research were analyzed using descriptive statistics. determination of the value of the real learning outcomes of students’ knowledge of the range of scores used for the description test in this study is 0 to 100 with the formula (tim direktorat pembinaan smp, 2017). the average value of learning outcomes in the knowledge class ( ), standard deviation (sd),% complete, and categorizing the value of learning outcomes with formula (sudjana, 2014). normalized gain (n-gain) is an increase in learning outcomes in the realm of students knowledge and skills in the first cycle and second cycle of inquiry are determined using equations from (riduwan, 2015). n-gain criteria ≥ 0.7 (high), 0.3 ≤ n-gain> 0.7 (medium), n-gain <0.3 (low). calculating and classifying the average score of inquirt skills associated with students with formula (sugiyono, 2014).below is reseach flow diagram. luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 179 figure 1. classroom action research flow diagram (arikunto, 2016) 3. results and discussion 3.1. inquiry skills of student groups the summary of the results of data analysis in the inquiry group skills of students in the teaching-learning process in each cycle can be seen in table 1. table 1. results of data analysis of inquiry skills for student groups per cycle no observed aspects the average value of inquiry skills student groups per cycle n-gain cyclei categories cycle ii categories 1. formulate problems 2,91 satisfactory 3,12 good 0,19 2. formulate a hypothesis 2,25 satisfactory 3 good 0,43 3. experiment 2,67 satisfactory 3,25 good 0,44 4. collecting data 3,08 good 3,37 good 0,32 5. formulating conclusions 2,5 satisfactory 3 good 0,33 the average value of inquiry skills in groups of students 2,68 3,15 0,34 categories satisfactory good medium resources:riduwan (2015), sanjaya (2014), sugiyono (2014) based on table 1, it can be seen that in the first cycle there were four aspects of inquiry skills in groups of students who obtained an average value with satisfactory beginning reflextion planning action observation reflextion cycle 1 planning action observation reflextion cycle 2 luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 180 categories, namely aspects of formulating problems, aspects of formulating hypotheses, aspects of conducting experiments and aspects of formulating conclusions. this shows that in the first cycle, the skills of the inquiry group of students was not optimal. in the second cycle the skills of inquiry students groups in each aspect had increased. the lowest average value of inquiry group skills of students in the cicle i, that’s mean the aspect of formulating a hypothesis increases in the second cycle to 0.75. while the average value of inquiry skills in the highest students group in the first cycle, that’s mean the aspect of collecting data increased by cycle ii to 0.29. in the second cycle of the 5 aspects of inquiry skills the observed group of students had an average score of 3.15 which good categorized. the average value of inquiry group skills in the first cycle and second cycle can be seen in table 1. from the table, the increase in student inquiry skills is shown by the average n-gain which is categorized as a moderate increase and the average value of inquiry skills group of students experienced an increase of 0.47. 3.2 teacher activity an overview of teacher activities in managing learning using a guided inkuri learning model assisted by science kit, teacher activities in each cycle can be seen in table 2. table2.results of data analysis of teacher activities on each cycle no aspects observed value average cycle i cycle ii a. introduction 1 opening the lessons and check the readiness of students 4 4 2 give apperception to students 3 4 3 deliver/write down topics and learning objectives. 3 3 b. main activity 4 presenting problems so students can formulate problems 4 4 5 direct students to gather information according to what they see at the stage of presenting the problem 3 4 6 direct students to get information through experiments 2,5 3 7 direct students to formulate explanations based on the results of the experiment 2,5 3 8 direct students to analyze experimental data in the form of conclusions 3 4 c. post activity 9 conclusion on the results of the activity 2,5 4 10 the teacher informs the material for the next meeting 3 3 d. class atmosfer 11 enthusiastic students 2,5 3 12 enthusiastic teacher 3 3 13 time according to allocation 3 4 14 kbm according to rpp 2,5 3 average value 2,9 3,5 category enough good luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 181 resousces: sanjaya (2014), sugiyono (2014) based on table 2 it can be seen that in the first cycle the average value of the teacher' lowest activity was the activity of the teacher directing students to obtain information through experiments, directing students to formulate explanations based on the results of the experiment and the conclusion of the results of the activity. while the highest teacher activity in the first cycle was when opening lessons and checking the readiness of students and presenting problems so that students can formulate problems. in the second cycle, it was seen that every aspect observed was maintained and experienced an increase. one aspect of teacher activity with the lowest average value in cycle i is that the teacher directs students to obtain information through experiments increasing in the second cycle of 0.5. in addition, the lowest average value of other teacher activities in the first cycle is the conclusion of the results of increased activities in the second cycle of 1.5. table 2, shows an increase in teacher activity from cycle i to cycle ii where the average value of teacher activity has increased by 0.6. 3.3 learning outcomes of students knowledge data on the realm learning outcomes of students' knowledge is obtained by using learning outcomes tests. based on the descriptive analysis of the learning outcomes of the realm of students 'knowledge on the subject matter of atmosphere light shown in the form of cycle tests consisting of cycle i tests and cycle ii tests, a summary of the results of data analysis of the learning outcomes of students' knowledge per cycle is as follows. table 3.learning outcomes data analysis results of student knowledge sphere per cycle no. value cycle n-gain i ii 1 minimum 20 22 -0,272 2 maximum 78 95 0,785 3 average 60,31 75 0,345 4 deviation standard 17,26 14 0,254 amount of completion 11 20 amount of incomplete 15 6 % complete 42,31 77 % incomplee 57,69 23 resources: riduwan ( 2015), sudjana (2014) tim direktorat pembinaan smp (2017) from table 3 above, it can be seen that the knowledge learning outcomes of viii5 students of smp negeri 14 kendari on the subject matter of atmosphere light learning luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 182 through the application of a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit indicate an increase from cycle i to cycle ii. this is seen in the value of the average learning outcomes in the realm of knowledge increasing from cycle i to cycle ii, it can be seen from the average n-gain of 0.345 in the medium category. the percentage of learning completeness from cycle i increased to cycle ii to be above 75% who had achieved kkm, showing completeness classically from classroom action research has been fulfilled which means that the model of guided inquiry teaching assisted by science kit can solve learning problems of viii5 students in smp negeri 14 kendari. 3.4 cycle i the results showed that in the first cycle there were still some aspects of the skills of the inquiry group of students that needed to be improved. the skills of inquiry groups of students who are still lacking and need to be improved are in the aspects of formulating problems, formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments and formulating conclusions. this is because students are not used to formulating problems, formulating hypotheses and formulating conclusions with learning models with the help of applied science kit. the low average value of group inquiry skills is influenced also by the teacher who still lacks directing students in conducting experiments and formulating conclusions during the learning process. the average value of the problem formulation is higher than the average value of the aspects of formulating the hypothesis, this is due to students' initial knowledge of the concepts related to the material in presenting problems that are still lacking so that students have difficulty when formulating hypotheses. according to hidayati et al. (2017), teachers should be able to prepare the questions about the problem problem is close to student environment. in the first cycle based on descriptive analysis, the teacher's activity shows the average value of teacher activity in a sufficient category. where teacher activity is still quite based on. table 2 of which is the teacher is still lacking in directing students to obtain information through experiments, directing students to formulate explanations based on the results of the experiment and formulating conclusions on the results of the activities. based on the results of reflection on teacher activity, by knowing the shortcomings in the first cycle, the teacher improved the way to teach learning material in accordance with the guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit, so that it was expected that in the next meeting an increase in teacher activity. according to sitorus et al. (2017), in guided learning teacher can manage and implement a learning to students which contains scientific steps. luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 183 based on the first problem, namely how to improve the learning outcomes of knowledge in class viii5 smp negeri 14 kendari as the effect of applying a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit on the subject matter of light in atmosphere, it can be explained that based on the results of descriptive analysis of learning outcomes in the knowledge domain each cycle tends to increase towards the better. according to zaini (2016), there is a significant effect that is given by using guided inquiry based learning with the cognitive process learning outcome. the percentage of completeness in this first cycle has not yet reached the research target, which is to achieve learning completeness in a classical minimum of 75%. this is because students have not been able to recall the material being taught, besides that students pay less attention and listen to the initial problems conveyed by the teacher, students are not accustomed to formulating conclusions, and during the experiment the students are less cooperative with their group friends. in addition, the teacher is not optimal in delivering direction and guidance to students in conducting experiments and formulating explanations in the form of conclusions so that students experience obstacles to conducting experiments and formulating conclusions on the results of experiments. according to wardani et al. (2015), cooperation can be increased through guided inquiry learning. after analyzing and reflecting on the first cycle, the teacher in this case the researcher and observer make improvements in learning through guided inquiry learning assisted by science kit to be applied in the second cycle, so that the realm of learning outcomes of knowledge of viii5 students in smp negeri 14 kendari can increase as expected in cycle ii. 3.5 cycle ii from the results of the descriptive analysis of the skills of inquiry groups of students in the second cycle showed an increase in the skills of inquiry groups of students from cycle i. this is as shown in table 1, the average skill scores of groups in the second cycle were 3.15 by category well. the skills aspect of inquiry groups in the second cycle on average experienced an increase from the first cycle. improving the skills of the best group inquiry inquiry was on the aspect of formulating a hypothesis, where the aspect of formulating this hypothesis increased by 0.75 higher than the increase in other aspects of inquiry skills. . this is because students are getting used to formulating hypotheses, assisted by teachers with clearer direction and presenting clearer problems also in the learning process using a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit. according to sarwi&prayitno (2016), there is luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 184 a significant application of guided learning model to the students inquiry 'understanding of the concept and being able to improve practice in inquiry syntax. the inquiry process is characterized by the presentation of problems that can be solved in groups through experiments that develop ideas and thoughts and activities centered on problem solving skills. in this learning model students make questions that guide the next investigation, including activities to form hypotheses, carry out experiments, collect experimental data, and formulate conclusions experiments. the teacher acts as a facilitator. the increase in the average value of the inquiry group skills indicates that the weaknesses or weaknesses found in the first cycle can be overcome so that the skills of the inquiry group of students are obtained as expected. according to putra et al. (2016) the application of guided inquiry trains students to pass the learning syntax well and is able to improve students science literary skills. in the second cycle the teaching activity of the teacher showed a significant increase, where in the second cycle the average value of the teacher's activity obtained an average value of 3.5 which was categorized as good. the results of the analysis and observations in the second cycle showed an increase in teacher activity by implementing a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit. increasing the average value of teacher activity indicates that the weaknesses contained in the first cycle can be overcome so that the teacher can manage learning using a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit. according to niana et al.(2016), the teacher's activities in applying the guided inquiry model were able to improve student learning success. from the results of descriptive analysis of the learning outcomes of the realm of students' knowledge shows an increase in learning outcomes in the realm of knowledge from cycle i to cycle ii. this can be seen with the average value obtained by students in the first cycle increased in the second cycle. improving the learning outcomes of the students 'knowledge in the second cycle showed an increase in students' mastery of learning material and the motivation of students to attend learning until the last meeting. according to mulyana et al. (2018), there is a significant influence guided inquiry learning the student learning result. the increase in learning outcomes is also because the teacher has been able to manage the learning process, besides that students are also familiar with the guided inqury learning model assisted by science kit in the learning process, because in the guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit students can observe directly the concepts that are taught by conducting experiments and can be more creative looking for answers to the problems given. luh sukariasih et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 175-187 185 so that students are not difficult to understand the concept of science, especially in the subject matter of atmosphere light and relate it to their experience in everyday life. according to yewang et al. (2016) guided inquiry is better than free inquiry in guiding students in investigations, observations and hypothesestests. 4. conclusion the conclusion in this study is the application of a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit can improve learning outcomes in the aspect of knowledge, skills and learning completeness of students of class viii 5 of smp negeri 14 kendari on the subject matter of atmosphere light. this conclusion is supported by several specific conclusions of the results of descriptive empirical data analysis as follows. a. the skills of inquiry in groups of viii 5 students in smp negeri 14 kendari through the assisted guided inquiry learning model of kit ipa have increased. this can be seen from the average value of the skills aspects of the inquiry group of students in the first cycle and second cycle. where in the first cycle obtained an average value of 2.68 sufficient categories, increased in the second cycle to 3.15 good categories. b. the realm of learning outcomes of knowledge of grade viii 5 students of smp negeri 14 kendari who learned through assisted guided inquiry learning model kit ipa increased from the first cycle to the second cycle which was indicated by the average value of the realm learning outcomes of students' knowledge increased from 60.31 to 75, the standard deviation decreased from 17.26 to 14 and the average n-gain was 0.34 medium category. c. the learning completeness of grade viii 5 students of smp negeri 14 kendari who learned through a guided inquiry learning model assisted by science kit showed that there was an increase in the percentage of learning completeness from cycle i to cycle ii, in the first cycle the completeness percentage was 42.31% or 11 students had reached minimum completeness criteriaand in cycle ii the percentage of completeness increased to 77% or 20 students had reached. references ahmadi, l. 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(2017). panduan penilaian oleh pendidik dan satuan pendidikan sekolah menengah pertama. jakarta: kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan direktorat jenderal pendidikan dasar dan menengah direktorat pembinaan sekolah menengah pertama. wardani, s., nurhayati, s., & safitri, a. (2015). the effectiveness of the guided inquiry learning module towards students’ character and concept understanding. international journal of science and research (ijsr), 5(6), 1589-1594. yewang, m.u.k., degeng, i.n.s., setyosari, p., & sulton. (2016). the effect of guided inquiry learning method vs free inquiry against learning outcomes. international conference on educationum, 561-568. zaini, m. (2016). guided inquiry based learning on the concept of ecosystem toward learning outcomes and critical thinking skills of high school student. iosr journal of research & method in education (iosr-jrme), 6(6), 50-55. 186 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 a preliminary study on tsunami disaster in yogyakarta: identification of vulnerability order and components lina wahyuni1*, muh. aris marfai2, m. pramono hadi2 1doctoral program of regional development study program, faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, jl. kaliurang, sekip utara, bulaksumur, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia 2 regional development study program, faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, jl. kaliurang, sekip utara, bulaksumur, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *corresponding author : linawahyuniananda@gmail.com received 10 march 2020/ revised 14 may 2020 / accepted 23 may 2020/ available online 2 june 2020 abstract a tsunami is a disaster that can be hardly estimated. it is a significant concern un since more than 60% of the world's population lives in coastal areas prone to tsunamis, including indonesia. the county community with complex and dynamic plate requires mastering of mitigation strategies as a tsunami preventive effort. understanding the vulnerable elements in risky areas is critical. however, the magnitude of potential disasters cannot be minimized. this study analyzes the tsunami vulnerability in bantul, special region of yogyakarta (diy). the analysis was based on a description of assessment parameters such as land use, the physical condition of the area, social conditions, and availability of infrastructure. the results show that social vulnerability had the most significant impact. keywords: vulnerability, tsunami, bantul, diy 1. introduction a tsunami refers to waves that are faster, taller, and stronger than wind or storm surge (chen & cheng, 2016; rangel-buitrago et al., 2020). it has frequently occurred in the last decade, damaging coastal structures (nandasena et al., 2012). its incidencet on a large scale is relatively less frequent compared to hydrometeorological disasters.the associated waves are unpredictable because they are caused by sudden significant volcanic displacements, initially triggered by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, or meteors (al-faesly et al., 2012). on december 26, 2004, a tsunami disaster was triggered by the magnitude of an earthquake with a strength of 9.1 ritcher scale (sr) in the indian ocean. the maximum height of the waves was 30 meters, causing more than 200,000 deaths and massive geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 186-195, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.17006 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:linawahyuniananda@gmail.com https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 187 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 destruction of property in more than ten countries bordering the indian ocean (grilli 2007, leonard & lucinda, 2014; iverson & prasad, 2007; roshan et al., 2016). on february 27, 2010, a tsunami disaster was triggered by an 8.8 magnitude earthquake of the coast of chile. the waves reached local run-ups of 29 meters high on coastal cliffs (fritz, 2010). on march 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake stroked near the coast of northeastern japan and swept along the coast, penetrating the land with a maximum height of 40 meters (yeh et al., 2013). on september 16, 2015, an 8.3 magnitude earthquake occurred off chile's central coast and triggered a tsunami with a maximum runoff height of 13 meters (contreras-lopez et al., 2016). in thailand, the dock plates at the port of khao lak and the fishing port of the ban nam kem deck were severely damaged by the uplifted pressure due to the indian ocean tsunami of 2004 (ghobarah et al., 2006). the same incident occurred in japan and damaged the sendai port in the tohoku region during the 2011 tsunami (suppasri, 2012). based on the risk analysis conducted by the national disaster management agency (bnpb) in 2012, four major areas have high risk and probability of tsunami, including mentawai, sunda strait, and southern part of java, megathrust south of bali and nusa tenggara, and northern papua region. of the four areas, the south java coast or pansela, has the largest population (bnpb, 2012). due to a large number of residents in this region, the spatial planning along the south coast of java should be based on coastal area disaster mitigation. the coastal area of the bantul regency is prone to tsunami because it is a low lying area designed as one of the national strategic tourism area (hadipour et al., 2019; mcguire, 2020). the existence of south cross road (jjls) increase the strategic value of the coastal areas. it connects the southern coast of java island to the coast of bantul regency. also, the new airport development plan in the coastal area of the kulonprogo regency is next to the regency, which is integrated with national tourism strategic area (kspn) borobudur and road along jjls. generally, airports are encouraged to support the development of kspn borobudur and surrounding areas. this is stated in the national tourism development master plan 2010-2025. figure 1 shows the diy southern coast strategic region. the implementation of spatial planning should be carried out comprehensively, holistically, well-coordinated, integrated, effective, and efficient, focusing on political, economic, social, culture, defense, security, and environmental sustainability (ibrahim & hegazy, 2013). spatial planning needs to be based on the system approach, main function, 188 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 administration, activity, and strategic value areas, taking into account the disaster factor (muta'ali, 2014). figure 1. kspn pansela yogyakarta area. source: government regulation number 50 the year 2011 concerning master plan of national tourism development year 2010 2025. the development plan of the southern coastal region, including the bantul area, has encouraged unity in the spatial planning following the risk of the tsunami disaster (balasundareshwaran et al., 2020). this study analyzes the tsunami vulnerability orderbased on the assessment parameters, including land use, the physical condition, social state,and infrastructure availability. 189 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 2. methods the identification of dangerous elements in the disaster-prone area is part of mitigation. this aspect was investigated by tanaka, (2008); tanaka et al., (2010); liyanage & lee, (2012); freire et al., (2012); & shibayama et al., (2012). in this research, the risky component was considered a significant factor in mitigation since the magnitude of the disaster cannot be reduced. the assessment of the damage was conducted by identifying and calculating the vulnerability order, including land use, the physical and social condition of the area, availability of infrastructure, and economic. the unit of analysis was the village administration. theidentification of elements at risk within the tsunami danger zone, including physical, social, and economic elements, is a significant step in determining vulnerability order. the parameters used are based on the national disaster management agency (bnpb) regulation no. 2 of 2012 and several previous studies. the research flows as follows. figure 2. research flow 3. results and discussion indonesia is a country prone to the tsunamis, especially in the coastal area that directly faces the meeting layer of eurasia plate, indo-australia, and the pacific, including the western part of sumatra island, the southern part of java island, nusa tenggara, the northern part of papua, sulawesi, maluku, and the eastern part of kalimantan island (bmkg, 190 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 2012; mcguire, 2020).the common disaster occurringis a close-range tsunami of around 200 km from the earthquake epicenter. local tsunamis can be caused by earthquakes,slide, and volcanic eruptions (bmkg, 2012). table 2.1 depicts the tsunami history occurring in indonesia. table 1. significant tsunami event in indonesia no year location magnitude total victims 1 1883 krakatau volcano 36,000 2 1833 west sumatera, bengkulu, and lampung 8.8 unreported 3 1938 kal island, bangka 8.5 unreported 4 1967 tinambung 58 5 1968 tambu, southeast sulawesi 6.0 200 6 1977 sumbawa 6.1 161 7 1992 flores 6.8 2,080 8 1994 banyuwangi 7.2 377 9 1996 toli toli 7.0 9 10 1996 biak 8.2 166 11 2000 banggal 7.3 50 12 2004 nangro aceh darussalam 9.0 250,000 13 2006 pangandaraan 7.2 >600 14 2010 mentawai 7.7 >400 source : mardiatno (2008 ) the greatest tsunami in the history of indonesia occurred in aceh on december 26, 2004. it started by the earthquake magnitude of 9.3 sr, which caused a strong shock and fault, stretching from aceh to andaman. the tsunami was attributed to the earthquake with huge losses and 250,000 deaths (mardiatno, 2008). almost all of the tsunami disasters led to material losses and claimed many lives. according to table 2.1, the most recent tsunami occurred in october 25th 2010 in mentawai island, west sumatra. it started with an earthquake of magnitude 7.7 sr, followed by tsunami waves of 3-10 meters. this caused destruction of 77 villages and more than 400 deaths (mardiatno, 2008). bantul regency has ahigh vulnerability because it directly faces the indian ocean. additionally, the coastal typology tends to be flat (trihatmoko, 2017; mcguire, 2020). when a tsunami strikes, it is likely to damage the physical and social aspects, as well as the existing infrastructure. social vulnerability should be the first concern since it relates to the number of people affected (koroglu et al., 2019; liu et al., 2020; malherbe et al., 2020). the readiness of every resident in the face of disasters significantly affects vulnerability. in case the community is ready to face any disaster, the severity can be reduced. 191 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 social vulnerability is the ability to recover from the impact of natural disasters based on age and sex group of the populations (dawyer, 2004. in zulkarnaen, 2012). it is based on the understanding of the disaster and the resulting conditions. this includes the ability to evaluate when it occurs and the recovery process. the population of women, children, and the elderly is considered the most vulnerable (subarkah, 2009). based on the law of the republic of indonesia number 24, 2007 on disaster countermeasure, the vulnerable groups include infants, toddlers, and children of pregnant and lactating mothers, the disabled and the elderly. according to subarkah. (2009), the components used in calculating social vulnerability include age and sex groups. the vulnerability is assessed based on an understanding of current and post-disaster conditions based on the evacuation capability. in this assessment, the population of women, children, and the elderly are targeted. table 2 shows the population in bantul regency, which can be potentially affected in case the tsunami strikes. this data includes the number of people living in the district directly facing the indian ocean. population density also affects the vulnerability of a region. table 2 shows the pandak district has the highest population and density. table 2. population and population density based on district which directly facing the indian ocean in bantul regency district population population density srandakan 29,130 1,590 sanden 30,114 1,300 kretek 30,111 1,125 pundong 32,321 1,365 bambang lipuro 38,206 1,684 pandak 48,950 2,014 source : statistics of bantul regency (2016) economic vulnerability is the risk of damage, negative impact, or external shock resistance due to unexpected events (koroglu et al., 2019; liu et al., 2020). the calculation losses can be a good indicator of the economy (gulllaumom, 1999, in zulkarnain 2012). physical vulnerability is the last aspect describing the extent of damage to physical infrastructures exposed to hazards, such as residential buildings (ishtiaque et al., 2019). it affects the local community's structural readiness and the condition of structures (prasstiya, 192 lina wahyuni et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 186-195 2013). the main physical vulnerability in bantul regency include jjls and the existence of airport . the most important thing to do in adjusting the development of risk management strategies is to assess vulnerability to potential tsunami damage in the proper order (lantz et al., 2020). however, vulnerability assessment has never been formulated in an appropriate legal document. building vulnerability means calculating thestructures' capacity in the horizontal pressure of tsunami flows and its susceptibility to water (dall'osso et al., 2009; koroglu et al., 2019). 4. conclusion in this study, the ranking of the element at risk involves social, economic, and physical vulnerabilities. social vulnerability is considered to be the most powerful aspect associated with detailed and varied subcomponents. the economic vulnerability comes second in terms of the economic conditions of a society. it is closely related tocommunities’specific capacity to survive. physical vulnerability is rated last since rebuilding of infrastructures is easier than social or economic development. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references al-faesly, t., palermo, d., nistor, i., and a. cornett, a. 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(2008). vegetation bioshields for tsunami mitigation: review of effectiveness, limitations, construction, and sustainable management. landscape ecol eng 5:71-79. tanaka, n., jinadasa, k. b. s. n., mowjood, m.i.m., fasly, m.s.m. (2010). coastal vegetation planting projects for tsunami disaster mitigation: effectiveness evaluation of new establishments. landscape ecol eng 7:127-135. trihatmoko, e. (2017). proses dan dampak dinamika wilayah kepesisiran jawa tengah dan daerah istimewa yogyakarta. master thesis. universitas gadjah mada, yogykarta. yeh, h., sato, s., tajima, y. (2013). the 11 march 2011 east japan earthquake and tsunami: tsunami effects on coastal infrastructure and buildings. pure appl. geophys, vol. 170 (6–8), pp. 1019–1031. zulkarnain, m. w. d.(2012). evaluasi multi-kriteria keruangan untuk penilaian risiko total tsunami di pacitan. master thesis. universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta. sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 291 the effect of google earth utilization on students' spatial thinking ability sri rahayu, murjainah, m. idris department of geography education, university of pgri palembang jln. jend. a. yani, lr gotong royong 9/10 ulu, 30116, palembang, indonesia email : srirahayu9796@gmail.com received 1 august 2019/ revised 2 december 2019/ accepted 5 december 2019/ published 12 december 2019 abstract the ability to think spatially in geography learning is essential, so it requires technology-based learning resources in the form of google earth, which can facilitate students in imagining or visualizing images in mind. in this regard, this study aims to determine the effect of the use of google earth on the spatial thinking abilities of students in the class x geography of sma pgri 2 palembang. this study used an experimental research method (posttest-only control design), because this design is suitable to use if the pre-test is not possible or pre-test can influence the experimental. the sample data collection technique uses purposive sampling, which is based on considerations or criteria that must be met by the sample used in the study. the sample in this study is class x ips 1 as the experimental class and x ips 2 as the control class. data collection techniques used documentation and tests. for data analysis techniques, normality test, homogeneity test, and hypothesis testing using the ibm spss statistics 20 formula for windows. based on the results of the study, the average value of the experimental class's superior post-test was 82.92, and the results of the posttest control class were 66.39. it shows that there are differences in the spatial thinking ability of the experimental group students who were treated using google earth during the learning process. the significance of the results of the posttest t-test from the two experimental and control groups was 0.000, and then the null hypothesis ho was declared rejected because based on the t-test criteria, the significance value was <0.05 or the sig (2-tailed) value of 0,000 was obtained <0.05. so it can be concluded that there is a significant influence between the use of google earth on the spatial thinking ability of students in the class x geography subject of sma pgri 2 palembang. keywords: google earth, spatial thinking ability, geography. 1. introduction spatial thinking is recognized as a collection of three cognitive skills about the nature and concepts of space (such as distance, closeness, and distribution), about the representation of spatial information (such as maps and graphs), and the process of spatial reasoning (such as decision making) (support committee for thinking thinking spatial; liu, et al. 2019). spatial geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 291-301, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.13350 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 292 ability according to albert and golledge; setiawan (2015) consists of spatial visualization, spatial orientation and spatial relationships. in fact, according to golledge & stimson; halpern; aliman, mutia & yustesia (2018) spatial thinking is the ability of human reasoning to recognize spaces that can develop due to input, processing and output processes. according to the national research council, 2006; setiawan (2015) spatial thinking is one form of thought among other types of view, such as verbal, logical, statistical, hypothetical and so on. furthermore, spatial thinking is an important character in geography learning activities. according to setiawan (2015), the study of geographic phenomena not only explains the existence of a phenomenon and the process of occurrence of this phenomenon on the surface of the earth but also the shape, size, direction, pattern of phenomena and their relationship with other phenomena. according to hidayat et al (2017), spatial thinking is a basic skill that can be accessed by everyone to different degrees in different contexts to solve problems in various contexts. meanwhile according to lee jongwon & bednars s robert; hidayat et al (2017) spatial thinking requires three related components, namely: the concept of space, the method used to represent spatial information, and the process of spatial reasoning. therefore, these three components are interrelated, mutually supportive and inseparable. the importance of spatial thinking can and must be taught at all levels in the education system. the goal is that each individual has the good spatial ability. gersmehl & gersmehl; oktavianto et al (2017) define spatial thinking as an ability that can be used by a geographer to analyze spatial relationships on earth. this ability will be very useful for students when deciding or making decisions from things that are very simple to complications related to space or location. when someone travels, he must know about distance and direction, so he can predict the time of arrival and not get lost. therefore, in learning geography, it is very important to emphasize spatial thinking, not only information about geographic phenomena, but students must have the ability to analyze spatial aspects, because the ability of spatial thinking in geography can affect students' ability to imagine or visualize images in the mind. based on data obtained from geography subject teachers in class x sma pgri 2 palembang, said that there were 4 class x social studies, where 60% of students in grade 10 had reached kkm with a score above 70, while 40% of students had not yet reached kkm. core competencies of geography subject in class x are managing, reasoning, and presenting in the abstract realm related to the development of what is learned in schools independently and can sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 293 use methods that are following curriculum rules. the basic competency used is to present the results of an analysis of the relationship between humans and their environment as the influence of atmospheric dynamics in the form of narratives, tables, graphs, graphs, illustrated images, and concept maps. then, indicators identify the type of inland waters, identify the use of inland waters, analyze conservation of inland waters, and watersheds. a watershed is a part of the earth's surface where water flows into certain rivers. in other words, a watershed is a rainwater reservoir that enters the watershed. watershed consists of 3 types, namely upstream, downstream and middle watersheds. in this connection, the teacher's role becomes important in learning to improve students' spatial abilities. the teacher is expected to be able to provide stimulation to students and interesting innovations and learning strategies are needed so that students can understand the geography concept about watersheds in southern sumatera, so that it can be understood more easily. recognizing that all technological facilities are needed, that can improve spatial thinking skills. so, it is needs technology that can support learning, using google earth. according to yousman (2008) google earth is an interactive mapping application released by google. google earth displays globe maps, topography, satellite photos, terrain that can be overlaid with roads, buildings, locations, or other geographical information. with google earth, we can plan trips, find tourist attractions, motorbikes, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, schools and more where we can get latitude and longitude coordinates. google earth can display low-resolution satellite photos that depict mountains, seas, forests, to high-resolution satellite photos that can depict objects such as roads, office homes. for certain areas that are already equipped with 3d building views. google earth provides an application for educators to display images of the earth visually. google earth also provides opportunities for students to see every side of the world. google earth helps students see distance and other geographical features. google earth is a free software package available for anyone who has a computer and an internet connection. this is an online resource available in the classroom and can be used by students at home. studies have shown that the use of online resources has helped increase students' understanding of key concepts and skills while also helping students gain confidence in their knowledge of geographical problems (solem and gersmehl; cuviello, 2010). according to bodzin et al. (2009); oktavianto et al. (2017) geospatial-based sites such as google earth can accelerate the improvement of spatial thinking skills in a variety of students. this is in line with the main material in this study that sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 294 requires digital technology facilities with easy access to information that is relatively faster without having to be present directly on the object to be addressed. the novelty in this study is analysis regarding google earth for conveying material taught specifically in geography. bearing in mind that many students find it difficult to understand an object or map if they learn to use ordinary maps, so the teacher is required to more attention for help students develop their own spatial thinking skills so as to achieve the expected competencies in learning geography in school. based on these problems, the reference for researcher to conducting research on the effect of using google earth to students' spatial thinking abilities. the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using google earth to students' spatial thinking abilities. 2. methods the method used in this study is the experimental research method in the form of posttest only control design (sugiyono, 2010). data collection of this study uses test techniques. the test is given at the end of the meeting, used to obtain data on the ability of students to solve the questions given after using google earth. the test used is a multiple-choice form test.validity test using the ibm spss statistics 20 formula for windows. testing the validity of the instrument in this study uses the validity of construction, namely the pearson productmoment correlation formula as follows: rxy = 𝑛𝛴𝑋𝑌‐(𝛴𝑋)(𝛴𝑌) √{(𝛴𝑋2)‐(𝛴𝑋)2}{𝑁𝛴𝑌2‐(𝛴𝑌)2} (1) (arikunto,2010) reliability testing is done using ibm spss statistics 20 for windows with the cronbach's alpha model, which is measured on the cronbach's alpha scale 0 to 1. to find the reliability value using alpha formula: (arikunto,2010) the data analysis technique used in this study is the statistical test parameter t (t test). the t statistical test is used to test the rejection or acceptance of the null hypothesis, provided that the sample is homogeneous and normally distributed. the value of the geography learning test (2) http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1itfstw-fbw/udeqtuw1ayi/aaaaaaaaaio/47lrmv2ymcw/s1600/reliabilitas.jpg sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 295 results obtained in the experimental class and the control class. according to sudjana test t-test (2005) as follows: (sudjana, 2005) normality test to analyze data by testing whether the data obtained is normal or not. data normality test needs to be done to find out whether the data analyzed is normal or not. data is said to be normal if the km price is located between 1 (-1≤ km ≤ 1). the data created in the frequency distribution table is tested for normality using the curve slope normality test formula as follows: km = 𝑋 − 𝑀𝑜 𝑆 homogeneity test data is done to prove the similarity of group variance, where samples taken are from the same population. to test the sample using the bertlett test with the chi-square equation. at the beginning of the meeting in the experimental class, students look confused in the following learning because the delivery of learning has never used google earth so that the beginning of learning researchers are active to guide students during the learning process by using google earth. after researchers explain how to use google earth, students become more active. the use of google earth helps researchers in delivering material well so that students become more focused on visualizing images. the water inland described by researchers in the form of rivers, lakes and swamps makes students interested in listening carefully. this is proven by the good results when students work on the posttest. while in the control class applying learning using conventional methods, in this class, students are asked to pay attention to the explanations of researchers with conventional methods, without using google earth, so that makes students bored and tired. students only get information from the teacher. some students ask questions, but many students are passive during the learning process. so it is not enough to pay more attention to assist students in developing sgab = √ (𝑛₁‐1)𝑆1 2+ (𝑛21)𝑆1 2 𝑛1+𝑛2−2 (3) (4) sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 296 spatial thinking skills and cause understanding of the material in the control class can not be maximized, this is seen from the results of students' posttest. this study uses two data collection techniques, namely, documentation and test techniques. the test questions that were given in the sample class had previously been tested for validity and reliability. test questions are given as many as 20 multiple-choice questions. the question is made by adjusting the indicators of spatial thinking ability consisting of location, condition, connection, comparison, aura, region, hierarchy, transition, analogy, pattern, spatial association. 3. results and discussion tests are given at the end of learning (posttest). meanwhile, documentation is used to support research data in the form of test result data and learning documentation. the results of the experimental and control class posttest can be seen in figure 1 below. figure 1. post test results students in the experimental and control classes based on figure 1. shows that in the experimental class and the control class gets a variety of values. however, in the control class, many students received grades at intervals of 5565, and none of the students received grades at intervals of 88-98. students in the experimental class get the highest value of 95, the lowest value of 65, and the average value obtained by the 0 5 10 15 20 25 55-65 66-76 77-87 88-98 experiment class control class sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 297 experimental class is 82.92. meanwhile, the control class test results with the highest score of 85, the lowest score of 55 and the average value obtained by the control class is 66.39. this is proof that the results of experimental class tests using google earth can affect student learning outcomes. in contrast, verma and estaville; jo and hong (2018) revealed that currently, there is no evidence of empirical research that shows that learning geography helps students develop spatial thinking skills. to find out whether the data is normally distributed or not, then the normality test is done using shapiro wilk, with the help of a computer with the statistical package for social science (spss) version 20. the data criteria are said to be normal if significance> 0.05. the results of data processing using the shapiro wilk technique can be seen in table 1 below. table 1. distribution of normality test results with the shapiro wilk test class kolmogorovsmirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. spatial thinking ability posttest experimen .131 36 .123 .945 36 .073 posttest control .150 36 .039 .928 36 .021 a. lilliefors significance correction based on table 1. the normality of the test results above is known that the results of the experimental group posttest significance value (sig) on the posttest score of the experimental class 0.73> 0.05 while the posttest score of the control class 0.21> 0.05. this shows that the data is normally distributed because the significance is 0.21> 0.05. therefore it can be concluded that both are normally distributed. next, to find out whether or not some of the variants of the research data were tested for homogeneity. criteria for decision making 0.05. in this homogeneity test, the researchers used spss 20. the results of the homogeneity test can be seen in the following table. sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 298 table 2. distribution of homogeneity test results levene statistic df1 df2 sig. spatial thinking ability based on mean .000 1 70 .983 based on median .013 1 70 .908 based on median and with adjusted df .013 1 69.59 1 .908 based on trimmed mean .005 1 70 .942 based on table 2, it is known that the results of the posttest of the experimental and control groups, obtained a significance value of 0.983> 0.05, it can be concluded that the variants of the experimental and control groups are homogeneous. after observing the characteristics of the variables that have been studied and the requirements of the analysis, then testing the hypothesis. for the purposes of the hypothesis, inferential statistics are used with the help of spss version 20, namely t-test statistics. the decision-making criteria are as follows: if sig> 0.05, ho is accepted if sig <0.05 then ho is rejected hypothesis testing, the step taken is to analyze the results of the t-test. the results of the t test analysis can be seen in table 3. table 3. experiment and control posttest t-test results mean std. deviation df thitung ttabel sig (2tailed) conclusion experimen 82,92 7.962 70 8.651 1.666 .000 h0rejected control 66,39 8.247 ardyodyantoro's research results (2014) on "utilization of google earth in geography learning to improve student learning outcomes of class x high school widya kutoarjo" shows that learning using google earth media is effective in improving learning outcomes in geography. learning outcomes with google earth media are higher than learning outcomes with lectures. the mean value of learning outcomes with google earth media 83,397, while with lectures 78,348. improved learning outcomes indicated by the achievement score of 0.68 sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 299 improvements in the experimental class and 0.58 in the control class. p value of learning outcomes 0.01 <0.05, then ha is accepted and h0 is rejected. this proves that the use of google earth media in learning geography is effective in improving the learning outcomes of class x high school students widya kutoarjo. isnaini's research results (2015) on "comparative use of google earth media with digital maps on class xi ips fauna distribution materials in state high school 1 semarang" shows that (right-side t-test) shows a tcount of 2,433 and a table of 1.67 with a significance level of 5 % and dk = 31 + 31 2 = 60, because tcount> ttable, it was concluded that the experimental group taught using the google earth media the learning outcomes were better than the control group taught using digital map media. this means that the research hypothesis was accepted. meanwhile, nofirman (2018) conducted a study on the geographical spatial ability of class xii students of sma negeri 6 bengkulu city showing that the results of data processing it was found that the spatial abilities of class xii students at sman 6 bengkulu there is in the largest group (43.55%). the potential geographic spatial ability of class xii students in city 6 of bengkulu city on the group with the largest number of 38.71%. the average position is in the highest score group. furthermore, the results of ervina, asyik and mizwar (2012) research on "the influence of the use of google earth and maps media in the improvement of geography learning outcomes in material of southeast asian regional at sma negeri 14 bandar lampung in the academic year 2011/2012" shows that there are differences in the increase in results student learning and the value of student learning outcomes on the use of google earth media is higher than the use of media maps. meanwhile, the results of oktavianto, et al (2017) research on "the effect of google earth assist project based learning to spatial thinking ability" shows that google earth-aided project-based learning has a significant effect on students' spatial thinking skills. in addition, also found several advantages of google earth-based project-based learning, including: (1) encouraging students to be solve real problems through project activities, (2) students are more active in learning, (3) student performance in completing projects are more organized, (4) students have more freedom to complete projects, (5) students are motivated to compete to produce the best products, and (6) students experience increased spatial thinking skills. sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 300 the use of google earth in learning geography has an effect to students on spatial thinking ability indicated by an increase in student learning outcomes after using google earth while learning. in addition, student activities and attention increase and students' difficulty in understanding spatial decreases. 4. conclusion based on the results of research, it can be concluded that there is a significant influence between the use of google earth on the spatial thinking abilities of students in class x sma pgri 2 palembang. judging from the average value of the experimental class's posttest is 82.92 and the posttest of the control class is 66.39. this has been proven by examiners that the t-count ha is accepted, that's indicating that there are differences in the spatial thinking ability of the experimental group students who are treated using google earth during the learning process. the significance of the results of the posttest t-test from the two experimental and control groups was 0.000, and then the null hypothesis ho was declared rejected because, based on the t-test criteria, the significance value was <0.05 or the sig (2-tailed) value of 0,000 was obtained <0.05. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the article. references aliman, mutia, & yustesia. (2018). integrasi kebangsaan dalam tes berpikir spasial. jurnal geografi fkip ump , 82-89. arikunto, s. (2010). prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: rineka cipta. ardyodyantoro, gatty. (2014). pemanfaatan google earth dalam pembelajaran geografi untuk meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa kelas x sma widya kutoarjo. skripsi. program studi pendidikan geografi fakultas ilmu sosial universitas negeri yogyakarta. cuviello, matthew p. (2010). evaluating google earth in the classroom. new york : center for teaching excellence sri rahayu et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 291-301 301 ervina, e., asyik, b., & miswar, d. (2012). pengaruh penggunaan media google earth dan peta terhadap peningkatan hasil belajar geografi. jpg (jurnal penelitian geografi), 1(1). hidayat, k. n., & fiantika, f. r. (2017). analisis proses berfikir spasial siswa pada materi geometri. prosiding si manis (seminar nasional integrasi matematika dan nilai islami) , 385-394. isnaini, n. (2018). komparasi penggunaan media google earth dengan peta digital pada materi persebaran fauna kelas xi ips di sma negeri 1 semarang. jurnal geografi: media informasi pengembangan dan profesi kegeografian, 12(1), 52-61. jo, i., & hong, j. e. (2018). geography education, spatial thinking, and geospatial technologies: introduction to the special issue. international journal of geospatial and environmental research, 5(3), 1. liu, r., greene, r., li, x., wang, t., lu, m., & xu, y. (2019). comparing geoinformation and geography students’ spatial thinking skills with a human-geography pedagogical approach in a chinese context. sustainability, 11(20), 5573. doi:10.3390/su11205573 nofirman, n. (2019). studi kemampuan spasial geografi siswa kelas xii sma negeri 6 kota bengkulu. jurnal georafflesia: artikel ilmiah pendidikan geografi, 3(2), 11-24. oktavianto, d. a. (2017). pengaruh pembelajaran berbasis proyek berbantuan google earth terhadap keterampilan berpikir spasial. jurnal teknodik, 21(1), 059. patterson, t. c. (2007). google earth as a (not just) geography education tool. journal of geography, 106(4), 145–152. doi:10.1080/00221340701678032 setiawan, i. (2016). peran sistem informasi geografis (sig) dalam meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir spasial (spatial thinking). jurnal geografi gea, 15(1). doi:10.17509/gea.v15i1.4187 sugiyono. (2010). metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. sudjana. (2005). metode statistika. bandung: tarsito. yousman, y. (2008). google earth. yogyakarta: c.v andi. 80 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 the application of geographic information system (gis) and remote sensing in quantifying snow cover and precipitation in kabul basin qamar zaman* and shahid nawaz khan institute of geographical information systems, school of civil and environmental engineering, national university of sciences and technology, islamabad, 44000, pakistan *corresponding author : qamar.civil@suit.edu.pk received 16 december 2019/ revised 25 january 2020/ accepted 31 january 2020/ published 10 april 2020 abstract water resources availability is very important to social and economic well-being of the people and has huge impacts on the socio-economic scenarios of a country. precipitation and snow cover area assessment is some of the major inputs in hydrologic modelling and also for assessing and managing water resources in a basin. the change in the water availability in a basin has huge socio-economic impacts because of the water usage for food production, industries, and many others. the main aim of this study was to measure the snow cover area and precipitation from 2001 to 2015 in the kabul basin. moderate resolution image spectroradiometer (modis) and tropical rainfall measuring mission (trmm) data were used to study snow cover area and precipitation respectively during 2001-2015. 8-day snow cover product for 15 years (january) was used to analyse the snow cover while monthly data of trmm (3b43) were used to analyse the rainfall from 2001-2015. different image processing techniques were applied on the data retrieved using gis and remote sensing softwares. initially, sca was seen increasing, but during the last 3-4 years, it kept decreasing gradually. rainfall was initially recorded as low, while later on, it was recorded high and reached the highest during 2010. keywords: modis; snow cover; trmm; precipitation; kabul basin; remote sensing 1. introduction snow cover area is an important component of a regional as well as global climate system and also a critical storage system of fresh water on the surface (larson et al., 2009). equally, precipitation is also one of the important input parameters for land surface hydrological modelling of a basin and its quantification is necessary for assessing available water resources (zhang & srinivasan, 2010). both snow cover area estimation and precipitation quantification, thus, are important to assess the water resources. traditionally, snow cover is measured by monitoring the snow physically in a network which gives accurate information about the snow cover. however, the method is not feasible for long range measurement because of its spatial scale, i.e. the sparse network geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 80-91, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.14896 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 81 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 having very few stations as compared to the area which is unable to deliver the amount of information needed for the accurate snow cover estimation (atif et al., 2015). similarly, rainfall is measured using rain gauges which give information about variations in trends o f precipitation monthly. nevertheless, because the rain gauges cannot be deployed in remote places and some areas are difficult to reach, they account for 25-30% of the surface of the earth (new et al., 2001). therefore, a mechanism is needed to monitor the snow cover and rainfall at a large spatial and temporal scale remotely (ershadi et al., 2005). the modern satellite system in space has the capabilities to monitor different natural and human induced dynamics at different spatial, spectral and temporal scale (daly et al., 2012). these satellite systems operate round the clock and provide the captured data of almost all of the world for, mostly, free or at some nominal price. the data retrieved from these systems can be analysed for making policy decision including water supply and demand. the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (modis) which was launched in 1999 has the capabilities to study the earth’s geophysical phenomena, which include mapping the areal extent of snow using snowmap algorithm (hall et al., 1995). the snowmap algorithm was developed by using thematic mapper data to automatically map the area extent of the snow using different modis bands on a daily basis. different snow products of modis are available at national snow and ice data center from september, 13, 2000 to date which include daily and 8 days snow cover (hall et al., 2001). tropical rainfall measuring mission (trmm) is a joint mission between nasa of united states of america and national space development agency of japan, which measures the precipitation and energy exchange of tropical and subtropical regions (kummerow et al., 1998). trmm microwave imager (tmi) and visible and infrared radiometer system (virs) are primary rainfall measurement instrument on board on trmm. different products of trmm are available online, including daily 3b42 and monthly 3b43 products. previous related studies argue that the relationship between snow, global warming, and land use can influence the changes in landforms (beato bergua et al., 2019). snowfall can be identified by using a two-dimensional model, so that disaster risk reduction can be optimized (nakamura et al., 2019). snowmelt is affected by slopes and causes high infiltration (miao et al., 2019). modis-based vegetation maps can be used to calculate the capacity and intensity of snow in a basin (pyankov et al., 2018). the aster gdam and landsat 8 oli images can be used to analyse the snowfall parameters (kumar et al., 2018). nevertheless, the previous studies did not consider the aspects of rainfall as water 82 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 resources in the snow area, therefore, it is necessary to study the use of gis and remote sensing to improve the quality of water resources. the differences in the rainfall among the regions based on latitude are very important to know in relation to climate change. hence, the main aim of this study was to measure the snow cover area and precipitation from 2001 to 2015 in the kabul basin. 2. methods the kabul river basin has a catchment area of approximately 94,000 sq. kilometers. the river drains two countries, i.e. pakistan and afghanistan, and is located in the northwestern side of pakistan and north eastern side of afghanistan (aziz, 2014). the river kabul flows from east to west, ultimately joining the indus river near attock, in pakistan khyber pakhtunkhwa province from where it finally merges into arabian sea (lashkaripour et al., 2008). many barrages have been constructed on various locations on the river to support the system of extensive agricultural irrigation. the economy of most of the people depends on agriculture. although the basin comprises of 12% area of afghanistan, it has 35% population of afghanistan (vick, 2014). major portion of the population live in the area and, mostly, the population is concentrated along the main courses of the river and adjacent areas where water is available for agriculture the production of agriculture because the main source of income in that area is agricultural production. most of the agriculture is depends on the river and, thus, is located along the adjacent areas where river water is accessible for irrigation purposes. the greater amount of water supplied in the summers results in intensive cropping in the area while some of the areas is also rain fed. in this study, modis data were used for calculating the snow cover area. modis 8 days snow cover product with a spatial resolution of 500 meters, i.e. mod10a2v6, is available at the national snow and ice data center nsidc with a spatial resolution of 500 meters. the 8-daily product is generated from the daily snow cover product mod10a1v6, which in turn is derived from normalised difference snow index ndsi (equation 1). snow cover has a high reflectance rate in visible bands and low reflectance rate in shortwave infrared swir. the normalised difference snow index reveals those differencing high values show snow covered areas. cells having ndsi>=0.4 are considered as the snow covered cells. different remote sensing and gis softwares (table 1) were used for the processing of imagery and estimation of the snow cover area. ndsi= band 4band 6/band 4+ band 6 (1) 83 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 table 1. tools and data used for sca assessment data/tools details modis snow cover data mod10a2v6 (500 meters) trmm data 3b43 monthly data mm/hr. arcmap 10.1.4 collecting, analyzing, processing, and manipulating satellite imagery modis reprojection tool spectrally subsetting and reprojecting modis data 2.1. reprojection modis data were processed and generated as a gridded output in the sinusoidal sin projection in the hdf format. the modis reprojection tool is used for a number of preprocesses on modis data, including the spatial sub setting, spectral sub setting, format conversion, and geographic transformation to a different coordinate system. mrt was used to spectrally subset the products and retain only those bands which were needed for further processing in the study. mrt was available online for processing modis datasets, in which the data were converted from sinusoidal to projected coordinate system to enable the measurement and then were converted to tiff format so that the other softwares can conveniently read it. 2.2. image processing the aim of image processing using geospatial softwares is to extract the meaningful information from the images. many open sources and commercial geospatial image processing softwares are available to use to process the different types of satellite imagery and extract the meaningful information from it. some of the available softwares are erdas imagine, envi, idrisi, and arcmap. although arcmap is a gis software having more capabilities for vector data processing, still it is used for different kinds of image processing .images preprocessed through mrt were processed in arcmap, where snow cover areas and non-snow cover areas were separated and the final snow cover areas from those images were extracted. 84 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 2.3. precipitation data acquisition and processing tropical rainfall measuring mission trmm monthly product 3b43 version 7 was used for quantifying liquid precipitation in the study area. these data combined the daily data from trmm and other satellites, and estimated the best possible estimate from the data at temporal resolution of one month. the data acquired from nasa was converted, reprojected, and extracted to study area using different gis softwares. the data were rescaled to 500 meters spatial resolution. many image processing and statistical techniques were applied on the data. trmm 3b43 monthly data iswere available in unit of mm/hr,. which was then converted to mm/day, and subsequently to mm/month. annual accumulated data as well as annual mean were generated using those monthly data. 2.4. snow cover area (sca) and precipitation quantification snow cover and non-snow cover areas were separated in the modis product. moreover, the snow cover area was calculated for each image, which was further averaged over the month by using all the data acquired and processed. similarly, rainfall was quantified for the study area by using monthly and annually accumulated and mean data, using different techniques. 2.5. snow cover area (sca) and precipitation maps the snow cover areas were estimated using 8-day modis snow cover product and the maps were also generated at the same interval. four maps for each month were generated, i.e. the 1st to 8th day, 9th-17th day, 18th -25th day, and last from 25th to 3rd day of next month, which was the 3rd of february. the precipitation data was averaged manually and annual accumulated maps were produced by arcmap. 3. results and discussion the results show that during the initial years i.e. 2001 onwards, there was an increase in the snow cover area which could be seen up to 2006 and 2007. there were also minor increase and decrease in the snow cover area in the successive years up to 2011. from 2012 onwards, a gradual decrease could be seen in the snow cover area which was 65,285 sq. kilometers in 2012, 63,244 sq. kilometers in 2013, 56716 sq. km in 2014, and 50,935 sq. km in 2015. researchers pointed out that the decrease in snow cover area in the next 10-15 years in pakistan will be considerable (zahid & rasul, 2011). it might not be considerably noted in the initial years, but it was observed during the last 4 years, from 2012 to 2015. from 2008 up to 2011, an irregular pattern was observed in the snow cover change, which was neither 85 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 decreasing gradually nor increasing gradually but increased somewhere and decreased at other times. as shown in table 1 and figure 1, the snow over area gradually increased from 50,856 sq. km in 2001 to 61,406 sq. km in 2006. the snow cover changed irregularly during 2007 up to 2011, which sometimes increased or decreased. this might also be attributed to the accuracy of the data used for the study. the snow cover area was recorded the highest in 2012, which was 65,285 sq. km, from where it went on decreasing gradually towards 2015. table 2. accumulated snow cover area estimated from modis snow cover product year snow cover area (km2) year snow cover area (km 2) 2001 50856 2009 57812 2002 50721 2010 51286 2003 54307 2011 45517 2004 55629 2012 65285 2005 57201 2013 63244 2006 61406 2014 56716 2007 61221 2015 50925 2008 49599 table 2 shows that there are fluctuations in the area covered by snow. this was due to changes in the rainfall and significant temperature differences. in 2012 and 2013, the area covered was very large due to the influence of changes in the duration and pattern of the rainy season. table 3. mean annual rainfall of kabul basin estimated from trmm year mean annual rainfall (mm) year mean annual rainfall (mm) 2001 260.00 2009 599.34 2002 388.73 2010 676.43 2003 535.31 2011 584.91 2004 472.43 2012 556.61 2005 562.78 2013 648.75 2006 521.37 2014 654.67 2007 518.39 2015 642.01 2008 566.19 86 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 the mean annual rainfall varied from 260 mm to 676 mm as shown in table 3. in the initial years, just like the snow cover, less rainfall was recorded and was restively larger in the following years. the year 2010 received the largest amount of rainfall in all 15 years which caused pakistan to suffer devastating floods in areas of khyber pakhtunkhwa, where large amount of crops were destroyed and suffered from around 1100 causalities (sayama et al., 2018). the average rainfall in table 3 does not directly affect the snow cover,. this is because the intensity of the rain also greatly influences the existence of run off. in areas with high rainfall intensity, rain will erode soil material quickly with higher exogenous power. 87 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 figure 1. the expansion of the area covered by snow figure 1 shows the expansion of the area covered by snow over time. it shows that there are human interventions on the environment that cause climate change and snow expansion. areas that have steep slopes will be a source of melt snow that flows with high intensity to other areas; hence, there is a need for conservation efforts to overcome this. snow non snow 0 km 200 km 88 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 when the rainy season is too short, snowmelt can cause changes in landforms with different impacts on the environment. the result of the previous research that can be compared to the results of this study is the need for water that comes from snowmelt when summer is very high, as it shows that snow has an impact on people's lives during the summer (amstrong et al., 2019). microclimate greatly influences snow characteristics in an area, so the is a need for differing planning to cope with too high rainfall (plach et al., 2019). meltsnow is the most influential source of irrigation in the area before the rainy season (biemans., 2019). meltsnow can increase run off so that it will significantly cause changes in the landform (il jeong & sushama, 2018). higher soil erosion occurs when there is snow when compared to the rainy season, so there needs to be a different conservation effort for the two seasons (wu et al., 2018). compared to the results of the previous studies, the advantage of this study lies on the temporal comparison in the low latitude region. with different rainfall, it is necessary to have different conservation in each watershed in this region. areas with higher sun exposure will affect snow characteristics, especially the ones which exposed to erosion and run off. watershed conditions that have a varied microclimate will have an impact on the diversity of vegetation and human activities. 4. conclusion remote sensing satellites have the capabilities to sense different phenomenon on the surface of earth from space. their data availability, reliability, and cost have defeated many conventional techniques to acquire data for analysing different processes on the surface of earth. it is also ssimilar to the case of snow cover area aassessment and rainfall quantification, the conventional techniques may be accurate and useful, yet they are quite expensive and, sometimes, unreliable because of human induced factors or some other effects. although satellite images are free of charge and are available on the daily basis, still, the choice of selecting the specific source of data needs much analysis and study on the analyst’s side. thise study found no considerable change in the snow cover area in the initial years, but later on in the last 3-4 years, it found a gradual decrease in the snow cover which might be due to the changing snow cover accumulation periods. related to rainfall, variations were found in which less rainfall were recorded in the initial years and, later on in 2010, the highest rainfall was recorded in which pakistan experienced devastating floods. 89 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgements we would like to express our sincere gratitude to dr. javed iqbal, professor and the head of institute of geographical information system department, scee, nust for his continuous support and guidance throughout the study. we would also like to thanks mr. junaid aziz khan, the lecturer, of institute of geographical information systems, nust for his support and guidance throughout the period of this study. references armstrong, r. l., rittger, k., brodzik, m. j., racoviteanu, a., barrett, a. p., khalsa, s. -. s., . . . armstrong, b. 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(2018). snowmelt water drives higher soil erosion than rainfall water in a mid-high latitude upland watershed. journal of hydrology, 556, 438-448. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.11.037 91 qamar zaman and shahid nawaz khan/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 80-91 zahid, m., & rasul, g. (2011). frequency of extreme temperature and precipitation events in pakistan 1965–2009. sci. int.(lahore), 23(4), 313-319. zhang, x., & srinivasan, r. (2010). gis-based spatial precipitation estimation using next generation radar and raingauge data. environmental modelling & software, 25(12), 1781-1788. la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 280 mapping of subsurface geological structure and land cover using microgravity techniques for geography and geophysic surveys: a case study of maluri park, malaysia la ode nursalam1, a arisona2, ramli1, la harudu1, eko harianto3, sitti kasmiati4, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan5, andri estining sejati6 1department of geography education, halu oleo university, kendari, sulawesi tenggara, 93232, indonesia 2department of geology engineering, halu oleo university, kendari, sulawesi tenggara, 93232, indonesia 3department of agrobusiness, kendari terbuka university, kendari, sulawesi tenggara, 93232, indonesia 4department of archeology, halu oleo university, kendari, sulawesi tenggara 93232, indonesia 5department of geography education, jember university, east java, 68121, indonesia 6department of geography education, sembilanbelas november kolaka university, kolaka, sulawesi tenggara 93561, indonesia email: laodenursalam77@gmail.com received 13 september 2019/ revised 9 november 2019/ accepted 22 november 2019/ published 1 december 2019/ available online 25 november 2019 abstract a microgravity investigation on bedrock topography was conducted at maluri park reference level in kuala lumpur, malaysia. the study aim to mapping the near-surface structure and soil and land cover distribution for geography and geophysics surveys. two types of crosssection modeling of the residual anomaly generated the maluribouguer anomaly model for site-1 and site-2 at maluri park. the 2d microgravity models produced the contour map, displaying the characterization due to density contrast in rock types while mapping the subsurface geological structure at different depths. moreover, a synthetic model was initiated with the assumption of lateral distance on the left and right sides taken at 50 m and a depth of 60 m. the results of modeling confirmed that the soil and rock type composition on both models site tests are topsoil (1.1 to 1.92 g/cm3), soil (1.8 g/cm3), clay (1.63 g/cm3), gravel (1.7 g/cm3), sand (2.0 g/cm3), shale (2.4 g/cm3), sandstone (2.76 g/cm3), and limestone (2.9 g/cm3). the 2d gravity modeling using two model site tests obtained a correspondence with the observed microgravity data. keywords: bouguer anomaly, limestone, microgravity, soil structure, topography. 1. introduction the survey area is underlain by limestones. the survey area in maluri park in eastern kuala lumpur, malaysia, near cheras. the survey location can be seen in the fig.1. it is commonly understood that limestones pose a certain threat to soil structures. as limestones are generally easily dissolved by water, voids and cavities are common internal structures of this type of rock (arisona et al., 2018). identification of such structures can help to ensure sustainability, especially for land cover and strategic structures. the area under study is geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 280-290, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.13738 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019 la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 281 planned for both establishment of transportation facilities and an economic and urbanization projects. the motivation of the present work is to help reducing the threats to soil structures in the mentioned projects. a significant application of geography and geophysical methods in mapping practice is to determine the bedrock and the characteristics of soil structure (grandjean, 2009; hiltunen, 2012). the gravity method is widely used for geography and geophysical surveys, especially in the detection of subsurface geological features and land covers. gravity' anomalities controlled by the lateral variation of densities or other words, the lateral density contrast. generally speaking, modeling of gravity data in 2d sections is useful for the determination of the depth of various features and can be done by either forward or inverse algorithms. in similarity with other geography and geophysical methods, the interpretation of gravity data is non-unique because many possible models could result in the same gravity anomaly. constraints from borehole data can help to reduce the uncertainties greatly. the kind of useful information for this purpose in the depths of rock boundaries and rock densities. the irregular structure of limestones and land cover produces gravity anomalies, which are our target for gravity analysis and modeling. in other words, gravity anomalies are modeled to determine the subsurface structure and land cover problems. figure1. survey location: maluri park, malaysia la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 282 as mentioned, the problem targeted by the present work is the presence of voids or cavities underneath the sites under the survey area. these cavities are either empty (i.e. filled with air or water) or filled with loose sediments. in both cases, the lateral density contrast is large, which favors the application of microgravity techniques. as the density of the cavities or voids is low compared to the surrounding host limestone bed, the anomalies will be negative. hence, the analysis focusses on these negative anomalies for modeling their dimension and depth(zabidi et al., 2011). in this study, we perform microgravity modeling using physical parameters from real data that are robust. the bedrock within the survey area is a limestone formation. limestone formations are well known for their highly unusual karstic features (tan, 2005). as a consequence, the depth of the limestone bedrock is highly irregular. the overburden soils above limestone formation are mainly silty sands with significantly variable thickness due to the irregular topography of the limestone bedrock (zabidi et al., 2011). the soil thickness in the survey is that trends show variations of overburden soil between 3 m and 5 m. the soil is comprised mainly of sandy silt with embedded layers of soft clay. moreover, the residual soil above the limestone bedrock is mainly loose fine-grained materials. the soil color in the survey area is light greyish-brown and mostly sandy. they are described and named according to the grain size classification as silty clay, clayey silt, silty sand, and sandy clay. some are identified as fill and slime materials. they are essentially loose and soft material and are probably transported materials (yusoff et al., 2016). the purpose of the research is mapping the near-surface structure and soil and land cover distribution for geography and geophysical surveys. 2. methods microgravity data from the survey area were processed using surfer ® 13 software , which reduced bouguer anomaly values at each station of the microgravity survey. fig.2 shows that the modeling has been well constrained because the parameters required to obtained the bedrock topography were well defined from the borehole data (figure 3). according to samsuddin (2003), modeling enables the determination of the presence of ridge and valley features. additionally, the modeling indicates that there can be smaller features such as cracks or steep, narrow valleys within the ridges. this result explains the differences in the limestone depth in nearby boreholes. the post-processing procedure checked the microgravity instrument corrections for latitude and longitude, diurnal variations, and instrument drift using base station polynomial drift values and relative elevation. this procedure is merged with the respective gravity station la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 283 topographic survey data, which is being modeled. the same density value of 1.8 g∕cm3 was used to calculate the bouguer correction for all survey data sets. table 1 presents the density of rock types that were reviewed in this study. table 1. rock types density values rock type density range (gr/cm3) average (gr/cm3) source sediment rock overburden (topsoil) 1.92 soil 1.20 to 2.40 1.92 clay 1.63 to 2.60 2.21 gravel 1.70 to 2.40 2.00 sand 1.70 to 2.30 2.00 telford et al.,1990 sandstone 1.61 to 2.76 2.35 shale 1.77 to 3.20 2.40 limestone 1.93 to 2.90 2.55 dolomite 2.28 to 2.90 2.70 subsequent processing was the elevation correction to address the variation in data points due to the topography. this evaluation is necessary for the 2d geotechnical modeling (pringle,2012). furthermore, the removal of regional values (low frequency and high amplitude) to express the residual anomalies (high frequency and low amplitude) was performed. the modeling of the residual anomaly was generated in cooper ™ grav2dc v.2.10 software. however, qualitative interpretation using geological and geography maps are used only as additional information. according to (amaluddin et al., 2019) geological formation or structure for instance can use the maps which poured in the data field or 2d. the qualitative interpretation explains the anomaly by geological and geophysical information. on this basis, the geological structure and distribution of masses of different densities may be delineated. the gravity anomaly in the study area might be generated in the field due to the following factors; variations in the thickness, density differences of the subcrustal matter (crustal thickness), density variation within the basement rocks, thickness variations of the sedimentary rocks, and density variations within the sedimentary rocks. the difference in density values can be correlated to divergent material types such as soil, rock, and voids (samsuddin,2003). la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 284 figure 2.a 2d microgravity contour map at maluri station compiled from topography and bouguer anomalies at site test-1 and site test-2. the microgravity countur color information above is on the right and adjusted the rock conditions in the study site. figure 3. borehole (bh) logs showing bedrock rl at maluri station la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 285 3. results and discussion the bedrock topography for the maluri station was compiled from bh results, secant bored piles (sbp) and kingpost, and the gravity model. the density values were not uniform, which showed that some lines in the study area lack good control. the bedrock topography map is shown in fig. 4was correlated with the 31boreholes, where the average topography height of about 39.91mwas determined (figure 3). two sinkholes were detected in the study area in the southeast of the survey area. the sinkholes occurred near the lrt bridge, which might occur under the devotional of clay construction site tests. the cause of the sinkhole is attributed to the dissolution of the limestone bedrock and the subsequent raveling of the overburden soil cover. figure 4.maluri station bedrock topography model. la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 286 the gravity pattern correlates subsurface topography of bedrock (tajuddin and lat, 2004). the results of this investigation confirmed earlier borehole results which indicated thepresence of the cavities (samsudin, 2003). however, the uneven distribution and clustering of the data necessitate the use of an interpolation algorithm to create a uniformly spaced grid. all data processing in the contour map was generated with cooper ™ surfer ®13software. the survey results were represented in contour maps for delineating anomalies varying from negative to a positive value. according to kamal et al. (2010), negative values are interpreted as low density subsurface layers and for the possibility of the existence of cavities. no density measurements were made during this work. the density values used are based on the investigations of soils and foundations sdn. bhd., employing a superficial deposit density of1.8 g/cm3. table 1presents the density of rock types that were reviewed in this study. fig 5 shows the results of the microgravity data of maluri site for the bouguer, regional, and residual anomalies. fig. 5a displays the tendency of response towards positive anomalies, and yet it was not significant to influence the gravity anomaly around model site test-1. the small variation in gravity responses may be due to the effect of the distribution of rainwater around the area and the inhomogeneity in the soil types. fig.5b shows the gravity anomaly at model site test-2, characterized by negative values, probably due to the inhomogeneous geo-materials consisting of a mixture of clay and silt with grain sizes, which is from fine to medium. additional geological and geography mapping showed that the complexity of the subsurface profile regarding the geomaterials, geological structure, and water seepage influences the contrast in the zones, thus resulting in some of the inconsistency of the gravity values. figure 5. results of gravity field measurements at maluri site for (a) profiles site test-1 and (b) profiles site test-2 using extracted techniques from anomaly contour maps. la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 287 figs. 5a and 5b show results of the 2d geotechnical model generated with cooper ™ grav2dc v.2.10 software. the two curves for the model at the sites confirmed the product of a misfit of4.44 % and 3.18 %between calculated curves with observed curves. furthermore, modelcalculated gravity confirmed density contrast at both model sites as shown in table 2. table 2. estimated density contrast from gravity field measurements at maluri site for (a) profiles site test-1 and (b) profiles site test-2 model site test-1 model site test-2 density (g/cm3) rock type density (g/cm3) rock type 1.80 soil 1.10 dry density 1.63 clay 1.80 clayey, sandy silt 2.00 gravel 1.20 clay 1.70 sand 1.92 overburden (topsoil) 2.40 shale 2.76 sandstone 2.90 limestone rms error = 4.44 % rms error = 3.18 % fig. 5 shows the zones associated with negative anomalies. an important to observation is the decrease of soil compactness due to the cavity and existence of groundwater around the area. in other words, the model site test encountered a unsewed soil at an adepth of about 5 to 10 m filled with water. additionally, different factors include changes in gravity values caused by the dynamics around the observation points, such as variations in the depth of the groundwater level and land subsidence. the occurrence of strain and shear failure due to loading at the top layer of soil could be another reason. in general, loading in the ground layers produces strain in the sediments (fig.5), a decline in groundwater level at a depth of 15 m to 35 m). strain observed in this area could be due to variation in the composition of the soil and water in the cavities. the loading effect is often referred to as consolidation. as a result, regional anomalies when compared with bouguer anomalies in a horizontal plane, the obtained residual anomalies are still significant. this difference is probably caused by the material homogeneity and similarity of the geological structure. the residual anomaly values are not affected by topography. anomalies appear in the northeast and northwest. that result in line with the research (arisona et al, 2018), difference assumed that this contrast is affected by density variations of the host rock and the possibility of rock density. the difference location implies that the anomaly is a result of different depth to the bedrock, different thickness of the overlying material la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 288 the bouguer anomaly map result characterized the density contrast due to rock type and mapped subsurface geological structure and land cover at different depth. the research (samsuddin, 2003) describes that the modeling enables the determination of the presence of ridge and valley features. additionally, the modeling indicates that there can be smaller features such as cracks or steep, narrow valleys within the ridges. the result is eight rock types from the profiling from different and depth. it is shown that the mapping for a geophysics survey can obtain information matching with the mapping aim. the research (wanjohi, 2014) geophysical field mapping is the process in selecting the interest area, then identifying all geophysical aspect matching with the mapping aim. the mapping aim in the research (wanjohi, 2014) is to understand all physical parameters of a geothermal field. the survey results were represented in contour maps for delineating anomalies varying from negative to a positive value. mapping in a geophysical method in the research (georgsson, 2009) uses contouring to see the object interest phenomena. the contour or line data combined with other data like a polygon in the form of coloring. microgravity method solves problems targeted by the present work is the presence of voids or cavities underneath the sites under the survey area. according to the previous research (tuckwell, grossey, owen, & stearns, 2008) that micrografity establihed as technique for detection natural or man-made cavilities. in the case mounchel parkman on behalf of herfordshire country council, a doline had opened up within a school playground. that example in the natural voids in the limestone bedrock. 4. conclusion the result obtained from the grav2dc v.2.10 software correlates the model-calculated gravity, and the corrected gravity data in site tests have minimal percentage errors. the results of modeling showed that there are eight rock types from the gravity profiles; topsoil (1.1 to 1.92 g/cm3), soil (1.8 g/cm3), clay (1.63 g/cm3), gravel (1.7 g/cm3), sand (2.0 g/cm3), shale (2.4 g/cm3), sandstone (2.76 g/cm3) and limestone (2.9 g/cm3). the utilization of extracted technique characterized the density contrast due to rock type and mapped subsurface geological structure and land cover for geography at different and depth. models of microgravity distribution in the ground could be useful for the mapping of variations in soil composition. the changes in gravity anomaly observed throughout the sections were due to the heterogeneities in the composition of the subsurface materials and density contrasts in the study area. the information on the background lithology is paramount for an acceptable interpretation in a microgravity modeling of soil structure. la ode nursalam et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 280-290 289 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material 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(2011).re-evaluation of rock core logging for the prediction of preferred orientations of karst in the kualalumpur limestone formation. engineering geology, 117(3-4), p.: 159–169. acknowledgement the editorial board would like to thank and express appreciation to all peer reviewers who have reviewed the manuscripts for publication of geosfera indonesia. marinela istrate (scopus id : 56672996500) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania lucian rosu (scopus id : 56958158800) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania mihai niculita (scopus id : 55022909500) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania tin lukic (scopus id : 54795557700) department of geography, university of novi sad, serbia fatih adiguzel (scopus id : 57204062132) , department of geography, nevşehir haci bektaş veli üniversitesi, nevsehir, turkey elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia prima widayani (scopus id : 57188879871) faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia efdal kaya (scopus id : 57202135756) department of architecture and urban planning, iskenderun technical university, iskenderun, turkey batuhan kilic (scopus id : 57204675825) geomatic engineering department, yildiz technical university, istanbul, turkey rendra zainal maliki department of geography education, universitas tadulako, indonesia aulia ulfa farahdiba (scopus id : 57208130620) , department of environmental engineering, universitas pembangunan nasional "veteran" jawa timur, indonesia guruh samodra (scopus id : 55053491600) faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia wahid akhsin budi nur sidiq (scopus id : 57201676728), department of geography, universitas negeri semarang, semarang indonesia pertiwi andarani (scopus id : 55959123900), department of environmental engineering, universitas diponegoro, semarang, indonesia prama ardha aryaguna (scopus id : 56236908900), department of survey and mapping, faculty of engineering, universitas esa unggul, jakarta, indonesia ionuț minea (scopus id : 56951000900), faculty of geography and geology, department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university, 20 a, carol i bd., 700505 iasi, romania rosmadi fauzi (scopus id : 6508044388), department of geography, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia mahendra andiek maulana (scopus id : 57189494749), faculty of civil engineering planning and earth science, institut teknologi sepuluh nopember, surabaya, indonesia very dermawan (scopus id : 57190389285), water resources engineering department, universitas brawijaya, malang, indonesia era iswara pangastuti (scopus id : 57208469549) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia moh. dede (scopus id : 57218441188), master program on environmental science, postgraduate school, universitas padjadjaran, indonesia geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve humanenvironment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve humanenvironment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve humanenvironment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : 303 evaluation of groundwater resources in aiyar basin: a gis approach for agricultural planning and development k. balasubramani 1 , m. gomathi 2, k. kumaraswamy 2* 1 school of earth sciences, central university of tamil nadu, cutn bridge neelakudy, tamil nadu, 610005, india 2 department of geography, bharathidasan university, palkalaiperur, tiruchirappalli, tamil nadu, 620024, india *corresponding author: kkumargeo@gmail.com received 19 december 2019/ revised 26 december 2019/ accepted 28 december 2019/ published 30 december 2019 abstract groundwater is an integral part of agriculture and rural development. in the present study, an attempt has been made to analyse the spatio-temporal variations of groundwater level in aiyar basin using spatial statistics and gis to associate the variations with cropping pattern; to suggest agricultural planning and development practices. the groundwater level was measured in the basin through 40 dug wells in july (premonsoon) and january (post-monsoon) besides water level data collected from 50 permanent monitoring wells for thirty-six years (1980-2015) from the state groundwater division for spatial and statistical analyses. in order to understand the fluctuations in the groundwater level of the basin, seasonal groundwater levels were computed for pre and post-monsoon seasons. to understand the regional variations in water level fluctuations, hot spot analysis is carried out using getis-ord gi* statistics in gis. based on z-score, the basin is divided into five clusters. the long-term fluctuation of groundwater level in each cluster was examined independently and the trends were determined. based on the trend of groundwater level and cropping pattern of the clusters, suggestions are drawn for each cluster for agricultural planning and development. by comparing the clusters, it is found that the foot of kollimalai and pachamalai hills (cluster4 and 5) experiences a severe drop in groundwater level. during the last 36 years, the water table of these clusters is decreased from 4 m to 10 m bgl and the rate of decline is very severe after the drought years of 2002-2003. the main reason for the declining water level in this region is the cultivation of wet crops especially paddy and sugarcane in extensive areas, although irrigation facilities are limited and the climate is conducive only for rainfed agriculture. hence, it is necessitated to reduce the acreage of wet crops and compensate by suitable dry crops in these clusters. keywords: groundwater, agriculture, gis, hot spot analysis, river basin, sdg 1. introduction groundwater resources have provided an invaluable source of irrigation to the crops but widespread and largely unregulated groundwater withdrawals by agriculture have resulted in depletion and degradation of some of the world’s most accessible and high-quality aquifers (fao, 2011). currently, agriculture uses 11 per cent of the world's land surface for crop production but accounts for 70 per cent of all water withdrawn from aquifers, streams and lakes (fao, 2016). the rapid rate of growth in irrigation is perhaps best illustrated in india, where the amount of land irrigated by surface water has doubled between 1950 and 2000, but the area irrigated from aquifers has increased by 113 times during the same period (morris et al., 2003). an increasing practice of irrigated agriculture using groundwater resources in india has already created a problem of salinization (singh, 2018). now, the groundwater shortage and groundwater quality deterioration geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 302-310, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.14954 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. 302 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 are the most common problems in irrigated agricultural areas (nachtergaele et al., 2011). the condition of groundwater resources is becoming more and more critical in the arid and semi-arid lands of the country (gupta and sharma, 2018). although agricultural production of semi-arid lands is increased steadily, groundwater extraction for irrigated agriculture in semi-arid lands has had negative effects on natural resources which become a serious threat to the food security of the country (bindraban et al., 2012). in order to satisfy human needs as well as sustaining natural resources and ecosystems, it is necessary to regulate farming systems and introduce conservation schemes preferably at a basin scale through a systematic hydrological assessment. monitoring of the groundwater level of observation wells is the principal source of information on the effects of hydrologic stresses on groundwater systems (ahmadi and sedghamiz, 2007). further, understanding the spatial pattern of groundwater level and its long-term trends are essential for making any management decision for agricultural development (reghunath et al., 2005). in recent years, several studies have reported that there are large variations in groundwater levels over many parts of india, suggesting a detailed study needs to be undertaken to elucidate the behaviour of groundwater level fluctuations in both, spatial and temporal scales for proper agricultural planning and development (anbazhagan and ramasamy, 2005; kumar et al., 2007; sivasankar et al., 2013; buvaneshwari et al., 2017). with this background, the present study attempts to assess the spatio-temporal dynamics of groundwater level in aiyar basin through gis and geostatistical modelling towards suggesting strategies for sustainable agriculture development. figure 1. base map of the study area along with its location in india 303 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 the river aiyar is the major sub-basin of the middle part of the cauvery basin, tamil nadu (figure 1). the total area of the basin is 1,360 sq.km, of which about 25 per cent of the basin is covered by hilly terrain (pachamalai in the northeast and kollimalai in the northwest). the basin is mainly drained by seasonal tributaries of the river cauvery. the physical and socio-economic characteristics indicate that aiyar basin is dominated by agricultural activities and abode for four lakh rural population. the average annual rainfall for the basin is 758 mm that is gradual decreases from northern uplands to southern plains, following the general slope of the basin. the basin receives about 82 per cent of its rainfall during southwest and northeast monsoon seasons (october december) with a long dry season during remaining months. even though the basin is climatologically disadvantaged, about 70 per cent of the basin area is utilised for agricultural purposes with the help of groundwater resources. however, over a past three decades it is noticed that the average proportion of agricultural labours to the total population is in the decreasing phase (gomathi and kumaraswamy, 2016). therefore, it is pertinent to assess the potentials and dynamics of groundwater resources for suggesting suitable agricultural development measures in the basin. 2. methods in this study, seasonal groundwater levels (pre-monsoon and post-monsoon) were measured in 40 open wells across the study area during 2014-16. in order to understand the long-term fluctuations in groundwater levels, data of 36 years (1980-2015) recorded at 50 observation wells were collected from the state ground and surface water resources and development centre, chennai. the spatial pattern of groundwater level was analysed for the two seasons such as pre-monsoon (july) and post-monsoon (january) during 2014-16. the difference of water levels between pre-monsoon and post-monsoon was computed to infer the fluctuations in groundwater level and associated impacts on cropping pattern. to estimate the longterm trend of groundwater level, the average values of water level was calculated for each year. kriging interpolation technique was used to estimate the values for unknown locations. to understand the spatial variations in long-term fluctuations of groundwater level, getis-ord gi* statistic (hot-spot analysis) was computed for 90 observation wells to identify the different clusters of groundwater levels. the hot spot analysis tool in arcgis was used to calculate the statistic. this statistic identifies the clustering of high and low values based on z-score and p-value (mitchell, 2005). both z-scores and p-values are associated with the standard normal distribution of the water level data where the p-value is a probability that the observed spatial pattern was created by some random process and z-scores are simply standard deviations. statistically, the larger the positive z-score represents more clustering of high values (hot spot) where the depth to water level is deep and surrounded by well locations with deeper water levels. similarly, the negative z-score represents the clustering of shallow water levels (cold spot). the long-term fluctuation in the water level of each cluster was examined independently based on groundwater level data of respective wells for 36 years (1980-2015). the plateau region of kolli hills is identified with cold spot (shallow water level) but due to lack of long-term water level data (no monitoring wells established by groundwater division), the area was excluded from the present analysis. the agricultural data (g-return) pertaining to 130 revenue villages of the basin were also collected from district statistical offices for the period between 2010-11 and 2015-16. the location quotient method of bhatia (1965) and crop diversification method of gibbs and martin (1962) were used respectively to determine crop concentration and crop diversification of the basin. geographic information system (gis) was used to analyse and integrate the results of cropping pattern with groundwater resources and to prepare thematic maps. 304 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 3. results and discussion 3.1 spatial pattern of groundwater level the groundwater level is an important variable as it indicates indirectly the groundwater potential zones, especially in the semi-arid regions (balasubramani, 2018). the groundwater level mainly depends upon rainfall, subsurface lithology and weathering. during the pre-monsoon season (july), the depth to groundwater level in the basin is found to vary from 1.8 to 29.1 m from the ground surface. due to the natural recharge of groundwater during the rainfall period (september december), the water level increases throughout the basin and varies from 1.3 to 25.8 m during the post-monsoon season (january). the groundwater levels in the study area are classified into five categories viz., <8 m (shallow), 8 – 12 m (shallow-moderate), 12 – 16 m (moderate), 16 – 20 m (deep) and >20 m (very deep). the results reveal that 30 per cent of the wells fall under very deep groundwater level category and 17 per cent of the wells fall under shallow category during the pre-monsoon period. during post-monsoon season, the condition of very deep and shallow water levels is almost reverse where 29 per cent of the wells fall under shallow and 16 per cent of the wells are observed with very deep groundwater levels. the rise of water table level in january might be the direct effect of aquifer recharge in the preceding months, especially the northeast monsoon season. figure 2. depth to groundwater level during pre and post monsoon seasons the interpolated groundwater level surface shows the spatial pattern of groundwater level for pre and post monsoon seasons (figure 2). it is inferred that the groundwater flow direction of the study area is from north to south. the water level is deeper in relatively elevated areas especially along the foot of pachamalai hills (northeastern parts) and shallower in southern plain surfaces. the plateau region of kollimalai hills is marked with isolated shallow groundwater levels. while comparing the groundwater level of post-monsoon with pre-monsoon, north-eastern parts of the study area are experiencing increased groundwater level drop 305 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 and it shows that more attention should be paid to cropping pattern of these areas to prevent further degradation of groundwater potential. the seasonal water level fluctuation varies from 0 to 9.3 m. more than one-third of the wells have reported a higher level of groundwater fluctuation (> 3m). the north-eastern part of the basin is more vulnerable to groundwater fluctuation as about 60 per cent of the wells located in this region express groundwater fluctuation of more than 4 m. since a very deep water table as well as higher fluctuation is observed in the north-eastern foothills, this area requires better groundwater management practices for sustainable agricultural production. 3.2 temporal pattern of groundwater level the rise and fall of groundwater level directly depend on the rainfall pattern of a year, whether it is above or below the normal. a continued increase of extraction without adequate recharge in the aquifers will lead to the downward pull of the groundwater level over years (balasubramani et al., 2019). in order to understand the long-term fluctuations, monthly water level data of 50 monitoring wells for the period were used. the hydrograph of the basin prepared using data of monitoring wells of the basin between 1980 and 2015 shows that there is a cyclic trend of groundwater level depending upon the rainfall pattern of the basin (figure 3). however, the gap between trends in rainfall and groundwater level is widening in recent years. in 2000, the average depth to groundwater level of the basin is 5.5 m and it has declined to 13 m in 2015 with a rate of 0.5 m of lowering of water table per year (figure 4). the main reason inferred for such a declining level of groundwater in this region is the overexploitation of groundwater mainly for irrigation purposes. figure 3. hydrographs based on average water levels of monitoring wells of the study area (1980-2015) 306 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 and it shows that more attention should be paid to cropping pattern of these areas to prevent further degradation of groundwater potential. the seasonal water level fluctuation varies from 0 to 9.3 m. more than one-third of the wells have reported a higher level of groundwater fluctuation (> 3m). the north-eastern part of the basin is more vulnerable to groundwater fluctuation as about 60 per cent of the wells located in this region express groundwater fluctuation of more than 4 m. since a very deep water table as well as higher fluctuation is observed in the north-eastern foothills, this area requires better groundwater management practices for sustainable agricultural production. 3.2 temporal pattern of groundwater level the rise and fall of groundwater level directly depend on the rainfall pattern of a year, whether it is above or below the normal. a continued increase of extraction without adequate recharge in the aquifers will lead to the downward pull of the groundwater level over years (balasubramani et al., 2019). in order to understand the long-term fluctuations, monthly water level data of 50 monitoring wells for the period were used. the hydrograph of the basin prepared using data of monitoring wells of the basin between 1980 and 2015 shows that there is a cyclic trend of groundwater level depending upon the rainfall pattern of the basin (figure 3). however, the gap between trends in rainfall and groundwater level is widening in recent years. in 2000, the average depth to groundwater level of the basin is 5.5 m and it has declined to 13 m in 2015 with a rate of 0.5 m of lowering of water table per year (figure 4). the main reason inferred for such a declining level of groundwater in this region is the overexploitation of groundwater mainly for irrigation purposes. figure 3. hydrographs based on average water levels of monitoring wells of the study area (1980-2015) 306 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 and it shows that more attention should be paid to cropping pattern of these areas to prevent further degradation of groundwater potential. the seasonal water level fluctuation varies from 0 to 9.3 m. more than one-third of the wells have reported a higher level of groundwater fluctuation (> 3m). the north-eastern part of the basin is more vulnerable to groundwater fluctuation as about 60 per cent of the wells located in this region express groundwater fluctuation of more than 4 m. since a very deep water table as well as higher fluctuation is observed in the north-eastern foothills, this area requires better groundwater management practices for sustainable agricultural production. 3.2 temporal pattern of groundwater level the rise and fall of groundwater level directly depend on the rainfall pattern of a year, whether it is above or below the normal. a continued increase of extraction without adequate recharge in the aquifers will lead to the downward pull of the groundwater level over years (balasubramani et al., 2019). in order to understand the long-term fluctuations, monthly water level data of 50 monitoring wells for the period were used. the hydrograph of the basin prepared using data of monitoring wells of the basin between 1980 and 2015 shows that there is a cyclic trend of groundwater level depending upon the rainfall pattern of the basin (figure 3). however, the gap between trends in rainfall and groundwater level is widening in recent years. in 2000, the average depth to groundwater level of the basin is 5.5 m and it has declined to 13 m in 2015 with a rate of 0.5 m of lowering of water table per year (figure 4). the main reason inferred for such a declining level of groundwater in this region is the overexploitation of groundwater mainly for irrigation purposes. figure 3. hydrographs based on average water levels of monitoring wells of the study area (1980-2015) 306 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 figure 4. trend of average water levels (2000-2015) 3.3 regional variations in trends based on z-score of the hotspot analysis, the study area is divided into five clusters namely cluster-1 (< -2.0), cluster-2 (-2.0 to -1.0), cluster-3 (-1.0 to 1.0), cluster-4 (1.0 to 2.0) and cluster-5 (> 2.0). the cluster-1 is formed in the southern flood plains where the water level is shallow and cluster-2 is formed parallel to cluster-1 on the northern side (figure 5). the clusters-4 and-5 are formed in the foot of kollimalai and pachamalai hills respectively where groundwater levels are deeper. the central portion of the study area is identified with cluster-3. the long-term fluctuation and trend in water level for each cluster was computed and shows that the average depth to the water level in cluster-1 is 6.7 m and the standard deviation is 1.2 m. since the observation wells of this region show a limited fluctuation of water level over 36 years, there is no significant change in water level. it is understood that the aquifer system of cluster-1 has relatively similar characteristics throughout the plain and has good groundwater recharge potential for wet crop cultivation practices. the average depth to the water level in cluster-2 is 9.7 m which is higher than cluster-1 and the standard deviation is 3 m. the cluster-2 has experienced a cyclic trend of water level where the period 19801991 experienced a drop in water level below the average and the period 1991-2003 observed with the rise of water level above the average. after 2003, the water level in the region is highly fluctuating and it closely depends on the rainfall pattern of the region. in general, the cluster-2 is suitable for wet crops during wet monsoon years. since the cluster-3 is dominantly covered by pediments, the average depth to the water level of this region is reported as 14 m with a standard deviation of 2.9 m. similar to cluster-2, this region is also experienced a cyclic trend of water level, but the overall trend shows a decline in water level from 13 m to 15 m. hence, the present cropping pattern should be monitored and regulated. 307 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 figure 4. trend of average water levels (2000-2015) 3.3 regional variations in trends based on z-score of the hotspot analysis, the study area is divided into five clusters namely cluster-1 (< -2.0), cluster-2 (-2.0 to -1.0), cluster-3 (-1.0 to 1.0), cluster-4 (1.0 to 2.0) and cluster-5 (> 2.0). the cluster-1 is formed in the southern flood plains where the water level is shallow and cluster-2 is formed parallel to cluster-1 on the northern side (figure 5). the clusters-4 and-5 are formed in the foot of kollimalai and pachamalai hills respectively where groundwater levels are deeper. the central portion of the study area is identified with cluster-3. the long-term fluctuation and trend in water level for each cluster was computed and shows that the average depth to the water level in cluster-1 is 6.7 m and the standard deviation is 1.2 m. since the observation wells of this region show a limited fluctuation of water level over 36 years, there is no significant change in water level. it is understood that the aquifer system of cluster-1 has relatively similar characteristics throughout the plain and has good groundwater recharge potential for wet crop cultivation practices. the average depth to the water level in cluster-2 is 9.7 m which is higher than cluster-1 and the standard deviation is 3 m. the cluster-2 has experienced a cyclic trend of water level where the period 19801991 experienced a drop in water level below the average and the period 1991-2003 observed with the rise of water level above the average. after 2003, the water level in the region is highly fluctuating and it closely depends on the rainfall pattern of the region. in general, the cluster-2 is suitable for wet crops during wet monsoon years. since the cluster-3 is dominantly covered by pediments, the average depth to the water level of this region is reported as 14 m with a standard deviation of 2.9 m. similar to cluster-2, this region is also experienced a cyclic trend of water level, but the overall trend shows a decline in water level from 13 m to 15 m. hence, the present cropping pattern should be monitored and regulated. 307 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 figure 4. trend of average water levels (2000-2015) 3.3 regional variations in trends based on z-score of the hotspot analysis, the study area is divided into five clusters namely cluster-1 (< -2.0), cluster-2 (-2.0 to -1.0), cluster-3 (-1.0 to 1.0), cluster-4 (1.0 to 2.0) and cluster-5 (> 2.0). the cluster-1 is formed in the southern flood plains where the water level is shallow and cluster-2 is formed parallel to cluster-1 on the northern side (figure 5). the clusters-4 and-5 are formed in the foot of kollimalai and pachamalai hills respectively where groundwater levels are deeper. the central portion of the study area is identified with cluster-3. the long-term fluctuation and trend in water level for each cluster was computed and shows that the average depth to the water level in cluster-1 is 6.7 m and the standard deviation is 1.2 m. since the observation wells of this region show a limited fluctuation of water level over 36 years, there is no significant change in water level. it is understood that the aquifer system of cluster-1 has relatively similar characteristics throughout the plain and has good groundwater recharge potential for wet crop cultivation practices. the average depth to the water level in cluster-2 is 9.7 m which is higher than cluster-1 and the standard deviation is 3 m. the cluster-2 has experienced a cyclic trend of water level where the period 19801991 experienced a drop in water level below the average and the period 1991-2003 observed with the rise of water level above the average. after 2003, the water level in the region is highly fluctuating and it closely depends on the rainfall pattern of the region. in general, the cluster-2 is suitable for wet crops during wet monsoon years. since the cluster-3 is dominantly covered by pediments, the average depth to the water level of this region is reported as 14 m with a standard deviation of 2.9 m. similar to cluster-2, this region is also experienced a cyclic trend of water level, but the overall trend shows a decline in water level from 13 m to 15 m. hence, the present cropping pattern should be monitored and regulated. 307 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 figure 5. clusters of groundwater wells it is found that the foot of kollimalai hills (cluster-4) experiences a severe drop in groundwater level with a rate of 0.2 m per year. during the last 36 years, the water table of this cluster is decreased from 4 m to 10 m and the rate of decline is severe after the drought years of 2002-2003. because the average water level between 1980 and 2001 was 5.4 m and it has been doubled during the last 15 years (10.4 m). the deviation of water level from the long-term average is also higher in this cluster (3.4 m). the main reason for the declining water level in this region is the cultivation of wet crops especially paddy and sugarcane in extensive areas. the water level in the north-eastern parts of the basin (foothills of pachamalai) is deeper and statistically termed as a hot spot. the average water level of this region is 10.5 m with a standard deviation of 2.9 m. even though the long-term data of water level signifies a positive trend, the area was frequently 308 303 k. balasubramani et al / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 302-310 identified with a cone of depression in the water table. the periods 1988-90, 1995-97, 2003-05 and 2013-15 are marked with a cone of depression patterns due to failure of rainfall during 1988-90, 1995, 2002 and 2011-13. this indicates that the supply of water (recharge) is slow and but extraction of groundwater is rapid and alarming. the geochemical analysis of water samples shows that the classes of poor groundwater i.e. very high salinity hazard and moderate sodium hazard are also mainly found in the cluster-5. 3.4 cropping pattern of the basin paddy and sorghum are first ranking crops over extensive parts of the basin comprising about 75 per cent of the villages. the recent distributional pattern of the dominance of these two crops reflects differences in the availability of groundwater resources. the high concentration of maize and cotton occurs mainly in the north-eastern parts of the basin and proves that the groundwater resource of this region is depleted in recent years. the diversification index value of the basin is 0.88 represents a very high crop diversification as a whole. the areas of very high crop diversification found in the foothills region, especially in north-eastern foothills, indicate that the groundwater exploitation in cluster-5 is abnormal. 4. conclusion groundwater is the basis for almost all kinds of human activities in the basin. the spatial pattern of groundwater level shows that the foot of pachamalai (north-eastern part) has very deep water table with marked seasonal fluctuations and cone of depressions. the temporal pattern of groundwater level signifies that the foot of kolli hills (north-western part) has a significant decline of groundwater level in the last two decades. at the same time, the cropping pattern of these regions is still water-intensive and highly depends on open and bore wells. therefore, conversion of wet cropping system to dry crops and implementation of water harvesting systems such as recharge wells, percolation ponds and check dams in northern parts are strongly suggested for sustainable development of agriculture in the basin. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the 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assessment, 185(1):931-944 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2604-2 310 md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 217 urban expansion analysis and land use changes in rangpur city corporation area, bangladesh, using remote sensing (rs) and geographic information system (gis) techniques md naimur rahman department of geography and environmental science, begum rokeya university rangpur city bypass, rangpur 5400, bangladesh email: 01naimur@gmail.com received 24 september 2019/ revised 27 october 2019/ accepted 6 november 2019/ published 1 december 2019/ available online 25 november 2019 abstract this study aim to attempt mapping out the land use or land cover (lulc) status of regional project coordination committee (rpcc) between 2009-2019 with a view of detecting the land consumption rate and the changes that has taken place using rs and gis techniques; serving as a precursor to the further study on urban induced variations or change in weather pattern of the cityn rangpur city corporation(rcc) is the main administrative functional area for both of rangpur city and rangpur division and experiencing a rapid changes in the field of urban sprawl, cultural and physical landscape,city growth. these agents of land use or land cover (lulc) varieties are responsible for multi-dimensional problems such as traffic congestion, waterlogging, and solid waste disposal, loss of agricultural land. in this regard, this study fulfills lulc changes by using geographical information systems (gis) and remote sensing (rs) as well as field survey was conducted for the measurement of change detection. the sources of data were landsat 7 etm and landsat 8 oli/tirs of both c1 level 1. then after correcting the data, geometrically and radiometrically change detection and combined classification (supervised & unsupervised) were used. the study finds lulc changes built-up area, water source, agricultural land, bare soil in a change of percentage is 17.23, 2.58, -9.94, -10.19 respectively between 2009 and 2019. among these changes, bare soil is changed to a great extent, which indicates the expansion of urban areas is utilizing the land to a proper extent. keywords: urban expansion; land use; land cover; remote sensing; geographic information system (gis); rangpur city corporation(rcc). 1. introduction bangladesh is a developing country with the rapid growth of the population. rangpur is also a fast-growing city in the field of urbanization, with having a population of 2.96 million. because of the fastest population growth lulc also changing the emphasizes function of geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 217-229, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.13921 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 218 urbanization. a satellite image is carrying many more essentialities for the proper and quick planning of lulc. for this reason, the field surveying method is considering time-consuming and costly, which is replacing by rs techniques. fasal (2000) asserted the nature of land use changes , location of agricultural land losses and for the reason of urbanization the supply of higher quality of agricultural activities is reducing. remote sensing satellites are playing a vital role in mapping land use and land cover changes and infrastructural development for several past recent years (arimoro et al., 2003). but in rcc no such application is implemented for the detection and assessment of these types of operational work (dewan and yamaguchi, 2009). land use changes arising from agriculture, pasturing, urbanization, bare soil and deforestation are some of the responsible factors to land cover changes in rcc. these changes in lulc reflect on the growth of population, consumption of land and the local climate. expansion of rcc has resulted not only in the depletion of natural resources, but a deterioration of the environment. agriculturally productive land, forestland, bare land have been transformed into different commercial, residential and other uses. the lulc is the result of social, economic, environmental phenomenon and their perspective of utilization. the collection of remotely sensed data contributes to the synoptic assessments of the function of earth-system, patterning, and change at local, regional , and global scales over time (rajeshwari, 2006). however, the objective of this study is to attempt mapping out the lulc status of rpcc between 2009-2019 with a view of detecting the land consumption rate and the changes that has taken place using rs and gis techniques; serving as a precursor to the further study on urban induced variations or change in weather pattern of the city. the changes of rapid land use are the cause of a growing population , which is reducing another area of interest like natural vegetation (nicolson, 1987). the urban centers are increasing in population , but a two-fold conversion is undergoing for the pre-urban areas; arable and non-arable land both are providing increasingly numbered of establishments such as commercial, industrial and residential (heimlich and anderson, 2001). kalnay and cai (2003) assessed that the urban area and surroundings could be altered by the local climate, which is the cause of urban expansion. instead of using traditional approaches, satellite remote sensing is essentially monitoring the change of land use with the facilities of high resolution which is associated with lower cost (belal and moghanm, 2011). md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 219 the lulc maps also revealed an increase in land reclamation and have an environmental impact (fellati et al, 2017; risma et al, 2019; djimadoumngar, k.-n., & adegoke, j, 2018 ). al rifat and liu (2019) found that new urban lands were generated away from the coast. edwards et al (2019) found that a restrictive zoning regime has controlled urban sprawl. the informal settlements continue to develop rapidly in each city (park et al, 2019). urban area planning must consider the development of the city vertically (he et al, 2019). land use mapping will be very helpful for proper urban area planning (navale and mhaske, 2019). previous research has not analyzed urban expansion and its relationship with coporation area, so this research has a novelty that emphasizes the interrelationship between urban expansion, land use change, corporation area , and the use of remote sensing and geographical information systems. this study aims to attempt mapping out the lulc status of rpcc between 2009-2019 with a view of detecting the land consumption rate and the changes that have taken place using rs and gis techniques 2. methods this study utilizes data for the measurement of lulc changes. remotely sensed data landsat 8 and landsat 7 of both c1 level 1 were used for the lulc change detection in between the year of 2019 and 2009 (a ten year time span). spatial characteristics of these data having the below approaches ( see table 1). in addition, these data were collected from earthexplorer.usgs.gov whist path and row were 138 and 042. table 1: spatial characteristics of data ( used) instrument month/ year of image sensors spatial resolution radiometric resolution (bit) landsat 7 february 2009 etm+ 30 16 landsat 8 may 2019 oli/tirs 30 12 universal transverse mercator (utm) was used for the collected satellite images for the map projection within zone 46 n-datum and of the co-ordinate system world geodetic system (wgs) 1984 and the pixel size is 30 meters. for the extraction of study area of rcc shape file of gis was used with having the same projection of utm and wgs 1984 , which was georeferenced. then images were taken by raster processing tool under data management tool md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 220 of arctoolbox in arcgis 10.5. and finally, the image classification was conducted by the combination of supervised and unsupervised classification. an extensive field survey was performed of the rcc by using gps (global positioning system), earlier the preprocessing and classification of satellite imagery. gps was used for scaling the satellite image data by comparing the field data. and this fieldwork was done in the mid of february 2019. rpcc established in 2012, which was previously known as rangpur pourasova ( established 1986), with having 442 village and 112 mouza. rpcc geographically located in between 25˚38' and 25˚52' north latitudes and 89˚05' and 89˚20' east longitudes. it is bounded by nilphamari and lalmonirhat district on the north, on the south gaibandha, on the east kurigram and dinajpur on the east with having the total area of 205.70 square kilometers ( figure 2). and population growth change of rangpur is +1.98 per year from 2001 to 2011 ; which was increased 865,927 in the year of 2014 (bbs 2015). figure 1. study area md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 221 4. results and discussion in this section, results are shown on the basis of lulc distribution, area measurement, percentage of covered area, change detection and changing pattern. the city of rangpur gets a haphazard expansion of urban area , which is the result of conversion of agricultural and bare land. during the period of 2009 and 2019 due to the urbanization and the cause of rangpur pourosovaturning into rcc in 2012 has made the city expanded largely into an urban area which is 5670 hectares of 17.53 percent of total area (table 3). the distribution of lulc changes rapidly in the sector of a built up area which is nearly two times higher than in 2019 also, the noticeable decreases land is agricultural which is a significant indication of 10% loss. but it decreased to a great extent of bare soil from 3439 to 145 hectares(table 2). these changes define the urban expansion where agricultural and bare soil is used to urbanized the areas. as the city population is increasing, the city has been expanded extensively to accommodate the increasing population compared to its early stage the cities spatial expansion is the modification of several constrained physical factors. however, the loss of natural resources is the cause of the development. the lulc pattern changes spatially from 2009 to 2019 (figure 3 & 4). earlier in 2009 built up area was congested at the center where other parts also carried it haphazardly in the north west, north south direction. in 2019 the urban area expanded largely northward, westward and southward where the direction of eastward expansion was very low compared with them respectively. the lulc map interpretation in between 2009 and 2019 shows that rcc is expanding in all of the following directions northwest, south-west and southern parts by filling up low lying areas. the major perspective of expanding these areas is the increasing of residential, public and privet structural development. the maximum loss of agricultural land and bare soil provides the information of the pressure of urban expansion of it. the study area urbanization is rapidly growing and if it continues it will decrease land cover areas 35.06 percent within the next 20 years which will lead to diversified and uneven expansion like present times in 2019. the contributing factors of urban sprawl are increased amount of population, poor land use policy, low land, unplanned housing md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 222 and expansion of industrial areas, poverty, absence of multiuse of urban areas which is creating the slums and squatters with decreasing food safety due to the loss of agricultural land. these diversification is negatively affecting of both natural environment and human health as well as for the development of near future perspectives. table 2. land use land cover distribution (areas in hectares) figure 2. land use map 2009 classification category 2009 2019 area(ha) area covered(%) area(ha) area covered(%) built up area 3468 10.73 9138 28.26 water source 1973 6.10 2805 8.68 agricultural land 23453 72.55 20245 62.61 bare soil 3439 10.64 145 0.45 total 32333 100 32333 100 md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 223 figure 3: land use map 2019 table 3: lulc change of rcc and its environs classification category 2009 area(ha) 2019 area (ha) difference in area(ha) difference in area(%) built up area 3468 9138 5670 17.53 water source 1973 2805 832 2.58 agricultural land 23453 20245 -3208 -9.94 bare soil 3439 145 -3294 -10.19 md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 224 figure 4. lulc change detection between 2009 & 2019 results of table 2 and figure 3, 4 makes an evidence of congestion of the city and haphazardly increasing number of built up area which includes residential, commercial and services, industrial, transportation, roads, mixed urban, and other urban areas within the percentage of 17.53(5670 ha) where with the same increasing trend water source also got improvement. the responsible factors for these urban expansions are mainly population growth and haphazard development of residential, industrial as well as public infrastructure. and the improvement and increased amount of water bodies proves that permanent water sources like river, permanent open water, lakes, ponds and reservoirs are extended whereas temporal or seasonal water sources like permanent and seasonal wetlands, marshy land, swamps have been decreased. 3208 hectares of agricultural land are negatively increased due to the positively extent of built up area of 5670 hectares where agricultural land indicates the agents of both cultivated and planted trees like crop fields, fallow lands , vegetable lands, roadside planted trees, mixed forest lands, homestead forest. the bare soil is providing space both for the built up area and permanent water source and for this reason, it is increased negatively of 10.19 percent of 145 hectares of the 10 years span of time. in a very recent period, bare soil indicates exposed soils, sand fill, landfill sites, and areas of active excavation. this reduction of agricultural land and bare soil is leading the fact of urbanization rapidly. lulc change detection represents the result of table 3 and figure 5 where rapid change is noticed in the factors of built up area and bare soil which is about 27.72. their individual 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 built up area water source agricultural land bare soil 2009 2019 md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 225 approximate change indicates the built up area is most commonly responsible for this rapid change. beyond the changing pattern of built up area rapid growth of the population of the city( see figure 2) is playing an essential role. bare land is negatively changed of 10.19 , which is the indication of land use efficiency. figure 5. gdp from the sector of agriculture and forestry loss of agricultural land is the reason of gradual loss of gdp as it is the field of second largest source of gdp after manufacturing ( 20.17% gdp). as water source is increased of 2.58 percent so that agricultural activity could be benefited from it and also fisheries sector is improving for the reason of available water source (field survey). for the food safety and economic growth (see figure 6) agricultural land carries several responsibilities in bangladesh agricultural production and 84% of rural people directly or indirectly engaged with agriculture ( uddin, 2015). but it is decreased in rpcc of about 10 percent which is an alarming rate for the food safety. the results of previous study indicate the suitability of the proposed indices to discriminate between urban areas, bare soil in arid, water balance, population data and semi-arid climates (rasul et al, 2018; schilling et al, 2008; nong et al; 2015). matlhodi et al (2019) found that the need for monitoring in the catchment area to avoid land degradation. remote sensing can analyze precisely the relationship between urbanization and groundwater quality (elbeih and 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 agriculture & forestry gdp md naimur rahman / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 217-229 226 el-zeiny, 2018). there is a negative impact on land changes to water quality of lake (im et al, 2014). quality water needs greatly affect patterns of land change (mondal et al, 2014). the increase in livestock has a negative impact on water quality (fucik et al, 2014). the results of the above studies are different from the results of this study. these differences are found in studies related to urban expansion. the impact of these findings is the need for policies related to urban expansion related to deforested land use. the advantage of this research compared to previous research is the existence of findings related to urban area planning related to lulc changes built up area, water source, agricultural land, bare soil 4. conclusion this study showed that the indication of the potential use of gis and rs technique for obtaining the objective specific measurement of rcc. the uneven and haphazard increasing of settlement, industrial, and commercial infrastructure are rapid, which is the indication of loss of agricultural land and bare soil. but this study also finds that the source of water is increased so this could be an indication of future development of agricultural land. and proper management of urban expansion must be implemented for the quality of cultivation; the separate zonation for the expansion of urban infrastructure could also be conducted. loss of agricultural land could be covered through multi structural use of existing agricultural and bare land with using the available water source. the extended recommendation proposes a future course of action for the field study to identify the category of several spheres of lulc changes. conflict of interest the author declares that there is no conflict of interest with 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(2008). impact of land use and land cover change on the water balance of a large agricultural watershed: historical effects and future directions. water resources research, 44(7). doi:10.1029/2007wr006644 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.30797 research article the application of multi temporal satellite data for land cover mapping of bawean island, east java zainul hidayah1,*, haryo dwito armono2 , maulinna kusumo wardhani1, dwi budi wiyanto3 1 department of marine science and fisheries, trunojoyo university of madura, jl. raya telang 02 kamal bangkalan madura 69162 east java, indonesia 2 department of marine engineering, sepuluh nopember institute of technology, jl. raya its keputih sukolilo surabaya 60111 east java, indonesia 3 department of marine science, udayana university, bukit jimbaran campus 80361 bali, indonesia *corresponding author, email address: zainulhidayah@trunojoyo.ac.id 1. introduction bawean island is located in the java sea, around 80 nautical miles north of the mainland of gresik regency, east java province. due to its beauty and preservation of coastal and underwater nature, this island has been designated as one of the east java's marine tourist destinations (hidayah et al., 2021). as a result, the land and water conditions on bawean island must be thoroughly studied in order to support the regional development plan. several studies have been conducted in recent years, in addition to the designation of bawean island and its surrounding areas as a marine ecotourism zone (noor & romadhon, 2020). moreover, several key factors have been identified as major issues that may influence the eco-tourism development of the island, incorporating infrastructures, economics, environment, and socio-cultural issues (wardani et al., 2017b, sukandar et al, 2017). meanwhile, the geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 3, december 2022, 207-218 abstract land cover dynamics in a small island can be determined using geographic information system (gis) approach based on multitemporal image analysis. this study aimed to classify major land cover types and to map land cover changes of bawean island. two sets of 10 meter resolution satellite data alos avnir (2010) and sentinel-2a (2020) were used in this study. satellite image analysis was carried out through several stages namely image pre-processing including radiometric and geometric correction, supervised image classification and accuracy test. image classification results from 2010 to 2020 showed a significant change in land cover on bawean island. the forest vegetation land cover declined significantly from 13,470.5 ha in 2010 to 8,543.4 ha in 2020. most of the area have been converted into paddy fields and built-up areas. the accuracy test and validation were determined by comparing the 2020 sentinel image classification results with field observation conducted in 2021. the analysis showed good results with 82.52% overall accuracy and 79.66 kappa coefficient. further investigation found that changes in land cover on bawean island occured due to the agriculture and infrastucture development. keywords : geographic information system (gis); land cover; satellite images; small island article info article history received : 4 july 2022 revised : 19 november 2022 accepted : 3 december 2022 published : 24 december 2022 . © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 207 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.%2030797 mailto:zainulhidayah@trunojoyo.ac.id https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5215-9764 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 208 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 previously mentioned studies are more focused on analyzing the condition of the coastal area to support marine tourism, with another study in focusing more on the hydro-oceanographic conditions of bawean island (hidayah, et al., 2021). studies on the condition of indonesia's small islands, particularly those with tourism and conservation potential, have been widely documented (marasabessy et al., 2016; santoso et al., 2020; suryanti & apdillah, 2022). this is integrally linked to the fact that indonesia has thousands of small islands scattered across the country. previous studies have explored the condition of bawean island particularly its coastal and marine environment, including biological diversity (asaad et al., 2018), small island ecosystems including mangroves (muhtadi et al., 2020), seagrass (brodie et al., 2020), coral reefs (hafezi et al., 2020) and vulnerability to sea-level rise as the results of global climate change (hidayah et al., 2018; stephenson & jones, 2017; jamero et al., 2017). while many studies focussed on the state of the coastal environment and ecosystems of bawean island, there was no studies have been reported regarding the island’s land cover dynamic. small island's surface and bathymetry are becoming increasingly important sources of information for a variety of purposes, including spatial planning, coastal management, infrastructure development and conservation (caballero et al., 2019). land cover changes and dynamics are primarily caused by anthropogenic and natural factors. if it is not addressed and mitigated carefully, it will have an impact on human life and disrupt the sustainability of the environment, particularly on small islands with limited natural carrying capacity (phiri et al., 2020). as a result, advanced and cutting-edge spatial monitoring systems are required. the most effective method for providing surface data of an area within a specific time frame is to use satellite imagery with various characteristics (ketjulan et al., 2019; muhammad, 2022; wael et al., 2022). the rapid development of satellite remote sensing technology and geographic information systems for the small island is the primary reason for indonesia's rapid development of spatial data availability (dharmawan et al., 2020; hidayah et al., 2019). multiple studies on bawean island have been conducted in the last five years, but the majority of them have focused on the condition of the coastal environment, conservation, and suitability for ecotourism activities (hidayah et al., 2018; sukandar et al., 2017; wardani et al., 2017b). because of the abundance of coral reefs surrounding the island, more detailed studies have been conducted to determine the state of the ecosystem (dharmawan et al., 2020; luthfi & anugrah, 2017). periodic assessment of land cover change is required to understand the extent and impact of natural and human activities factors on the island (cahyani et al., 2018; kim, 2016; neksidin et al., 2021). additionally, the endemic and critically endangered species of bawean deer (axis kuhlii) was also an interesting topic of investigation regarding this island (rahman et al., 2017). meanwhile, this study provides a new perspective on the changes in the island's condition based on satellite imagery analysis. the objectives of this paper is to observe land cover alterations using satellite imagery, particularly those related to land conversion, from 2010 to 2020. 2. methods 2.1 study area this research was conducted on bawean island from july – october 2021. bawean island is located roughly halfway between java island and borneo island. because of its remote location and distance from the mainland, the island has some rare and distinctive flora and fauna. the coordinates of the island is 05o47’23’’s and 112o39’20’’e (figure 1). the total area of bawean island is ± 196.27 km2 divided administratively into 2 districts namely sangkapura in the south and tambak on the north side of the island. 209 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 figure 1. the map of bawean island (source : modified from google earth) this study's roi includes the entire land surface of bawean island and the surrounding small islands. the land cover category of this study was divided into 6 main classes, namely forests, sandy beaches, settlements, rice fields, inland water body/ lake and open field. the classification results were then compared to the results of field observations to obtain an accuracy value. a total of 103 observation points were randomly established to check the consistency of the land cover classification results and the actual condition in the field. 2.2 satellite images to identify land cover changes of bawean island, this study utilized two sets of medium resolution satellite images namely alos avnir-2 acquisition date july 15th 2010 and sentinel-2a acquisition date august 23rd 2020. the percentage of cloud cover for both images were less then 5%. the advanced land observing satellite (alos) was launched in january 2006 by jaxa (japan aerospace exploration agency). this satellite has several distinctive sensors i.e (1) prism (panchromatic remote-sensing instrument for stereo mapping) high precision elevation mapping; (2) avnir-2 (advanced visible and near infrared radiometer type 2) for land use and land cover observation; (3) palsar (phased array type l-band synthetic aperture radar) an active sencor to monitors the land in any weather conditons. to be more spesific, the avnir-2 sensor has 4 visible bands i.e blue (0.42-0.50 μm), green (0.52-0.60 μm), red (0.61-0.69 μm) and near infra-red (0.76-0.89 μm). meanwhile, the sentinel 2a and 2b satellites were consecutively launched between june 2015 and march 2017 by the copernicus programme initiated by the european space agency (esa). the satellites carry multispectral imaging (msi) instruments capable of recording 13 wide-swath bands, 210 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 including the 10-meter bands (blue, green, red and visible near infra-red). sentinel 2 satellite imagery has been widely used in recent years to monitor the condition of the earth's surface, particularly in coastal areas (artaningh et al., 2020; kurniadin & fadlin, 2021; mastu et al., 2018). with higher spatial resolution in visible bands (10 meters) compare to landsat images (30 meters), those images have been used to produce maps not only for the land surface but also sea surface and benthic environments in higher detail (li et al., 2019; wicaksono et al., 2019). 2.3 image classification and change detection land cover classes were generated from pixel values in satellite images using the supervised classification method. in supervised classification, analysts must select representative samples for each land cover class. the software then used the maximum likelihood algorithm to process these samples or training sites and applied them to the entire image. by comparing classification results based on satellite imagery from 2010 and 2020, changes in the area of each land cover class were calculated (figure 2). 2.4 accuracy assesment the precision of the classification results was calculated using the two dimensional array. the confusion matrix compares the classification results and the reference data. in order to obtain appropriate results, comparisons were made using the results of image classification in 2020, while ground truth was carried out in 2021. the confusion matrix yields the overall accuracy and kappa coefficient (lillesand & kiefer, 1994). the kappa coefficient value is divided into 4 classes (congalton and green, 2008), namely kappa < 0.4 (low accuracy), 0.41< kappa < 0.61 (medium accuracy), 0.61< kappa < 0.80 (substantial accuracy) and kappa > 0.81 (high accuracy). figure 2. flow chart of image processing 211 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 3. results and discussion bawean island has a tropical climate, as do most of indonesia's coastal areas. the mean daily temperature ranges from 28o c – 31o c with an average of 28.50 o c ± 1.05 o c. the air temperature in the dry season is slightly higher than the temperature in the rainy season (figure 3). however, there is significant difference in the average daily temperature for each month (one way anova; fcalculate=6.82; sig <0.05). the highest rainfall occurs at the peak of the rainy season, from december to february. in 2020, the highest rainfall reached 85.57 mm to 95.1 mm occurred in january february. meanwhile, during the dry season there is no rain at all. the relative humidity on bawean island is quite high with an average of 81.40% 5.53%. the difference in air humidity every month is fairly significant (one way anova; fcalculate=21.7; sig <0.05). figure 3. temperature, humidity and rainfall of bawean island 2021 the map in figure 4 shows the results of land cover classification based on satellite imagery of alos (2010) and sentinel 2a (2020). it can be seen that most of the land cover on bawean island is forest/vegetation cover which is distributed mostly in the middle of the island. the forest types on this island are lowland primary and secondary tropical rainforests (trimanto & hapsari, 2016). forests on bawean island have been designated as nature reserves and wildlife reserves with the dominance of teak forests (tectona grandis) (rahman et al., 2017). moreover, a botanical survey conducted in 20152016 have identified 432 species of plants from 287 genera and 103 families in the forests of bawean island at elevations ranging from 8 to 572 meters above sea level (trimanto & hapsari, 2016). the 212 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 natural forest condition on bawean island support the life of various plant species, therefore the island has a considerably high plant diversity. figure 4. land cover classification based on satellite images classification : (a) results of alosavnir 2010 image classification; (b) results of sentinel 2a 2020 image classification results of land cover classification based on multi temporal satellite images (2010 and 2020) of bawean island is shown in figure 4. six land cover classes were identified, namely forest, built up area, paddy field (agriculture area), open field, sandy beaches and in-land water body from lake kastoba. in 2010 forest dominated the island’s land cover comprising approximately 56.6% (13,470.5 ha) of the total area. sandy beaches and paddy field were the next dominant classes, covered about 16.2 % (3,851.2 ha) and 16.1 % (3,816.8 ha) respectively. meanwhile there was only about 863.9 ha or 3.6% of the island’s classified as built up area and mostly concentrated on the coastal area. figure 5. land cover area change of bawean island 2010-2020 213 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 significant changes occurred of land cover in 2020 compared to the previous 10 years (figure 5). although forest cover remained dominant on the island (35,9%), its area experienced a sharp decline. around 4,927.1 ha of forest has been converted into other types of land cover in the last 10 years. rice fields and sandy beaches occupy the next position with around 30.2 % (7,186.7 ha) and 16.5% (3,935.3 ha) of land cover area. the development of paddy fields was rapid and has doubled in 10 years. the built-up area expanded from the coastal area to the center of the island with the percentage reached nearly 10% (2,388.1 ha) of the total island area. table 1. the dynamic of land cover change of bawean island (2010-2020) land cover class land cover area (%) changes (%) 2010 2020 2010-2020 forest vegetation 56.59 35.89 -20.70 paddy field 16.03 30.19 14.16 lake 0.14 0.16 0.03 open field 7.43 7.19 -0.24 built up area 3.63 10.03 6.40 sandy beach 16.18 16.53 0.35 the temporal analysis revealed that the most significant changes occurred in the land cover classes of forest vegetation, paddy fields, and built-up areas (table 1). in the 2010-2010 period, the area of forest vegetation decreased by 20.70%, while paddy field cover increased by 14.6%. the built-up area also experienced a significant increase in land cover area, which was around 6.40%. further investigation revealed that 70.91% of the total lost forest was converted into paddy fields, while 20.33% was converted into developed areas. in addition, based on a rigorous spatial review the reduction in forest area occurs primarily in the lowlands. meanwhile, primary forest in the highlands in the island's center is relatively undisturbed. as a result, forest loss can be justified as a result of agricultural and settlement needs rather than illegal logging. however, the rate of deforestation is relatively high (around 400 ha/year) and must be controlled in order to preserve the remaining forest. table 2. confusion matrix of classification classification results (pixel) ground truth data (pixel) lake open field sandy beaches built up area paddy field forest veg total lake 10 2 0 0 0 0 12 open field 0 14 0 2 0 0 16 sandy beaches 0 0 14 0 0 0 14 built up area 1 2 0 15 0 0 18 paddy field 0 1 1 0 17 3 22 forest veg 0 0 1 2 3 15 21 total 11 19 16 19 20 18 103 the confusion matrix is the most common method used to quantify classification accuracy. a confusion matrix compares the relationship between known reference data (ground truth) and the corresponding classification procedure results on a class-by-class basis. the values along the diagonal of the table represent the correct pixel classification based on image analysis and field observations. 214 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 according to the confusion matrix (table 2), the majority of the pixels tested have a match between the image classification results and the actual land cover conditions on bawean island. table 3. statistical parameters of classification classes user's accuracy (%) producer's accuracy (%) error of comission (%) error of omission (%) overall accuracy (%) kappa coefficient lake 83.33 90.91 16.67 9.09 82.52 79.66 open field 87.50 73.68 12.50 26.32 sandy beaches 100.00 87.50 0.00 12.50 built up area 83.33 78.95 16.67 10.53 paddy field 77.27 85.00 22.73 15.00 forest 71.43 83.33 28.57 16.67 average ± stdev 83.81 ± 9.72 83.23 ± 6.16 16.19 ± 9.72 15.02 ± 6.20 the calculation of accuracy of image classification is explained in table 3. user’s accuracy refers how actually classified map is real on the ground. the average of user’s accuracy of this study is considerably high with percentage of 83.81% ± 9.72%. sandy beaches land cover class has the highest invidual percentage of user’s accuracy, while paddy field and forest vegetation have the lowest percentage with 77.27% and 71.43% respectively, with error of comission reached more than 20%. these findings indicate that there are significant differences between the classification results of paddy fields and forest vegetation and the actual land cover. furthermore, the spectral signatures of paddy field cover and vegetation are relatively similar therefore they are difficult to distinguish. this is particularly the case of pixels that are located adjacent to each other. furthermore, the producer's accuracy represents class-wise accuracies from the map maker's perspective. as a result, it provides a probability that a specific sample of a specific land cover is corresponding as the same class in the classification map. based on the calculation, the average of producer’s accuracy of this study is fairly high in the range of 83.23% ± 6.16% with the average of omission error around 15% (table 3). these results confirm the analyst's ability to classify land cover classes based on the training area created according the spectral appearance on satellite imagery. the overall accuracy of 82.52% indicates that the results of land cover classification in this study are considerably good. the total accuracy value obtained in this study is not significantly different from the classification results obtained in several research studies, which are in the range of 80% or higher, despite the use of images with lower resolutions such as landsat 8 with spatial resolution of 30 meters (derajat et al., 2020; rini, 2018; siregar & asbi, 2020; wulansari, 2017). moreover, kappa coefficient value produced by the confusion matrix is 79.66 and categorized as substantial (61.00 < kappa < 80.00). previous research suggests combining the kappa coefficient and the overall accuracy value to validate land cover classification results (wulansari, 2017). in contrast to overall accuracy, which is calculated by dividing the number of diagonal values by the total number of cells in the matrix, the kappa coefficient considers non-diagonal elements (marlina, 2022; putri et al., 2018). in addition, the kappa coefficient measures the difference between the suitability of the classified data and the probability of a random classification match being compared with the reference data. several factors influence land use/land cover change in a limited environment such as a small island. the primary factor is population growth, which raises the demand for housing and food (kim, 2016; purbani et al., 2020). as a result, land clearing is carried out in order to provide settlements and agricultural land. the decline in fisheries production due to overfishing or climate change may also be a driving factor in small island land changes (pinuji et al., 2018). bawean island is a small island with abundant resources (wardani et al., 2017a). coastal communities depend on fishery products, while people who live inland depends on agriculture. if the decline of fisheries production happen for a long 215 zainul hidayah et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 207-218 period, it is possible that there will be a shift in the profession of fishermen in to farmers (pinuji et al., 2018). as a result, more agricultural land must be provided. furthermore, the lack of land use regulation based on regional spatial planning is a contributing factor to uncontrolled land use changes that endanger environmental sustainability. bawean island provide a distinct model for nature conservation that differs from the mainland in general. economic and social development are both major concerns in areas with small economies that rely heavily on external markets, high transportation costs, and small populations. as a result, a distinctive strategy is required to balance the development of small islands without risking their natural sustainability. the presence of diverse ecosystems on bawean island is the main draw for visitors. however, due to the island's limited carrying capacity, tourism activities on the island must be carefully managed. economic and population growth will result in the development of new lands. the major concern should be the balance between built-up areas to support development and conservation areas to maintain the island’s natural biodiversity. 4. conclusion this study has demonstrated the use of satellite images to identify land cover changes on a small island. the results of image classification in 2010 2020 show a significant change of land cover on bawean island. forest vegetation land cover experienced a significant degradation from 13,470.5 ha in 2010 to 8,543.4 ha in 2020. on the other hand, there is an increase of built-up area and paddy fields in the same period. changes in land cover on bawean island due to the population growth and infrastuctures construction. the rapid development on the island requires larger residential and agricultural areas to be provided. the development on bawean island must be regulated based on regional spatial planning in order to provide optimal results for the welfare of the community while at the same time preserving its rich natural diversity and ecosystems. conflicts of interest the authors are not involved in a conflict of interest from funds, personal and institutional or any other relationships from this 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(2017). uji akurasi klasifikasi penggunaan lahan dengan menggunakan metode defuzzifikasi maximum likelihood berbasis citra alos avnir-2. bhumi: jurnal agraria dan pertanahan, 3(1), 98. https://doi.org/10.31292/jb.v3i1.96. 219 https://doi.org/10.19184/ geosi.v7i3.30294 research article utilization of sentinel-2 imagery in mapping the distribution and estimation of mangroves' carbon stocks in bengkulu city ayub sugara1 ,*, agung h. lukman2, aninda w. rudiastuti3, ari anggoro1, muhammad f. hidayat2, feri nugroho4, ali m. muslih5, an nisa n. suci1, rifi zulhendri6, marissa rahmania7 1 department of marine science, faculty of agriculture, bengkulu university, jl. wr 7 supratman, kandang limun, bengkulu, 38371, indonesia 2 department of forestry, faculty of agriculture, bengkulu university, jl. wr 7 supratman, kandang limun, bengkulu, 38371, indonesia 3 research center for geospatial, national research and innovation agency (brin), cibinong science center, jl. raya bogor km. 46 cibinong, bogor, 16911, indonesia 4 department of digital business, faculty of economics and business, jakarta global university, depok, 16412, indonesia 5 department of forestry, faculty of agriculture, universitas syiah kuala, jl. teuku nyak arief darussalambanda aceh, 23111, indonesia 6 lembaga lestari alam laut untuk negeri (latun), jl. bencoolen kebun keling, teluk segara district, bengkulu, 38116, indonesia 7 department of information management, management, national chin-yi university of technology, no. 11, lane 243, section 1, zhongshan road, taiping district, taichung city, 41171, taiwan *corresponding author, email address : ayubsugara@unib.ac.id geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 3, december 2022, 219-235 abstract the mangroves' aboveground biomass significantly contributes to the global carbon cycle or economic and ecological values. this makes knowledge about the spatial extent of the mangroves indispensable for policymakers. the sequence of mangroves’ condition range also requires remote sensing data to update the geographical information and synthesize carbon stock in bengkulu. therefore, this study aims to create a spatial distrribution of mangroves and evaluate their carbon stock in bengkulu city using sentinel-2 imagery. the semi-empirical method uses sentinel-2 imagery through ndvi to appraise and picture the mangroves' aboveground carbon stock. an allometric equation was used to compute the mangroves' aboveground carbon stock from field measurements. non-linear regression was used to establish a connection between the ndvi calculated from the sentinel-2 imagery and the mangroves' aboveground biomass measured in the field, which was subsequently used for aboveground carbon estimation. the results showed that mangroves mapping could derive overall accuracy of 89.09%, where the high-density class existed in 135.12 ha of total area. it was also discovered that sentinel-2 imagery could estimate mangroves carbon stock up to 61%. the carbon stock estimation based on the imagery has a value of 16.3992 – 115.134 t c/ha, while that of field survey data ranges from 19.69 to 326.06 t c/ha. these results showed that sentinel-2b spectral data is functional and has a good chance of being able to predict carbon stock. keywords : carbon; mangroves; ndvi; remote sensing; sentinel-2b article info article history received : 24 february 2022 revised : 26 october 2022 accepted : 10 november 2022 published : 24 december 2022 . © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/%20geosi.v7i3.30294 mailto:ayubsugara@unib.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 220 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 1. introduction the ecosystem services provided by mangroves are wide-spreading, therefore, their valuable existence is undeniable, particularly for carbon sequestration (jones et al., 2020; kusumaningtyas et al., 2022), climate change mitigation (jennerjahn, 2021; sjögersten et al., 2021), coastal protection (karimi et al., 2022), and many socio-economic benefits from ecological function (trialfhianty et al., 2022). as the particular tropical and sub-tropical vegetation, mangroves inhabit almost all of indonesia's coastline. this makes it one of the most considerable potential for carbon sequestration by approximately 23% of global mangroves (suyadi, 2020). the blue carbon potential of mangroves is based on the sequestration rate, which is four times more than rainforests (nyanga, 2020). this indicates the powerhouses' capacity of mangroves to sequester substantial amounts of carbon accounted for the sediment belowground and aboveground biomass. meanwhile, the mangroves' aboveground biomass is well related to its important function in the context of the global carbon cycle or economic and ecological values. this makes information related to the spatial extent of the mangroves area indispensable (baloloy et al., 2018). recent technological advances have improved both the accuracy and the extent of remote sensing for mapping as well as increased the ability to estimate biomass to calculate mangroves' carbon stock (bindu et al., 2020; galidaki et al., 2017). over decades, a widely-used approach, namely the remote sensing technique allows the monitoring of the extent and changes in mangroves areas (rudiastuti et al., 2018). previous investigations have shown that mangroves forests frequently grow in hard-to-access areas. this led to an increase in the importance of remote sensing data exploration to study mangroves. as a coastal city, bengkulu has an area of mangroves that spatially spread along the north-south coastline. according to the interpretation result using remote sensing imagery (anggraini, 2014), mangroves deforestation, degradation, and area conversion due to domestic needs have reduced about 65% of the mangroves area in nature tourism park (twa) pantai panjang and baai island, bengkulu, within 13 years (2000 – 2013). there is an abundance of coastal tourism potencies in bengkulu city, however research on the supportive aspects of developing mangroves ecotourism is limited. this is because the ecotourism concept concentrates on ecology conservation, economic benefits, and society concerning a spatial approach to achieve a sustainable coastal management strategy (rudiastuti et al., 2018). therefore, the spatial aspects related to mangroves have become essential information for stakeholders such as balai konservasi sumber daya alam bengkulu and decision-makers in the city concerning sustainable coastal use. the spatial information of existing mangroves also shows the importance of optimizing the mangroves conservation and ecotourism in baai island since 2017 (yunita & edwar, 2019), as well as twa in bengkulu. the sequence of mangroves conditions urges the use of remote sensing data to update geospatial information and synthesize their carbon stock. however, the spatially based research on mangroves in the bengkulu city is still limited (anggraini, 2014; senoaji & hidayat, 2017; silitonga et al., 2018; srifitriani et al., 2020). this is because there are no scientific records on mangroves area mapping and carbon stock estimation using 10-meter remote sensing data on bengkulu coast. the investigations related to mangroves carbon stock estimation involved various vegetation indexes, where the most prevalent is normalized different vegetation index (ndvi). the density of plant is a proxy for biomass, which can be measured by the vegetation index (anand et al., 2020; perry et al., 2022; pham et al., 2020; sharma et al., 2020; thuy et al., 2020), arvi and evi (siddiq et al., 2020), dvi (purnamasari et al., 2021). therefore, this study aims to determine the use of sentinel-2 imagery in mapping mangroves' spatial distribution and estimating their carbon stock in bengkulu city. 221 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 2. methods this research calculated the carbon stock at several field sample locations and determined a link between the aboveground biomass (agb) at field sample points and the ndvi. the combination between field data collection and remote sensing data analysis was also carried out. this involves four main steps, namely (i) image processing, (ii) vegetation index transformation, (iii) ground-truthing and field data collection, and (iv) carbon stock calculations. 2.1 study area mangroves at bengkulu city served as the location from september 15-22, 2021 (figure 1). the six sites were selected to provide a geographically diverse representation of the mangroves ecosystem in the city, which extended to the riverbanks from the estuary. these sites included pantai panjang and baai nature park island, conservation and non-conservation areas. since the national government recognized both pantai panjang and baai island as nature parks, they attracted the most visitors and became well-known stations. figure 1. study area 2.2 data and tools this study used level 2b sentinel satellite image acquired on august 23, 2021, and the specification of sentinel data is shown in table 1. the image pre-processing and spectral transformation steps are conducted by the image processing software. the ndvi was selected as the index that has been applied in various locations (manna et al., 2014; wachid et al., 2017) and is highly sensitive to the biomass (purnamasari et al., 2021). gps and tools for the ecological survey, namely tally sheet, cameras, as well as phi-band were used during the field observation. 222 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 table 1. data specification satellite band spatial resolution (meter) wavelength (nm) sentinel-2b acquisition time: august 23, 2021 cloud cover: < 20% blue 10 490 green 10 560 red 10 665 near-infrared 10 842 2.3 image processing the sentinel-2 imagery was subjected to atmospheric correction at the pre-processing stage to improve the pixel value. the reflected value of objects on the earth's surface captured by the sensor was affected because of atmospheric factors, which made the value not to be the actual pixel value. this is because the value contained is not the actual pixel value (rumora et al., 2020). due to scattering, the disturbance increased, while absorption reduced. the dark object subtraction (dos) technique was used to adjust for atmospheric distortion. after the atmospheric correction on the sentinel-2b image, the mangroves area was delineated using maximum likelihood supervised classification (otukei & blaschke, 2010), among the most popular parametric classes applied in supervised learning. this algorithm can classify pixel values according to the likelihood that belongs to a particular category within the sample. meanwhile, when the probability of the pixel value is below the specified threshold, the pixel is not classified. the ndvi obtained from sentinel-2b image processing was reclassified based on the actual condition from fieldwork. the field observation data and ndvi analysis were integrated to classify according to the type of mangroves density. around 55 points (mangroves and non-mangroves) from fieldwork were occupied for accuracy tests using a confusion matrix. the accuracy test was applied to determine the reliability level of the mapping result. 2.4 field sample collection the field survey was carried out according to the guidelines for mangroves carbon estimation compiled by kaufmann (kauffman, 2012). a total of 140 plot samples from 6 research regions (figure 1) were observed during the field survey. there are 85 and 55 points as training samples for the classification and validation of mapping results, respectively. the location of plot samples was mainly determined by the research purpose and accessibility. moreover, purposive sampling was selected to accommodate area representation spatially because the research location has various land-use/landcover surrounding mangroves areas (vatresia et al., 2019). the accessibility aspect was also considered and in each station, plot positions taken using gps at the location were integrated into sentinel-2 imagery. all plots were designed as cluster transects and consistently placed on the coastline or river body. a 10 x 10 m plot size was designed for trees, whose diameter breast height (dbh) is 10 cm or above, while a 5 x 5 m was for those categorized as saplings with dbh < 10 cm (istomo et al., 2017; kartika et al., 2018). ecological data, which include identifying mangroves species, distribution, and density as well as agb data of mangroves were collected. the identification of mangroves species uses a field guide compiled in the guidebook to introduce mangroves in indonesia (noor et al., 2012). agb data were obtained through allometric equations from the measurement of stem diameter circumference. this was processed to determine the estimated mangroves biomass in each plot at the research site (komiyama et al., 2005). 223 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 2.5 vegetation index vegetation indices (vis) are used to determine the plant density from remote sensing images. in this research, correlation and regression analysis was used to exploit the association between the values of the ndvi and the carbon information from the existing assessment to estimate the mangroves' aboveground carbon (hastuti et al., 2017). ndvi is one of the most corresponding vegetation indices for a related purpose (bindu et al., 2020). the ndvi expression is shown in equation (1), while the reclassification of mangroves canopy density is presented in table 2 based on field observations. 𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼 = (𝑁𝐼𝑅 − 𝑅) (𝑁𝐼𝑅 + 𝑅) ⁄ (1) nir : near infrared band (band 8) r : red (band 4) ndvi : (-1) – (1) table 2. mangroves density classification based on ndvi no. category ndvi value 1 rare 0.11 – 0.35 2 medium 0.35 – 0.5 3 dense 0.5 – 0.67 2.6 carbon stock estimation the two data on mangroves related to spatial distribution and canopy density were extracted from the sentinel-2b image. information on mangroves canopy density was obtained by performing the ndvi transformation. meanwhile, in this research, the 3 classes of canopy density were rare, medium, and dense (table 2). the ndvi transformation image produces a vegetation index value, which was visualized concerning the estimated carbon stock based on field survey data. an accuracy test was also carried out based on field data by mapping the estimated carbon stock. mangroves forest biomass was counted using equation (2) (komiyama et al., 2005): 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 0.251 ∗ 𝑝 ∗ 𝐷𝐵𝐻2.46 (2) where wtop represents biomass, p means bulk density; and dbh is diameter breast height (cm). furthermore, the ndvi value from satellite imagery can be used for agb estimation using equation (3) (myeong et al., 2006). 𝐴𝐺𝐵 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑒𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼∗𝑑 (3) where the value of c and d represent constants in the non-linear regression equation. after obtaining the mangroves biomass estimation, the relationship between the ndvi value in the observation plot and the agb in the field was identified. the non-linear regression equations obtained to determine the constant value of c and d were used to estimate agb in the whole plot of the ndvi values. according to sni 7724: 2011, 47% of tree biomass is carbon, therefore, the amount of carbon in the stock was estimated by multiplying the biomass data by the organic carbon value of 0.47. specifically, linear regression was used, which is the standard for evaluating statistical models for numerical data. the accuracy of carbon stock modeling based on the vegetation index was tested using the statistical method and compared to the actual observed values. the flowchart in figure 2 depicts all the procedures for conducting this research. 224 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 figure 2. workflow diagram 3. results and discussion 3.1 mangroves in bengkulu city the supervised classification from the sentinel 2 imagery in figure 3 depicted the 242.35 ha mangroves area in bengkulu coastal, which inhabits the coastal areas of ratu agung, gading cempaka, and kampung melayu. the substrate types discovered along the mangroves' habitat are sand, mud, and sand mixed with mud. furthermore, nearly identical results were found from previous research on the western side of bengkulu, which claimed the mangroves' extent was about 214.62 ha (senoaji & hidayat, 2017). sentinel 2b satellite imagery data tabulation field survey 1. marking reseach location 2. mangrove species identification 3. agb measurement (above ground biomassa) mangrove ndvi transformation imagery model point plotting reseach location extract ndvi value non-linier regression mangroves carbon stock estimation biomassa mangrove estimation carbon stock estimation mangrove carbon stock distribution map supervised classification – maximum likelihood classification algorithm mangrove map 225 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 mangroves species found at the 6 survey sites are shown in table 3, which summarizes the species data in 60 plots. it was also discovered that rhizophora apiculata, rhizophora stylosa, avicennia marina, bruguiera gymnorhiza, ceriops tagal, lumnitzera littorea, lumnitzera racemosa, sonneratia alba, and xylocarpus granatum are the nine species that can be found in bengkulu city. rhizophora apiculata and avicennia marina are the most frequently found species along the bengkulu coast. according to a previous report, the major mangroves that dominated the city are rhizophora, avicennia, and sonneratia (apriyanto et al., 2021; senoaji & hidayat, 2017). table 3. mangroves species in bengkulu city no species locations a b c d e f 1 avicennia marina + + + + + + 2 bruguiera gymnorrhiza + + + + 3 ceriops tagal + + 4 lumnitzera littorea + + 5 lumnitzera racemose + 6 rhizophora apiculata + + + + + + 7 rhizophora stylosa + 8 sonneratia alba + + + + 9 xylocarpus granatum + + notes: "+" means species mangroves found in plot sample; a – f located in twa pantai panjang, kandang, pulau baai, sumber jaya, teluk sepang, and padang serai sequentially. figure 3. mangrove distribution in bengkulu city 226 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 the performance of sentinel-2 images on land-use/land-cover mapping has been longestablished, and most of them reported excellent performance with the reliable accuracy result (fathoni et al., 2017; mondal et al., 2019; osgouei et al., 2019; tavares et al., 2019). to ensure that the mangroves interpretation from the sentinel-2 image is reliable for further carbon estimation, the accuracy of the mapping result needs to reach > 80% mccoy, (2005) (rudiastuti et al., 2021). in this case, overall (oa), producer (pa), and user (ua) accuracy was 89.09%, 89.34%, and 89.03%, respectively, with a kappa coefficient of 0.78, as shown in table 4. table 4. accuracy assessment class types field measurements total user accuracy (%) m nm m 23 4 27 85.19 nm 2 26 28 92.86 total 25 30 55 pa (%) 92 86.67 average ua (%) 89.03 average pa (%) 89.34 oa (%) 89.09 kappa accuracy (%) 78.15 note: m = mangroves; nm = non-mangroves therefore, the mangroves map in bengkulu coastal interpreted from the sentinel-2 imagery can be used as the basis for further analysis. 3.2 normalized difference vegetation index (ndvi) an approach such as vegetation mapping is beneficial for understanding the environmental condition. vegetation monitoring using satellite data can use vegetation density and biomass indicators (samsuri et al., 2021). meanwhile, the vegetation index can estimate mangroves biomass from remote sensing images such as ndvi. the results of the ndvi transformation image and mangroves density map are available in figure 4. the ndvi value ranged from -1 to 1, which were grouped into several density classes according to the fieldwork measurement. the relationship between the ndvi vegetation index and field measurement data can provide information about vegetation biomass (galidaki et al., 2017). ndvi values close to zero are commonly related to the non-vegetation area (rocks and soil), while high values (positive) correspond to fractional vegetation area (ormsby et al., 1987). in this research, the canopy density was obtained from the sentinel-2b image using the ndvi transformation, which classified three classes of mangroves canopy density in the bengkulu city area. the updated information about mangrove extent using better spatial resolution images such as sentinel-2 is essential compared to the previous results (anggraini, 2014; srifitriani et al., 2020). moreover, the mangroves biomass information of bengkulu city is vital to support ecotourism and coastal ecosystem management. 227 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 figure 4. ndvi (a) and density classes (b) of mangroves in bengkulu city the mangroves distribution resulting from supervised classification was overlaid by the ndvi image in figure 4 to determine mangroves density information. based on figure 4, it was discovered that mangroves with dense conditions are abundant in kampung melayu district. table 5 provides an overview of the spatial extent of land covered by mangroves in bengkulu city. table 5. mangroves density within ndvi class no. density class ndvi range area (ha) 1 rare 0.11 – 0.35 21.52 2 moderate 0.35 – 0.5 85.71 3 high 0.5 – 0.67 135.12 total 242.35 the vegetation index calculates the vegetation density of green leaves, specifically for vegetation species. the information about mangroves density classification and its extent in table 5 refers to table 2 on ndvi value classification. the three groups are mangroves areas with the highest density covering 135.12 ha, followed by 85.71 ha of moderate density, while rare density exists only on 21.52 ha of the total area. the ndvi range in this research is almost similar to the previous investigation. for the mangroves area on sumatra's eastern coast, samsuri et al. (2021) stated that an ndvi value > 0.5845 is classified as high-density mangroves. along with what is found in mangroves in vietnam, ndvi values from the sentinel image vary from -0.30 to 0.66, and those with ndvi values >0.5 are classified as high density (thuy et al., 2020). moreover, pricillia et al. (2021) and singgalen et al. (2021) used a standard document from the ministry of environment and forestry about the environmental damage indicators for mangroves, where it was discovered that ndvi value ≥0.4 is categorized as mangroves with high density. ndvi transformation is used in several remote sensingbased research to estimate biomass. moreover, the research on biomass estimation using ndvi transformation in sentinel-2 image proved the closest relationship to tree density with r = 0.738 228 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 (samsuri et al., 2021). the efficacy of vegetation indices in assessing density is primarily determined by their responsiveness to various vegetative biochemical and biophysical features such as canopy cover, vegetation fragments, or biomass (wicaksono et al., 2016). 3.3 estimating the carbon stock in mangroves the model of carbon stock of mangroves in bengkulu used the ndvi values produced from sentinel-2b. subsequently, the non-linear statistics regression between ndvi and agb from fieldwork was applied to derive the constants from the carbon stock model of mangroves in bengkulu. the regression equation was used as the basis for the carbon stock estimation to make a distribution model for the estimated distribution (bindu et al., 2020). figure 5 illustrates the selected field agb and ndvi values. figure 5. correlation between agb and ndvi models from the statistics regression, r2 is 0.57, and the equation 𝑦 = 23.027𝑒3.5204𝑥 . these results indicated a positive relationship between ndvi and measured agb. similar research on mangroves biomass modeling in tropical mexico, boquilla-mancha, using sentinel-2 (sjögersten et al., 2021), derived 0.57 for the r2 value. however, thuy et al. (2020), using a similar non-linear regression, obtained a slightly higher coefficient of determination r2 of 0.67, while (purnamasari et al., 2021) obtained an r2 of 0.51 for the regression function between field-measured agc and ndvi. the obtained number of r2 was investigated due to the lack of field points as a reference in the model. moreover, the spatial resolution of sentinel-2b satellite data has an impact on the extraction of ndvi values, causing a mixture of items other than mangroves, which led to mixed values. the a and b constants for the agb estimation model as shown in equation (3) are 23.027 and 3.5204, respectively (myeong et al., 2006). therefore, the estimated agb for mangroves in bengkulu city is given in equation (4). 𝑨𝑮𝑩 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝒆𝑵𝑫𝑽𝑰∗𝟑.𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟒 (4) equation (4) became the input for estimating the biomass from the sentinel-2b image. based on figure 6, the result showed that the lowest mangroves biomass has a value of 34,8919, while the highest value was 244,965. this shows a distribution of mangroves biomass in bengkulu city. y = 23,027e3,5204x r² = 0,5775 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 a g b ndvi 229 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 figure 6. a map depicting the spread of mangroves biomass in bengkulu city after information related to mangroves biomass is obtained, the next step is to estimate carbon stock from sentinel-2b images with the equation below: aboveground carbon = 0.47 (23.027 e (ndvi*3.5204)) figure 7 shows a map of the mangroves' carbon stock in the bengkulu city region. this depicts that the mangroves biomass measured from sentinel-2b images ranges from 16.3992 t c/ha to 115.134 t c/ha. similar to the value of carbon stock based on the field survey, the lowest value was 19.69 t c/ha, while the highest was 326.06 t c/ha. several field plots indicate that the mangroves area is dense but contains a low ndvi value (0.11 0.35), and vice versa. when the field survey point indicates that the mangroves area is rare, the ndvi value is high, which ranges from 0.5 to 0.67). this contributes to the discrepancy between the estimated carbon stock calculated in the field and based on sentinel-2b images. some points also represent dense mangroves density values with high ndvi and low mangroves density values with low ndvi values. the field result showed that the low ndvi value is sometimes discovered in dense mangroves areas in the field plot because ndvi only detects canopy, while the field density was obtained from the dbh (ren et al., 2015). the related condition would affect the calculation of mangroves carbon stock. 230 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 figure 7. carbon stock distribution of mangroves in bengkulu city figure 8. regression function between measured and image-predicted carbon figure 8 shows how the carbon stock model derived from sentinel 2 imagery was transformed using the ndvi to represent the actual carbon stock based on field measurement. this research discovered that sentinel 2 imagery can be used to estimate mangroves carbon stock up to 61%. meanwhile, mngadi et al. (2021) implemented a random forest model to sentinel 2 imagery to predict urban reforested carbon stock in south africa and yielded an accuracy of 79.82 and an rmse between 0.38 0.47 t/ha. sentinel 2 imagery data combines its resolutions, namely spatial, temporal, and spectral better than other optical datasets (ghosh et al., 2021). however, an investigation using a goodness-offit statistical test discovered that all models generated inflated results when comparing field-measured y = 0,4616x + 37,574 r² = 0,6119 0,00 20,00 40,00 60,00 80,00 100,00 120,00 0 50 100 150 200 c a rb o n s e n ti n e l 2 b c t o n /h a field carbon c ton/ha 231 ayub sugara et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 219-235 aboveground carbon over several vegetation indices, such as ndvi (purnamasari et al., 2021). this occurred because the canopy density collected by satellite sensors within the mangroves zone exceeded the tree diameter observed in the survey. meanwhile, when alos avnir-2 pc was used to map mangroves carbon stocks in karimun jawa, maximum accuracy of 77.8% for aboveground carbon and 60.8% for belowground carbon was obtained (wicaksono et al., 2016). 4. conclusion this study showed that sentinel-2 imagery could be used to produce spatial information related to mangroves and estimate their carbon stock. based on sentinel-2 imagery analysis, the mangrove area is 242.35 ha with an oa of 89.09%. in the study area, approximately nine species from the genera of avicennia, bruguiera, ceriops, lumnitzera, rhizophora, sonneratia, and xylocarpus were discovered. the carbon stock estimation based on sentinel-2 imagery has a value of 16.3992 – 115.134 t c ha-1, while that of field survey data ranges from 19.69 to 326.06 t c ha-1. for further investigation, multiscale mapping using several types of satellite imagery is recommended. furthermore, high-resolution satellite image data is needed to produce detailed spatial distribution and mangroves carbon stock data. conflict of interests the authors do not have any financial, personal, or other links with other people or organizations related to the subject matter of this research, which can create a conflict of interest. acknowledgments this research was supported by the 2021 lecturer development research of the faculty of agriculture, bengkulu university. the authors are grateful to jenggalu kito village and the lembaga lestari alam laut untuk negeri (latun) crew for the assistance provided during data collection in the field. references anand, a., pandey, p. c., petropoulos, g. p., pavlides, a., srivastava, p. k., sharma, j. k., & malhi, r. k. m. 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(2019). study faktor internal untuk pengelolaan ekowisata mangrove di pulau baai kota bengkulu. jurnal georafflesia, 4(2), 183–186. upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 146 the effectiveness comparison between inquiry and problem based learning towards geography learning outcomes upang septa putra1* and muhsinatun siasah masruri1 1master program of geography education, yogyakarta state university, indonesia *email : upangsepta94@gmail.com received 5 may 2019/ revised 5 july 2019/ accepted 16 july 2019/ published 20 august 2019 abstract this study aims to determine the differences of learning outcomes between students that were performed using inquiry and student who were applied using problem based learning in classes of x sma 2 plakat tinggi. this study also purposes to examine the effectiveness comparison between problem based learning and inquiry method. the research engages quantitative research with quasi-experimental type. subject selection conducts match design. the population of this study were students of class x ips in sma 2 plakat tinggi which composed of three classes. the sample selection in this study engaged purposive sampling, hereby x ips 3 was elected as experimental group 1 (problem based learning) and class x ips 1 as the experimental group 2 (inquiry) class. data collection technique performed in this study was learning outcomes in the form of written test. data analysis technique was engaging independent sample t-test, which was followed by n increased and effect size extent. the findings are differences of learning outcomes improvement between students who studied utilizing inquiry method and students who were taught using problem based learning method. problem based learning is more effective than inquiry in promoting geography learning outcomes. this is indicated through calculation result upon effect size extent, where students who were taught using problem based learning method obtain a value of 4.185, larger compared to those who were treated using inquiry method which obtain a value of 3.462. keywords: inquiry, problem based learning, geography 1. introduction the rapid development in the sense of education is increasingly improved and this developing condition requires students capacity in mastering comprehensive the subjects matter of school, especially on geography subject. since, within geography subject students are not only provided the content in the form of theory, but also directly examine geographycontent on daily basis. sumaatmadja (2001: 12) argues that geography learning is geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 146-163, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.10849 doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.10192 upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 147 essentially an image of spatial aspects of the earth surface, which is the whole symptom of nature and human life upon regional variations. in addition, during geography learning students are compulsory to investigate all human activities that are closely related to the surrounding environment, namely: atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. the presence of geography learning is expected to establish and develop students understanding of variation and spatial organization between communities within residence and the environment on earth surface. geography obtains original features, namely thinking process, in which geography examines things or symptoms that have interdependent relationships between one symptom to another. futhermore, there is geographical manner of thinking which needs an analysis of a concrete object relationship and symptoms, whose spatial relations can be captured by the five senses. however, students were not adequately interested in geography learning, since students considered geography subject as unattractive subject which was determined through observations conducted at sma 2 plakat tinggi.when the learning process occured in the classroom, students have not been actively involved in the learning process. this fact could be observe daccording to students participation during the learning process which tended to be insufficient and passive. for instance, when teacher presented questions to students, there were only one or two students who were able to complete the answers. students behavior who have not been actively involved in geography subjects was certainly determined by several factors, both internal and external. internal factors are namely; student attitudes toward learning which was tend to be conventional, as well as insufficient interest and motivation. while external factors, for example, were related to the application of learning methods that were monotonous. most learning methods engaged at sma 2 are conventional namely coursework/lecture method and assignment completion. hence, during learning process students were basically uniterested and became bored quickly. inorder to cope all the issues, teacher must be able to arrange, design and implement effective and efficient learning. thus, it is expected to enhance students motivated during learning process and improve learning outcomes as well. futhermore, in order to provide students learning motivation, of course an appropriate learning method is required. learning method is a method engaged to implement plans that have been prepared, in the form of real and practical activities to achieve the learning objectives referring suprijono (2015: 50). utilizing suitable learning method could generate easier manner for students to understand geographic subjects that will affect improvement of student learning outcomes. there are several learning methods that can be engaged towards geography learning process namely; upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 148 inquiry-based learning methods, discovery-based learning (discovery), problem-based learning (problem based learning), and project-based learning (project based learning). however, considering all the method provided, there are two the most appropriate methods to be utilizied, namely inquiry based learning and problem based learning. utilizing both methods allowing students more convenience to embrace thecontents that is directly related to the real life, including the symptom or phenomena and problems that prevails in daily life and capable in improving the value of optimal learning outcomes. alberta (2004: 1) mentions during inquiry based learning processes students are participating on to learning, formulate questions, learn comprehensively and then build new understandings, meanings and knowledge. this assumption can be interpreted that inquiry based learning (ibl) is a learning process where students are involved within formulating questions that lead to conduct investigations in an effort to construct new knowledge and meanings. inquiry process is a stage of promoting problems, obtaining information, thinking creatively in possible solutions, making decisions and arranging conclusions based existing problems. in contrary, compared to what was stated earlier, duran & dokme (2016: 2889) convinced that inquiry based learning can be defined as a learning approach in encouraging students to be active throughout the learning process, enhancing their scientific processsuitable to skills, and improving critical-thinking skills through discussions and activities. this statement is strongly associate towards opinion expressed by unver & sertac (2011: 304) argues that inquiry based learning is a learning activity that refers to student activities, where students allow to develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as understanding how scientists figure out about the world. increasing knowledge and understanding as well as scientific ideas gained by students, especially for subjects which are expected to improve geography learning outcomes. inquiry based learning explanation above relates to mundilarto's research (2013: 256) which concludes that inquiry approach is more effective in improving student learning outcomes compared to the conventional approaches. basically, inquiry method characteristics according to smith & walker (2010: 27) are; (a) learning is stimulated by inquiry, it is established by questions or problems, (b) learning is based on a process of constructing knowledge and new insight, (c) an active approach to learning, involves learning by doing, a student-centered approach to teaching in which the role of the teacher is a facilitator (d) anaction to self-directed learning which students are performing high responsibility upon their learning. inquiry method learning stages according to blessinger & john (2014: 11) are: upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 149 exploration, problem identification, investigation, data collection and analysis, conclusions formulation obtained based on creative communication result. inquiry learning is different compared to problem based learning (pbl). according to simone (2014: 18), problem based learning is a pedagogical approach centered on learners, whichconveys students the opportunity to engage into investigations directed towardslearning subjectives. this definition is supported by yew & karen’s result (2016: 2) that problembased learning is a pedagogical approach that enables students to learn while engaging actively with problems, this is different towards previously stated,whitcombe (2013: 41) convinces that problem-based method learning attempts students the opportunity to develop skills, such as problem solving, clinical reasoning, and assist students with skills to acquire science/knowledge. regarding students skills when solving a problem, reasoning and debriefing are obtained through stages of problem-based learning method. these stages are expected to facilitate students to acquire new knowledge in order to achieve optimal learning outcomes. this matter associates towards agustini's research results (2017: 97-98) which state pbl promotes students directly in learning to dissemninate knowledge through real visualization. thereby, pbl enables improvement ofstudents learning outcomes. students during learning process within problem based learning are actively involved in preparing and communicating opinions. overall, students attitudes engaging pbl method can be consideredas active and interested in the learning process. pbl does not only improve student learning, but increases student learning outcomes problem based learning method characteristics according to barrett & moore (2010: 94-95) are: (a) the issue/problem presented must obtain more than one solution, (b) the problem must be complex, (c) the problem must be structured reasonably, (d) problem must be multidisciplinary, (e) problem concerns on teamwork, (f) problems must require ideas in problem solving, (g) problem solving requires source references, (h) problems require identification in the process learning, (i) each student or group must reflect the effectiveness of the learning solution. while, problem based learning stages according to seng (2009: 9), are featuring 5 steps as follows: (a) identifying the problem, (b) problem analyzing and learning issues formulating, (c) discovering and reporting, (d) presenting solution and reflecting, (e) and ovierview, integrating and evaluating. contrary tothe seng’s,yuniwati (2016: 17) explains the steps of problem-based learning namely: (a) identifying a problem and examining relevant information sources, (b) independent learning (self directed learning), (c) investigating a problem and performing interpretation, (d) establishing several alternative upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 150 solutions to problems (high cognitive complexity), (e) integrating opinions or information data to determine problems solution, and (f) self reflecting. 2. the methods the research method used is a scientific approach to obtain data with specific objectives and uses. relating the research that would be conducted, this research is a quantitative type with a quasi-experimental approach using match subject design. research population were students of class x ips of sma 2 plakat tinggi which composed of 3 classes. then, researcher collected a sample employing a purposive sampling. hence, the sample selected was class x ips 3of 35 students as an experimental class with problem based learning method and classes x ips 1 as an experimental class using inquiry method which composedof 33 students. the data collection technique employed in this study was learning outcome in term of geography learning test with 20 multiple choice questions. the test was engaged to determine general ability before and after treatment provided. data analysis technique engaged within this research obtained two stages, namely data description stage and the hypothesis testing stage. the action performed upon data description test stage was formulating a summary of data distribution in the form of prettest and posttest using the spss 20.00 for window. while for hypothesis examination was performing independent sample t-test. data analysis regarding geography learning outcomes improvement was conducted by the n gain score. n gain score is obtained through posttest results calculation which are reduced by the prettest value in experimental classes performed inquiry and problem based learning. in calculating the n gain formula, researcher utilized the following formula: then, assessing the effectiveness of the learning method is performing by calculating the effect size (es). the formula used according to warner (2008: 202) is as follows: d = information: ez = effect size m1 = prettest mean upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 151 m2 = posttest mean sp = standard posttest deviation the calculation results obtained from calculations formulated through over effect size are categorized toward criteria proposed by cohen (1988) about the level of the effect size as follows : ice ≤ 0.2 (low), 0.2 ≤ es ≤ 0.8 (moderate), and ice ≥ 0.8 (height). 3. results and discussion this research is quantitative one that applying two classes as experimental classes. learning outcomes were acquired based on two times tests, namely pretest and posttest. pretest was performed to determine thestudents initial abilities (pretest) and the final test (posttest) used to determine the ability of students after being treated with certain learning methods. 3.1 pretest results of experimental classes engaging inquiry and problem based learning description of the prettest results of student learning outcomes can be seen in table 1 as follows: table 1. description of prettest data of student geography learning outcomes no descriptive statistics results inquiry problem based learning 1 mean 44.24 46.42 2 mode 40 40 3 median 45 45 4 deviation standard 8.20 9.43 source: primary data processing (2018) based on the table, it shows that the average prettest value of students in the experimental group 1 applied using the problem based learning method obtain an average value of 46.42, mode 40, median 45 and a standard deviation of 9.43. while the average prettest value of students in the experimental group 2 applied using the inquiry method obtain an average value of 44.24, mode 40, median 45 and a standard deviation of 8.20. 3.2 posttest results of experimental classes engaging inquiry and problem based learning upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 152 description of prettest data results of students learning can be seen in table 2 as follows: table 2. description of posttest data of student geography learning outcomes no descriptive statistics results inquiry problem based learning 1 mean 82.00 75.00 2 mode 80 75 3 median 80 75 4 standard deviation 8.50 9.10 source: primary data processing (2018) based on the table, it shows that the average posttest value of students in experimental group 1 applied using the problem based learning method obtain an average value of 82.00, mode 80, median 85 and standard deviation of 8.50. while, the average posttest value of students in the experimental group 2 applied using the inquiry method obtain an average value of 75.00, mode 75, median 75 and a standard deviation of 9.10. 3.3 comparison of average prettest, posttest and n gain results of geography learning outcomes student learning outcomes escalation in experimental class engaging inquiry method and problem based learning method is recognizable with comparison between prettest and posttest values figured in the gain score. based on the calculation of gain score obtain the average value of increasing student learning outcomes of experimental class treated with inquiry method is 31.51. students learning outcomes who were performed problem based learning have increased by 35.58. the gain score results of experimental class based inquiry method and problem based learning presented in table 3 below: table 3. comparison of average prettest, posttest and n gain results of geography learning outcomes no learning methods prettest posttest n gain 1 inquiry 43.18 74.69 31.51 2 problem based learning 46.42 82.00 35.58 source: primary data processing (2018) upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 153 based on it table 3, it could be examined the differences of learning outcomes improvement of geography between inquiry and problem based learning within two groups. experimental group treated using inquiry method experience an incline of learning outcomes by 31.51, while the learning outcomes applying problem based learning method increases by 35.58. 3.4 first hypothesis examination table 4. statistics test of student learning outcomes using independent samples test sources: statistical results based on spss 22.00 based on the results of variance analysis calculation relating the differences of achievement upon learning outcomes between students who performed problem based learning and inquiry method with errors opportunity of (p) 0.008, it is smaller than the specified level of significance of 0.05. the output results assisted with spss 22.00 application presented in the table. it can be concluded that the value of t is equal to -2,722 with p value smaller than alpha 0.05. then h0 is rejected and ha is accepted. according to these results, it can be revealed that the null hypothesis (h0) is rejected. this means "there is a significant difference of learning outcomes intensification between students who using problem based learning method and students who learned using the inquiry method". gain score value based on calculation results between a class applied with inquiry learning and a class with problem based learning method, the percentage of the gain score in table 5 is obtained as follows: t-test for equality of means t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference geography learning results equal variances assumed -2.722 66 .008 -.10689 equal variances not assumed -2.718 65.192 .008 -.10689 upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 154 table 5. percentage of gain score no learning methods test result score 1 inquiry prettest average 43.18 posttest average 74.69 gain score 31.51 % gain score 71.13 2 problem based learning prettest average 46.42 posttest average 82.00 gain score 35.58 % gain score 76.61 source: primary data processing (2018) based on the table, the gain percentage score of learning outcomes in class applied with the inquiry method is 71.13, smaller than the class applied engaging problem based learning which is 76.61. considering these data, it could be assumed that achievement upon students learning outcomes between the class applied with inquiry method and another class applied with the problem based learning method has notable differences. the two classes engaged both inquiry method and problem based learning have different learning outcomes, both pretest and posttest scores. the improvement highlight particularly emerges between posttest value and the pretest (gain score), there are prominent differences in learning outcomes (76.71>71.13). based on the study results generated, it is obvious that problem based learning enables to promote students social studies learning outcomes, since problem based learning method is an actual method and suitable within activities carried out by students in their daily lives. problem based learning method defines learning process that starts from initial stage of learning based on a problem occurs in real life. then referring to the problem, students are stimulated to examine them based on knowledge and experience they obtain previously. thereby, a new knowledge and experience will possibly formed. upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 155 3.5 second hypothesis test table 6. effect size value of inquiry and problem based learning no learning methods test result score 1 inquiry prettest average 43.18 posttest average 74.69 gain score 31.51 deviation standard 9.10 effect size 3.462 2 problem based learning prettest average 46.42 posttest average 82.00 gain score 35.58 deviation standard 8.50 effect size 4.185 source: primary data processing (2018) based on the table, it can be seen that the value of the effect size on inquiry method earns a value of 3.462 which is categorized as the high category. this value is persistent towards the effect size value on problem based learning method, which also gains 4,185, that is classified as high category. according to these values, it can be concluded that problem based learning method engagement is more effective than inquiry method in term of students geographic learning outcomes of sma plakat tinggi 2. according to independent sample t-test result analysis, it shows that there are slightly differences of geography learning outcomes between students who were applied inquiry method over students who were applied problem based learning method. results of this study indicate that geography subject utilizing problem based learning method is more adequate than inquiry method. referring to students learning outcomes, presenting that student who were applied problem based learning method pose higher score than students who were performed using inquiry method. this achievement gained from statistical analysis, which is p = 0.008, smaller than the specified level of 0.05, which means significant. this result confirms that student learning outcomes based inquiry method obtain an average value of learning outcomes of 31.51, smaller comparedto problem based learning method which pose an average value of 35.58. theoretically, geography learning engages problem based learning method capable to motivate students in examining interesting problems and also challenges students to overcome a factualproblem occurs in everyday life. the similar statement is figured by upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 156 wijayanti & wulandari (2016: 119) who contends that learning process within problem based learning at the beginning stage of activity motivates students to solve interesting and also challenging problems. hence, it would be more convienence for students to think at a higher level and get accustomed in solving the problems. geography learning performs problem based learning method concerned on problems utilization reinforces students to relate problems encountered in daily life. hence,students could interpret the learning material being delivered. problem solving activities within early stage of learning process provide practices and insight for students to embrace new material. a problem that does not emphasize on procedures and algorithms help students to think independently in plan making and solving problems, evaluating solutions consequences and preparing other alternative solutions. problem based learning is deliberately designed in the form of problems, thus students enable to acquire new knowledge in order to promote students proficient in solving problems, capture their own learning strategies and skills to participate in teams. the learning process performs systemic approach to solve problems or challenges needed in everyday life. futhermore, problem based learning method subjectives as follows: inaugurating flexible knowledge, developing effective problem solving skills that referring to the abilities to apply metacognitive strategies and appropriate reasoning, teachers must construct plans how learning process could achieve learning goals or not, teachers become good collaborators which, means participating effectively in small groups, assisting students to be intrinsically motivated, which usually occurs when students work on assignments for their own satisfaction, interests, or challenges (as cited in bridges et al., 2012: 3). in addition, problem based learning application is expected that students could achievesignificant knowledge and able to boost geography learning outcomes. problem based learning and inquiry method occupy different features.where problem based learning method ischaracterized of real life issues provided in daily lives of students. this is similar towards handoyono (2016: 35) that inquiry method and problem based learning have characteristics upon problem given. in which, problem within inquiry method must be identified by students themselves, whereas within problem based learning, problems are determined by teacher. thereby, problem based learning method utilization is purposed for students embracing more skills than memorizing, thinking skills, working with groups or solving problems. this is unquestionably different towards inquiry method based application that delivers assignments to students individually. hence, students tend become more occupied in performing single task in a subject. in other words, inquiry method possibly derive students become frustrated once they are unable to complete a learning process. upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 157 based on the results of data analysis, it can be concluded that geography learning applied with problem based learning method is more effective in improving student learning outcomes. this result reveals through calculations results using the effect size, while problem based learning method obtains 4,185, categorized as higher category. it is larger than inquiry method which has a value of 3,462, that is categorized as high category. this also implies that students who performed problem based learning method have a posttest average value of 82.00, higher than the results of the posttest inquiry method which obtain an average score of 74.69. in general, according to mckeown et al. (2016: 2) explains that inquiry based learning is basically a question-based approach to teaching and learning that profitable for students in a number of ways including improvement and involvement in the learning process, understanding development, high-level thinking skills and research skills improvement. contrary towards what was described earlier, friesen & david (2013: 21) state that inquirybased teaching is a phenomenon that poses a challenging explanation of what they observe: devise and conduct experiments which data is collected to support or contradict their theories. within learning process using inquiry method, students are actively involved in collaborating to create a new knowledge by thinking critically and creatively and can make good discoveries through investigation, reflection, exploration and experimentation. in addition, during inquiry method students are required to be responsible for their learning. after learning process is completed, the consequences could be observed based on learning outcomes improvement. characteristics of inquiry based learning stages referring to minner et al. (2010: 476) are: (a) students are involved scientifically oriented questions, (b) students develop and evaluate every single learning outcome, (c) students allow to formulate and answer scientifically oriented questions, (d) students evaluate the problem explanation and provide alternative solutions, especially those related to scientific understanding. by engaging this indicator, makes it convenience to determine the learning process achievement extent received by students. while, the steps or syntax of inquiry-based learning process according to chu et al. (2017: 136-138) are composed of opening, immersion, exploration, identification, searching, creating and evaluating, sharing, evaluation. goodman (2018: 255) argues that problem based learning is a teaching method that encourages students active learning. basically, student work together to complete the problems. thereby, students are required to perform research and solving complex issue. problems presented of problem based learning method basically refer to contextual and upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 158 authentic, that students encounter every day, whether in school or community environment. thus,students are expected to provide opportunities and determine solutions upon real life problems. problems determination upon problem based learning method have to be clear and meaningful. then students may achieve optimal learning goals, optimal learning objectives occurs along with students learning outcomes enhancement. problem based learning allows students to obtain new knowledge easier after arranging solutions towards daily life related problems. the effectiveness of problem based learning method can be noticed from students ability in performing problem solving that has been provided. thus, it is expected to promote students understanding the subject matter indaily life related problem. problem based learning method requires students to be active within solving activities. problem solving concept of pbl model is performed during group discussion. problem based learning put strong emphasis on exchanging opinions and sharing experiences. students who are highly motivated will be more interested in exploring knowledge and demanding to identify something new to solve problems related to the real world. problem based learning method is expected to improve students' creative thinking abilities in geography learning, which is based on real life problems that occur in daily life. hence, learning process will likely be much more meaningful, since students are able to formulate answers and solve problems independently. the problem provided in problem based learning is a problem related to daily life. delivering problems inactual context aims to enable students to construct their own knowledge. this is associates to trianto’s argument (2010: 67) that problem-based learning presents authentic and impressive problem situations to students, so they could provide convenience manner to conduct investigations and inquiry. through the problems given, students attempt to accomplish the problem based on students prior knowledge. then, students will possible able to find relation between the previous contentto the new one which they are performing. problems as the majorfocus of learning can be completed through team work. thereby, students are able to perform diverse learning experiences such as collaboration and interaction in groups. in addition, learning experiences related to problem solving such as formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, conducting investigations, collecting data, interpreting data data, displaying conclusions, presenting, discussing, and writing reports wijayanti & wulandari (2016: 121). this situation shows that problem based learning could implement more experience and knowledge compared to other learning methods. furthermore, problem based learning method engagement allows students to upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 159 increase their understanding of what they learn in everyday life and can be applied in contextual term. the purposes of problem based learning method according to hmelo-silver (2004) are namely: constructing dynamic knowledge, developing effective problem solving skills that refer to the ability in applying metacognitive and reasoning strategies adequately, teacher ability to plan how the learning process can achieve learning goals, becoming good collaborators, which means participating effectively in small groups, supporting students to be intrinsically motivated, which occurs when students work on assignments for satisfaction, interest, or meet their own challenges (as cited in bridges et al., 2012: 3). in addition, implementation of problem based learning method within learning process is expected students achievement in term of knowledge acquisition and learning outcomes escalation. according to grady et al.(2012: 150) propose problem based learning characteristics as follows: (a) lead to learning issues, (b) interest and stimulate triggers, (c) stimulate critical reasoning, (d) promote self directed learning, (e) related to prior knowledge and (f) promote teamwork. in addition, regarding previously characteristics of problem based learning method, the learning process begins with the following steps: (a) identify a problem and explore relevant information sources, (b) independent learning (c) conduct an investigation of a problem and interpret it, (d) prioritize several alternative solutions to problems (high cognitive complexity), (e) integrate opinions or information data to determine problems solutions, (f) self-reflection (yuniawati, 2016: 17). based on problem based learning method stages could derive a significant influence in improving student learning outcomes compared to inquiry method. since, problem based learning method encourages students to recognize how to learn and cooperate in a group to determine a solution to the problems that prevails in the real world. simulation stage are conducted to activate students curiousity before starting to learn a subject. in addition, the existence of this simulation prepares students to think critically and analytically, also to acquire and perform learning resources appropriately. it can be implied that problem based learning method is a learning process which has starting point of learning based on real life problems. starts from this problem, students are stimulated to examine them according totheir knowledge and experience they had before hand. thus, students new knowledge and experience will be formed. discussion within small groups is the main point of problem based learning method implementation, as discussions would promote students exchange ideas or express opinions with each other. in addition, problem based learning method is a very effective guide in improving student learning outcomes, especially geography subject. upang septa putra and muhsinatun siasah masruri/ geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 146-163 160 as problem based learning (pbl) method poses many benefits compared to inquiry method, according to westwood (2008: 31) pbl offers several reasons as follows: (a) encourage self-direction in learning, (b) prepare students for critical, analytical thinking, and empower students to identify, (c) finding and using appropriate resources, (d) the problems studied are closely related to the real world. hence, it motivates students to learn, (e) promote students to be active in integrating information and skills from various scientific disciplines, knowledge and strategies tend to be restored and transferred to other learning situations, and improve the communication skills and social skills needed for teamwork and teamwork. in addition, problem based learning method poses a number of activities that must be completed for students, which expect students not only to record then memorize the subject matter, but also students are required to actively think, communicate, search and process data, and finally conclude. referring to the two learning methods, both in the form of inquiry method and problem based learning method, as well as improving student learning outcomes, both of these learning methods are able to improve student learning outcomes of geographic subject. where the calculation result of problem based learning enhances learning outcomes with average by 82.00, higher than the average value of learning outcomes applied with inquiry method which obtains a value of 74.69 4. conclusion there is a difference significant difference of learning outcomes between students who learn engaging inquiry methods and problem-based learning methods. this can be observed based on average improvement in student learning outcomes between students who were treated with learning-based method gain value of 82.00, higher than the average learning outcomes applied with inquiry method which obtains a value of 74.69. problem-based learning method is more effectively applied to geography subjects rather than inquiry method in term of improving student learning outcomes. this is indicated by calculation results of effect size, which students who were performing problem based learning method obtain value of 4.185, it is greater than the students who were applying inquiry method which obtain a value of 3.462. references agustini, d. m. 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(2016). peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran ppkn melalui penerapan problem based learning di smp. jurnal pendidikan ips. retrieved from https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/hsjpi/article/view/7947/8576. 147 implementing google earth to enhance student’s engagement and learning outcome in geography learning ebid rocky alfatikh*, elizabeth titiek winanti, sukma perdana prasetya, eko budiyanto department of geography education, postgraduate program, state university of surabaya, lidah wetan, surabaya, 60213, indonesia *corresponding author : ebidgeografi91@gmail.com received 12 july 2019/ revised 28 march 2020/ accepted 16 april 2020/ published 30 april 2020 abstract this study aims to examine the effects of google earth on students’ engagement in learning and their learning outcome. this study employed pre-experimental design with the one-shot case study design. from the exploration directed crosswise over various areas of evaluation of 12 students in the school, it is demonstrated that dynamic learning of students in was high since it was above 75% and learning outcomes reached an average of 80. this is good considering that the passing grades set in the school was 70. the application of experiential learning methods can produce satisfactory output when viewed from student participation. by looking at the characteristics of schools where students number was less than 20, the teacher is required to develop innovative learning methods. if implemented, this may yield in the improving circumstance of the currently marginalised geography. keywords: google earth; student`s activities; geography learning. 1. introduction the absence of time is a significant hindrance to actualising gis in educational programs due to the requirement for instructors to gain proficiency with the product and to comprehend the hidden information. additionally, teachers need to prepare materials for students’ exercises, so as to allow more time for the students to become familiar with the product and fuse the device in the learning experience. teachers' emphasis on gis instruments has often been challenging because of the measure of time required to learn and apply the devices. the time related to learning gis applications has been an extensive factor in gis and related advances having just restricted execution in classrooms. fullan & langworthy (2014) state the content review changed the focus of the class to one of deep learning. one of the solution to solve this problem is the use the simple artificial intelligence that may facilitate interactions between teachers and students. google earth is geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 147-159, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.11987 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. 148 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 very good to introduce the “real world” to students because it can bring students to the reality of earth surface. google composes the stage which enable the instructor ‘to bring a universe of data alive’ for students’. other study mentions that google earth is anything but difficult to utilise and shows, in a visual geospatial setting, a lot of data that applies to points that are tended to in geoscience courses and numerous other instructive settings. hong (2018) investigates approaches to upgrade basic citizenship through the instruction and learning of topography. aydin (2010) composes that geography instruction should occur in the dynamic investment of students during the time spent all encompassing and significant connections, while preparing subjects and multi-dimensional reasoning aptitudes. thankachan & franklin (2013) propose that the utilisation of google earth in the classrooms builds the consideration of the students, especially among the rudimentary students. during the investigation, through the homeroom perception, the scientists saw more consideration being paid to the exercise among primary school students than the secondary school students when google earth was being utilised. phadke (2010) argues that there are important risks and costs involved in investing in the use of google earth imagery for rhetorical communication. cuviello (2010) proposes that google earth has a spot in the classrooms, conveying a class solely with google earth is compelling at displaying the material covering the goals of the class. there is nothing to state that a blend of various strategies during one talk period is not appropriate. students need to learn. a portion of the strategies educators use in class will work for certain students and not with others. in the event that educators center around the significant foci and integrate techniques to show those things, a greater number of the students will be provided with the opportunities to learn. this strategy makes students to be actively engaged in the classroom and to actively participate in discussions. ademe (2010) proposes that dynamic learning techniques are procedures which make students dynamic members during the educating learning process. accordingly. drake (2012) states that dynamic learning offers some desire for expanding theoretical comprehension, its absence of suitable center leaves it experiencing blended discoveries. johnson et al. (2011) states that google earth can possibly bring the best of instructive innovation into instructors' study halls. it enables students to go past basic maps and worksheets to give them a special, intuitive, and connecting with taking a gander at our planet. given its assortment of additional items and layers, it is equipped for being utilised in a wide assortment of substance territories. far and away superior, google earth is an instrument that can move students over the whole globe like a flash, allowing them a chance 149 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 to explore regions of our planet that they will in all probability never travel to. its usability, free cost, and versatility make google earth an unquestionable requirement for any educator's homeroom. conceivably, no other subject can benefit more from utilising google earth than that of geoscience training. instead of different maps or charts of land information, it is presently consolidated into a virtual, intelligent, three-dimensional model. luckily, geoscience instructors at all levels comprehend that potential and have steadily attempted to put google earth into their homerooms. patterson (2007) argues that google earth engages students by giving them the way to finish complex undertakings and by giving them significant scope in the plan of ventures. students are encouraged to mindful of spatial patterns and suggestions while not unequivocally realising they are learning geography, this can be both a potential quality and shortcoming. despite the fact that google earth does not have a huge number of apparatuses and abilities as does a genuine gis, it empowers students to find out about spatial examples and think spatially. it likewise makes way for students to participate in gis as they pose progressively mind-boggling and definite inquiries after they arrive at the utmost of google earth's utility. innovation has incessantly become part of our education: from kindergartens to graduate schools, new learning devices are progressively utilised either for in-class exercises or for learning appraisal (cauley et al., 2009). so as to plan students for the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) fields, educators in their comparing instructive controls have become pioneers in embracing instructional advancements and empowering scientific thoughts (marshall, 2009). students’ achievements on each indicator is measured as lessons on the topic of remote sensing and gis take place. students will independently operate the google earth software and interpret land appearances on the surface of the earth, then students also do labeling and temporally analyse the changes in land that occur based on aerial photographs on google earth. although it is not as complex as gis software, it is expected that this simple software can represent the existence of remote sensing technology and gis because so far the difficulty in teaching this topic is the small number of teachers using technology to aid their teaching. gökçea (2015) states that the impact of various strategies and methods over students’ aptitudes ought to be resolved. schools' framework ought to be refreshed and redesigned, and separate examinations researching the impact of schools' foundation over students’ abilities ought to be structured. in-administration preparing projects ought to be led so as to assist 150 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 educators with finishing their insufficiencies in planning and utilising maps, for example, gis, google map, and google earth. previous studies do not measure in depth the activities of students in the class relating to their interactions with teachers and peers to overcome the problem of learning geography by using google earth. this research not only examines in theory but also the application of google earth software in increasing student activity, focus of research is to observe the correlation between use of google earth and student’s activities. this study measures the indicators of student’s activities, such as (1) participation in carrying out their learning tasks; (2) involvment in problem solving; (3) questions for other students or teachers if they do not understand the problems they face; (4) involvement in group discussions according to the teacher's instructions;(5) assessment of his ability and results the results obtained;(6) training in solving problems;(7) ability to complete tasks. this study aims to examine the effects of google earth on students’ engagement in learning and their learning outcome. 2. methods this study employed pre-experimental design with the one-shot case study design. data were collected by using observation sheets. analysts at that point gauge data from a writing survey in light of their own worries and circumstance. field observations were used to measure students activity during interpreting images with criteria as follows: (1) participating in carrying out their learning tasks; (2) involving in problem solving; (3) asking other students or teachers if they cannot solve aproblem ; (4) trying to find various information needed for problem solving; (5) carrying out group discussions in accordance with the teacher's instructions; (6) assessing his abilities and the results obtained; (7) training themselves in solving problems or similar problems; (8) using or applying what is obtained in completing the task or problem it faces. there were external variables that influenced the shape of the dependent variable. therefore, the experimental result which was the dependent variable was not solely affected by the independent variable. this was because there was no control variable and the sample was not randomly selected. table 1. treatment schemes in the experimental and observation classes group dependent variable observation (r) experiment x o 151 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 x = treatment using google earth o = observation during the activity the researcher wanted to find out the effects of the treatment given to students in the form of aerial photo interpretation activities from google earth and temporally analyze their chosen location. this study used the following scheme: (a) participating in carrying out their learning tasks, (b) involving in problem solving, (c) asking other students or teachers if they do not understand the problems they face, (d) trying to find various information needed for problem solving, (e) carrying out group discussions according to the teacher's instructions, (f) assessing his ability and results the results obtained, (g) training in solving problems; (h) completing tasks. table 2. description of each aspect scoring remark 1 need improvement 2 fair 3 good 4 very good calculation of the average percentage of indicators of student participation above are as follows:iks= ∑ x 100% (1) i ks : student activity index∑s ∶ the total number of students average score f : frequency of students 3. results and discussion the assessment of the activities of students in the interpretation of aerial photographs were based on the accuracy of the object recognition made by students, because this is the most vital part in image interpretation. aerial photography as the oldest image in remote sensing has the most complete element of interpretation compared to the interpretation of other images. the aerial photo in question is an aerial photo from google earth. google earth is an interactive mapping application released by google. google earth displays a map of the globe, topography, terrain that can be overlaid by road, location building or other geographic information. after going through instrument validation, the following are the results obtained in this study. 152 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 table 3. results of observation of student activity student’s name aspect of activities observed (scores) total % mean a b c d e f g h student a 4 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 24 67 77 student b 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 30 83 student c 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 27 75 student d 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 28 78 student e 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 28 78 student f 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 28 78 student g 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 28 78 figure 1. aspect of activities observed the present investigation was intended to comprehend the effect on students’ learning in a social examinations study hall with google earth intervened guidance. google earth enables students to finish complex assignments by providing them the and extensive scope in the structure of ventures. students were made mindful of spatial patterns and suggestions while not expressly realizing they were learning topography, this can be both a potential quality and shortcoming. students freely worked on the google earth programming and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 a b c d e f g percentage (%) 153 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 translated land appearances on the outside of the earth, at that point students likewise did marking and transiently dissect the adjustments in a land that happen dependent on airborne photos on google earth. in spite of the fact that google earth does not have a huge number of devices and capacities as does a genuine gis, it empowers students to find out about spatial examples and think spatially. the utilization of google earth in the study hall will build consideration of the students. table 4. student’s scores (learning outcome) students scores mean student a 75 80 student b 90 student c 80 student d 80 student e 85 student f 80 student g 70 figure 2. student’s learning outcome 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 a b c d e f g scores 154 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 based on table 3 above, it can be seen that the learning outcomes of students reached an average of 80. this was very good considering the passing grades in the school was below it, namely 70. based on the results of the aboveit is known that the application of experiential learning methods can produce satisfactory output when viewed from student participation. the results of this study are reinforced by prawindia (2016) proposition that based on the results of observation and identification of geographic teaching materials used by students, there are still some shortcomings. analysis of geographic content includes the use of geographic concepts and formal geographic objects in the form of linkages of objects in terms of spatial, territorial, and environmental aspects. with expanding student support, different elements are relied upon to increment in particular self-efficacy. self efficacy is an individual's beliefin their capacity to prevail with regard to accomplishing objectives. palmer (2013) states that students reacted decidedly to learning landforms and their related developmental procedures utilizing google earth and advantageous representations. the results of this study are reinforced by collins (2018) compared customary paper maps and computerized maps to decide if various media significantly effective to improve students' mindfulness and specific sorts of spatial reasoning aptitudes. in light of the examination of inside and out meetings with center school students and educators in the wake of executing a progression of geospatial learning exercises, the creators reason that expanded introduction to maps and spatial reasoning exercises can improve students' spatial reasoning abilities paying little mind to media. yuda (2011) states that spatial learning has a different way of testing students' spatial thinking skills, namely by means of games, such as puzzles, video games, and maps. this was done because his research involved elementary education studentsas respondents, so that such tests were considered to be more familiar and not to change the situation. the results of the study for three meetings showed an increase in the activity of teachers and students at each meeting with an average of 92.15%, categorized as very good. experience-based learning is useful because the application of experiential learning learning models with correct steps is proven to increase the value of the process and student learning outcomes. furthermore, the researchers also provide advice to schools to complement learning media that support the learning process so that learning can take place actively, innovatively, creatively and pleasantly. jo & hong (2018) investigate that urge proceeded with look into endeavors to amass information about educational program, guidance, and evaluation, just as 155 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 instructors' expert advancement that can assist students with turning out to be 21st century residents furnished with geospatial proficiency. fieldwork also needs to be developed in experiential learning, because field practice is very good for stimulating students' brains to be able to remember the activities and knowledge carried out. components in product development need to be considered, because they are tailored to the learning needs of students. a more specific explanation for each indicator is as follows: table 4 shows that of all of 7 students showed very good participation in carrying out their learning tasks. 3 students showed very good indicators in the contribution of completing their assignments. while the other 4 students were known to get a score of 3 which was a good indicator. abdullah et al. (2012) argue that the students concurred on the significance of friends in the learning procedure. notwithstanding, students like to be in a gathering like them in terms of decisiveness in the study hall. in general, the two gatherings of inactive and dynamic students recognized the significance of students to shout out in the class. from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 5 students got very good indicators and only 2 students got good indicators. this shows that students are able to contribute to problem solving in class discussions. samson’s (2015) techniques that draw in and persuade students advances further learning and encourages the improvement of powerful critical thinking and basic reasoning aptitudes. from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 3 students got very good indicators and 4 students got good indicators. this shows that students were able to develop the skill to ask questions during the discussion process. from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 5 students got very good indicators and only 2 students got good indicators. this shows that students are able to solve the problems contained in the discussion theme. from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 4 students got very good indicators and 3 students got good indicators. this shows that students are able to carry out group discussions according to the teacher's instructions. instructors need to discover approaches to fuse dynamic procedures such that sparkles intrigue and enthusiasm for students. consolidating a constructivist structure that supports such a methodology might be an answer, alongside the preliminary work in preparing students to take part in such an educational move, as in certain orders this training strategy might be considered outside of the standard of what is normal for certain students in the classrooms setting. 156 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 3 students got very good indicators, 3 students got good indicators and 1 student got fair indicator. this shows that students are able to assesstheir ability and their learning result. explicit criteria to elevate quality criticism should be grown with the goal that coordinated effort can be increasingly effective and advantageous to every student and accordingly elevate students' chances to assume liability for their learning (ndoye, 2017). oral and moment input should be underscored and advanced dependent on the consequences of this examination. advantages from self and friend appraisal can be expanded additionally if exercises are planned in a manner that enables students to apply their evaluative aptitudes. these evaluative abilities will assist students with surveying their work and that of others regarding expected execution criteria so as to become dynamic students and better arranged to take part in deep rooted learning. while this examination shows the advantages of companion and self-appraisal, apparently not all students saw their interconnection and how they should expand on one another. earlier research (reinholz, 2016) has demonstrated the need not exclusively to build up the connection among friends and self-appraisal, however, to make evident and clarify the systems through which this linkage occurs. from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 2 students got very good indicators, 4 students got good indicators and 1 student got fair indicator. this shows that students are able to train in solving problems or similar problems. learning the pace of selfguideline in students with preparing in critical thinking abilities is altogether more than students without these training (ahghar, 2012). from table 4 it is known that from a total of 7 students, 2 students got very good indicators and 2 students got good indicator. this shows that students were able to be trained in solving problems or similar problem. students' view of authority and execution objectives demonstrated various examples of connection with learning techniques, the inclination for testing assignments, the frame of mind toward the class, and convictions about the reasons for progress and disappointment. marra et al. (2015) explore that students praise the exploration of their fieldwork area using google earth and qgis, and both the students that did and did not use gis during the fieldwork indicate the preparatory gis-assignment as the most valuable for their fieldwork. this is certainly very good if it is correlated with the situation of marginalized geography (yunus, 2010). with the increasing activity of students, it is expected that this can eliminate the impression that geography is a science that is not too favored by students. in spite of the fact that google earth enables students to investigate the earth in increasingly unique and 157 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 intuitive manners, there are a few constraints in instructive settings, for example, high data transfer capacity request, and requirement for preparing to comprehend the google earth interface. 4. conclusion . the application of learning methods which utilsied google earth technology has proven to have an impact on increasing student activity. therefore, students were able to develop their hard and soft skills. this can be good if applied in all schools. because geography subject of the remote sensing and gis chapter can be less effective if conducted by the lecturing method. the teacher must be able to understand the characteristics of students and the characteristics of the chapter to be taught because each chapter in geography is unique. when students are engaged in the learning, they will enjoy to study geography, so that this can eliminate the impression that geography is a difficult lesson which involes a lot of memorizing activities. it is expected that if more schools implement this method, tgeography marginalization will fade away and will eventually disappear. this is our shared responsibility as stakeholders and actors in the field of geography. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references abdullah, m. y., bakar, n. r. a., & mahbob, m. h. (2012). student's participation in classroom: what motivates them to speak up?. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 51, 516-522. ademe, b. (2010). general learning-teaching methods and techniques. addis ababa: addis ababa university press. aydin, f., & kaya, h. (2010). geography teachers’ views towards vocational geographic information systems (gis) seminar. middle-east journal of scientific research, 6(6), 631-636. cauley, f. g., aiken, k. d., & whitney, l. k. (2009). technologies across our curriculum: a study of technology integration in the classroom. journal of education for business, 85(2), 114-118. 158 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 collins, l. (2018). student and teacher response to use of different media in spatial thinking skill development. international journal of geospatial and environmental research, 5(3), 3. cuviello. (2010). evaluating google earth in the classroom. thesis. united states military academy: faculty professional development program. drake, j. r. (2012). a critical analysis of active learning and an alternative pedagogical framework for introductory information systems courses. journal of information technology education, 11, 39-52. fullan, m., & langworthy, m. (2014). a rich seam: how new pedagogies find deep learning. london: pearson gökçe, n. (2015). social studies in improving students’ map skills: teachers’ opinions. educational sciences: theory & practice, 15(5) hong, j. e. (2018). critical citizenship education through geography. international journal of geospatial and environmental research, 5(3), 7. jo, i., & hong, j. e. (2018). geography education, spatial thinking, and geospatial technologies: introduction to the special issue. international journal of geospatial and environmental research, 5(3), 1. johnson, n. d., lang, n. p., & zophy, k. t. (2011). overcoming assessment problems in google earth-based assignments. journal of geoscience education, 59(3), 99-105. marra, w. a., van de grint, l., alberti, k., & karssenberg, d. (2017). using gis in an earth sciences field course for quantitative exploration, data management and digital mapping. journal of geography in higher education, 41(2), 213-229. marshall, s. p. (2009). re-imagining specialized stem academies: igniting and nurturing decidedly different minds, by design. roeper review, 32(1), 48-60 palmer, r. e. (2013). learning geomorphology using aerial photography in a web-facilitated class. review of international geographical education online, 3(2), 118-137. patterson, t. c. (2007). google earth as a (not just) geography education tool. journal of geography, 106(4), 145-152.doi:10.1080/00221340701678032 phadke, r. (2010). defending place in the google earth age. ethics, place & environment, 13(3), 267-281.doi:10.1080/1366879x.2010.516495 prawindia, l., fatchan, a., & astina, i. k. (2016). pengembangan bahan ajar geografi struktur buku cambridge fundamentals of geography untuk kelas xi sma/ma materi sebaran barang tambang. jurnal pendidikan geografi: kajian, teori, dan praktek dalam bidang pendidikan dan ilmu geografi, 21(1), 53-62. samson, p. l. (2015). fostering student engagement: creative problem-solving in small group facilitations. collected essays on learning and teaching, 8, 153-164. 159 ebid rocky alfatikh et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 147-159 thankachan, b., & franklin, t. (2013). impact of google earth on student learning. international journal of humanities and social science, 3(21), 11-16 yuda, m. (2011). effectiveness of digital educational materials for developing spatial thinking of elementary school students. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 21, 116-119. yunus, h.s., (2010). metodologi penelitian wilayah kontemporer, yogyakarta : pustaka pelajar 230  web system for online and onsite usage of geoinformation by surveying sector in kosovo. case study: ferizaj municipality bashkim idrizi, mirdon kurteshi department of geodesy, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina” str. "george bush", no.31, 10 000 prishtinë, kosovo bashkim.idrizi@uni-pr.edu, mirdoni@hotmail.com received 18 august 2019/ revised 29 october 2019/ accepted 1 november 2019/ published 1 december 2019/ available online 25 november 2019 abstract the purpose of research to determine and contribute in more efficient services to geoinformation stakeholders, as well as to give positive impact on increasing income in geo business sector, voluntary based web system for online usage of geoinformation in kosovo has been developed. the method used was puting in to one place many sourcec via wms and wfs services, by creating thematic sdi, in order to have online system with dynamic data comming from official databases with update from last day on 5 pm. system is open for usage by all interested parts, however official registration is required. it contains geoinformation from many databases such as cadastral, orthophoto, municipal, and basemaps from open layers. the results show that the system is extendable and it is permanently including new datasets based on the user requirements. all available data is linked via web services, which gives an opportunity to users to use the updated version of datasets as they are published by responsible institution via www (world wide web). keywords: web map, geoportal, geoinformation, web services, kosovo 1. introduction in this era web has changed every aspect of our life from our daily activities to our profession’s activities like our jobs and so on. among these changes, gis has been affected by this technology and a new technology, which is called web gis, appeared. today, a vast majority of internet users uses this technology but most of them don’t notice it. web gis originates from a combination of web technology and the geographical information system, which is a recognized technology that is mainly composed of data handling tools for storage, recovery, management and analysis of spatial data web gis is a kind of distributed information system. web services are self-contained, self-describing, modular applications that can be published, located, and dynamically invoked across the web (iso 2001). web services provide access to sets of operations accessible through one or more standardized interfaces geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 230-246, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.13469 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 (alameh, 2010). while general web services provide interoperability between systems in different domains, geospatial web services introduce geographic reasoning to the services and go a step further by facilitating cross-institutional interchange of geographic data and services over the internet, and by improving the sharing of geographic resources among a variety of data sources (davis and alves, 2007). web services give us a means of interoperability between different software applications running on a variety of platforms. web services support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. every web service has an interface described in a machine-readable format (savar, pierce and fox, 2005). geospatial web services differ from the regular web services by the presence of geographic data on the input (e.g., a bounding box), or on the output (e. g., a basemap of a city), or even on the type of processing (e. g., verification of whether a street crosses another), or in a combination of them (davis and alves, 2007). gradual on-going transformation is primarily fueled by the growing role of gis in today’s organizations, the increasing availability of spatial data and its inherent conduciveness to reuse, the relative maturity of web and distributed computing technologies, and the key role of gis in a promising location-based services market (alameh, 2010). in order to create architecture for the gis services, it is necessary to create web service correspondences of each gis services. gis services can be grouped into three categories: data services, processing services, and registry or catalog services (sayar, 2008). online mapping services from different providers cannot, in most cases, interoperate or communicate with one another. thus, it is seldom possible for a user to get a hazardous waste map from one web site and a street map from another site and overlay them in the same composite map (sahin and gumusay, 2008). to fully realize the capability and benefits of geographic information and gis technology, spatial data needs to be shared and systems need to be interoperable (esri, 2003). the future of gis technology depends on the interoperability with web services. web services are accessible with browsers, telephones, pda’s and most of the upcoming information devices (ummadi, 2008). performed research presented in this paper is related directly to usage of web-based technology in gi science, with practical example in ferizaj municipality in the republic of kosova. lack of developed online systems in kosova for users in geo community was the main driver for performing this research, as well establishing an sdi, and developing platform by including dynamically many official geo databases coming from different sources, as well open layers. challenge of this research project was to include in one place bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 232 geodata from different sdi levels, i.e. local (municipal), national (geoportal), and global (open layers) sdis’, to provide to geo community a system for online field use with updated data, to increase the awareness for using online systems in practice by all geo stakeholders, to speedup field work in geo sector, as well rational use of web services enabled by web gis technology and contents in geoportal of the republic of kosova. previous studies related to this research are web-based geoinformation could be a reference in making decisions related to wetland area planning (siles et al, 2019). general data integration could be done using geospatial analysis (walter and sörgel, 2018). environmental change analysis could be assessed using temporal analysis (gitis et al, 2016). human resource development is the most important thing for the success of the quality of geospatial analysis (mwange et al, 2018). the concept of gi is very useful for the development of geospatial analysis related to spatial patterns (henzen, 2018). the above research’ results have not reviewed the web system related to online and onsite usage integration, so the current research will be focus on the study of online and onsite usage implementation on geoinformation systems. the purpose of research to determine and contribute in more efficient services to geoinformation stakeholders, as well as to give positive impact on increasing income in geo business sector, voluntary based web system for online usage of geoinformation in kosovo has been developed. 2. methods the method of this study based on establishing the sdi, based on another existing sdi’s in local, national and global level, by puting in to one place many sourcec via wms and wfs services. main objective is to have online system with dynamic data comming from official databases with update from last day on 5pm. this anable to have system without developed own database. the system was developed by using many software for desktop usage, server usage, database, and programing, as html, php, javascript, sql and css, while the sql database for cadastral parcels as encrypted data is used for the system, and shapefiles are converted to kmz and json files in order to be used in system. system interface is developed to be easy for use by all users, without need for deeper knowledge on web gis and/or sdi, in national albanian language. based on main field activities of geo experts, especially in cadaster, topographic surveying, and urban/spatial planning, aimed to be friendly for users, system was bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 methodologically divided in six modules, linked dynamically with external databases, that enable users to find provided products, transform coordinates between different crss’, find products based on location/coordinates, divide parcels in ideal parts, find roads by attributes and obtain list of spatial coordinates in different coordinate systems. 3. results and discussion 3.1 online and onsite usage of geoinformation there is a global set of principles on how to publish data developed by governments, civil society, and data experts. most government data are inaccessible to the regular citizen, unless someone makes a request. there are justifiable reasons to limit access to certain types of data, for security or data protection purposes, but there is a growing movement across the globe to make data available to the public to make informed decisions and participate in civil discourse. right management with environment has direct impact on society developing, which also means direct impact on human life. lbs represents a progressive development from internet gis and mobile computing and relies on new information and communication technologies (nicts) such the latest generation mobile phones using high-level communication protocols (e.g. wap) and personal digital assistants (pda) with the ability to be ‘location aware’ either through the use of embedded gps or network-based methods. the convergence of the various technologies is illustrated in figure 2 (brimicombe, 2002), which shows the technological ability for establishing web system for online and onsite usage of geoinformation. figure 1. gis cloud architecture figure 2. convergence of technologies to create location based services (lbs) bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 234 (brimicombe, 2002) 3.2 available geoinformation datasets in kosovo useful for surveying sector the kosova cadastral agency (kca) is main governmental institution responsible for standardization of spatial data, as well integrating all spatial data in national level within the national geoportal. under direct responsibility of kca, national geoportal is established and operational, with a huge number of available spatial datasets such as orthophoto, aerial photography’s, topographic maps, cadastral units, administrative units, utilities, cadastral maps, referent networks, address system, road network, railways, hydrology, population, agricultural statistics, protested sites, valuation zones, land cover, geology, climatology, measurements and sizes, and sketches. all above mentioned spatial datasets, are open for usage by stakeholders via wms (http://geoportal.rks-gov.net/wms), which give opportunity for utilization of all data published in geoportal directly in software/application. 3.3 developing web system for online and onsite usage of geoinformation the web system for online and onsite usage of geoinofmration by surveying sector in the republic of kosova, has been developed based on above mentioned criteria/standards for web gis and sdi, as well as available datasets via web servers. objectives of new platform are joint usage of many databases, fast action, decrease cost and time consuming, and simple user interface. 3.4 software the system development was performed by using/combining many software for desktop usage, server usage, database, and programing. as basic programing platforms were used html, php (fig.3), javascript, sql (fig.5) and css (fig.4). bellow some code extracts are given for html, php [6], css, and javascript [9]. bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 figure 3. example of php code figure 4. example of css code sql database [11] for cadastral parcels as encrypted data is used for the system, while shapefiles are converted to kmz and json files. figure 5. example of sql database figure 6. example of code in kmz file bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 figure 3. example of php code figure 4. example of css code sql database [11] for cadastral parcels as encrypted data is used for the system, while shapefiles are converted to kmz and json files. figure 5. example of sql database figure 6. example of code in kmz file bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 figure 3. example of php code figure 4. example of css code sql database [11] for cadastral parcels as encrypted data is used for the system, while shapefiles are converted to kmz and json files. figure 5. example of sql database figure 6. example of code in kmz file bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 236 figure 7. example of code in json file 3.5 inputs as input data needed for field work of surveyors in performing cadastral measurements, many data sources have been linked within our system, in order to be used together within same sdi. since cadastral sector require spatial data related to boundaries of land parcels, constructions, infrastructure objects etc., input datasets via web services are as bellow: parcel numbers via kca geoportal in json format (figure 8), parcel number, area, polygon coordinates and coordinate system via wfs of kca geoportal in xml format parcel number, code of cadastral zone, centroid coordinates, and coordinate system via wfs of kca geoportal in xml format, cadastral parcels, orthophoto maps, geodetic network points and parcel numbers as image via wms of kca geoportal in jpeg, tiff and/or geotiff formats, geodetic points via wfs of kca geoportal in json format api to google satellite images as open layer via googleapis , attribute data of urban developing plan (for destination of areas, roads in all levels, cadastral zones, forests, agricultural land, and hydrography) via wms link to the municipal database, attribute data of urban regulatory plan (for buildings line and regulation line) via wms link to the municipal database (figure 10), and other data via wfs of geoserver in formats gml2 and json. figure 8. example of parcel numbers in json format bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 236 figure 7. example of code in json file 3.5 inputs as input data needed for field work of surveyors in performing cadastral measurements, many data sources have been linked within our system, in order to be used together within same sdi. since cadastral sector require spatial data related to boundaries of land parcels, constructions, infrastructure objects etc., input datasets via web services are as bellow: parcel numbers via kca geoportal in json format (figure 8), parcel number, area, polygon coordinates and coordinate system via wfs of kca geoportal in xml format parcel number, code of cadastral zone, centroid coordinates, and coordinate system via wfs of kca geoportal in xml format, cadastral parcels, orthophoto maps, geodetic network points and parcel numbers as image via wms of kca geoportal in jpeg, tiff and/or geotiff formats, geodetic points via wfs of kca geoportal in json format api to google satellite images as open layer via googleapis , attribute data of urban developing plan (for destination of areas, roads in all levels, cadastral zones, forests, agricultural land, and hydrography) via wms link to the municipal database, attribute data of urban regulatory plan (for buildings line and regulation line) via wms link to the municipal database (figure 10), and other data via wfs of geoserver in formats gml2 and json. figure 8. example of parcel numbers in json format bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 236 figure 7. example of code in json file 3.5 inputs as input data needed for field work of surveyors in performing cadastral measurements, many data sources have been linked within our system, in order to be used together within same sdi. since cadastral sector require spatial data related to boundaries of land parcels, constructions, infrastructure objects etc., input datasets via web services are as bellow: parcel numbers via kca geoportal in json format (figure 8), parcel number, area, polygon coordinates and coordinate system via wfs of kca geoportal in xml format parcel number, code of cadastral zone, centroid coordinates, and coordinate system via wfs of kca geoportal in xml format, cadastral parcels, orthophoto maps, geodetic network points and parcel numbers as image via wms of kca geoportal in jpeg, tiff and/or geotiff formats, geodetic points via wfs of kca geoportal in json format api to google satellite images as open layer via googleapis , attribute data of urban developing plan (for destination of areas, roads in all levels, cadastral zones, forests, agricultural land, and hydrography) via wms link to the municipal database, attribute data of urban regulatory plan (for buildings line and regulation line) via wms link to the municipal database (figure 10), and other data via wfs of geoserver in formats gml2 and json. figure 8. example of parcel numbers in json format bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 figure 9. example of geodetic points in json file bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 238 figure 10. example of urban regulatory plan 3.6 functionalities and usage developed system is available via direct link in web [14], accessible in all internet browsers (figure 15), in order to be friendly and easy used by all potential users. figure 11. view of developed system via https://cadastral.ga/index.php interface is in national albanian language, while its usage is limited just for commercial purposes based on registered official users. it contains 6 (six) modules: (1) find products, (2) transform coordinates, (3) find product based on coordinates , (4) ideal part of parcel, (5) find road, (6) autocad (list) bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 first module of find products give opportunity to find parcel, select parcel (figure 15), report on cadastral unit (figure 16), overlapped view of vector data with google image as basemap, displaying vector data on urban developing plan and urban regulatory (figure 17). figure 12. find and select parcel figure 13. view on cadastral and urbanistic data with google satellite images bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 240 figure 14. report on cadastral unit second module allow coordinate transformation between crss kosovaref01, utm 34n and wgs84, as vector/raster layers and as numerical values. third module provides function on search cadastral parcels based on the location defined with coordinates. it gives data for cadastral parcel based on location of point with defined coordinates, or list with information on cadastral zone, parcel number, area of polygon, and coordinates of boundary line, based on touch between polygon and point defined with coordinates (figure 15). bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 in fourth module calculation of ideal part of parcel between two or more co-owners is enabled. within this module two options are available: calculation of ideal part based on area and the opposite, and displaying calculated values. fifth module enable finding roads based on spatial location defined with coordinates and/or road name, as well displaying selected road with all attributes over the orthophoto image (figure 19). sixth module allows getting list with cartesian coordinates for all boundary points of cadastral parcels (figure 17). figure 15 figure 16 figure 17. list of cartesian points main output from research project is web based online system with six modules (figure 15),that enable users to find provided products, transform coordinates between bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 242 different crss’, find products based on location/coordinates, divide parcels in ideal parts, find roads by attributes and obtain list of spatial coordinates in different coordinate systems. established platform includes dynamically many official geo databases coming from national cadastral database, national geoportal, different self-government sources, as well open layers. platform doesn’t have own database, due to usage of other geodata sources via web services, as well the methodology for establishing of sdi. open geospatial consortium standards have been implemented in established platform. ferizaj municipality in the republic of kosova was case study area of performed research. in order to match main field activities of geo experts, especially in fields of cadaster, topographic surveying, and urban/spatial planning, platform is composed of six modules, with very simple interface in national albanian language. established platform is open and extendable. based on user requirements, it is under permanent upgrading with new functionalities and links to new databases. this system currently is in use by private surveying sector in the republic of kosova, started as pilot project in the area of municipality of ferizaj. almost all cadastral offices which belongs to the cadastral unit of ferizaj, are the subscriber of this system, and are using as basic platform for performing their activities in everyday work. usage of this platform is intending by developer to be used by all private surveying companies in kosovo. until now, this platform is well known and recognized in kosovo by private surveying sector which are dealing with cadastral surveying, and the number of subscribers is increasing permanently about 17% per year. main advantage of this platform is dynamic based and extendable system, by giving opportunity to have in hand latest version of cadastral data coming by the national responsible institution kca, and platform is open for extend with new functionalities based on users’ feedbacks. since kca updates its cadastral database everyday between 4 and 5pm with changes happened within working day until 4pm, data available in this platform after 5pm is 100% same with the official cadastral database in kca, while within working day from 8am to 4pm it has small differences only in a part of parcels that were subject of work in local cadastral offices. joint usage of many databases, fast action, decrease cost and time consuming, and simple user interface as predefined objectives of new platform, were reached by developer and correctly recognized by users. spatial data infrastructure (sdi) encompasses policies, institutional framework, organizational guides, data, technologies, standards, delivery mechanisms, as well financial bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 and human resources, to acquire, process, store, distribute, improve utilization, in order to increase access, availability, and sharing georeferenced spatial data, and to realize and foster services for citizens (idrizi, 2009). integrating of spatial data in to one unique standardized spatial data infrastructure, generate the simple and faster access to needed spatial data, more transparency, high level of cooperation between responsible state institutions, increasing the conscience for importance by spatial data, and much utilization of spatial data by all stake holders, clients and customers (idrizi, 2018). based on sdi technology, in next figure 1 the gis cloud architecture which enables interlink between all gi actors. utilization of web services within sdi in order to support usage of geospatial information by geoclients, enables preconditions for establishing of e-business system within geo market. commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and can be seen as one of the essential activities of any business. electronic commerce focuses on the use of ict to enable the external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses or e-business refers to business with help of internet i.e. doing business with the help of internet network (ferdousi and al-faisal 2018). a collaborative relationship between e-business and web gis can manage huge data with the spatial reference which can be easily accessible to a different level of consumer, employee as well as government (chaudhuri, 2015). geofencing is a technology when a mobile device enters or exits a predefined virtual geographic area and it generates a notification. it is one of the most popular location based services (lbs). lbs is commonly used in web gis because this technology is for mobile clients and that’s why it is more frequently used (ferdousi and al-faisal 2018). beside data available in national geoportal, all institutions in kosova own their spatial datasets according to their official responsibilities (https://www.rks-gov.net). local selfgovernment develops three type of urbanistic plans, dedicated for spatial and urban planning of the municipal area, i.e. municipal developing plans, urban developing plans, and urban regulatory plans (idrizi et al, 2018), which are of big importance for everyday field work for surveyors in kosova. the findings of this study are related to some of the results of previous studies. geospatial analysis could be used to overcome various kinds of problems in cities (bryukhanova et al, 2018). algorithm based applications are used in environmental related geospatial analysis (nikolov et al, 2015). automatic geodata services can meet the needs of a growing number of environmental data (shi, 2015). geo information and web technology can bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 244 accommodate mathematical calculations for surveying purposes (vorobev and shakirova, 2016). social aspects can be analyzed properly by using geoinformation (glasze and perkins, 2015) the findings of this study have advantages compared to the results of the above studies. these advantages are this platform has positive impact on increasing geo market and extending geo business in kosovo, which hastened practical act by surveying companies in performing cadastral and urbanistic works. thus, it is very important platform for land administration and management system, real estate management, as well as sustainable economic development in geo sector and beyond. nowadays it is in use by private geodetic sector, mainly for cadastral work, under managing of its developer, i.e. by second author of this paper. official registering for usage is obligatory for all interested users, and chargeable. 4 conclusion in the absence of official application for online usage of spatial data, a voluntary platform for online and onsite usage of geoinformation coming from different databases. platform is designed to be used through internet browsers, in order to be simple for usage, as well it is open for further extension with new modules and functionalities based on the user requirements. it is limited for usage only by subscribers, with time limited account, while there is not limit/levels for usage of modules by subscribers. platform is well recognized in cadastral sector, mainly in area of ferizaj municipality, since the pilot project was developed for this area. it is usable for entire area of kosovo, because data used in system comes via national and local web servers (wms, wfs), as well open layers, without developing own databases. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the article. references alameh. n, (2010). service chaining of interoperable geographic information web services. global science and technology. greenbelt, usa. brimicombe, a.j. 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(2018). multi-scale map for three levels of spatial planning data sets for the municipality of vitia in kosova. 7th icc&gis conference. sozopol. bulgaria. mwange, c., mulaku, g. c., & siriba, d. n. (2018). reviewing the status of national spatial data infrastructures in africa. survey review, 50(360), 191-200. doi:10.1080/00396265.2016.1259720 bashkim idrizi and mirdon kurteshi / geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 230-246 246 nikolov, b. p., zharkikh, j. i., soloviev, a. a., krasnoperov, r. i., & agayan, s. m. (2015). integration of data mining methods for earth science data analysis in gis environment. russian journal of earth sciences, 15(4) doi:10.2205/2015es000559 sahin, k. and gumusay, m.u. (2008). service oriented architecture based web services for geographic information systems. the international archives of the remote sensing, photogrammetry and spatial information sciences. vol xxxvii. beijing. china. sayar, a. (2008). gis service oriented architecture. community grids laboratory. in, usa. shi, s. (2015). design and development of an online geoinformation service delivery of geospatial models in the united kingdom. environmental earth sciences, 74(10), 70697080. doi:10.1007/s12665-015-4243-8 siles, g., charland, a., voirin, y., & bénié, g. b. (2019). integration of landscape and structure indicators into a web-based geoinformation system for assessing wetlands status. ecological informatics, 52, 166-176. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2019.05.011 ummadi, p. (2008). standards and interoperability in gis, michigan state university. mi, usa. vorobev, a. v., & shakirova, g. r. (2016). web-based geoinformation system for exploring geomagnetic field, its variations and anomalies doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29589-3_2 walter, v., & sörgel, u. (2018). implementation, results, and problems of paid crowd-based geospatial data collection. pfg journal of photogrammetry, remote sensing and geoinformation science, 86(3-4), 187-197. doi:10.1007/s41064-018-0058-z foreword 65 multi-hazard zonation for effective management of disasters in tamil nadu a. balasundareshwaran1, k. kumaraswamy 2 and k. balasubramani 1* 1 department of geography, central university of tamil nadu, thiruvarur, tamil nadu 610005, india 2 department of geography, bharathidasan university, tiruchirappalli, tamil nadu 620024, india *corresponding author: geobalas@cutn.ac.id received 6 february 2020/ revised 16 february 2020/ accepted 1 march 2020/ published 10 april 2020 abstract natural hazards are a long existing threat to human and their surroundings which may occur throughout the world. tamil nadu is one of the indian states with a number of natural hazard incidences. the occurrence of natural hazards, such as cyclone, storm surge, flood, drought, landslide, forest fire etc., has increased manifold in the recent decades.the multi-hazard zonation is one of the preliminary studies in disaster management scenario, which is used to understand the product of all prominent natural hazards. at the state level, it is imperative for the government to know the regions affected by multiple hazards to help them prepare the management plans appropriately to protect the local communities and infrastructures. however, such systematic hazard assessment and integration in an administrative unit is largely missing in tamil nadu. further, t he utilisation of geoinformatics in the preparation of multi-hazard zonation helps to identify the most endangered areas of the state precisely and offers insights to detailed studies in highly risk zones. this paper attempts on these lines to prepare multi hazard zones (mhz) based on natural hazards viz. earthquake, landslide, cyclone, storm surge, flood, drought and forest fire of tamil nadu. the data for the study were generated from multiple sources, which were all generalised and integrated in a normalised scale. the occurrences, intensities and frequencies of hazards, namely seismic, landslide, and forest fire are the reasons for a very high multi-hazard in hilly tracts of the nilgiris and parts of shayadhri hills in coimbatore and theni districts, whereas cyclone, storm surge, and flood caused a very high risk along the coastal stretch of chennai, kancheepuram, cuddalore and ramanathapuram districts. the segregation of the results into administrative division’s which was then categorised in an order of high risk zones may provide a powerful tool to the state authorities to allocate fund and resources. the output of this study also offers zonation for immediate knowledge, policy briefs, and proper disaster management plan at state level. keywords : disaster management; natural hazards; geoinformatics; tamil nadu 1. introduction according to the disaster statistics from undp’s disaster risk reduction programme (2012), the average disasters per year have increased for more than 60 per cent in the last decade. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 65-79, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.16710 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. 65 mailto:geobalas@cutn.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 asia has the highest number of victims due to natural disasters. it is not peculiar at all that the increase in the frequency of disaster, its magnitude, complexity, economic impact and number of deaths, registers in the low human development region and less prepared communities. according to the ndma (2016), hazards pose threats to people and assume serious proportions in the under developed countries with dense population. the regional study of hazards helps us understand the influencing factors, analysing them without exclusion of nearby quantifiable factors, provides applicable regional alike solutions. there is a coarse approach followed in disaster plans at state and local level in india where national level zonation considered for all kinds of disaster risk management without detailed regional or local attempts. tamil nadu, the southern-most state of india, nestles in the indian peninsula between the bay of bengal in the east, the indian ocean in the south, and the western ghats and the arabian sea on the west. in the north and west, the state adjoins karnataka, andhra pradesh, and kerala (figure 1). the eastern extremity of the state is point calimere situated at 80°20’ e longitude, while the western tip is the mudumalai sanctuary at 71°15’ e longitude. the northern and southern extremities are defined by pulicat lake (13°35’ n latitude) and cape comorin in kanyakumari (08°50’ n latitude). an effective disaster management program always requires a detailed hazard zone, which is largely omitted in the state. at the same time, natural hazards that rattle the vulnerable communities of tamil nadu are increasing manifold and often occur simultaneously. the natural hazards of tamil nadu occur mostly isolated with seasonal characteristics and seldom occured all together that poseda maximum threat in a combined form within the same region. drought is considered one of the reoccurring disasters of tamil nadu, which hampers the development of the region. even though drought is non-structural, it spreads over a larger geographical area and posesmore serious threats to population than the resultsof other natural hazards such as floods, tropical storms, and earthquakes (balasubramani, 2014). balasundareshwaran, et al., (2019a) evaluate drought within an administrative unit and suggested that, the drought restricts the growth of a region. similarly debated that, flood both gains and losses, where it either sweeps the entire regions or deposits minerals for next seasonal irrigation. likewise, cyclones bring in gusty winds to the coastal parts of tamil nadu, especially during the north-east monsoon season (october-december), which influence the sea level to swell and cause coastal inundation, storm surge, and flooding in the inland rivers where the impacts are multi-fold (ramkumar, 2009). a spatio-temporal pattern of earthquake occurrences in south india was epitomised by gangai et al., (2009) who revealed that seventy-seven occurrences of earthquakes with magnitude above 3.0 were recorded within and adjoined regions of tamil nadu in the last two centuries. ramkumar (2019) argues that the net effects of tectonic quiescent regions and 66 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 geomorphometric processes induce the earthquake occurrences in tamil nadu. natarajan, et al.,. (1988) studied the landslides of the nilgiri regionand described that the deforestation had resulted into massive soil erosion along the slopes, which increased the seepage and ,thereby, resulted into an increase in pore pressure leading to landslides in many hilly topography of the state. further, forest fire (wildfires) also increases the air pollutants and the instantaneous concentration of particulate matters in the atmosphere during the fires and poses serious health risks (sofowote & dempsey, 2015). geoinformatics aids in identification, demarcation, assessment, and management of hazards. nowadays, geoinformatics plays a key role in extracting potential information from an extensive region or inaccessible location. satellite remote sensing has successfully proven itself as a valuable information generator for various hazards studies (bhanumurthy et al., 2010). almost all of the natural hazards that can be studied are mapped with the help of geoinformatics. many studies proved that the utilisation of geoinformatics increases the value of datasets as highly reliable, accurate, and cost effective. many attempts, including behanzin et al., (2015), roy and blaschke (2015); shankar et al., (2015); udo (2015); udani & mathur (2016); prasad & narayanan (2016); hoque (2017); oluwasegun (2017); chigbu et al., (2018); sharma et al., (2018), help us to understand the hazard scenario of the state. however, the integration of multi-hazards and delineation of accurate zones using geoinformatics is still missing in tamil nadu. even though arguably the hazard hotspot regions covers the coastal and urban regions (shrinarayan, 2015; balasundareshwaran et al., 2019), mhz covering the entire state with reliable datasets is still scarce. hence, the present study attempted to identify the multi-hazard prone zones of tamil nadu and showcase the use of geoinformatics in a systematic hazard assessment. 2. methods the research primarily deals with the use of geoinformatics in mhz for tamil nadu. in the initial phase, the spatial and temporal dimensions of natural hazards of tamil nadu were examined. all the possible natural hazards were considered and ranked according to the occurrence and impacts in the past, namely drought, flood, cyclone, storm surge, earthquake, landslides, and forest fire. 67 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 figure 1. location and study area of tamil nadu the drought datasets used for the study, mainly comprised of three categories (1) meteorological records acquired from ground stations, (2) products derived from the satellite sensors, and (3) ancillary data from various sources. high temporal satellite datasets considering vegetation, temperature, and precipitation were used to compute proxies for drought hazard assessment viz. precipitation condition index (pci), temperature condition index (tci) and vegetation condition index (vci). terra modis surface reflectance mod13q1 (250m) (20002016) used for vci, modis lst of mod11a2 (1km) (2000-2016) was for tci and trmm 3b43 (0.25ο×0.25ο) precipitation estimate (2000-2016) was used for pci. finally, the scaled drought condition index (sdci) a multi-sensor drought index proposed by rhee et al. (2010) was used to calculate composed drought index as given in the equation: vcipcitcisdci 25.05.025.0  (1) the low values of sdci imply serious condition of drought. under a drought process, the sdci is close or equal to 0 and at wet conditions the sdci is close to 1. 68 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 the cyclone hazard was assessed by utilising the geographic information system (gis) through a long-term best tracks cyclone database from indian meteorological department (imd) and joint typhoon waring center (jtwc) of bay of bengal for the period of 127 years from 1891 to 2018. storm surge computed by imd based on 50-year return data was adopted for the preparation of storm surge hazard layer. both the layers were compared with the building material and technology promotion council’s (bmptc) vulnerability atlas of india (2006) for conformity and classification. the flood hazard, compared to other hazards,was very difficult to compute on a wider geographical scale, thus it was extracted from the bhuvan geoportal where tile wise flood vulnerability index was computed based on multiple origin of floods (riverine, coastal, urban, flash flood and cyclonic floods). the spatio-temporal characteristic of seismic activities was studied using the data sources of united states geological survey (usgs), coastal geodetic survey (cgs), amateur seismic centre (asc) and imd for tamil nadu and its surrounding regions from 1807 to 2018. based on these datasets and bmptc vulnerability atlas of india, the earthquake zones were delineated. reported landslides and bmptc atlas were used to classify the landslides zones. forest fire hazard map was prepared from the data extracted from tamil nadu forest department and modis satellite data. all the generated hazard layers (earthquake, landslide, cyclone, storm surge, flood, drought, and forest fire) were reclassified into four levels of hazard,namely high, moderate, low, and nonhazard with a cell size of 250 m. by utilising raster calculator tool in arcgis, all the hazard layers were intersected on a normalised scale and multi hazard zones were prepared. based on the combined intensity values, the multi hazard zones were classified into four classes, namely very high, high, moderate, and low. 3. results and discussion 3.1 earthquake the spatio-temporal characteristic of seismic activities in tamil nadu shows concentration around coimbatore, madurai, hosur, salem, shevaroy, villupuram, pondicherry, chennai and dharmapuri (figure 2). the magnitude of the past earthquakes in the study area ranged from 3 to 6. it was observed that the earthquakes of maximum intensity 5-6 had occurred in the coimbatore and surrounding districts. also,it was seen that the areas of maximum seismicity were also the ones that are densely populated. whereas, in spite of the sparse distribution of seismic locations in central and western parts, the frequency tendedto be greater along with magnitude in the western parts in comparison to the central part of the region. 3.2 drought the scaled drought condition index (sdci) is categorised into extreme drought (<0.2), severe drought (0.2-0.3), moderate drought (0.3-0.4), abnormal dry (0.4-0.5), and no drought (>0.5). during the dry year (2016), about half of the state was witnessed the extreme drought. severe drought (0.2 to 0.3) condition was observed in about 30 percent of the state. in 2016, the state was badly hit by the worst annual rainfall in 140 years as it received just 543 mm of rain against the annual average of 920 mm. a weak la-nina over the equatorial pacific that followed a year of 69 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 strong el-nino was cited as one of the reasons for this drought. by considering drought condition during june to december in dry year (2016) and normalcy in base year (2007), the sdci drought index was prepared as shown in figure 3. the interior northern district of tamil nadu, such as karur, nammakal, salem, dindigul and erode faced acute drought. figure 2. earthquake zones in tamil nadu figure 3. scaled drought condition index for tamil nadu 70 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 z 3.3 cyclone and storm surge the cyclone affecting tamil nadu are largely from bay of bengal. the very high hazard appeared in the northern coastal region of tamil nadu. the moderate zone was observed in central part of tamil nadu, extending as tongue from cauvery delta. the november cyclones generally move west or north-westward and strike northern coasts of tamil nadu (siddiki et al., 2012). the storm surge is often accompanied with the cyclone or sometimes with high wind, which affects the coastal margins, that vary up to 5 km from the coast (figure 5). the hazard map shows a very high figure 4.cyclone zones in tamil nadu figure 5. storm surge in coastal parts of tamil nadu 71 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 storm surge (> 4.5 m) in ramanathapuram district’s coast. a high storm surge (3.5 4.5 m) was observed around pulicat lake (northern tamil nadu) which is understood for its tidal activities. 3.4 landslide the western and eastern ghats of the state are prone to landslides. the severe up to very high class was observed in the steep slopes of the western ghats and very confined to the nilgiris, anamalai, kodaikanal, courtallam and agasthyamalai hills. eastern ghat sections, especially shayadri hills and kolli hills,fell under high to moderate landslide hazard (figure 6). 3.5 flood the flood hazard layer shows a combined effect of all flood events of tamil nadu that devastated settlements as well as vegetation. flood vulnerability index for the whole tamil nadu is categorised into five classes, namely very high, high, moderate, low, and very low hazard zones (figure 7). the flood vulnerability zone followed the deltaic regions of majorrivers of tamil nadu, especially between palar to cauvery deltaic region. the upper reaches of tributaries of cauvery and tamirabharani rivers were also found with very high hazard zones. 3.6 forest fire the forest fire is highly concentrated in the western and eastern ghats of the state where forest cover is intersected with settlements and transport lines (figure 8). the forest fire occurred between 2006 and 2015 are classified into five classes of frequency; very low (<4), low (5-9), moderate (10-14), high (15-19), and very high (>20). the very high forest fire occurrences were at mudumalai and gundri in the east kalvarayan, jawathu, kanamangalam, and villapakkam in the west and northern parts of tamil nadu. a cluster of forest fires was observed at valpari, anamalai, palani, kodaikanal, and agamalai hills at eastern central margins of tamil nadu and southern dense vegetation in agasthyamalai hills. 3.7 multi-hazard zonation multi-hazard zones reflect the complex nature of interaction between the hazards. it is very difficult to quantify the interaction but it can be relatively compared (kappes et al., 2012). the natural hazards occur in the same location at different interval cause more damage than the location affected by a single hazard. the multi-hazard zones (mhz) sometimes are found with a domino effect, where one hazard triggers the next possible hazard, which is extremely dangerous. hence, the assessment of mhz is indispensable for disaster risk management and governance of critical time. based on the interaction of all major natural hazards, mhzare delimited and classified into four classes, namely very high, high, moderate, and low (figure 9). the very high mhz is concentrated at hilly stretches of the nilgiris and parts of shayadhri hills in coimbatore and theni districts. further, the very high mhz is found along the coastal stretch of chennai, kancheepuram, cuddalore, and ramanathapuram districts. 72 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 figure 6. landslides in western and eastern and ghats of tamil nadu figure 7. tiled flood index figure 8. forest fire hazard in tamil nadu 73 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 figure 9. multi-hazard zonation (mhz) for tamil nadu 74 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 the high mhz is observed in the central regions of the state engulfing rest of the nilgiris, villupuram, thiruvanamalai, vellore and karur districts, and all along the central and northern coastal tracts of tamil nadu. the occurrences, intensities and frequencies of hazards, namely seismic, landslide and forest fire are the reasons for very high multi-hazard in the hilly tracts, whereas cyclone, storm surge and flood is the major reason for a very high risk along the coastal regions. the moderate mhz vastly spreads over the rest of the state except for a few parts in the northern, eastern, and southern region where hazards with high intensities are absent. the moderate mhz is the direct cause of higher intense of drought but moderate or low intense of cyclone and earthquake hazards. the very high-to-high mhz occurs in the western regions of hilly terrains, central plains, and the eastern margins of coastal regions. the result of this study coincides with case studies attempted for different parts of the state. for instance, agricultural drought assessment in palar basin (krishna et al., 2009) and drought condition over the cauvery basin (balasubramani, 2014) indicate similar prevalence of high mhz at central and northeastern part of the state. the southern part of the nilgirs falls under high and very high vulnerability as the area is under steep slope (rahaman & aruchamy, 2017). moreover, the fire risk assessment at kurangani of theni district forest debated by balaguru et al., (2018) propose that the highly vulnerable zones falls at steep slopes and high altitude regions. comparatively, a study on macrozonation of seismic hazard pursued by menon et al., (2009) exhibits moderate vulnerability in northern and western parts of tn and much lower in the southern half of the state. the study also suggest that the hazard in the northwestern parts, some central districts of the state are clearly underestimated i.e., the hazard levels classified in seismic indian standard zone iii could be marginally higher, especially for chennai, coimbatore, udhagamandalam, and krishnagiri. these discussions support the very highto-high mhz of western regions of hilly terrains and central plains of state. similarly, the study on habitat risk assessment for coastal taluks of tamil nadu (balasundareshwaran et al., 2019) reflects on the assessment of coastal vulnerability utilising the geospatial technology. the study implies the need of urgent measures to thwart negative impacts at chennai, cuddalore, nagapattinam, thoothukudi, and agatheeswaram areas, which are highly vulnerable zones. in the same way, the disaster risk management plan for karur district attempted by balasundareshwaran et al., (2019a) reveals that, during northeast monsoon, heavy water flowing in cauvery and its tributaries, has affected the low-lying areas of the riverbanks with floods. the results of this present study show all the flood occurrences attributed to larger basins of cauvery 75 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 and palar rivers. in an integrated study, classifying coastal tamil nadu (rajan et al. 2019) reveals that the very high vulnerability zone covers nagapattinam coast. further, very high to high vulnerable zones cascade over cuddalore, kancheepuram pondicherry, karaikkal, nagapattinam, and thiruvarur. the physical vulnerability analysis conducted by rajan and vengadasalam (2019) along the coastal tamil nadu observed that coastal zone is still in underdeveloped condition. the study proposed that the ramanathapuram district appears to be a better coast and kancheepuram as a poor. consequently, these deliberations correspond and represent the very high-to-high mhz senario of coastal regions. the major research gap exists in developing appropriate approaches to evolve disaster plans for the administrative units like districts. the hazards demarcated at the state level will be effective for planning at district and sub-district level planning and, thus, this study can be used as a pioneer material. the best use of geoinformatics in the digital era, especially in disaster scenarios, is very much needed, and the present work attempts to fulfil this gap. 4. conclusion this study is akin to a first-hand atlas to the planners and decision makers. the study combined different hazards and their intensities in a single map with varying intensities using the power of geoinformatics. these research highlights need for immediate and proper action plans at high multi-hazard prone zones. the very high mhz is observed at the nilgiris and parts of shayadhri hills in coimbatore and theni districts in the western region and along the coastal stretch of chennai, kancheepuram, cuddalore, and ramanathapuram districts in eastern region of tamil nadu. the following recommendations are suggested for the very high -high mhz of natural disasters of tamil nadu: (1) identification and maintenance of the location specific disaster trigger based response system need to be given a higher priority, especially in the eastern hilly terrains and central plains; (2) preparing region specific disaster management plans along with training for professionals / technical institutions to minimise the ill-effects for both administrative and natural regions, especially for the eastern coastal margins. this study offers scope for immediate knowledge, effective regionalisation, and possibilities of preparing disaster management plans. the segregation of results into administrative division’s categorised in an order of highly risk zones will provide a power tool to the state authorities to allocate fund and resources. the further improvement of accuracy of certain datasets, e.g. flood, could precise the zonation and provide robust tool to prepare long-term plans for safeguarding the vulnerable communities, mitigating the physio-socio-economic losses, and attaining sustainable development 76 a. balasundareshwaran et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 65-79 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgement the authors thank the council of scientific and industrial research university grant commission (csir-ugc) and indian council of social science research (icssr) for the financial support to complete the study. the authors also thank ugc-sap-drs-ii programme of the department of geography, bharathidasan university, tiruchirappalli for the infrastructural and technical supports. references balaguru, m., navammuniyammal, m., vidhya, r. and sathyavathi, g., (2018). assessing forest fire 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(date accessed: 28/07/2018) https://www.in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/operations/projects/closed/goiundp_ disaster riskreductionproject.html 79 multi-hazard zonation for effective management of disasters in tamil nadu 1. introduction 2. methods 3. results and discussion 3.1 earthquake 3.2 drought 3.3 cyclone and storm surge 3.4 landslide 3.5 flood 3.6 forest fire 3.7 multi-hazard zonation 4. conclusion references 92 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 water poverty assessment in olorunsogo local government area of oyo state, nigeria p.i. ifabiyi1, b. oladele 1 , and salau wahab2* 1department of geography and environmental management, faculty of social sciences, university of ilorin, pmb 1515, ilorin, nigeria 2department of geography, faculty of humanities, management and social sciences, federal university of kashere, pmb 0182, gombe state, nigeria *corresponding author : salawiy@fukashere.edu.ng received 12 august 2019/ revised 21 december 2019/ accepted 5 january 2020/ published 10 april 2020 abstract poor access to water is often linked to poverty, human welfare, health, nutritional status, and household labour. this paper is aimed at contributing to the debate surrounding water poverty in the rural areas. primary data obtained covering water resources, access, capacity, uses, and environment were collected using closed-ended questionnaires. altogether, 370 household heads were sampled and were selected by systematic random sampling technique. multiple correlations, factor analysis and multiple regression methods were used to determine the level of relationship between the water poverty index (wpi) components. the results revealed that: wpi is the highest in elenke/sagbo (72.3%) and the lowest in onigbeti ii/sagbon (55.5%). also, wpi has a strong positive relationship with resources (r = .656), capacity (r = .705) and environment at 95%. percentages of explanations of wpi ranges from 86.45% in onigbeti i to 50.99% in aboke.the results of multiple regression between wpi and components showed that components were weak predictors in 5 wards (onigbeti iii &iv, onigbeti ii , onigbeti i, seriki agbele aboke and abogun wards). the paper posits that access to water in olorunsogo local government area (lga) is generally reasonable. the paper suggests stronger government presence to improve and sustain the level of access. keywords : water poverty; access; capacity; uses; environment; resources; factor analysis 1. introduction in 2002, the united nations development programme (undp) ranked nigeria as the 26th poorest nation in the world. a relevant poverty type in nigeria is that of water. waterrelated poverty emerges when water resources constrain or impact upon people’s livelihood options and assets. water poverty arises as a result of inadequate availability of water or lack of proper accessibility to potable water for man’s use and consumption. water itself is an essential geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 92-105, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.13438 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:salawiy@fukashere.edu.ng https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 93 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 resource to man and it takes up a vital role in everyday activities of man. it is of great importance for domestic, cultural and various industrial uses. it harbors various life forms which are generally classified as hydrophytes and aquatic animals. according to the world health organization (who), a person requires roughly 25 liters of water per day to promote healthy living. with man’s ever demanding attitude for water and other climatological factors, the supply of water has drastically reduced over the years. this tends to exert stress on the available water resources. in other words the available water may become insufficient for the demanding population. this could be a result of the increase in human population. water poverty is measured by the water poverty index (wpi) (falkenmark et al., 1989; sullivan, 2002; ifabiyi & ogunbode, 2004; falkenmark & rockstron, 2004; heideck, 2006; fenwick, 2019). water poverty tends to prevail in developing and less developed nations of the world where there are improper management of water in supply, usage and recycling. water scarcity; may results in environmental, agricultural, and various economical and health issues. the finite nature of renewable fresh water makes it critical to examinenatural resources in the context of population growth. as population grow, the average amount of renewable fresh water available to each person declines. hence, hydrologists and other water experts agree that when certain ratios of water stress and outright scarcity are all but inevitable, then the population is heading towards water poverty. water poverty has various implications on national development. in nigeria, studies of water supply are mainly focused on water supply and demand with little emphasis on water scarcity and water poverty (ifabiyi & ogunbode, 2014) despite the fact that water scarcity has already been widely experienced. spatial and temporal analysis can reduce the potential for water poverty in certain areas (kallio et al., 2018). precipitation index, vegetation condition index, and soil moisture content index affect the potential for drought in an area (mohmmed et al., 2018). water quality can affect the health and welfare of the community in the long term (borgomeo et al., 2018). one of the government policies that greatly influences the development of settlements in cities is by displacing settlements that are unable to provide access to quality water (davis & ryan, 2017). developing countries need to pay attention to the distribution of clean water in each region due to its vulnerability to poverty aspects. the above studies do not discuss the relationship between the water poverty index, resources, access, 94 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 capacity, uses and environment in a comprehensive manner. it is crucial to conduct this study due to the fact that community needs related to clean water are not only related to physical aspects, but also often related to social problems. access and capacity are novel aspects to study and relate to aspects of nature and the environment. this study is aimed at contributing to the debate surrounding water poverty in rural areas. 2. area of study olorunsogo local government is located in the northern part of oyo state, nigeria. its coordinates are lat 8°45 ‘0’’n and long 4°7 ‘0’’e. it is one of the 33 local governments in oyo state nigeria. its headquarters is in the town of igbeti. it has an area of 1,069 m2 and a population of 81, 759 at the 2006 census. it has 10 wards as shown in the table 1. table 1. list of wards in olorunsogo local government area the climate of the area is characterized by dry and wet seasons with high relative humidity. dry season is between novembermarch while the wet season starts from april and ends in october. average daily temperature ranges between 25°c (77.0°f) and 35°c (95.0°f) almost throughout the year. precipitation varies from an average of 1200mm. however, during the wet season,high surface runoff with high humidity usually occurs. this study area has the guinea savannah vegetation type. aquifers are of restricted vertical and lateral extent, but since the tropical climate affords the necessary conditions for deep and rapid chemical decay, thick, sandy clayey, lateritic overburdens serve as potential aquifers.this area is underlain by metamorphic rocks of the basement complex, which outcrop over many parts. geographical features such as the iyamopo and the agbele hill are the dominant relief systems. rocks consist s/n name i. aboke ( aboyunogun) ii.. apataalaje iii. elenke/ sagbo iv. ikolaba/ obadimo v. onigbeti i vi. onigbeti ii/ sagbon vii. onigbeti iii & iv viii. opa/ ogundiran ix. seriki i & (abosino) x. seriki ii & (agbele) 95 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 of old hard rocks and dome shaped inselberg hills, which gently rise from about 500metres in the southern part and reaching a height of about 1,219metres above sea level in the northern part around igbeti town. the local government area has been regarded as suitable for agricultural purposes. igbeti has a large food market with marketers from every part of nigeria. market products include: yam, yam flour and cassava flour. a large proportion of the residents engage in agriculture either in small or in large scale. the extensive marble deposit in igbeti led to the presence of the nigerian mining company limited in1984. quarrying is also a prominent activity in the lga. tourism is also an important activity due to the prominent hills and the old oyo national park which extend to ogundiran area of olorunsogo local government area. figure 1. igbeti and environs 96 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 3. methods data used in this study were collected by structured questionnaires. data were sourced from the 10 political wards in olorunsogo local government area of oyo state. these include: information on water availability, accessibility to water supply, capacity of water resources, water use and environment. online sample size calculator was used to determine the total number of questionnaires to be administered after estimating the population size using equation 1. pn= po (1+r/100) x (1) where: po= population size (according to the 2006 census figure) r = population growth rate x = number of years (2015-2006) = 9 years pn = 81,759 (1+34/100) 9 pn = 81,759 (1+0.34) 9 pn = 110,465 with the population figure of 110,465 and a household size of 8, the krejice and morgan sample size calculator arrived at the use of 370 questionnaires with 37 copies of questionnaires for each of the 10 wards in the lga. a closed ended questionnaire was used in which the respondents were allowed to choose from the available options only. systematic random sampling technique was adopted to select respondents in the 10 wards. accessibility to water can be quantified by using several indicators such as: human development index, water supply stress index, population growth impacts of water resource availability, e.t.c. out of the above indices, the water poverty index (wpi) was used because it is found to be the most effective tool to access water availabilit y of the regions. wpi is easy to calculate, easy to implement and is mainly based on the existing data. water poverty index (wpi) as defined by sullivan et al. (2002) is mathematically defined as: 97 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 𝑊𝑃𝐼= 𝑊1×𝑅 + 𝑊2×𝐴 + 𝑊3×𝑈 + 𝑊4× 𝐶 + 𝐶5×𝐶 (2) 𝐶1+𝐶2+𝐶3+𝐶4+𝐶5 the weights (𝑊i) applied to each of the five components (𝑅,𝐴,𝐶,𝑈&𝐸) are constrained to be non-negative and sum to unity. all parameters are standardized to fall in the range of 0-1, where value 0 is assigned to the poorest level (i.e highest degree of water poverty), and 1 to optimum conditions. the wpi defines water poverty according to the five components, i.e.: resources, access, capacity, use and environment. 4. results and discussion 4.1 components of water poverty the score of resources in this study`is 87.6% in elenke /sagbo ward, suggesting that the ward had more than one sources of water. the lowest availability was in apata /alaja ward with limited sources of water. generally, the lga had reasonable score on resources with all the wards scoring above 50%. rain fell for a minimum of 7 months. access to water was the highest in apata/alaje with a score of 89.3% and the lowest in seriki ii with 50%. all wards scored above 50%. there were many hand dug wells in this ward. capacity was at its highest score in elenke/ sagbo ward (67.6%). this was an expected result due to the significant number of employed people in this ward. capacity scored above 50% in all the political wards. uses of water had the highest score in ikolaba/obadimo ward. this was expected in view of the fact that water was used in this ward for block making and other cottage industrial uses. the lowest value of 40% was recorded in onigbeti/sagbon ward. uses of water were largely domestic in the lga. aboke/aboyun-ogun had a score of 87.1%, which was the highest value; the lowest value was in onigbeti ii/ sagbon ward. environment plays a dominant role in water supply as it is responsible for sustaining river flow and groundwater level. 98 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 figure 2. pattern of distribution of water poverty components in the political wards: water poverty pattern 0 50 100 aboke/aboy un ogun apata alaje elenke/ sagbo ikolaba/ obadimo onigbeti i onigbeti ii/ sagbon onigbeti iii & iv opa/ ogundiran seriki i & (abosino) seriki ii & (agbele) figure 2 (a): resources 0 50 100 aboke/aboy … apata alaje elenke/ sagbo ikolaba/ … onigbeti i onigbeti ii/ … onigbeti iii … opa/ … seriki i & … seriki ii & … figure 2 (b) access 0 50 100 aboke/a… apata… elenke/… ikolaba/… onigbeti i onigbeti… onigbeti… opa/… seriki i &… seriki ii… figure 2 (c ): capacity 0 50 100 aboke/a… apata… elenke/… ikolaba/… onigbeti i onigbeti… onigbeti… opa/… seriki i &… seriki ii… figure 2 (d) uses 0 50 100 aboke/aboyu… apata alaje elenke/ sagbo ikolaba/… onigbeti i onigbeti ii/… onigbeti iii &… opa/… seriki i &… seriki ii &… figure 2 (e): environment 99 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 figure 2 depicts the patterns of wpi from aboke/ aboyunogun ward to seriki ii & agbele ward of the local government area. water resources were the highest in elenke/ sagbo with 87.6% and lowest in apataalaje (53.1%). water was most accessible in apata alaje (89.3%) and least accessible in seriki (abosino). capacity was the highest in elenke/ sagbo and lowest (53.8%)in serikiabosino. water use was the highest in ikolaba/obadimo ward with (61.2%) and lowest in onigbeti ii/ sagbon with 40%. the environment was clean and free from most environmental challenges with the highest value in aboke/aboyun ogun (87.1%) and lowest in onigbeti ii/ sagbon with 51.9%. on the values of wpi, elenke/ sagbo was the highest (72.3%), while onigbeti ii/sagbon ward was the lowest with 55.5%. the value recorded in this study was relatively higher than the value of 44% obtained as the national value for nigeria and was higher than that of many african nations (egypt=28.71%, niger= 44%, ghana=47.50%, south africa=41.51%) but lower than that of some other countries (equatorial guinea =87.99%, gabon 78.15%, angola=65.86%, etc). the value range was medium to low, indeed none of the communities had severe water poverty situation (table 3). this suggests that the level of scarcity is not severe. water resources is generally relatively available. the values recorded in table 3 showed that there was reasonable access to water in the lga as no ward had less than 55% access. this feat was made possible as a result of government intervention in water provision and due to the numerous hand-dug wells which was common to almost every household. igbeti lga is situated within interfluves with relatively rich, shallow regolith aquifer, which supply water reasonably to shallow wells. in addition to this, government also provided a number of hand pumps and motorized boreholes within the various communities in the study area. hence, this had alleviated the burden of water scarcity. 100 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 figure 3. pentagrams representation of the wpi in olorunsogo local government area 63.7 59.6 6652.5 87.1 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environ… fig 3 (a) wpi of aboke/aboyun-ogun 53.1 89.3 62.654 68.8 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environment fig 3 (b): wpi of apata alaje 64.7 71 59.661.2 63.1 40 60 80 resources access capacityuses environment fig 3 (d) wpi of ikolaba/ obadimo 57 57 61.4 43.6 77.3 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environment fig 3 (e) wpi of onigbeti i 56.1 69.3 60.2 40 51.9 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environm ent fig 3 (f) wpi of onigbeti ii 54.2 55.6 63.654.8 80.6 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environment fig 3 (g) wpi of onigbeti iii & iv 60.6 64.3 61.443.5 86.4 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environment fig 3 (h) wpi of opa ogundiran 65.8 50 53.856.6 69.7 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environme nt fig 3 fig 2 (i) wpi of seriki abosino 60.8 62.7 59.148.5 53.4 0 50 100 resources access capacityuses environme nt fig 3 (j) wpi of seriki ii &agbele 64.7 71 59.661.2 63.1 50 60 70 80 resources access capacityuses environment fig 3 (c) wpi of elehike/sagbo 101 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 4.2 the relationships between wpi, resources, access, capacity, uses and environment as indicated in table 2, the relationship between wpi and its five components (resources, access, capacity, uses and environment) were used to calculate water poverty. wpi has a strong positive relationship with resources (r = .656), capacity (r = .705) and environment (r = 0.683) which are statistically significant at 95% confidence level, this suggest that as resources, capacity and environmental factor increases in the study, wpi also increases. on the other hand, wpi has a weak and mild positive relationship with access (r = .240) and uses (r = .566) respectively which were not statistically significant at 95% confidence level. however, access has a weak negative relationship with resources (r = -.215) and environment (r = -.289) but the relationships are not statistically significant at 95% confidence level. ever y component exhibits weak positive relationship with each other. the weak relationship between the wpi and water accessibility can be explained by the distance to the source of water and the household size. these two factors have a high magnitude of association with access (r = .240) in the study area. resource availability in the study area is also high as farming activities take place within the local government and this enhances the trading activities which includes foreigners from several parts of the country. trade itself is a catalyst to economic growth and this has led to the provision of infrastructural facilities which include water supply in the study area. water usage or water demand in the study area is about 70% of the availability. about 74% of this is diverted for agricultural use while the remaining 26% is accountable for domestic, industrial recreational, commercial, and other uses. table 2. relationship between wpi, resources, access, capacity, uses and environment components resources access capacity uses environment wpi .656* .240 .705* .566 .683* resources -.215 .321 .422 .340 access .214 .033 -.289 capacity .051 .589 uses .173 102 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 table 3. water poverty index (wpi) of olorunsogo local government area ward resources access capacity uses environment wpi aboke/aboyun ogun 63.7 59.6 66 52.5 87.1 65.7 medium low apata alaje 53.1 89.3 62.6 54 68.8 65.6 medium low elenke/ sagbo 87.6 63.6 67.4 56.9 85.8 72.3 low ikolaba/ obadimo 64.7 71 59.6 61.2 63.1 63.9 medium low onigbeti i 57 57 61.4 43.6 77.3 59.3 medium onigbeti ii/ sagbon 56.1 69.3 60.2 40 51.9 55.5 high onigbeti iii & iv 54.2 55.6 63.6 54.8 80.6 61.8 medium low opa/ ogundiran 60.6 64.3 61.4 43.5 86.4 63.2 medium low serikii & (abosino) 65.8 50 53.8 56.6 69.7 59.2 medium seriki ii & (agbele) 60.8 62.7 59.1 48.5 53.4 56.9 medium table 4. determinants of water poverty in olorunsogo lga political wards multiple regression properties factor % regression factor analysis % regression % aboke/ aboye access nil 54.99 31.71 apata alaje capacity (31.71) resources (29.81) resources (76.4) capacity(5) 61.53 82.0 ikolaba/obadimo usage (34.88) environment (23.70) environment (50) 58.58 50.0 onigbeti i i. resources (35.24) access (29.1) capacity (22) resources (41.0) 86.45 41.0 onigbeti ii environment capacity environment capacity 65.28 2.90 onigbeti iii & iv resources usage usage resources 65.28 2.90 ogunderin/opa resources access usage resources usage 77.70 96.5 seriki/abiso usage access usage 56.80 56.4 seriki/ agbele environment resources capacity 79.88 17.2 elenko/sagbo resources access resource access 68.82 99.2 103 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 the indices of water poverty differ in their dominance from ward to ward. as shown in table 4. the resources had the highest rate of reoccurrence (6 times), access appeared 5 times, capacity and water uses featured 4 times, while environment featured only 3 times.this distributionsupportsthe relatively fair pattern of water access whereby at least all lgas had wpi of greater than 50%. meanwhile, the percentages of explanation were generally strong, ranging from 86.45%in onigbeti i to 50.99% in aboke. previous studies discovered that, among others, community social status influences access and management to clean water (ngarava et al., 2019), investment growth can affect the expansion of settlements in coastal areas and have an impact on water quality degradation (hoque et al., 2019), land use for agriculture is more optimal when carried out in rural areas with consideration of market access and better water availability (harmanny & malek, 2019), the majority of the poor finds it difficult to access clean water pipes due to cost issues (carrard et al., 2019),increasing the ability of the community to manage water resources is needed to reduce social barriers in the use of clean water (panthi et al., 2019). meanwhile, this study found the role of access and capacity of the community in reducing the potential for lack of clean water. the results of this study shows that access to clean water is not only related to natural conditions such as aquifers, but also related to the ability of governments and communities to manage clean water. providing access to the community does not only take the form of water infrastructure development, but also reduces prices to access the water infrastructure. the relationship between wpi and component was slightly different in many wards, such as onigbeti iii &iv, onigbeti ii , onigbeti i, seriki agbele aboke and abogun. the components of wpi, provided weak explanations, suggesting that in these wards, access to water may be due to other reasons such as politics, culture, technology, and other variants which are beyond the scope of this papers. however, in the other 5 lgas, wpi were better predictors of water access. 5. conclusion water supply in the study area was adequate; therefore, there was low level of water scarcity in the study area. the results revealed that: wpi was the highest in elenke/sagbo (72.3%), wasthe lowest in onigbeti ii/sagbon (55.5%).this supportedthe relatively high pattern 104 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 of water access, whereby at least all lga had wpi of greater than 50%. the paper posits that access to water in olorunsogo lga was generally reasonable and that the impacts of wpi differed from ward to ward as certain variables were dominant in certain ward compared to the others. the paper suggests stronger government presence to improve and sustain the level of access and poverty margin. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references borgomeo, e., hall, j. w., & salehin, m. (2018). avoiding the water-poverty trap: insights from a conceptual human-water dynamical model for coastal bangladesh. international journal of water resources development, 34(6), 900-922. doi:10.1080/07900627.2017.1331842 carrard, n., madden, b., chong, j., grant, m., nghiêm, t. p., bùi, l. h., . . . willetts, j. (2019). are piped water services reaching poor households? empirical evidence from rural viet nam. water research, 153, 239-250. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2019.01.026 davis, m. f., & ryan, n. (2017). inconvenient human rights: water and sanitation in sweden’s informal roma settlements. health and human rights, 19(2), 61-72. falkenmark, m. and rockström, j. (2004).balancing water for humans and naturethe new approach in ecohydrology.london: earth scan. falkenmark, m., lundqvist, j., &widstrand, c. (1989).macro-scale water scarcity federal republic of nigeria (2000), water supply and sanitation interim strategies note fenwick, c. (2019). identifying the water poor: an indicator approach to assessing poverty in rural mexico. a phd thesis submitted to department of civil, environmental and geomatic engineering, university college, london. pg. 270. guppy, l. (2014) the water poverty index in rural cambodia and vietnam: a holistic snapshot to improve water management planning. natural resources forum. 38: 203-219 harmanny, k. s., & malek, ž. (2019). adaptations in irrigated agriculture in the mediterranean region: an overview and spatial analysis of implemented strategies. regional environmental change, 19(5), 1401-1416. doi:10.1007/s10113-019-01494-8 105 p.i. ifabiyi et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 92-105 hoque, s. f., hope, r., arif, s. t., akhter, t., naz, m., & salehin, m. (2019). a socialecological analysis of drinking water risks in coastal bangladesh. science of the total environment, 679, 23-34. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.359 ifabiyi i.p. & ogunbode t. o. (2014): the use of composite water poverty index in assessing water scarcity in the rural areas of oyo state nigeria. an international journal of science and technology, 3 (2):51-65. kallio, m., guillaume, j. h. a., kummu, m., & virrantaus, k. (2018). spatial variation in seasonal water poverty index for laos: an application of geographically weighted principal component analysis. social indicators research, 140(3), 1131-1157. doi:10.1007/s11205017-1819-6 kini, j. (2017). inclusive water poverty index: a holistic approach for helping local water and sanitation services planning. water policy, 19(4), 758-772. doi:10.2166/wp.2017.075 maheswari, j.u. & chaithanya, s.m. (2015) water poverty index facts and figuresa review. international civil engineering symposium. doi: 10.13140/rg.2.13681.1369. mohmmed, a., zhang, k., kabenge, m., keesstra, s., cerdà, a., reuben, m., . . . ali, a. a. s. (2018). analysis of drought and vulnerability in the north darfur region of sudan. land degradation and development, 29(12), 4424-4438. doi:10.1002/ldr.3180 ngarava, s., zhou, l., & monde, n. (2019). gendered water insecurity: a structural equation approach for female headed households in south africa. water (switzerland), 11(12) doi:10.3390/w11122491 panthi, j., khatiwada, k. r., shrestha, m. l., & dahal, p. (2019). water poverty in the context of climate change: a case study from karnali river basin in nepal himalaya. international journal of river basin management, 17(2), 243-250. doi:10.1080/15715124.2018.1531421 sullivan, c. (2002), calculating a water poverty index. world development journal, 30 (7): 1195-1210. umamahheswari, j., bukke, s. & chaithanya, s.m. (2017) water poverty index as a water management :a micro level study in tamil nadu, india. a paper presented 6thconference on water and food management (icwfm, 2017) edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 264 local wisdom in responding to disaster of merapi eruption: case study of wonolelo village edi widodo1 and hastuti2 1geography education master program, yogyakarta state university. 2department of geography education, faculty of social science, yogyakarta state university jl. colombo no.1 yogyakarta 55281, indonesia email : edi.widodo.2017@student.uny.ac.id, hastuti@uny.ac.id received 8 october 2019/ revised 13 november 2019/ accepted 18 november 2019/ published 1 december 2019/ available online 25 november 2019 abstract the people who live in the merapi area have been going on for years. merapi is the most active volcano in central java that can threaten the community, but the community still exists today, of course, having local wisdom in responding to the eruption of merapi. this study aims to determine the local wisdom of wonolelo village before, during, and after the merapi eruption. in addition, to find out the historical relationship of the merapi eruption to local wisdom and the challenges faced by wonolelo village in maintaining the sustainability of local wisdom. this research was used as a descriptive qualitative method. the method of collecting data is done through observation, in-depth interviews, and documentation. data sources of this study are community leaders, spiritual leaders, and people who are more than 70 years old. analysis of the data used is sourced triangulation based on the miles & huberman model. the results showed that local wisdom in responding to the merapi eruption in wonolelo village still exists today. local wisdom is divided into three segments, namely before, during, and after the eruption of merapi. local wisdom before the merapi eruption is a notification that merapi eruption activity will occur. local wisdom in wonolelo village has challenges in the form of modernization and not running the local wisdom relay to young people. keywords: disaster, local wisdom, merapi volcano. 1. introduction merapi is unique from various points of view. merapi is seen by experts as being the most active volcano in indonesia. merapi eruption is famous throughout indonesia and even the world. the history of the biggest merapi eruption is the volcanic explosivity index (vei) geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 3 (2019), 264-279, december, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i3.14066 accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019 edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 265 4. the volcanic explosivity index (vei) 4 eruption occurred in 1872 with a recorded death toll of 200 and in 2010 recorded 367 fatalities. (voight et al, 2000; bnpb, 2010; gertisser et al, 2012). merapi eruption is still ongoing, in 2018 several eruptions occurred, resulting in an increase in the status of merapi from the normal level to the alert level (bpptkg, 2018; pvmbg, 2018). merapi's status level is still on alert in 2019. merapi launched a hot cloud with a sliding distance of seven kilometers on 2 march 2019 (bpptkg, 2019; pvmbg, 2019). merapi activity will continue, as long as the supply of magma from the bowels of the earth is still there. merapi activities are still ongoing, and then it has the potential to pose a threat to the community. there are 435,331 people living in the merapi area, from four districts (kabupaten boyolali dalam angka tahun 2018; kabupaten klaten dalam angka tahun 2018; kabupaten magelang dalam angka tahun 2018; kabupaten sleman dalam angka tahun 2018). the number of people in the merapi area is classified as large, and potentially affected by eruptions and / or secondary hazards in the form of lava. people living in the merapi area find it difficult to evacuate and relocate to a safe place. there are several factors that make it difficult for people to be relocated, among others, life and livelihood activities that go on for generations, inner bonds to deceased ancestors, resources such as fertile land, abundant water, and natural beauty. widodo, nugroho & asteria, (2017: 135) explained that: 61.6 percent of the population remained in the merapi area due to environmental, economic, and social factors. people who have lived a long time, of course, have experienced several periods of merapi eruption with various volcanic explosivity index (vei) and ways to act before, during, and after the eruption so that local wisdom arises in responding to merapi. merapi volcano activity had been going on since ± 42,000 years ago (mulyaningsih et al., 2006: 103). based on history , 11 major eruptions have occurred since 3000 years ago on mount merapi (andreastuti et al., 2006: 201). merapi eruptions in the form of a stream of hot clouds, stone flares , and ash rain (bardintzeff, 1984: 432). the history of the eruption certainly affected the high population in merapi. the general public refers to merapi as "simbah merapi". the merapi people assume that the center of the kingdom is at the top of a mountain (fatkhan, 2006: 111). haba, (2008: 29) argues that simbah merapi is scary, but also full of love for the villagers. simbah merapi is far from the palace that is not approached by edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 266 humans, but mbah merapi approached and gave fertility to humans. the community and merapi have been very closely linked and harmonious. community interaction and merapi form local wisdom. local wisdom in dealing with merapi is certainly growing over time, the renewal of science and technology such as people living in the merapi-merbabu valley. the community in the merapi-merbabu valley is now potentially affected by the merapi eruption because merbabu no longer shows its volcanic activity. the merapi-merbabu valley is to the north of mount merapi. although the current merapi eruption is dominant towards the south and west, but in 1954-1956 it headed north (andreastuti et al., 2006: 202). the community already has local wisdom in the form of an early warning system through natural signs when an eruption will occur. the community also has the point of view that merapi's activities are related to three types of natural supernatural spirits: mountain spirits, segoro kidul spirits (south sea), and cikal bakal (hereditary family)(rokib, 2013: 11). people in the merapimerbabu valley who still believe in the existence of "simbah merapi, simbah petruk" are difficult to agree to evacuate or relocate to a safe place, so it is necessary to identify local wisdom in the merapi-merbabu valley as an effort to synchronize local wisdom with government policy. previous studies related to the current study are understanding the character of the community is very effective in implementing disaster risk reduction programs (andreastuti et al, 2019). disaster knowledge is very effective if it has been developed since elementary school (atmojo et al, 2018). module development in learning related to local wisdom is one of the efforts to increase community knowledge related to disasters (setiawan et al, 2017). conflict resolution in disaster-prone areas must be resolved so that disaster risk reduction programs can be implemented properly (lestari et al, 2016). community-based economic management is very suitable for handling after natural disasters (permana et al, 2017). previous studies have not analyzed the condition of the community in detail in the event of a disaster, so studies related to local wisdom before, during, and after a disaster become very important to do. wonolelo village is not far from merapi volcano. the people of wonolelo village generally have jobs as farmers. the residents of wonolelo village, who live not far from edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 267 merapi, have experienced several eruption periods. residents who experience the merapi eruption period, of course, have experience in reacting. hereditary experience in responding to the merapi eruption formed a local wisdom in wonolelo village. this study aims to determine the local wisdom of wonolelo village before, during, and after the merapi eruption. in addition, to find out the historical relationship of the merapi eruption to local wisdom and the challenges faced by wonolelo village in maintaining the sustainability of local wisdom. 2. methods this research is a survey research using a descriptive qualitative method. data is collected through in-depth interviews. data sources of this study are community leaders, spiritual leaders, and people who are more than 70 years old. analysis of the data used is sourced triangulation based on the miles & huberman model. the research location was in wonolelo village, sawangan sub district, magelang regency. figure 1. research stages merapi volcano wonolelo village informan 3informan 2informan 1 source trianggulation miles & huberman model analysis local wisdom in wonolelo village edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 268 table 1. list of informants' names name status initial marpomo community leaders (village head) m amirejo spiritual figure (dukun) a tukimo people over 70 years old (farmers) t 3. results and discussion the research location was in wonolelo village, sawangan district, magelang district. absolute location is at 431953 mt to 438158 mt and 9170087 mu to 9176080 mu. wonolelo village has an area of 12.35 kilometer square. the population of wonolelo village is 6,361 with details of 3,274 men and 3,087 women. population density of wonolelo village is 515 people / kilometer square (kecamatan sawangan dalam angka, 2018). wonolelo village has a buffer distance of about 8 kilometers from the peak of merapi. figure 2. location of study area edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 269 3.1 local wisdom in wonolelo village a. before the merapi eruption results of interviews with mbah t (age 81 years): ”mbiyen pas gluduk gunung pencar, ono wong lagi mantu mantenan, terus ono bocah cilik ngandani nang gon wong mantenan kuwi, yen simbah merapi, arep mlaku utawa arep lewat, kon podo minggir, eh malah do ora minggir lan nyeneni bocah cilik mau, terus ujug-ujug gluduk gunung lah sing ora minggir ya podo mati, sing minggir podo slamet (friday, 6/21/2019)” a"when there was an eruption of mount merapi, which led to the scatter area, there were people who were carrying out a wedding celebration, then there were small children telling them that simbah merapi would go or pass (erupt) the community was expected to stay away from the area, but instead on heeded the information and even the public scolded the child, finally merapi erupted, finally those who did not move away from the area died and those who stayed away from the area survived. " mbah a as a dukun (86 years old): “ndisik pas arep ono gluduk gunung, ono cah cilik ngomongi wong lagi ndudah letong sapi, ngandani yen simbah merapi arep arak-arak, nanging wong sing lagi nimpal mau ora nggugu malah ngusir bocah cilik lanang mau, nah pas cah cilik kuwi mau lungo seko ndeso kono mau, teko langsung mabur njup ngilang, jebule bocah mau utusane simbah merapi. banjur ora suwe merapi mlaku (wednesday, 05/23/2018)” means "before the eruption of merapi, there was a small child who told the person who was cleaning the cowshed, the little boy told me that merapi would erupt, but the person who was cleaning the cage (nimpal), instead chased the boy earlier, then the child flew and disappeared, apparently the child was a messenger from simbah merapi. not long ago merapi erupted. mbah a as a dukun (spiritual figure) (age 86 years): “menowo simbah merapi, arep arak-arak aku dinei wisik lewat mimpi, dino opo arep arak-arak, bar kuwi kene slametan utawa gendurinan (wednesday, 05/23/2018)” it means "if an eruption will occur, then i will be given information through dreams, what day merapi will erupt, after which here do slametan or genduri events". based on this information, it can be understood if there is local wisdom that before the merapi eruption certain people such as spiritual figures were given edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 270 magical information. the "slametan" or "genduri" procession is carried out by inviting neighboring neighbors so that community gatherings occur. when the people gather they are given information from the spiritual leader that, merapi will erupt on a certain day (according to the information obtained by a spiritual figure) the community is expected to remain calm and alert. the results of an interview with m, that: "the people of wonolelo village still believe in magical matters related to events before the merapi disaster (friday, 09/20/2019)". local wisdom in wonolelo village before facing the merapi eruption still exists. figure 3. informant a is burning incense in the "genduri" procession (source: field data 2018 & 2019) b. during the merapi eruption the results of the interviews of the three informants who are domiciled on the southern slopes of merbabu that, the community should not point towards the mountain, because the community became focused on the eruption of the mountain and forgot to escape. the public must not ring a block, because it can cause panic. if people panic, it will disrupt the evacuation process. how to tell the public through codes without noise. for example, when you wake up a family member who is asleep by "tangi, simbah arep mlaku" while slowly awakened. "tangi, simbah arep mlaku" means that merapi mountain will experience an eruption and the awakened family members will understand. the informant as a whole gave the same explanation when the merapi eruption occurred. a, add that explanation “nek pas merapi mlaku, terus udan awu asline ora oleh nutup irung (masker) kanggo ngehormati simbah merapi, wong awune kuwi malah nyuburke tanduran(wednesday, 05/23/2018) ". the public is actually not allowed to wear a nose covering (mask) when an eruption occurs because to honor the "simbah merapi". edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 271 c. after the merapi eruption the results of the interview with t explained that, after the merapi eruption to remind the family through the song kinanthi, namely: “kinanthi pinongko pimut, nuju dinten senin pahing, ing wulan jumadil awal, catur ngesti boyowati, pajujuk kulo, catur ngesti januari (friday, 6/21/2019)”. the meaning of song is to warn the eruption of merapi in the past. the song explained that the merapi-merbabu valley community already had efforts to reduce the impact of the merapi eruption. through song, the merapi eruption that had occurred and led to the merapimerbabu valley became easy to remember and used as information material for the next generation. information material can be used as a disaster mitigation effort. the results of an interview with a, that: "mergo diparingi keslametan kabeh, syukuran nganggo gendurinan (wednesday, 05/23/2018)". the informant explained that although after experiencing the disaster in the form of the merapi eruption, but still grateful because it was still given safety. the results of interviews with m, that: "rehabilitation efforts from the village government, in collaboration with the district government. data collection is done immediately to help the community (friday, 09/20/2019) ". after the merapi eruption, the community and the government worked together to rebuild the affected villages. the community has local wisdom to respond to the merapi eruption, namely through the song "kinanthi", and through "genduri" to express the gratitude that god is still given salvation. the village government is rehabilitating, and carrying out relief efforts for affected communities is a form of support and does not conflict with existing local wisdom. 3.2 the history of the merapi eruption relates to local wisdom mount merapi has a history of eruptions with periods of repetition of different times, different intensities, and cause a number of fatalities. merapi can cause major eruptions or small eruptions that do not care so that it can cause disasters that are unprecedented in the edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 272 history of merapi (voight et al., 2000: 69). therefore, the government and the community need intensive coordination so that integrity can be established in responding to the merapi eruption. table 2. history of events and victims affected by the merapi eruption no years v.e.i number of victims interval (years) 1 1550 3 2 1555 3 5 3 1560 3 5 4 1585 3 15 5 1588 3 3 6 1658 3 70 7 1663 3 5 8 1672 3 3,000 9 9 1677 3 5 10 1678 3 1 11 1745 2 67 12 1752 2 7 13 1755 2 3 14 1768 2 13 15 1786 1 18 16 1791 2 5 17 1797 1 6 18 1807 1 10 19 1810 1 3 20 1812 1 2 21 1820 1 8 22 1822 3 2 23 1828 2 6 24 1832 3 6 25 1836 3 4 26 1840 1 4 edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 273 27 1846 3 6 28 1849 3 3 29 1861 2 3 30 1862 2 1 31 1865 2 3 32 1869 2 4 33 1872-1873 4 200 3 34 1878-1880 2 5 35 1883-1884 1 3 36 1885-1887 1 1 37 1888 2 1 38 1889 1 1 39 1891-1894 2 5 40 1897 2 3 41 1902-1904 2 5 42 1905-1906 2 1 43 1907-1908 1 1 44 1913 1 5 45 1915 1 2 46 1920 3 5 47 1923 2 3 48 1924 1 1 49 1929 3 5 50 1930-1931 3 1,369 1 51 1933-1934 2 2 52 1939 2 5 53 1942 3 3 54 1944 2 2 55 1948 2 4 56 1953 3 5 57 1953-1956 2 64 3 58 1957-1959 1 3 edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 274 59 1961 3 6 2 60 1967 2 6 61 1967-1969 2 3 2 62 1971 1 2 63 1972 3 1 64 1976-1979 2 28 4 65 1984 3 5 66 1984-1991 2 7 67 1992-1993 2 1 68 1994 2 66 1 69 1996 2 2 70 1997 2 1 71 1998 2 1 72 2001 2 3 73 2006 1 2 5 74 2010 4 367 4 75 2018 0 8 total 5103 source: voight et al,(2000); wilson et al., (2006); bnpb,(2010); gertisser et al, (2012); preece et al, (2014), dibyosaputro et al., (2016): 3; analisis (2018). a historical record of the largest eruption is in 1872-1873 and 2010. this eruption reached the volcanic explosivity index (vei) 4 of the lowest liver 1. merapi eruption in 2010 caused 367 people to die (bnpb, 2010 and jousset, 2010). vulnerable time of eruption , which reached volcanic explosivity index (vei) 4 is 138 years. the most frequent merapi eruption interval is five years. the fastest interval of the merapi eruption is one year. the longest occurrence of merapi eruption is 70 years. the average interval of occurrence of merapi eruptions is 5.8 years from 75 events. the number of victims during the merapi eruption record was 5103 inhabitants. mount merapi again shows its activities. in 2018 several phreatic eruptions occurred. chronology from june 1 to 2018. rumbling accompanied by tremors was felt up to a distance of 8 km from the peak of merapi, namely in wonolelo village. mount merapi eruption period is erratic, as evidenced in 2018 an eruption will occur and will be repeated as the history of the eruption of merapi. the eruption of edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 275 merapi which lasted a long time and repeated until now, forms local wisdom. sibarani (2013) that local wisdom is the original knowledge of the community obtained from noble values to regulate the order of life so that peace and prosperity. local wisdom also means wisdom (ridwan, 2007). local wisdom shaped the community to be wise in responding to the repeated eruptions of merapi. modernization, reliance on gadgets, and social media are opportunities but they can also be challenges. local wisdom has been known as a scientific instinct that is owned by the community from a hereditary experience. the interrupted relay in an age group can cause the fading of local wisdom. cahyadi (2013: 114) that, technological developments cause young people in indonesia not to recognize local wisdom, which is generally not written. in fact, local wisdom in the form of the ability to face disasters is proven to maintain the existing civilization (hardoyo et al., 2011; marfai, 2011; marfai & hizbaron, 2011; cahyadi, 2013). wonolelo village has youth resources aged 15-24 years amounting to 1,136 people in 2017 (kecamatan sawangan dalam angka, 2018), this is certainly increasing due to increasing population growth. the average number of young people who have a smartphone and social media makes them reluctant to learn about local wisdom to respond to disasters in wonolelo village. comparison with previous results of studies is local wisdom that begins to lose relay on children will easily become a vulnerability in responding to disasters. magelang regency has three aspects of vulnerability in addressing hazards, namely economic vulnerability, environmental vulnerability and structural vulnerability (cho, won, and kim, 2016: 5). adaptation to disasters must consider the condition of the community including local wisdom, it needs to be applied for various kinds of policymaking (inaotombi and mahanta, 2019). disaster knowledge could be passed on to future generations, especially in disaster prone areas (syahputra, 2019). collaboration between the government and the community will increase community knowledge related to disaster reduction (ikeda and nagasaka, 2011). after a disaster occurs, the community must be the subject of development, while the government only supports the community's needs and activities back to normal (kusumasari and alam, 2012). institutions are very important to increase community knowledge related to disasters (daly, 2015). edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 276 the advantage of this research compared to previous studies is the depth of qualitative analysis that emphasizes at each stage in efforts to reduce volcanic eruption disaster. the results of this study contribute to each institution and community in collaboration to reduce disaster risk in depth to aspects of local wisdom at each stage of disaster. wonolelo village also has the same vulnerability, because it is close to the peak of merapi, the majority of farmers, structurally the settlements are not yet resistant to earthquakes and local wisdom has begun to disappear. local wisdom can be integrated with government policies in tackling the disaster of the merapi eruption so as to avoid casualties. 4. conclusion local wisdom in responding to the merapi eruption in wonolelo village still exists today. local wisdom is divided into three segments, namely before, during and after the eruption of merapi. local wisdom before the merapi eruption is a notification that merapi eruption activity will occur. local wisdom during the merapi eruption in the form of a prohibition not to do activities that could cause panic and attention of the masses, so forget to save themselves immediately. local wisdom after the merapi eruption took the form of an invitation to the community to interpret it as a blessing, not a disaster and the community immediately started their activities as before. local wisdom in wonolelo village has challenges in the form of modernization and not running the local wisdom relay to young people. the government should look at local wisdom as a barrier to policy, but it can be a good collaboration in an effort to respond to the catastrophic eruption of merapi. local wisdom, generally not written and not massively taught by parents to children or youth, can cause the loss of the relay of perpetrators of local wisdom, so local wisdom education needs to be held through formal and non-formal education. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the article. edi widodo and hastuti/ geosi vol 4 no 3 (2019) 264-279 277 references andreastuti, s.d., newhall, c., dwiyanto, j. 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(2007). impacts of the 2006 eruption of merapi volcano, indonesia, on agriculture and infrastructure. gns science report, 2007/07 hal. 1-69. 102 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.30875 review article worldwide efficiency of bioremediation techniques for organic pollutants in soil: a brief review sana akhtar1, ayesha mohsin1*, aiman riaz1, farhan mohsin2 1department of environmental sciences, kinnaird college for women, 93jail road, lahore, pakistan 2oslo metropolitan university, pilestredet park 0890, 0176 oslo, norway *corresponding author, email address : ayeshamohsin51@gmail.com 1. introduction organic compounds synthesized naturally or anthropogenically have always been stored in the soil. soil pollution is a major human and environmental issue (rajavel et al., 2014). organic contaminants, in general, retain in relatively low quantities in the soil and accumulate over time (alvarenga et al., 2018). despite continuously growing levels, the low levels of organic pollutants in the impacted soil make a time-constrained toxicological investigation impossible (bajaj et al., 2015). such organic toxins are both hydrophobic and lipophilic in nature, and they can be found in soil in any geographical location of the world due to natural processes such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, etc. as well as some anthropogenic practices (ritter et al., 1995). these abstract soil pollution is a major human and environmental issue. among the several components of soil degradation, organic contaminant in soil is regarded as a significant factor that causes considerable damage to the environment along with several health dangers to humans. polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, poly-brominated biphenyls, organic fuels particularly gasoline and diesel, herbicides, insecticides (carbamate and organophosphorus) are by far the most common forms of organic pollutants identified in soils. the employment of living organisms such as microorganisms and plants in bioremediation technology reduces/degrades, eliminates, and transforms pollutants found in soils, sediments, and water. this review examine and critically view the efficiency of bioremediation techniques for the polluted sites. the most common bioremediation technologies for the treatment of organic pollutants are bioventing, bio-sparging, bio-slurping, bioaugmentation, phytoremediation, bio-immobilization, bio-sorption, composting, land farming, aerobic degradation, co-metabolic and natural attenuation. the efficiency of these techniques depends on the ph, type of soil, level of oxygen, any other electron acceptors, temperature, and the nutrients. selection of the treatment process depends upon the type of pollutant, concentration of the contaminant, site and source of pollution. all the treatment techniques are not good for all type of pollutants. cost-effective techniques are mostly used worldwide as they have more public acceptance. pump and treat methods were mostly used in past but due to its non-reliability and excessive cost, these techniques are no longer in use. keywords : bioremediation techniques; soil pollution; organic pollutants; efficiency, environmental contamination article info received : 15 june 2022 revised : 26 march 2023 accepted : 10 march 2023 published : 18 april 2023 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 8 no. 1, april 2023, 102-116 © 2023 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.30875 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 103 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 organic contaminants entered the plant system via various plant mechanisms. although some organic waste components are biodegradable, metalloids and heavy metals pose a new concern owing to their long-term stability in the soil (amoakwah et al.,2014). organic pollutants' impact on the environment can be mitigated to some extent by implementing some bioremediation technologies (fuentes et al., 2010). because of its ability to remove numerous organic and inorganic toxins from diverse components of the environment, the technique has received increasing adoption in recent years. natural remediation of organic and inorganic pollutants is provided by the technology through insitu and ex-situ environments (aparicio et al., 2015). microbes and plants have both been used to achieve maximal disposal and remediation of inorganic and organic pollutants (bhupinder et al., 2017). overall, bioremediation can be a useful tool for treating soil contaminated with a wide range of organic pollutants. by using microorganisms that can break down or metabolize these compounds, bioremediation can help to reduce the environmental impact of pollution and promote the health of ecosystems. table 1. types of soil that are frequently exploited and can be treated by bioremediation type of exploited soil description petroleum-contaminated soils these soils are contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons, such as gasoline or diesel fuel, and can be treated by bioremediation using microorganisms that break down these compounds into non-toxic substances heavy metal-contaminated soils these soils are contaminated with toxic heavy metals, such as lead, arsenic, or cadmium, and can be treated by bioremediation using plants or microorganisms that can absorb or precipitate these metals. pesticide-contaminated soils these soils are contaminated with chemical pesticides, such as organochlorines or organophosphates, and can be treated by bioremediation using microorganisms that break down these compounds into non-toxic substances chlorinated solvent-contaminated soils these soils are contaminated with chlorinated solvents, such as trichloroethylene (tce) or perchloroethylene (pce), and can be treated by bioremediation using microorganisms that degrade these compounds into non-toxic substances. polychlorinated biphenyl (pcb)-contaminated soils these soils are contaminated with pcbs, which are toxic and persistent organic pollutants, and can be treated by bioremediation using microorganisms that degrade these compounds into non-toxic substances. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) contaminated soils these are organic pollutants that are formed during incomplete combustion of fossil fuels or biomass. they can accumulate in soil and can be toxic to plants and animals. bioremediation can be used to break down pahs using microorganisms that can metabolize these compounds. volatile organic compounds (vocs) contaminated soils these are organic pollutants that can evaporate into the air and can be toxic to humans and animals. examples include benzene, toluene, and xylene. bioremediation can be used to treat soil contaminated with vocs using microorganisms that can metabolize these compounds. 104 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (ppcps) these are organic pollutants that are commonly found in wastewater and can end up in soil. examples include antibiotics, hormones, and fragrances. bioremediation can be used to treat soil contaminated with ppcps using microorganisms that can metabolize these compounds. source: (yoon et al. 2020), (wang et al. 2016) and (mukherjee & kumar 2019) controlling and optimising bioremediation operations seems to be a complex system with numerous variables (babaei et al., 2020). these elements includes the incidence of a micro-flora capable of degrading pollutants, the availability of pollutants to the microbial community; and environmental factors (ph, type of soil, level of oxygen, any other kind of electron acceptors, temperature, and the nutrients) (asiegbu et al., 2015). depending on the saturation level and aeration in a given area, various strategies are used (sidhu et al., 2018). in situ procedures are those that are employed to groundwater and soil, on-site with the minimal disruption (borriss et al., 2020). ex-situ procedures are those that are employed on groundwater and soil that has been extracted from a site through excavation (soil) (vidali et al., 2001). 2. bioremediation technologies for organic pollutants 2.1 bioventing the bioventing technique introduces air/oxygen into contaminated media/soil at a pace optimized to maximize in-situ biodegradation while minimizing/eliminating off gassing of volatilized pollutants into the air/atmosphere (wozniak-karczewaska et al., 2019). bioventing, as opposed to bio-sparging, that entails pumping air nutrients into the saturated zone, simply pumps air into the unsaturated or vadose zone. bioventing also destroys less volatile organic pollutants because it requires less air, it can treat soils that are less permeable (mihopoulos et al., 2002). 2.2 biosparging the idea driving bio-sparging is basically that nutrients and air is inserted into the layers of soil below the water table, where they will help naturally occurring organisms degrade toxins. microorganisms native to the area are typically used in this in situ method (dzinonek et al., 2016). it can be used for the treatment various types of petroleum products that have been dissolved in groundwater, that have become adsorbent to the soil just below water table as well as within the capacity of capillary fringe (zeneli et al., 2019). it is frequently employed in conjunction to sve, particularly when volatile compounds are present (muehlberger et al., 1997). 2.3 bio-slurping bio-slurping is a revolutionary in-situ remediation system that combines aspects of vacuumenhanced pumping and bioventing, to recover free product from soil and groundwater while encouraging aerobic bioremediation of hydrocarbons pollutants (mapeli et al., 2017). vacuum extraction removes free product as well as some groundwater from the vadose zone; vapor extraction eliminates high volatility vapors from vadose zone; whereas bioventing improves biodegradation in both the capillary fringe as well as the vadose zone (roy et al., 2018). the bioslurping system comprises of one or more wells where a slurp tube of an adjustable length is inserted. the slurp tube, which is coupled to a vacuum pump, is descended into a light nonaqueous phase of liquid layer and extracts free product as well as some groundwater. when lnapl levels drop somewhat as a result of pumping action, the slurp tube removes vapors (va por extraction) (speight, 2018). all the liquids (solution of product and groundwater) extracted from a slurp tube are routed to the oil/water separator, while the vapors are routed to the liquid/vapor separator (bodor et al., 2020). 105 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 2.4 bio-augmentation introduction of microbes with specialized catabolic capacities into a polluted environment for supplementation of the indigenous population as well as to speed up or enable pollutant breakdown is known as bio-augmentation (zaneti et al., 2017). efficacy of bio-augmentation process is a topic of debate, with both positive and bad findings documented. bio-augmentation has been shown to be effective in the remediation of poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments with low or zero intrinsic degradation capacity. other investigations, however, found that bio-augmentation did not significantly improve biodegradation in contrast to natural attenuation (major et al., 2006). 2.4 phytoremediation phytoremediation techniques are largely distinguished by the structure and functions of the plants. first, phyto-stabilization occurs when plant roots immobilize pollutants such as those deposited in the root surface along with pollutants that are precipitated in root zones (awa et al., 2020). this method was typically used to decontaminate inorganic compounds, such as oil that included nitrogen, sulphur, and some heavy metals. secondly, rhizo-filtration, which occurs when plant roots precipitate contaminants in root zones or absorb polluted solutions into the roots (cristaldi et al., 2020). this procedure was appropriate for a solution including both organic and inorganic components. third, rhizo-degradation, which occurs when pollutants are broken down by bacteria in the root zone and is aided by fungi, yeast, and plant exudates like alcohol, sugar, and acids (ashraf et al., 2019). the method was suitable for the detoxification of organic contaminants. in the fourth place, phyto-extraction is done, which involves the absorption of contaminants by plant roots and subsequent transport into plant organs. this method was appropriate for decontaminating inorganic compounds (limmmer et al., 2016). fifth, phyto-degradation, which involves the transformation of ingested contaminants via plant metabolic or enzymatic activities (abdel shafy et al., 2018). sixth, phyto-volatilization, in which ingested contaminants are discharged into the atmosphere as liquid vapor (ganjar et al., 2012). 2.6 bio-immobilization bio-immobilization is a bioremediation technique used for the treatment of organic pollutants in soil. in this technique, microorganisms are immobilized in a matrix such as a gel, foam, or membrane, which is then applied to the contaminated soil. the immobilized microorganisms degrade the organic pollutants in the soil, while the matrix helps to protect them from environmental stresses and maintain their activity over a longer period of time. the immobilization mechanism is a biological phenomenon that is governed by bacteria that eat inorganic nitrogen and produce organic forms of biological macromolecules and amino acids (cristorean et al., 2016). mineralization and immobilization occur continuously and concurrently, transforming nitrogen from an inorganic to an organic state by immobilization and back from an organic to an inorganic state by breakdown and mineralization (battleaguilar et al., 2011). the use of bioimmobilization is an alternate remediation method for reducing the risk posed by pollutants that cannot be biodegraded, such as metals, metalloids, radionuclides, or persistent organic pollutants that can be biotransformed reasonably easily but not biodegraded. overall, the efficiency of bio-immobilization for the treatment of organic pollutants in soil depends on a variety of factors, including the type and concentration of pollutants, the characteristics of the soil, and the design of the immobilization system. however, studies have shown that bioimmobilization can be an effective and sustainable bioremediation technique for the treatment of contaminated soil (mateju et al., 2010). 2.7 bio-sorption heavy metal and organic compound bio-sorption occurs as a result of physicochemical reactions between functional groups and metal on the bio-sorbent's surface. ion exchange, physical adsorption, and chemical sorption are among the mechanisms involved, which are unrelated to metabolism (salehi et al., 2017). microorganisms' cell walls are mostly lipids, proteins 106 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 and polysaccharides with amino, phosphate, sulphate and carboxyl groups to create interactions with metals and their complexes. this type of bio-sorption happens quickly and can be reversed (mustapha et al., 2015). 2.8 composting composting is the type of aerobic process that uses microbes to breakdown organic substances, resulting in thermogenesis and the formation of inorganic and organic chemicals (macaulay et al., 2014). composting matrices and composts are high in xenobiotic decomposing microorganisms including actinomycetes, bacteria, and lingo-lytic fungus, which can breakdown pollutants to harmless chemicals like carbon dioxide and water (semple et al., 2001). 2.9 land farming land farming is a bioremediation technique that involves spreading contaminated soil on an area of land and then promoting the growth of microorganisms in the soil to degrade the organic pollutants (li et al., 2020). the most common type some common land farming techniques used for the treatment of organic pollutants in soilis bioaugmentation and biostimulation. bioaugmentation, microorganisms that are known to degrade specific organic pollutants are added to the contaminated soil to accelerate the biodegradation process. the microorganisms can be added as pure cultures or as a mixed consortium of microorganisms. bioaugmentation has been shown to be effective in treating soil contaminated with hydrocarbons, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) and petroleum hydrocarbons (haritash & kaushik, 2016). biostimulation, the growth of indigenous microorganisms in the contaminated soil is stimulated through the addition of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and other growth-promoting substances. biostimulation can enhance the activity of the microorganisms already present in the soil, thereby accelerating the biodegradation of organic pollutants (liu & yang, 2021). it is the technique has been commonly used by mineral oil-processing industries. it is very cost effective and simple technique for the treatment of pahs due to oil spills (juwarkar et al., 2010). this technique was first used by us to treat industrial oil waste (sayara et al., 2010). land farming converts the toxic oil waste into simpler compounds such as water and carbon dioxide. however its efficiency is effected by the release of volatile organic compunds to the atmosphere, during the early stages of the remediation process (okere et al., 2012, wick et al., 2011). 2.10 aerobic degradation it is the in-situ technique that is used for the treatment of hydrocarbon in the polluted soil. this technique is usually used for the treatment of hazardous material, as it is the cost effective treatment for oil spills (hmidet et al., 2019). a crude oil contains different toxic compounds, so the single strain of bacteria is not enough for the treatment. bio slurry is the technique used in the combination with aerobic degradation with aerobic degradation to increase the efficiency of the treatment process (venkateswar et al., 2010, venkata et al., 2010). 2.11 co-metabolic cometabolic bioremediation is a technique used for the treatment of organic pollutants in soil. in this technique, microorganisms are stimulated to degrade pollutants in the presence of a primary substrate that is not itself degraded. the primary substrate serves as a source of energy and nutrients for the microorganisms, while the degradation of the organic pollutant occurs as a side reaction (yang et al., 2016). it is in-situ bioremediation toluene injection technique effective for the removal of tce (tricycloethylene) (banerjee et al., 2010). this technique gives the efficiency between87-99% depending upon the hydrogeological characteristics of the site (arulazhagan et al., 2011; fukushima et al., 2011). overall, cometabolic bioremediation is a promising technique for the treatment of organic pollutants in soil, particularly for pollutants that are difficult to degrade using other bioremediation techniques. however, the efficiency of the technique depends on a variety of factors, including the availability and suitability of the primary substrate, the characteristics of the soil, and the design of the bioremediation system (mangwani et al., 2020). 107 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 2.12 natural attenuation it is the low cost soil remediation technique as it has no adverse effect on human and environment. it is used for the treatment of chemical spills (iniguez franco et al., 2016). it is mostly used in the groundwater aquifers where the pollution source is covered. it is non-engineered, natural and slow biodegradation process which requires long term monitoring (gohil et al., 2014; khodakovskaya et al., 2013). natural attenuation is mainly used for btex and chlorinated hydrocarbons. biofilteration is used to remove vocs and inorganic gases conventionally by incineration and chemical scrubbing. removal of contaminant gases depends upon the soil porosity. sufficient time is required for the complete removal of pollutants (jin et al., 2014). 3. discussion bioventing is used to treat the petroleum pollutants such as diesel. it is 95% effective for tph. bioventing is easy to install and maintain. it requires less treatment times. it requires highly permeable soil for good efficiency. it is effective for unsaturated or vadose zone. too much concentration of pollutant may affect the process efficiency. it is also a cost-effective process. (li, et al., 2011). biosparging is usually applied to the site where there are homogenous soil conditions. presence of silt and sand can affect the efficiency of the process. it is not effective for nonbiodegradable compounds and only effective for vocs treatment. cost of the treatment process depends upon the thickness of the saturated zone (girma et al., 2015). bio-slurping is usually applied to the sites where there is shallow ground water below 30m. it is used to speed up the natural remediation process in the unsaturated zone of soil. low permeability of soil may negatively affect the treatment efficiency. too much or too little moisture content affects the microbial activity. it is the cost-effective treatment process but the low temperatures may results in decreasing the speed of the whole treatment process (sabale et al., 2012; dixit et al., 2015) in order to improve the efficiency of the process, bioagumentation is the process in which we usually use microbial consortium instead of pure culture. this improves the efficiency of the whole process from 60% to 75% within the time period of 42 days. the overall efficiency of the bioaugmentation depends upon the temperature. ph, moisture content, nutrient level and the type of pollutant. bioagumentation is effective for the treatment of pahs mostly (kulshrshtha et al., 2014). phytoremediation is usually applied to heavy metals, pcbs, pahs, insecticides, surfactants, explosives, etc. this technique has minimum environmental impacts. it can be used to treat various compounds cost-effectively but it requires proper disposal of the used plants. flooding and drought may negatively affect the efficiency of phytoremediation. pollutants are converted into less harmful or simpler compounds such as water and carbon dioxide. biomobilization is the treatment of the contaminated zone to avoid human and animal exposure. the process depends upon the depth of biological activity in soil and the depth of the polluted area. if the contaminated zone is out of the reach of animals and plants specie, then we leave the site to be naturally treated with the passage of time (bell et al., 2014). biosorption is the cost effective method for the treatment of heavy metals in the soil. it is a cost effective and easy to maintain remediation technique. it requires some optimal parameters such as temperature, organism population for the effective treatment process. temperature should be maintained at 40-45°c. different types of bacterial strain used in the process affect the efficiency of the treatment process. most effective bacteria for biosorption are proteus mirabilis and bacillus subtilis (barruita et al., 2010). 108 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 table 2. comparison of efficiencies of the different treatment technologies sr. no. treatment technologies pollutants to be treated efficiency 1. bioventing petroleum pollutants / tph / diesel 95% 2. biosparging vocs 95-99% 3. bio-slurping pahs 85% 4. bioagumentation pahs 75% 5. phytoremediation heavy metals / pcbs / pahs / insecticides/ explosives, etc. 95% 6. biomobilization pahs 90% 7. biosorption heavy metals 95% 8. composting pahs 99% 9. aerobic degradation hazardous materials / tph / pahs 95% 10. land farming pahs /oil spills 99% 11. co-metabolic degradation tce 87-99% 12. biofilteration vocs / inorganic gases 99% 13. natural attenuation btex and chlorinated hydrocarbons 95-99% source: (uqab et al., 2016; adams et al., 2015). the efficiency of composting depends upon temperature, moisture content which should be 60%, ph should be 6-7.5, aeration rate should be 5-15%, nutrient content includes c:n:p which should be 100:10:1 and porosity of the soil. all the values must be in the optimal range (carre et al., 2017; asts, 2010). biodegrading process of pahs depends upon the biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil, environmental conditions and waste type. soil polluted with pahs contains low organic content and high c: n ratio, microbes are already rich in that type of soil (usepa, 2012). this result in increasing the moisture content of soil and affecting the efficiency of soil, thus composting integrated with land farming provides better degradation of organic waste as it provides additional carbon to the soil. the purpose of this strategy is to convert the harmful material into less toxic or harmless compounds such as carbon dioxide and water (bolton et al., 2012). some important parameters that must be considered while applying the land farming technique are the type of microorganisms which should be heterotrophic bacteria’s, moisture content should be between 30-85%, nutrient availability c:n:p should be 100:10:1 but 100:10:0.5 is also acceptable, ph range must be between 6-8, temperature of the soil should be between 1045°c. soil must be porous for the effective efficiency of the process (othman et al., 2011; zhang et al., 2011). some physical, biological and chemical parameters affect the efficiency of the land farming process which includes the concentration, type and level of contaminants (hmidet et al., 2019). this process requires a very long time to achieve the efficient results. microbial population could also act as a limiting factor, if the microbial population is less than 1000 cfu per gram, it could decrease the process efficiency. furthermore, if heavy metals are present along with pahs, it could negatively affect the efficiency of land farming (cui et al., 2013). domestic sewage is usually added to the contaminated soil as microbial base in the slurry reactors under aerobic conditions for aerobic degradation. microbial diversity increases the biodegradability rate. degradation process requires 10-15 days (lukic et al., 2017). most of the 109 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 efficiency could be achieved by using control conditions and by applying different bacteria strains. ph should be maintained at 7 during the process. do must be kept at 4mg/l (rocha e silva et al., 2019). this technique is very effective on total petroleum hydrocarbons (tph) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) (oberoi et al., 2015). during the process of co-metabolic degradation, under balanced flow conditions 86% of tce could be removed during 80 days (jiang et al., 2018). there are some degradation in the process as toluene is difficult to be treated once added to the ground water. as long as the nutrient level is maintained in the aquifers the degradation process continues with good efficiency. but toluene is biodegradable anaerobically, so if the system fails to maintain oxygen level, the efficiency of the treatment process may not be affected (campos et al., 2019). low conductivity in the aquifers can clog the aquifers due to excessive biological growth; this can also reduce the efficiency of the whole process. hydrogen peroxide is used to solve the problem which is an expensive chemical. this issue can be resolved by having larger sized materials than the fine in aquifers (jiang et al., 2014; megharaj et al., 2011). natural attenuation gives the maximum efficiency in completely destroying the contaminant. it is the most acceptable method due to its cost effectiveness. this technique has some limitations depending upon the site and characteristics of the pollutant as it requires longer time periods. inorganic contaminants are difficult to treat by this method due to the lack of knowledge. by products can be toxic for the environment so regular monitoring is required (wu et al., 2012). in biofilteration, moisture content must be present in soil in order to improve the efficiency of process. soil bacteria’s like pseudomonas and nacardia are used for biofilteration technique (invally et al., 2019). soil bed temperature should be maintained between 10-60°c, to achieve this temperature soil may need to be heated or cooled down a bit. this process is 99%effective for gases but ineffective for halogenated compounds (ren et al., 2015; rajavel et al., 2014). 4. conclusion contaminants enter the soil directly or through spills, leakage, accidents or disposals. problems related to clean up the contaminated site emphasis that there is need to develop the treatment methods which are eco-friendly and cost-effective as well. many techniques are present to treat different type of contaminants. selection of the treatment process depends upon the type of pollutant, concentration of the contaminant, site and source of pollution. all the treatment techniques are not good for all type of pollutants. as the biological treatment technologies are good for petroleum pollutants. cost-effective techniques are mostly used worldwide as they have more public acceptance. pump and treat methods were mostly used in past but due to its nonreliability and excessive cost, these techniques are no longer in use. declarations conflict of interest the authors declare that in the research and preparation of this article, there are no conflict of interests related to certain organizations, institutions, and individuals or groups. ethical approval on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that the paper satisfies ethical standards conditions, no human participants, or animals are involved in the research. informed consent on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that no human participants are involved in the research and, therefore, informed consent is not required by them. 110 sana akhtar et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 102-116 data availability data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. references abdel-shafy, h. i., & mansour, m. s. m. 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(2011). remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) contaminated soil through composting with fresh organic wastes. environmental science and pollution research international, 18(9), 1574–1584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0521-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.431 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.06.046 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122556 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103054 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0521-5 2. bioremediation technologies for organic pollutants 3. discussion 4. conclusion 318 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 development of multimedia learning geography based on adobe flash to increase students’ curiosity wahid yuda rejeki* and m. mukminan departement of geography education, yogyakarta state university, jl. colombo no.1, karang malang,yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *corresponding author : yudharejeki@gmail.com received 7 december 2019/ revised 10 october 2020 / accepted 23 november 2020/ published 30 december 2020 abstract this study aimed to analyze: (1) the needs of multimedia adobe flash-based towards geographic learning, (2) geography multimedia learning of adobe flash-based to increase students' curiosity, and (3) the feasibility of utilizing geography multimedia based on adobe flash-based learning using addie method. the needs of multimedia learning assessment data were collected through questionnaires towards respondents (2 teachers and 32 students). meanwhile, regarding the feasibility of multimedia geography learning to increase students' curiosity, data were gathered both by tests and questionnaires. the feasibility assessment was performed with expert validation instruments and student assessments. the data analysis tool utilized was one-way anova. the study results as follows: (1) students needs of geography multimedia learning based on adobe flash, (2) for effectiveness rate of multimedia and treatment, fcount = 20,875> ftable = 3.99, indicates that geography learning based on adobe flash is can escalate students’ curiosity, (3) based on experts judgments and the students’ assessments, it could be concluded that the geography multimedia learning based on adobe flash is 91.4%, hence it is very suitable to be implemented. multimedia learning based on adobe flash geography has increased students' curiosity and feasible to implement. keywords: adobe flash; geography; multimedia; curiosity 1. introduction education serves to improve the ability and to establish the national honour and custom in term of intellectual aspect that aims to develop students potential in order to become whole human beings, have faith, valuable character, healthy, skilled, creative, independent, and being democratic and responsible citizens. indah et al. (2018), stated that education plays a crucial role in indonesia in improving the quality of human resources. learning is the process in creating a relationship between something (knowledge) that has been known and something (knowledge) that is unfamiliar al-tabany (2014). based on this concept, the learning dimension contains several elements, namely: (1) relationship geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 318-334, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i3.14765 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 301-317, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:yudharejeki@gmail.com https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 319 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 establishment; (2) things (knowledge) that have been acknowledged; and (3) things (knowledge) that are unknown. thereby, in the sense of learning, it is inseperable towards things that are completely unknown (zero), but it relates two existing knowledge with new ones. learning is a mental process. learning emphasizes the process of acquisition and finding knowledge through interactions between individuals and the environment. in term of learning, the educational process in schools not only emphasizes the accumulation of knowledge but also emphasizes the priority of students ability to construct their own knowledge (sanjaya, 2016). the achievements of these objectives are inseparable towards all components that integrate upon education, which the components are interrelated. mukminan (2018), stated that academic learning activities go effectively and achieve the expected goals once efforts are being made to create a conducive learning climate to establish an effective education system. learning climate has become social-academic beliefs, habits, and behaviour that generate academic custom. academic climate might be developed through decent interaction between teachers, students, appreciation for students’ achievement, being supportive of student behaviour, discipline, collaborative leadership, a collaboration between teachers, professional system development, and goals that will be achieved altogether. a constructive learning environment according to schunk (2012) provides issues which are significantly relevance to students, organizing learning material key concepts, investigating and appreciating students' perspectives, implementing curriculum in order to take into account students' perspective, and assessing student learning in the context of teaching. pang & runesson (2019), stated that learning focuses on a particular learning object, namely abilities, skills or values that are expected to be achieved by students. the major focus of learning is determining how students could be supported to adapt towards certain learning objects in a proper method. one of which is multimedia learning. according to arsyad (2002), multimedia learning utilization as an integral part of learning within the classroom or as a primary tool of direct learning shows a positive impact on learning. another explanation according to harjanto (2011) defined learning multimedia as everything that could be used to transmit information or lesson content, to stimulate the mind, feelings, attention, and students abilities. hence, multimedia is capable to encourage the process of teaching and learning. media is the learning resource, thus in broad context learning media could be associated towards humans, objects or events that enable students to obtain knowledge and skills (agustien et al., 2018). according to the interviews performed with geography teachers at ma sunan pandanaran, multimedia learning of geography utilized by teachers was tend to be 320 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 homogenous. the teachers were accustomed to conventional learning. school only provided the textbooks as the sources of basic learning and student worksheets as support. the books in term of texts have the tendency to be informative. thus, textbooks do not usually attract the students’ interests during the learning process. the textbooks provided were also limited numbers as one book was shared for two students. multimedia learning was also limited to power point or video. the lack of variety in multimedia learning enhances learning to be less attractive, that will have an impact on students' interest and curiosity in learning. curiosity is a conditional aspect of students development. each knowledge will bring a curiosity towards things. the curiosity will raise in more depth sense and eventually the desire arises for the students to be able to master it. thereby, it requires an effective, innovative and attractive multimedia learning of geography to assist students to embrace geography material. regarding the results of observations and interviews obtained, it is necessary to develop a learning media that could escalate the students’ interests in learning. a learning media that is rarely applied in learning does not require internet of the network. it can be operated in various types of computer or laptop with any specifications but students could still interact actively. in order to establish effective and interesting learning conditions, depends on instructional media engagement (atapukang, 2016). thus, it is not surprising that media engagement is one of the factors determining students’ achievement. this occurs since learning media proposes significant effect towards motivation, interests, and capable in visualising objects that helps students in learning. ones who can think critically are those who obtain high curiosity, extensive experience, full of confidence, and open-minded (indah et al., 2018). multimedia learning acts as a bridge between students and teachers to exchange messages between the teacher as the sender and the student as the recipient. multimedia is a combination of digital technology for managing text, photos, graphic arts, sound, animation, and video (vaughan, 2011). the combination of all the elements to generate something and can be operated anywhere is known as interactive multimedia. the development of computer technology is growing rapidly. and then the role of power point (ppt) slides could be replaced by several types of applications, one of the software that can be used is adobe flash (istiono, 2008). adobe flash is a professional standard for generating web animations, graphics, audio, and video processing capabilities and also accommodating materials into an animation called a movie. adobe flash as a tutorial model is an application that supports the development of multimedia learning, with various features available enable developers to be creative to create high-quality learning media (prasetyo & ginting, 2019). 321 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 hence, it will likely be able to improve students' learning understanding. there are several advantages, the final file (after publishing) is very low and lightweight as it is easy to operate and the results can be applied to all computer specifications. adobe flash cs6 is the basis for developing the latest simulation model of computer assistance instruction (cai) learning programs (hidayati, 2017). critical thinking skills have a solid connection towards curiosity (zetriuslita et al., 2017). this attitude serves as the initial step of skill. students' curiosity at the stage of current phenomena is included in the excellent category which can be identified by asking questions frequently, persistent, enthusiastic and actively observing activities to figure new information related to phenomena or problems being faced (ulva et al., 2017). teaching strategies and levels of curiosity likely affect achievement in reading comprehension (gurning & siregar, 2017). it was concluded by hsee & ruan (2016), that curiosity encourages people to search for information that provides not only immediate pleasure or long-term benefits, but has a genuine desire to resolve curiosity. the educational environment must offer students the opportunity to develop 21stcentury skills in the age of computerization. the presence of computers in the sense of education provides a very important impact, especially for the teaching and learning process for instance, the utilization multimedia learning technology (arifin et al., 2018). utilization of multimedia technology as a learning medium could support teaching and learning activities become more interesting and enjoyable. ghani & daud (2018) argued that addie is one of the most popular research models among all instructional and is constantly updated and implemented in many large organizations. each phase of the model possesses different procedural steps. the issues being investigated of this research are as follows: (1) how the needs of multimedia in term of adobe flash-based geography learning, (2) how the multimedia of adobe flash-based of geography learning increase students' curiosity, and (3) how is the feasibility of utilizing multimedia utilization of adobe flash-based of geography learning engaging the addie method. there are some significances of this research, as namely: (1) assisting students to understand and fathom geography learning materials, and (2) provide real insight for teachers relating the importance of using various learning resources, such as multimedia of geography learning that might be developed independently by the teacher in the future. the purposes of this research are (1) identify the needs of multimedia adobe flash-based geography learning, (2) generate multimedia of adobe flash-based geography learning to increase 322 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 students' curiosity, and (3) investigate the feasibility of utilizing multimedia based on adobe flash-based geography learning using addie method. 2. methods the method utilized in developing multimedia based on adobe flash geography is research and development. the study was conducted at ma sunan pandanaran. instructional design models could assist plan establishment and implement a curriculum to meet learning needs (cheung, 2016). the model employed in this study was addie. branch (2009) explained addie stands for analyze, design, develop, implement and evaluation. addie has been widely applied in learning environment that has been designed suitable for learning objectives. this statement is supported by sugiyono (2015) stated that addie is an abbreviation of the development stage, which starts from the analysis, design, development or production, implementation or delivery, and evaluations stages to generate learning products in the form of learning multimedia that could be utilized within the learning process. the procedures of the multimedia product development model in this stage are namely : a) analysis phase, the preliminary study include observations and interviews to investigate and identify the issues upon learning activities process. b) design phase, at this stage, it is used as a reference in designing multimedia of geography learning engaging literature studies and needs analysis which is then performed in detail development. c) development phase, development stage as a merger between planning and development phases of products that composed of activities that determine the objectives, the parties involved, development, formulate forms of participation, work procedures and due diligence. d) recognizing implementation, at this stage, after the product is being validated, the product in the form of multimedia development of geography learning is implemented in the classroom learning in order to investigate the increase of student learning outcomes. e) evaluation phase, at this stage, the product is being evaluated as a revised form derived based on implementation. if deficiencies are still found, an evaluation is necessary. addie model is one of the most commonly used models in learning to design or generate a product (aldoobie, 2015). this model significantly assists designers to develop a variety of content such as instructional designs making by the teachers. the addie model is not only based on theory and research but also various experiences and applications (dick et al., 2015). the feature of the addie model could be related to understanding a practical 323 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 recipe book. starting with using recipes from one's kitchen, own ingredients, and a little touch of their own work will result in a different product. recipes can still be changed by different steps and replacing ingredients, even though the initial stages are still the same, namely analysis,mdesign,mdevelopment,mimplementation,mandmevaluation. figurem1. addiemmodel (dick et al., 2015) addie model is an abbreviation to describe the process-based approach to develop learning content or product derived from instructional design (hess & greer, 2016). the addie model can be summed up as a colloquial term to describe a system in thematic design, one of which is the development of virtual learning (molenda, 2015). the development of learning multimedia using adobe flash is expected to escalate students' curiosity. curiosity is a conditional aspect of students’ development. every knowledge brings up one's curiosity about something new. curiosity has a solid relation towards the significance of multimedia or technology either supporting or even diminishing (arnone et al., 2011). curiosity is the desire for the new information or experience as the result of a new environment either driven by something that is unknown or a dynamic environment, hence that feeling of satisfaction and dissatisfaction emerge. curiosity behaviour can be connected to a natural human impulse to learn and develop (nugroho, 2019). curiosity is an aspect of motivation that has the significant potential to improve the quality of student learning (pluck & johnson, 2011). curiosity is a form of intrinsic motivation in organizing active learning to explore things that were not previously known (oudeyer et al., 2016). curiosity is one of the main bases of an education that is efficient, fun, and could foster motivation, thus it could be a solution to the challenges of education in the 21st century. analysis’ implementation’ development’ design’ evaluation’ 324 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 in terms of the attitude of curiosity, curiosity is one of the scientific attitudes (zetriuslita et al., 2019). individuals who are passionate to figure about science, are productive, open-minded, entrepreneurs, problem solvers, and lifelong learning, need to be trained and new needs that arise in education must be met (erdogan & ciftci, 2017). the evaluation phase was performed after the previous stages were completed. then the final product, namely the development of multimedia learning based on adobe flash geography. the trial was conducted in two stages, namely small group trials and field trials, small group trials consisted of 6 students and field trials involved one class. one-way anova was used to analyze the data. the feasibility of multimedia learning of geography learning material is recognized through an ability test of 32 students from xi iis 1 ma sunan pandanaran. this research type is development research (multimedia development) conducted at ma sunan pandanaran. quantitative data in this study were obtained from questionnaire results questioning the multimedia needs of adobe flash-based geography learning to identify the level of needs and pretest-posttest to asssess students' curiosity. qualitative data were collected based on content experts, media experts, and two geography subject teachers to assess the quality and feasibility of adobe flash-based geography learning multimedia to be developed. the subjects of this study were 32 students of class xi iis 1. the design of this study utilized the addie model. the addie model has 5 stages, namely: (1) analyze, (2) design, (3) development, (4) implementation, and (5) evaluation. data collection techniques were conducted through observation, documentation, and questionnaires. validation was conducted by experts and product trials were also performed. the experts employed validation assessment of material and media. 3. results and discussion 3.1 multimedia needs based on the study results, it can be seen that the students who answered the most on the first statement were always interested that every geography lesson took place as many as 20 students (62%) decided it. detailed multimedia and the feasibility of it could be used as a source of learning were answered by 12 students (37%) with answers sometimes feeling pleased. teaching materials that provided information upon surrounding were answered by 18 students (56%) with always pleasing answers. teaching materials that were being visualized or displayed on electronic multimedia, encouraged 21 students to answer that they were always glad (66%). in the statement of the need for electronic teaching materials, there was 19 students answer (59%) who were always 325 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 needed electronic teaching materials. the statement at the next point was about the diversity of learning resources used in learning. as many as 25 students (78%) answered that they were always glad. in the final statement was if multimedia learning directed how the work, pictures, or material that was more detailed or concrete. most students answered that they were always pleased as many as 19 students (59%). 3.2 multimedia development electronic multimedia was developed using the addie development model. this model composes of several steps, including analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. however, this research was mainly conducted as far as the developmental stage. the first stage of this research was analysis. the analysis was performed with students needs analysis and literature review. the literature review was intended to collect theoretical foundations relating to the research goal upon the development of geography multimedia based on adobe flash. a needs analysis was implemented to identify students' needs for learning resources that would be engaged in the learning process. students' needs were obtained based on the questionnaire with 7 statement items. the questionnaire was distributed to 32 students, it was identified that 19 students (59%) answered that they referred to electronic teaching material rather than printed material. the second stage was the design. learning design is a basic foundation for educators and students in achieving better learning outcomes (dewi, 2018). educators in completing their duties need to prepare learning activities thoroughly. through learning, the design provides short-term and long-term work references. the design was based on needs analysis and interviews conducted toward geography teachers. the initial product design stage, the adobe flash application was applied to create a multimedia geographic design with natural resource teaching materials. the final result of this product design activity was geography multimedia learning on landslide natural disaster topic. after completing the initial design, the next step must be performed was determining the main competencies, basic competencies, indicators, and learning objectives. the developed learning multimedia was integrated with the 2017 curriculum and adobe flash application, thus learning places more emphasized on the process and the processes that were purposeful for students. the initial design of multimedia geography learning based on adobe flash is illustrated in figure 2, figure 3, figure 4, figure 5, and figure 6. 326 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 figure 2. the example of media preview figure 3. the example displays of the media menu figure 4. the example the material display 327 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 figure 5. the example of quiz display figure 6. the example display of researcher identity once the design phase was finished, the next stage was the validation stage. the result of multimedia learning validation was 85%, means it is suitable to be engaged in geography learning. after being validated, the learning multimedia was tested towards 6 students of class xi iis 1 ma sunan pandanaran. then, in order to identify the students response, a closed questionnaire containing 10 items was employed. the next stage was analyzing the students' responses. the results showed the average score of students' responses with 10 items of questionnaire achieved 91.4% means it could be considered feasible. adobe flash based on geographic multimedia was developed using the research development stages, mainly referring to the addie model. the first stage is the analysis phase. at this stage, researchers conducted a literature analysis, field analysis, and students' needs. students' needs were identified through a questionnaire consisting of 7 items about 328 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 learning needs. the questionnaire was constructed using the linkert scale. based on the analysis, it is concluded that students need electronic teaching materials. the second stage is the design stage. multimedia geography was designed utilizing the adobe flash application as this application is relatively convenient to operate. adobe flashbased geography multimedia was equipped with title display, menu display, and content material discussing the utilization of the natural resources integrated with images, maps, videos, quizzes, answer keys, discussions, and the author's identity. the learning multimedia development has been integrated with the 2017 curriculum. the third step is development. at this stage, validation was utilized by the experts group and the product was tested on a small group of students. furthermore, learning multimedia was tested into small groups consisting of 6 students. based on the results of validation and test, adobe flash-based multimedia geography is considered suitable to be utilized within the learning process. 3.3 the enhancement of curiosity students' ability tests were conducted in pre-test and post-test (table 1). the evaluation data of students’ interest had changed their learning outcomes by utilizing adobe flash-based geography learning multimedia can be seen as follows. this is relevant with peljko & marič (2016), that curiosity influences innovation. there is a feeling of being attracted to situations in which there is learning potential. there is a desire to acquire new experiences to figure what is happening and to investigate how other people react. curiosity is defined as someone’s need or desire to draw to questions or things that occur in daily life (arditama et al., 2018). multimedia learning is the media engages in learning activities in order to stimulate students' thoughts, feelings, interests, and attention, thus the educational communication interaction process between the teacher (or media maker) and students could take place appropriately and efficiently (wahyudi et al., 2017). table 1. student learning data description pre-test post-test total 1445 2335 mean 43,79 70,76 min 35,00 60,00 max 60,00 82,50 median 42,50 72,50 modus 42,5 72,5 range 25,00 22,50 329 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 the data was then calculated using the normality and homogeinity test with spss 19 program. the normality test table can be seen in table 2. table 2. normality test description pre-test post-test statistic (l) .148 .148 df 32 32 sig. .235 .0,56 ltabel (0,05,33) 0,156 ltabel (0,05,32) 0,156 description lliliefors< l(ɑ,n) lliliefors< l(ɑ,n) sig. >0,050 >0,050 conclusion normal normal based on the normality test using spss 19, the data obtained above. lilliefors significance correction output shows normality of pre-test and post-test with significancy of test (a = 0,05) that means normal. this shows that sigcount>0,05 dan l count<l table. referring to analysis results using levene test of spss 19 indicates outcome results could be seen in table 3. table 3. homogeneity test class pre-test and post-test leene statistic (f) 1,014 dfl 1 df2 61 levene’s sig. .318 f(0,05,1.70) f(0.05,1.61) 4.00 sig >0,050 conclusion ho accepted based on homogeneity test statistics using spss 19 generates output as shown in table 3. the interpretation was performed by selecting one of the statistics, the statistics used for this study were based on averages (based on mean). referring to statistics based on mean obtained significance > 0.05. thus, it can be concluded that students' spatial ability data is homogeneous. data analysis engaged to test the hypothesis in this study is the statistical parametric test (one-way anova). the results of anova upon the ability of students who were implemented with adobe flash multimedia learning towards students curiosity could be seen in table 4. 330 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 table 4. anova calculation statistic (f) 20,875 df 62 sig. 0,000 ftabel (0,05) 3,99 ftabel fhitung> f(0,05;62) sig 0,000 < 0,050 conclusion h0rejected based on the anova one-way calculation shows that adobe flash multimedia application is significant upon students' curiosity in with landslides topic. based on significance calculation, the value (sig.) of the model is 0.000 <0.05 (alpha), which means that the application of adobe flash learning multimedia in learning affects students curosity. referring to the treatment the effectiveness, the value calculation of f obtained fcount = 20,875 was consulted with the f table with a significance level of 0.05 obtained ftable = 3.99. as f count = 20,875> f table = 3.99. this means that geography learning utilizing adobe flash multimedia increases students' curiosity. development of geography learning multimedia through research development stages that refers to the addie models. the first stage is the analysis phase. at this stage, the researcher analyzed the needs of learners and literature. learning needs were identified using the questionnaire composed of 7 statements in terms of electronic teaching materials needs of 32 students. the questionnaire results were analyzed using a likert scale. based on the analysis results, it is obtained that 59% of students response were preferred to electronic teaching materials than to printed material. this is in line with rosmaiyadi (2017) that during the learning process, every student has different characteristics between one and another. some of the characteristics of these students that need to be considered during the teaching and learning process are the learning style and how students think. the second stage is the design. geography learning multimedia is designed utilizing the adobe flash application as it could be easily operated. this is in line with juminah et al., (2019), the application of adobe flash can be performed in a computer at laboratory or laptop. hidayati (2017) added that adobe flash is a vector-based animation program, which has been widely used by animators to create various animations. the developed geography learning multimedia contains natural resource materials that integrated with the 2017 curriculum. geography learning multimedia based on adobe flash is equipped with basic competencies, learning materials, quizzes, and developer identities. 331 wahid yuda rejeki and m. mukminan / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 318-334 the third step is development. at this stage, validation performed by 2 expert groups namely the media expert team and the content expert. based on the validation results it is identified that the product achieved a score of 85 % means it is feasible to be developed. furthermore, geography learning multimedia were tested on small groups of 6 students. based on the validation results and trial, geography learning multimedia based on adobe flash is considered suitable to use in the learning process by 91.4 %. geography learning multimedia based on adobe flash is then conducted to analyze students' curiosity. the feasibility of geography learning multimedia based on adobe flash to increase curiosity is applied to 32 students applying pretest and posttest. data analysis was engaged with one-way anova. referring to the calculations shows that geography learning multimedia based on adobe flash utilization increases students' curiosity. this is in line with zetriuslita et al. (2017), curiosity is a phenomenon that is usually characterized by efforts made to obtain and investigate something that leads to enthusiasm for learning, figure out and investigating. adobe flash is one of the solutions to scale down the monotonous learning. the same thought also expressed by atapukang (2016) stated that learning integrating with interesting media will be a determinant of student success. 4. conclusion there is need of students towards multimedia learning geography based on adobe flash, multimedia learning based on adobe flash geography has increased students curosity, and multimedia adobe flash-based geography learning is feasible to implement. suggestions that can be given for further research is the development of multimedia with a more creative and attractive appearance for students. then, adobe flash-based geography learning multimedia is expected to be employed with other gadgets such as smartphones or tablets. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references agustien, r., umamah, n., & sumarno, s. 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(2017). mathematical critical thinking and curiosity attitude in problem based learning and cognitive conflict strategy: a study in number theory course. international education studies, 10(7), 65. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n7p65. development of multimedia learning geography based on adobe flash to increase students’ curiosity 301 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 the assessment of deforestation impact towards microclimate and environment in ilorin, nigeria toluwalope mubo agaja*, elisha ademola adeleke, enekole esther adeniyi, precious temilade afolayan department of geography and environmental management, faculty of business and social sciences, university of ilorin, p.m.b. 1515, ilorin, nigeria *corresponding author : agaja.tm@unilorin.edu.ng received 25 february 2020/ revised 6 october 2020 / accepted 10 october 2020/ published 30 december 2020 abstract nigeria obtains high rate of deforestation with a loss of about 60 percent of its primary forests between 2000 and 2005 as a result of logging, subsistence agriculture,wood exploitation, and urban expansion.this research assessed the level of deforestation and how it has affected ilorin’s microclimate and the environments. the specific objectives of this study were assessing the relationship that occurs between deforestation and microclimate, examining deforestation and the impact it has within the study area of microclimate, and forecasting the microclimate within the study area by the year 2030. the statistical tools engaged were both descriptive (mean, frequency distribution table and, bar charts) and inferential statistics (multiple regression analysis). the research indicated that there isnansignificantmrelationship betweenmdeforestationmwithmr2mvariables ofm0.888 formmaximum temperature,m0.201 for minimummtemperature,m0.997 formprecipitation,m0.43 formsolarmoutput,m-0.797 andm 0.873 for evapotranspiration and relative humidity respectively and ilorin’s microclimate. the study concludes that deforestation greatly influences the microclimate of ilorin and occurs due to human’s anthropogenic activities. deforestation has also led to climate change. keywords: deforestation; climate; micro-climate; vegetation cover 1. introduction human’s relation with the environment has transcended through ages. although, the human is the subject upon natural controls and events, the human acts as the dominant force establishing major long-term environmental challenges, one of which is forest degradation. for a long time, population increase has led to the removal of vegetation cover to meet the urban expansion demands. this has allowed for the thriving of deforestation without proper consideration towards the impact on the environment at large. vegetation cover is major reservoirs for carbon sink, managing to regulate temperature as well as the layer of harmful gases concentration (greenhouse gases) within the atmosphere. however, deforestation geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 301-317, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i3.16874 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:agaja.tm@unilorin.edu.ng https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 302 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 increase has allowed the contiguity of more ghgs into the environment providing a microclimate that is heated up and unobligated. it is recognized that the more house/population grows, the more climatic variables appears into the environment. in ilorin, it is palpable that a major factor responsible for climatic variations is deforestation. deforestation has been noticed to have accelerated in many countries with the tropical regions, such as nigeria. although reliable estimates are not available, it has been put at approximately 285,000 ha annually (chakravarty et al., 2012). at this rate of deforestation, 50% of the country small forest land area had 10% of total land area being eliminated in 2015 (wwf, 2017). deforestation is the alteration of the forest to non-forested land conducted by the human. it occurs due to human demand for certain services which might be promoted for conversion or adjustment upon the land that is dominated by naturally growing trees into a land that suitable for the needs of the growing population (kumari et al., 2019). globally, tremendous pressure has been put on wood land settings as a result of deforestation and forest dilapidation. from 2010 until 2015, approximately 122.29 million hectares (mha) of tree cover were disappeared (wri, 2020). this number reached about 5% of the total area covered by natural forests in 2010. deforestation and other land utilization shifting are now considered as the second major anthropogenic source of green house gases (ghg) emissions, and a significant contributor towards climate change. a large proportion of the carbon dioxide (co2) is brought into to the atmosphere as the results of people activities that are being absorbed by trees and other vegetation which enhance to soothe the potential climate change impact (milman, 2018). a great proportion of annual global greenhouse gas emissions ranging between 12 percent and 17 percent are the consequences of forests lost (wri, 2010). a major threat and concern towards people and the environment is deforestation both in small cities or towns and the gobal world in general (wri, 2020). it continues to occur at alarming rates. hence, it contributes greatly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity and increases the emission of several gases leading to global warming. a study performed for the centre for international forestry research (cifor) in congo basin revealed that several causes could be identified as deforestation factors. the direct causes namely infrastructural development or agricultural expansion while the most striking cause is economic development or population expansion. nevertheless, agriculture constitutes the major factor of deforestation (tchatchou et al., 2015). among some countries, nigeria has the world's highest deforestation rate of primary forests (daramola et al., 2015). https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/greenhouseeffectcauses.php https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/greenhouseeffectcauses.php 303 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 issues are brought by land tenure system and the growing population rate are identified as the major factors of deforestation (su et al., 2011). the driving forces of high deforestation rates are demographic, institutional, cultural, economic and technological policy (adeleke et al., 2017). as the demand for land expansion is growing, forested areas are rapid to be depopulated in order to provide logs for community construction, and a host of other amenities they may establish within the environment (daramola et al., 2015). these changes promote urban areas into hotter place than rural surroundings which is as a result of human’s behavior that managing areas with warmer temperatures in the environment (usepa, 2017). therefore, the heat has a tendency to spread out to other parts of the city, that affecting the microclimate. vegetation cover helps to absorb carbon within the atmosphere that acts as the carbon sinks. due to logging, the vegetation cover is reduced in size leading the inclination of co2 being attached and the increase in the co2 in the environment that enhancing the higher surrounding temperature (senior et al., 2018) forests circumstances are changing significantly throughout the world and currently driving the climate which results in an imbalance in water, energy, and carbon on the land surface (li et al., 2016). there are three rationales to identify a solid relationship between forest/vegetation structure and microclimate. firstly, the proportion of energy penetrating through to the soil is reduced as the plant canopies absorb, scatter and reflect back the solar radiation received. secondly, plant canopies absorb momentum from the air and thus wind speed decreases with depth within the canopy. hence this suppresses turbulent of air mixing by vegetation. thirdly, the water vapour amount is strongly depending upon the air temperature (hardwick et al, 2015). an increase of bare surface indicates an escalation of the surface temperature and conversely affects water bodies, as the rate of evaporation increases that brings water to drive away towards the atmosphere in gaseous form. a study reported that satellite data showed that forest-covered area globally and above land temperatures are the results of forest losses directing towards deforestation zone suffering an increase of temperature variations (cescatti, 2016; chapman et al., 2020). deforestation has increased the environment temperature as being compared to emissions comes from carbon dioxide under other anthropogenic activity. the urgent of identifying the relationship between forest cover change and the temperature has become very critical since the rate of forest loss continues to rise and as a result, a shift in the local climate becomes distinct (odoemene, 2017). urbanization, agricultural expansion and deforestation have affected climate temperature that indicating to deteriorate and a 304 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 significant approach to mitigate the heat island effect is performing tree planting (wolff et al., 2018). greenhouse gases are absorbed by trees and this stage plays a crucial part in reducing the risk on global heat. therefore, enormous proportions of calamitous gases bump into the atmosphere will likely increase and hastening the severity of global warming (wwf, 2017). an environmental consequence that being examined upon this global forest change in terms of deforestation or afforestation is microclimate changes (prevedello et al., 2019). several studies have attempted to assess deforestation and how it has affected several aspects of global climate (daramola et al., 2015; li et al., 2016; prevedello et al., 2019; kumari et al., 2019; wolff et al., 2018). in this term of study, there are limited studies concerned about microclimate and how deforestation has greatly forced it. the high rate of changes occurred in ilorin in terms of land-use shifting from forested land to a construction area is distressing and needs for discretion. as a result, there is necessary to fathom the microclimate, as it deals with the domestic weather conditions upon study area and a swift change could occur as a result of anthropogenic activities that deforestation is a major one. therefore, the aims of this study were to examine deforestation and the impact towards the micro-climate of the study area, to assess the relationship between deforestation and microclimate, to predict the rate of deforestation by the year 2030 and the impact of the microclimate towards study area. 2. methods ilorin is located between latitudes 8o24′ and 8o36′ north of the equator with longitudes 4o10′ and 4o36′ east of the greenwich meridian (figure 1). ilorin covers an area approximately 468 km2. it is 200 km from abeokuta, 512 km from sokoto, 574 km from calabar, 1,013 km from maiduguri and 494 km from aba. ilorin experiences humid tropical climate characterized with 7 to 8 months of rainy seasons. the dry season starts in november and extends to february (daramola et al., 2015). the total average of annual rainfall in ilorin is 1200 mm. ilorin’s temperature ranges between 34 ºc to 37 ºc from february to april, while months between november to january, the value ranges from33 ºc to 35 ºc (ajadi et al., 2016).mthe soil in ilorin is ferruginous in nature (iroye, 2017). this soil is suitable for crops growing such as yam, cassava, maize, and etc. the land utilization of ilorin for some years back were primarily agriculture and forested areas with small construction area (ifabiyi& ashaolu, 2014). the emergence of urbanisation has brought the drop of forested areas quantity over time due to population growth. 305 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 figure 1. ilorin city and environs the data used for this research was obtained from satellite images that demonstrating the rate of deforestation in ilorin for about 30 years. the stage performed to collect the image information was image pre-processing. under image processing, image normalization was conducted employing the histogram matching method. image sub-setting was also engaged in which the image was clipped to the study area using the extract of mask tool in arcgis 10.5. image pan-sharpening was utilized to improve the resolution of the multi-spectral images. digital number (dn) to reflectance conversion (rc), image classification and feature extraction (train signatures, image segmentation, support vector machine classification) were also applied. in order to estimate evapotranspiration and interpolating climatic variables, sebal (surface energy balance algorithm for land) model was utilized for the arcgis 10.5 environment to generate grid maps for climatic variables. five satellite images were employed for this research. each satellite image was captured at intervals. the intervals were between 1991-1996, 1997-2001, 2002-2006, 2007-2011 and 2012-2018. the satellite images were obtained from landsat. the information regarding the extraction methods for satellite image data is presented in table 1. 306 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 table 1. type of satellite image data required and source data resolution source landsat images tm 1991 60 m global land cover facility/ european space agency tm 1998 30 m etm+ 2003 30 m (15 m panchromatic) etm+ 2013 15 m (10 m panchromatic) oli 2018 15 m (10 m panchromatic) descriptive statistics were being used for presentation and summary were mean, frequency distribution tables and bar charts. in order to predict, this study employed the multiple regression analysis (bender et al., 2007) to assess the effects of deforestation on microclimate by the year 2030. 3. result and discussion there was a gradual increase towards area covered by bare surface, although there was a decrease by 8.9% in 2003. the gradual increase in the term of bare surface size on the land can be attributed to the increase of land acquisition for agriculture, some lands were left to fallow in order to store the nutrient for the next farming season. the size of construction areas grew rapidly from 8.62% in 1991-1996, 12.95% in 19972001, 13.98% in 2002-2006 and 2007-2011 and 16.82% in 20122018 (table 2 and figure 2). this is in line with dias et al., (2015) reported that evapotranspiration will be modified as a result of converting natural vegetation to bare surface and agriculture land. then, it will manage to speculate the microclimate of the area being studied. table 2. rate of deforestation between 1991-2018 land use (km2) year 19911996 % 19972001 % 20022006 % 20072011 % 20122018 % bare surface 44.32 8.62 48.64 9.46 46.22 8.99 88.31 17.17 146.23 28.44 built up areas 43.97 8.55 66.60 12.95 66.48 12.93 71.87 13.98 86.48 16.82 forested areas /dense of vegetation 134.71 26.20 128.60 25.01 120.51 23.43 124.11 24.13 40.64 7.90 grasslands/farmland 238.95 46.47 194.18 37.76 126.39 24.58 101.40 19.72 111.94 21.77 marshland/streambed 45.80 8.91 69.98 13.61 147.80 28.74 121.80 23.68 119.41 23.22 water body 6.50 1.26 6.24 1.21 6.84 1.33 6.76 1.31 5.71 1.11 cloud cover 3.86 0.75 total 514.25 100 514.25 100 514.25 100 514.25 100 514.25 100 307 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 figure 2. land use in ilorin forested areas covered about 126.20% in 1991. there is a drastic reduction to 25.01% in 1998, 23.43% in 2003, to a slight increase to 24.13% in 2013 and a solid decrease approximately to 7.90% in 2018 (table 2 and figure 2). the increase upon construction areas led to a reduction towards the amount of grassland and farm lands for agriculture in the year 1991 which was about 46.47% reduced to 37.76% in 1998, 24.58% in 2003, 19.72% in 2013 and rose to 21.77% in 2018. the escalation shows in 2018 attributed to the sensitization of the people towards agricultural practice as a source of income. furthermore, the size of water bodies has also declined over the years from 1.26% in 1991, to 1.21% in 1998, an increase in 2003 with 1.33%, while 2013 and 2018 suffered a reduction in size with 1.31% and 1.11% respectively. the sizes of the construction areas and bare surfaces have increased leading to temperature escalation allowing the rise of heat upon the urban area (table 2 and figure 2). this occurs as the consequences of landscape changes. these results are supported by fonge et al., (2019) indicated that the active conversion of forest land to farmland affects surrounding land utilization such as waterbodies and natural ecosystem. 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 1991 1998 2003 2013 2018 bare surface built up areas forested areas /dense veg grasslands/farmland marshland/streambed water body cloud cover year area (km2) 308 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 figure 3. rate of deforestation between 1991 -1996 in ilorin, kwara state, nigeria. ilorin had smaller construction areas which were located at the centre of the city between 1991-1996. despite the construction was gradually spreading into forested areas. the forested areas, marshlands, grasslands and farm floor still had much of the landmass (figure 3). there was astraight increase in term of bare area sizeas well as construction spacewith 4.33 and 22.63 respectively. however, forested areas and grassland experienced a downward trend with 6.11 and 44.76 respectively (figure 4). the demands for more construction areas escalate deforestation, means leading to lodging and displacement of the vegetative cover of the area. this result is supported by tchatchou et al., (2015) that explained several reasons for deforestation occurred due to infrastructural development or agricultural expansion, economic development or population expansion. nevertheless, agriculture constitutes the main reason for deforestation. 309 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 figure 4. land usage rate between 1998-2003 in ilorin city, kwara state, nigeria the construction areas have extended towards the forested areas, grasslands/farmlands, and marshlands/streambed. this extension due to the city expansion, as the population growsand industrial development. in addition, the bare surfaces have boostedand this might further lead to temperature escalation during this time (figure 4). the changes of the size upon construction areas, bare surfaces, forested areas, grasslands, marshlands and water-bodies are almost negligible compared to figure 4 in 1991. 310 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 figure 5. land use rate between 2003-2013 in ilorin city, kwara state, nigeria the construction and the bare surface areas have absorbed deep into the forested areas by 2003-2013. urbanization is a major factor, as the city population has greatly risen, more houses, schools and even commercial centres have been built (figure 5). there is a significant increase in term of bare surface and construction areas with 42.09 and 5.38 respectively. the forested surface also suffered a slight increase with 3.61, while grassland and marchland experienced a decrease with percentage with 25 and 26 respectively. this result is suitable with daramola et al., (2015) reported that more the alteration of forested areas and vegetated surfaces shifting into construction areas and bare surface means the more of the land surface temperature will increase. in addition, urban areas become hotter than the rural areas due to such similar changes generating a distinctive area with warmer temperatures in the landscape (usepa, 2017). therefore, the heat tends to spread to other parts of the city, affecting its microclimate. 311 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 vegetation covers serve as carbon sinks, it assisting to reduce excessive warming of the surrounding environment (nunes et al., 2020). figure 6. rate of deforestation between 2013-2018 in ilorin city, kwara state, nigeria there was a great expansion of the city, and only very few patches of forested areas, marshlands and grasslands were left as shown in figure 6. gradually, the construction areas and bare surfaces have expanded and currently still does. bare surfaces and construction areas have increased greatly between 2013 and 2018 with 57.92 and 14.61. forested areas have largely depreciated with the value of 83.47. these results support the findings of adeleke et al., (2017) that the driving forces of high deforestation rates are demographic, institutional, cultural factors, economic and technological policy. multiple regression was utilized to predict the effects of deforestation towards micro climate by the year 2030. the regression line equation y = -19.26x + 167.5 was used to predict the rate of deforestation in the year 2030. table 3 shows the model employed in 312 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 predicting the micro climatic variables with the predicted rate of deforestation as the independent variable. table 3. prediction of micro climate variables model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta max temp constant 29.993 4.432 .845 6.767 .007 forest .105 .039 2.734 .072 min temp constant forest 21.123 0.007 2.240 0.019 0.215 9.430 0.381 0.03 0.729 ppt constant forest 0.608 -0.005 0.044 0.000 -0.991 13.948 -12.613 0.001 0.001 wind constant forest 3.212 -0.005 0.638 0.006 -0.444 5.036 -0.858 0.015 0.454 r.humidity constant forest 78.376 -0.232 7.920 0.069 -0.889 9.898 -3.371 0.002 0.043 solar output constant forest 32.550 -0.082 9.040 0.079 -0.518 3.601 -1.050 0.037 0.371 et constant forest 25.214 0.097 5.788 0.050 0.744 4.356 1.926 0.022 0.150 note : et=evapotranspiration; ppt = precipitation; r. humidity= relative humidity as presented in table 3, the model for predicting maximum temperature is given as y = 0.105x + 29.993, maximum temperature has a predictive increase rate of 0.105oc per annum. this implies that for each additional forest loss, the maximum temperature increases by 0.105oc. this result is slightly different from bright et al., (2017); alkama & cescatti (2016); chapman et al., (2018), that local and regional-scale impacts of tropical deforestation result in warmer surface temperatures and greater variation in temperatures. furthermore, the model for predicting precipitation (ppt) is given as y = -0.005x + 0.608, ppt has a predictive decrease rate of -0.005 mm per annum. predicting wind speed is given as y = -0.005x + 3.212: wind speed has predictive decrease rate of -0.005 m/s. this implies that for each additional forest loss, there is a decrease of 0.005 m/s in wind speed. in addition, the model for predicting relative humidity is given as y = -0.232x + 78.376, relative humidity has predictive decrease rate of -0.232 kpa. this means that an addition of forest loss will lead to a decrease rate in relative humidity with -0.232 kpa. predicting solar output is given as y = -0.082x + 32.550, solar output has predictive decrease rate of 8%. this implies that there is an 8% decrease in solar output regarding an additional increase in deforestation. furthermore, the model for predicting evapotranspiration is given as y = 0.097x + 25.214, evapotranspiration has predictive increase rate of 0.097 mm per annum. this implies that there will be an increase in evapotranspiration rates as a result of an increase 0.215 -0.991 -0.444 -0.889 -0.518 0.744 313 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 in deforestation. the results for the climatic variables are supported by mcalpine et al., (2018) stated that there is a relationship between the local climate and deforestation as pronounced changes were noticed which were as high as 40% -75% loss of the forest and addition temperature increase to above 31 °c and more than 15% reduction in rainfall as a result of more than15% forest loss since 1973 in southeast borneo. this occurred as the forested areas have been subjected to an open field. prevedello et al., (2019) also reported that land surface temperature (lst) might fluctuated due to deforestation or afforestation as open vegetation obtains a higher surface albedo compared to a cluster of trees. thereby, increasing evapotranspiration (et) and vagaries in the microclimate of the area being investigated. also, the opening and withdrawing the canopy are the most pervasive impact upon logging as it rises solar radiation and air flow within under storey and the drop of evapotranspiration leading to an alteration of the forest’s microclimate (hardwick et al., 2015; jucker et al., 2020; senior et al., 2018). table 4. predicted variable for the year 2030 date forested areas max temp oc min temp oc ppt mm/day wind m/s rh kpa solar mj/m2.day et mm/day 3/5/2030 63.6 36.8 21.6 0.29 2.90 63.6 27.3 31.4 note : et=evapotranspiration; ppt = precipitation; rh = relative humidity table 4 presents the predicted deforestation and micro climate variables for the year 2030. by the year 2030, deforestation is illustrated to have escalated by 63.6% which will bring maximum temperature to 36.8oc, minimum temperature 21.6oc, ppt 0.29 mm/day, wind 2.90 m/s, relative humidity 63.6 kpa, solar output 27.3 mj/m2/day and evapotranspiration to be 31.4mm/day. comparing these figures in table 4 to the year 2018 (table 2), forested area is predicted to suffer a reductionby 36.1%, maximum temperature would likely rise by 8.15%, minimum temperature increased by 0.88%. furthermore, rainfall is predicted to drop by 30.9%, wind speed to drop by 3.65%, relative humidity to decline by 8.6%, solar output to decrease by 3.2% while evapotranspiration is expected to increase by 8.8%. the implication of these result for maximum and minimum temperature is the increase upon these variables that will spoil human health which leads to illness such as heat waves, meningitis, typhoid, malaria among others. this result is suitable towards daramola et al., (2015) that stated in ilorin, the forest have been put towards to construction areas and grassland in most areas between 1972-2014 in ilorin. temperature up surge might also affected agricultural activities leading to a decrease of crop yield. hence, decrease in yield of 314 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 crops means disturbing food security within the area. trees should be planted in the area to reduce temperature and people could make benefit of it as the shade upon afternoon heat, thus it would help people in the sense physiological comfort. temperature increase might also altered rainfall season in the area. there is an increase in temperature variation due to forest loss. this tends to lead to an increase towards mean and maximum upon air temperature compared to carbon dioxide emissions from land-use change that resulting to significant amount of heat (alkama & cescatti, 2016). furthermore, the loss of shade may result inheat index escalation to over 9 °c. this occurs as forests environment, evapotranspiration reduces sensible heat and means a much more frigid environment could be created (bright et al., 2017; ellison et al., 2017; wolff et al., 2018). the microclimate has been greatly affected, since high temperature changes due to land use patternis shifting. land surface temperature analysis shows an upsurge in urban land area temperature was due to reduction of forested areas and grasslands. the decrease will possibly disturb water security which involves accessibility, availability and quality in the area. decrease of rainfall affects the water table constribution towards residents within the area. decrease in wind speed may interrupting pollination in the area that leading to yield of crops decline. in term of human health, the drop of wind speed will reduce the spread of airborne diseases, means this proposes a positive effect on human health. decrease in relative humidity can affect human skin, namely dryness of the skin. it could also affect crops in the area. evapotranspiration increase would manage to increase the rainfall that may consequence in flooding which threatens life and properties. hence, a crucial climate change by 2030 could be avoided (fritts, 2018; milman, 2018). this happens, since carbon mitigation can be achieved where there is vast proportion of forest cover and this would avoid the release of carbon dioxide as well as harnessing atmospheric carbon by the growing forest. 4. conclusion the study concludes that deforestation greatly influences the microclimate of ilorin and occurs due to human’s anthropogenic activities. these human activities are related to the conversion of land from forest to agricultural land. furthermore, the use of agricultural land that is not under regulations will increase bare land. deforestation has also led to climate change. thereby, this study recommends public awareness and provide education for people to recognize and engage manners to avert and reduce the adverse environmental effect 315 toluwalope mubo agaja et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 301-317 associated with deforestation and take appropriate actions to deal with it. laws regulations should be enacted and enforced by government to reduce the nature and to limit extent of the destruction of the forest. penalties should also be put in place for violators. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, 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(2015). deforestation and forest degradation in the congo basin: state of knowledge, current causes and perspectives. bogor : cifor. usepa. (2017). learn about heat islands heat island effect. https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/learn-about-heat-islands. wolff, n. h., masuda, y. j., meijaard, e., wells, j. a., & game, e. t. (2018). impacts of tropical deforestation on local temperature and human well-being perceptions. global environmental change, 52(july), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.07.004. wri. (2010). from copenhagen to cancun : forests and redd. world resources institute. https://www.wri.org/blog/2010/05/copenhagen-cancun-forests-and-redd. wri. (2020). forests sustaining forests for people and planet. world resource institute. https://www.wri.org/our-work/topics/forests. wwf. (2017). forest habitat, world wide fund. world wildlife fund. https://www.worldwildlife.org/habitats/forest-habitat. abstract richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 124 an assessment of the various mitigation strategies to combat desertification in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state richard sunday thlakma1*and omale eche john2 1department of geography, faculty of humanities, management and social sciences, federal university of kashere, pmb 0182, gombe state, nigeria 2department of geography, ahmadu bello university zaria, nigeria email: profsrthlakma@gmail.com received 7 april 2019/ revised 19 july 2019/ accepted 22 july 2019/ published 2 august 2019 abstract this study was conducted on an assessment of the various mitigation strategies to combat desertification in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state, nigeria. the data use includes satellite imageries for the study such as landsat mss of 1976, landsat tm of 1987, spot xs of 1995 and landsat etm of 2006 as well as structured questionnaires. sixty close ended copies of the questionnaire were administered in the study. purposive sampling method of administering questionnaires was adopted. the percentages land mass covered for each of these variables was determined and estimated in m2. literature was obtained from various agencies which were responsible for desertification control in katsina state. it was found from the reserved forest that in 1976 the percentage of reserved forest was 2.57%. in 1987 however, it increased by 73.9% to 76.47 %. by 1995, it declined by 9.42% to 67.05% and further declined by 0.52% in 2006. effort to combat desertification through the use of reserved forest has been quite significant over the years. also, noticed was a declined in shelter belt from 5.91% in 1987 to 1.097% in 1995 and a shot up to 7.39% in 2006. about 37% of the respondent opined that the deforestation leads to the disappearance of trees while 33% pinioned that it leads to reduction on agricultural productivity. the major strategy adopted to combat desertification is tree planting as supported by 88% of the respondents. it found that desertification as major environmental problem of the study area has reduced drastically from 43.34% in 1976 to 1.29% in 2006. it was also revealed from this study that some organizations such as european economic community/katsina state government eec/ktsg, katsina afforestation project unit ktapu and local government councils are the major agencies that are responsible for mitigating desertification in the study area. keywords: desertification, mitigation, afforestation, shelterbelt and satellite image 1. introduction campbell (1986) and mortimore (1989) define desertification as a process of sustained land degradation (loss of primary production) that results in the inability of the environment to sustain the demands being made upon it by socio – economic systems at geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 124-145, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.10192 richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 125 existing levels of technology and economic development and under prevailing climatic conditions especially drought. this definition reflects the situation in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state which is the study area in which the poor socio-economic activities led the residents to engaged in deforestation which led to the increase in deforestation and drought and also led to increase in micro climate of the study area leading to thereby increasing the rate and magnitudes of deforestation in the jibia and kaita local government areas. deforestation and the degradation of other vegetation, particularly near the margins of deserts have caused once fertile, vegetated land to become barren in a process called desertification. it has been suggested that desertification should be regarded as an extreme form of land degradation occurring where vegetation cover falls below 35 percent on a long term basis (binns 1990). although desert boundaries have shifted over time, deserts have always characterized the earth’s subtropical zones. global patterns of air circulation dictates that the subtropics are regions of subsiding air. when air subsides, it cools down and its capacity to hold moisture decreases, so inhibiting the formation of rain. this accounts for a prevalence of dry climates between latitudes 15o and 30o ‘north and south of the equator. however, these dry climates are extended into other latitudes and their patterns complicated by additional factors, such as distance from the rain-supplying oceans, seasonal high-pressure zones of large continental areas linked with monsoon systems, or the presence of mountain barriers over which air spills on the leeward side. thus creating rain shadows, (united nations conference on desertification nairobi, 1977). the first alarm on the south ward movement of the sahara desert into nigeria was raised by stebbing in (1935) partly in response to other environmental deterioration and desert encroachment. an anglo-french forestry commission in 1937 investigated the evidence of desertification in the northern part of nigeria, and found no evidence to support the report. however, this report created some concern in the colonial emirate. they embarked on tree planting to stop the southward drift of sahara desert, as far back as the 1940s. generally, areas most severely affected by desertification in nigeria are the semi-arid areas lying roughly north of latitude 12on, and these fall within the sudan and sahel zones of nigeria (sagua, et al, 1987). the extent and severity of desertification in nigeria is not fully established neither is the rate of its progression properly documented. however, it is generally agreed that it is by far the most pressing richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 126 environmental problem in the northern part of the country. the visible sign of the phenomenon is the gradual shift in vegetation from bushes and occasional trees to grass and bushes and in the final stages, expansive areas of desert like sand (ariyo, et al 2005). the united nation conventions to combat desertification has called for actions involving international cooperation and a partnership approach. it focuses on improving land productivity, the application of land conservation and sustainable management and water resources, (undpi, 1997). according to the federal government of nigeria (fos, 1999) estimates, between 50% and 75% of bauchi, borno, gombe, jigawa, kano, katsina, kebbi, sokoto, yobe, and zamfara states are being affected by desertification. these states, with a population of about 35 million people account for about 35% of the country’s total land area. table 1. spread of desertification in nigeria (fos, 1999). land area (km2) % of nigeria landmass affected bauchi/gombe 64,605 6.99 borno 70,890 7.67 yobe 45,502 4.93 kano 20,131 2.18 jagawa 23,154 2.51 katsina 24,192 2.62 sokoto/zamfara 65,735 7.12 kebbi 36,800 3.98 in addition, seven adjacent states to the south are reported to have about 10% to 15% of their land areas threatened by processes of desertification. it is estimated that the country is currently losing about 351,000 hectares of its landmass to desert conditions annually, and such conditions are estimated to be advancing south wards at the rate of about 0.6km per year (ariyo et al 2005). in the absence of concrete remedial and mitigative measures, it is estimated that the total cost of environmental degradation in nigeria would amount to about u.s. $5.110 billion per annum, 73% of which will result from land degradation alone (including desertification and erosion (ariyo et al., 2005). njeru, (2009) reported that sand dune stabilization is often done through the use of shelterbelt, woodlot and wind breaks. wind breaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce water erosion and evapotranspiration. they were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle east. also, the spraying of petroleum and nano clay over semi-arid crop land. this is often done in areas where richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 127 either petroleum or nano clay obtainable for example in iran. in both cases the application of the materials coats seedlings to prevent moisture loss and prevent them from being blown away. community participation in controlling desertification is also encouraged by the united nation convention to combat desertification which calls for a bottom up participatory approach in identifying, implementing, monitoring and evaluating projects that combat desertification and mitigate the effect of drought. project should be initiated and managed with maximum participation of local communities including women, youth, poor farmers, and pastoralists. the unccd offers local communities a very wide range of opportunities based on local communities, local circumstances, tradition, culture, norms, knowledge,and aspiration, (msafirri, 2009). katsina state is one of the states affected by desertification. it has both environmental and socio economic consequences. according to ktarda (2006). all the farmlands within kwangwalam area of katsina state are severely subjected to strong northeasterly harmattan wind, and sheet erosion, which sweeps the top soils, leaving the land bare and unproductive for agricultural purposes. murtala (2003) reported that desertification in katsina state has led to the reduction in the productivity of the land to the bearest minimum, thus eliminating the already meagre food and water resources for livestock. bala (2003) reports that katsina state has many desertification control projects.these include eec/ktsg, katsina arid zone programme, fgn/world bank assisted afforestation project, katsina state committee on drought and desertification control, federal department of forestry, katsina state ministry of agriculture, and katsina state afforestation project unit, ktpu. their major aim is afforestation, and land management to combat the menace of desertification. despite global concern about desertification and other forms of land degradation (soil quality decline, huge acres of land lost due to soil erosion, fertile soils erode away, overgrazing by animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, feed on the grass amongst others) and many years of efforts and investment made for prevention, cure or rehabilitation, the processes of land degradation persist. there are a variety of existing and potential prevention and mitigation strategies for the various desertification and land degradation process, such as physical measures and adaptation strategies integrating changing social, economic, institutional and policy factors. the mitigation of water-related land degradation is crucial in arid and semi-arid areas which are very prone to desertification richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 128 and successful measures invariably depend on an improvement of water storage in the soil (njeru, 2005). an appraisal of desertification strategies is important for the purpose of desert management in katsina state and other parts of nigeria. it is on this background the research aimed at assessment of the various mitigation strategies to combat desertification in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state by identify the various mitigation strategies employed in the lgas and assessing the degree of success of the mitigation strategies adopted for mitigating the desertification problem in the lgas. the study area covers jibia and kaita local government areas. these local government areas are located adjacent to each other. they are located approximately between latitudes 12,045n and 13,015n and longitudes 7,000e and 80,30e. the area is located in the extreme north western part of katsina state as show in figure 1. figure 1. map of the study area the climate is seasonally wet and dry. it is dominated by two air masses. these are the rain bearing south-westerly winds and the cold, dry and dusty north-easterly winds, locally known as the “harmattan.” at different times of the year, when one or the other winds prevails, the area experiences either rainfall or dry harmattan depending on the advance or retreat of the other (nyong and kanarogou, 1999). the vegetation here is sudan savannah type.it it is composed of trees scattered over an expanse of grassland. the trees are usually characterized by broad canopies e.g the baobab with large trunk.it is taller and larger than the others species or types found here.it also includes various types of acacias (nilofica, albida and seyal). others are richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 128 and successful measures invariably depend on an improvement of water storage in the soil (njeru, 2005). an appraisal of desertification strategies is important for the purpose of desert management in katsina state and other parts of nigeria. it is on this background the research aimed at assessment of the various mitigation strategies to combat desertification in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state by identify the various mitigation strategies employed in the lgas and assessing the degree of success of the mitigation strategies adopted for mitigating the desertification problem in the lgas. the study area covers jibia and kaita local government areas. these local government areas are located adjacent to each other. they are located approximately between latitudes 12,045n and 13,015n and longitudes 7,000e and 80,30e. the area is located in the extreme north western part of katsina state as show in figure 1. figure 1. map of the study area the climate is seasonally wet and dry. it is dominated by two air masses. these are the rain bearing south-westerly winds and the cold, dry and dusty north-easterly winds, locally known as the “harmattan.” at different times of the year, when one or the other winds prevails, the area experiences either rainfall or dry harmattan depending on the advance or retreat of the other (nyong and kanarogou, 1999). the vegetation here is sudan savannah type.it it is composed of trees scattered over an expanse of grassland. the trees are usually characterized by broad canopies e.g the baobab with large trunk.it is taller and larger than the others species or types found here.it also includes various types of acacias (nilofica, albida and seyal). others are richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 128 and successful measures invariably depend on an improvement of water storage in the soil (njeru, 2005). an appraisal of desertification strategies is important for the purpose of desert management in katsina state and other parts of nigeria. it is on this background the research aimed at assessment of the various mitigation strategies to combat desertification in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state by identify the various mitigation strategies employed in the lgas and assessing the degree of success of the mitigation strategies adopted for mitigating the desertification problem in the lgas. the study area covers jibia and kaita local government areas. these local government areas are located adjacent to each other. they are located approximately between latitudes 12,045n and 13,015n and longitudes 7,000e and 80,30e. the area is located in the extreme north western part of katsina state as show in figure 1. figure 1. map of the study area the climate is seasonally wet and dry. it is dominated by two air masses. these are the rain bearing south-westerly winds and the cold, dry and dusty north-easterly winds, locally known as the “harmattan.” at different times of the year, when one or the other winds prevails, the area experiences either rainfall or dry harmattan depending on the advance or retreat of the other (nyong and kanarogou, 1999). the vegetation here is sudan savannah type.it it is composed of trees scattered over an expanse of grassland. the trees are usually characterized by broad canopies e.g the baobab with large trunk.it is taller and larger than the others species or types found here.it also includes various types of acacias (nilofica, albida and seyal). others are richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 129 neem (azadrita indica) etc and various types of scattered shrubs such as plastima cassia sigrana, occasionally forming woodlot. most of these trees are xylophytic in nature i.e the ability to resist drought conditions, this is through having longroots, leathery leaves and tiny leaves, as well as development of spines to reduce excessive transpiration. the drought resistant plants do not shed their leaves, but other trees shed their leaves during the dry season. the blades of the grasses wither and dry off during the dry season. their underground stems develop new roots during wet season. grasses in the area hardly grows up to 1m at maturity. pasture in the area is very low and grazing fields are diminishing due to intensive cultivation by the growing population and shrubs usually dry off in the dry season leaving the soil bare, man-made plantations forms a significant portion of vegetation in this area. shelter belts woodlots and wind breaks are all found in the area (shittu, 1999). the study area falls within the chad formation which is made up of sedimentary rocks of cretaceous origin. the relief of the area is of the lower chad plains. the relative relief falls within the average of about 15 to 20 metres, the landform in the study area is sandy plains where great sand sheets occupy most of the area. however, it is not uncommon to find deposits of sand dunes of varying degrees especially when you move towards daddara kusa, kaga villages in jibia local government area and dankama, duma, jiki gisgerewa villages in kaita local government area northwards. the dunes are formed from the deposition of eroded materials carried along by strong winds from across the sahara desert, especially during the dry season, (shittu, 1999). the soil consists of mostly unconsolidated sediments which are predominantly sandy, silt to sandy loam, it is brown or reddish brown in nature. this type of soil is formed from the deposition of eroded materials over sedimentary formation. they are less acidic and well drained, with fairly low clay content. jibia local government area has a population of 167,435 people, while kaita local government area has a population of 182,405(national population commission 2006). the people of jibia and kaita local government areas are predominantly hausa and fulani living together, majority of the inhabitants of the areas are farmers, (subsistence). they also keep animals; almost every family keeps grazing animals like cattle, goats, and sheep. these are usually moved by herders from one place to the other in search of pastures especially during the dry season. some owners of these animals richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 130 move then to areas south of katsina state especially the middle belt region of the country during the dry season in search of past. 2. the methods identify the various mitigation strategies adopted to curb desertification in the study area. this was determined from the satellite imageries, landsat mss of 1976, 50m, landsat tm 30m of 1987, 1995 spot xs20m and 2006 landsat etm. these imageries also covered four decades with one for each decade. the percentages land mass covered for each of these variables was determined and estimated in m2. the imageries used to achieve these objectives, where analyzed by visual interpretation of the imageries. digital image processing of the satellite data and analysis of the stated objectives of the study were carried out using the basic software’s. earth resource data acquisition system, arcgis 10.0 software. these digital data on cd roms were procured from federal department of agriculture and land resources, livestock house mando, in kaduna and the national space research and development agency, abuja. assessing the degree of success for mitigation strategies adopted for mitigating the desertification problem in the lgas. this was determined from structured questionnaire, which was administered to respondents. sixty close ended copies of the questionnaire were administered in the study. purposive sampling method of administering questionnaires was adopted. in addition to the data obtained from the satellite imageries and questionnaire administered, literature was also obtained from various agencies which were responsible for desertification control in katsina state. some of the agencies are european economic community eec/katsina state government (eec/ktgs), katsina state agricultural and rural development authority (ktarda and the afforestation project unit (ktapu). descriptive statistics such as tables, mean, graphs, percentages, frequency, pie chart, bar graphs and line graphs were used for data analysis and presentation. 3. results and discussion 3.1 identify the various strategies adopted to combat desertification available statistics show that the strategies used to combat desertification in the study areas are: through reserved forests, reservoirs for irrigation purposes in other to richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 131 maintain and sustain the soil moisture contents so as to reduced decline in soil fertility, tree planting in the form of shelter belts, woodlots, trees on boundary, the use of vertiver grasses, natural tree regeneration, community and private woodlots (i.e. wind breaker). from the satellite imagery, the estimated land mass (in meter square) was estimated for each of the strategies in four decades: 1976, 1987, 1995 and 2006. percentages and line graphs were then used to analyse the data. the data extracted are presented in table 2. 0 20 40 60 80 100 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 pe rc en ta g e year rf rf figure 3. trend of reserved forest area in the study area (1976 – 2006) source: author’s analysis richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 132 table 2. afforestation statistics in jibia and kaita lga year reserved forest (rf) in m2 rf (%) reservoir (r) in m2 r (%) tree planting e.g woodlots, natural regeneration, trees on farmland (tp) in m2 tp (%) shelter belt (sb) in m2 sb (%) afforestation total total 1976 1276564.019867 2.57 48331705.96 97.43 49608269.88 100.0 1987 164925844.03604 76.48 49446684.16 22.93 1276564.02 5.91 215649092.2 100.0 1995 193411475.14774 67.05 23312072.56 8.08 68566593.32 23.77 3164720.65 1.10 288454861.6 100.0 2006 199901900.712514 66.54 22958856.09 7.64 75342483.75 25.08 2220605.66 7.39 300423846.2sssssss 100.0 source: author’s analysis richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 133 3.1.1 forest reserve it was found from the reserved forest that in 1976 the percentage of reserved forest was 2.57%. in 1987 however, it increased by 73.9% to 76.47 %. by 1995, it declined by 9.42% to 67.05%. by 2006 it further declined by 0.52%. the decline in forest reserve is small compared to the much increase observed. effort to combat desertification through the use of reserved forest has been quite significant over the years. the line graph, showing the trend of reserved forest from 1976 to 2006 (in decades) is shown above. these changes are seen on figures 3, 4, 5 and 6, this is found in the coloration and sizes of the area coverage of the forest reserve areas, shown on the map, it is from these maps that the statistic for the area coverage of reserved forest where determined. 3.1.2 the use of reservoirs for irrigation purposes the result for reservoirs for irrigation also revealed that it declined in size due to decrease in irrigation farming, high level of deforestation, overgrazing by animals, over cultivation of lands for agricultural purposes and increase in climate change in the study area between 1995 and 2006 by 0.44%. the decline in the area coverage of water bodies (jibia dam in particular) between 1995-2006 was as a result of various purposes, the dam is used for e.g domestic purposes. the shrinking size also is attributable to the building up of sediments in the dam. vegetation is also gradually taking over the immediate surrounding of the dam, thereby reducing its size, the shrinking size of the dam may also be attributed to the amount of rainfall, of the particular year the imagery was taken, the amount of rainfall may be small. the dam however has played a very vital role in the irrigation of the vegetation of its immediate surroundings. this has helped to reduce desertification in the area drastically. figures 5 and 6 shows the dam with a little decrease in the area coverage of the dam, in plates 1 and 2 are different views of the dam which is used for irrigation purposes and also supply water for shelter belts, woodlots, etc. figure 7 shows a decrease in the area coverage of the dam. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 134 figure 3. afforestation in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state (1976) figure 4. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (1987) richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 134 figure 3. afforestation in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state (1976) figure 4. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (1987) richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 134 figure 3. afforestation in jibia and kaita local government areas of katsina state (1976) figure 4. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (1987) richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 135 figure 5. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (1995) figure 6. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (2006) richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 135 figure 5. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (1995) figure 6. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (2006) richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 135 figure 5. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (1995) figure 6. afforestation in jabia and kaita lga of kastina state (2006) richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 136 7.4 7.6 7.8 8 8.2 1 2 pe rce nta ge decades 1995 and 2006 r r figure 7. reservoir area. 1995 and 2006 plate 1. different views of jibia dam which is used for irrigation in jibia plate 2. different views of jibia dam which is used for irrigation in jibia 3.1.3 shelter belts the total afforestation area reserved as shelter belt or wind breaker in the study area is small. it declines from 5.91% in 1987 to 1.097% in 1995 however, a shot up to 7.39% in 2006 as it shows in figure 8, the drop in the area coverage of shelter belt in the second decade result from poor maintenance and human interference. figure 8: shelter belt area.1987, 1995 and 2006 this evidence is also shown on the vegetal map, of the study area in figures 4, 5 and 6. figure 3 has no shelter belts on it, this is because shelter belts were not established in the sb(%) 1987 1995 2006 richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 137 first decade of this study. plates 3, 4, 5 and 6, f show evidence of afforestation in the study area. plate 3. grass hedging in kwana shagari in kaita local government area of (evidence of afforestation in the study area) plate 4. grass hedging in gidan saidu buzu in kaita local government area of (evidence of afforestation in the study area). plate 5. afforestation shelter belt in kurya in kaita local government area plate 6. afforestation shelter belt in magama in jibia local government area. 3.1.4 tree planting: woodlots, natural tree regeneration, trees on farmland, trees on farm boundaries etc. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 138 from the satellite imagery, the data collected to assess tree planting as a strategy to combat desertification shows a decreasing trend in the effort towards tree planting, all through the sampled period. the decline in tree planting may be attributed to poor maintenance of the seedlings to maturity and also human interference and animals browsing. 3.2 determination of the success rate of various strategies used for combating desertification in the study area the third objective of the study is to determine the success rate of the various strategies used in combating desertification in the study area. from the literature, the following strategies were identified: the use of water dams for irrigation purposes, establishment of shelter belts, woodlots, wind breaks, trees on farm lands, natural tree regeneration and the planting of vertiver grasses for sand dune stabilisation. for the study area 60 questionnaires were issued to selected respondents. from the frequency analysis, a 100 percent response rate was recorded. this was because of the interest of the respondents on the issue of desertification. when asked if they knew what desertification was, all the respondents said yes. the frequency table is also shown table 3. table 3. knowledge of the term desertification in the study lgas frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent 60 100.0 100.0 100.0 source: author’s analysis 3.2.1 effects of desertification in the study area they were further asked what effects they would associate with desertification, 33.3% said that it makes productive lands to become unproductive; 10 % said it covers roads with sand; another 10% said it makes agricultural land to become unproductive; yet another 10% said it bring sand to cover their houses, and 36.7% said it leads to the disappearance of trees. the frequency table is shown in table 4. despite the much efforts put in place by various organisations to reduce desertification, there are still some areas where desertification is still a problem as shown in plates 7 and 8. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 139 plate 7. evidence of desertification in magama, in jibia local government area of katsina state, nigeria. table 4. effects of desertification in the study lgas frequency percentage valid percentage cumulative percentage productive lands become unproductive 20 33.3 33.3 33.3 roads covered by sand 6 10.0 10.0 43.3 poor agricultural productivity 6 10.0 10.0 53.3 bring sand to home 6 10.0 10.0 63.3 trees disappeared 22 36.7 36.7 100.0 total 60 100 100 source: author’s analysis as to whether there are any organizations responsible for the mitigation of desertification in the study areas, all the respondents said yes. the organizations were stated to include: eec, ktapu, local government and state government as displayed in table 5. plate 8. evidence of desertification in dankama, in kaita local government area of katsina state, nigeria. the evidence to prove these are shown on plates 3, 4, display in table 5 and 6 where various organizations that are involves in curbing desertification in ahead their projects on grounds in the study area. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 140 table 5. organisations involved in mitigating desertification in the study lgas frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent eec 27 45.0 45.0 45.0 state government 2 3.3 33.3 48.3 local government 2 3.3 33.3 51.7 ktapu 29 48.3 48.3 100.0 total 60 100.0 100.0 source: author’s analysis. 3.2.2 strategies for combating desertification on the various strategies adopted to combat desertification, 88.3% said tree planting was the dominant strategy employed e.g woodlots, trees on farmlands and natural tree regeneration. 11.7% said providing shelter belt (another means of tree planting that also serves as wind breaker) was the other strategy employed. the frequency table is shown in table 6. table 6. strategies for combating desertification in the study lgas frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent tree planting e.g woodlots, trees on boundary shelter belt total 53 7 60 88.3 11.7 100.0 88.3 11.7 100.0 88.3 100.0 source: author’s analysis. to determine the success rate of tree planting as a strategy of combating desertification, the respondents were asked to rate the effectiveness of the strategy; 15% said very effective, 50% said effective, 30 percent said fairly effective, while 5% said not effective. the frequency table is presented in table 7. based on this response it can be said that tree planting as a strategy for combating desertification in the study area is effective. there are also efforts been made on the part of the local government, community members to arrest desertification in the study area. some the efforts include: campaigning against tree felling, and by tree planting as well. the frequency table for this response is presented in table 8. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 141 table 7. effectiveness of the strategies adopted to combat desertification in the study lgas frequency percent valid percent cummulative percent very effective 9 15 15 15 effective 30 50 50 65 fairly effective 18 30 30 95 not effective 3 5 5 100 total 60 100 100 source: author’s analysis table 8. community efforts at combating desertification frequency percent valid percent cummulative percent campaign against 27 45 45 45 tree planting 33 55 55 100 total 60 100 100 source: author’s analysis though results obtained from questionnaires may not be a very empirical judgment in arriving at the results obtained, which says that the strategies adopted for the mitigation of desertification in the study area are effective. the result obtained from the use of questionnaire corroborated with the empirical findings adopted earlier in the first and the second objectives of the study, it shows that desertification as an environmental problem of the study area has reduced drastically from 43.34% in 1976 to 1.29% in 2006. these findings are scientific in nature; it now substantiates the result obtained from the use of questionnaire. personal observation of the researcher, who has lived in study area for close to a decade, also is a proof to substantiate the results obtained from the questionnaires. the observations show that afforestation as a means of curbing desertification, is the major technique adopted in the study area, and it is effective. this evidence is also seen by the various photographs of the projects carried out by various organizations to curb desertification in the study area. from the evidences provided by the satellite imageries used for the research, and the literature review, the results obtained, and personal observations of the researcher, whom has lived in the area on which this research was carried for a decade. it shows that desertification richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 142 as an environmental problem of that region is gradually been phased out totally. this evidence is from various activities put in place to check desertification in this region. there has been an internationally assisted programme from the world bank, katsina arid zone programme which was later called european economic community/katsina state government, (eec/ktsg). agricultural development (ifad). katsina state agricultural and community development project (ksacdp).this are all internationally assisted programmes to combat desertification in katsina state, with the study area inclusive. this evidence also correlated with the (unccd, 1997) which called for international cooperation and a partnership approach in checking desertification. it focuses on improving land productivity, application of land conservation and sustainable management of water resources. the federal government of nigeria also plays a very big role in combating desertification in the study area, through the federal ministry of environment, ecological fund, katsina afforestation project unit/federal government assisted, though ktapu is now funded by the katsina state government. the establishment of the jibia dam which has totally erased desertification on its immediate surroundings are some federal government programmes, currently on ground in katsina state. their major roles are to check desertification. these evidences will support the result gotten in this research that shows that desertification has reduced drastically from about (43.34%) in 1976 to about 1.29% in 2006. all these are efforts put in place by the federal government with the study area inclusive, these programmes have aids in reducing desertification in katsina state drastically. these are practical phenomenon that is observed by the researcher. this relates to the work done by bala (2003), who reported that various agencies have desertification control projects on ground in katsina state. these includes the eec/ktsg, world bank assisted afforestation project. katsina committee on drought and desertification control, katsina afforestation project unit ktapu, katsina state ministry of agriculture etc. their major aim is afforestation and land management to combat the menace of desertification, as an environmental problem. the mitigation strategies used: afforestation is the major mitigation strategy used to combat desertification in the study area. this is done through reserved forests, tree planting in the form of woodlots, natural regeneration, trees on farmland shelter belts establishment, orchards the use of vertiver grasses and trees on farm boundaries. the personal observations of the researcher and the literature reviewed shows that the major mitigation strategies used in the study area by katsina afforestation project unit, (ktapu). katsina agric and rural richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 143 development authority, (ktarda). european economic community / katsina state government,eec/ktsg. adopted afforestation as the major mitigation strategy in checking desertification in the study area. the jibia dam also plays a very important role in checking desertification in the study area. this was supported by findings done by sani (1996). all the evidences given from the results obtained from the research and personal observations of the researcher has justified the findings which said desertification has reduced drastically in the study area. 4. conclusion the assessment of the success of the strategies used in combating desertification in the study area revealed that there has been an appreciable effort put in place to mitigate the effects of desertification. the area coverage of desertification determined from the satellite imageries shows that the spread was much at the first decade of the study, with an area coverage of about 43.34% in 1976 but it shrinked in size overtime to about 1.29% in 2006. afforestation statistics derived from the satellite imageries also shows reserve forest which the area coverage in 1976 was only 2.57% but increased overtime to 66.53% in 2006. the area coverage of shelter belt was 5.91% in 1987 and 7.39 in 2006. with the evidences given, it can now be considered that desertification in the study area has reduced greatly. results obtained from this research, shows that the major strategy for checking desertification in the study area is afforestation and the strategies are effective. this research to some extent has proved such notions not to be totally right, especially the food and agricultural organization (fao) report on desertification in nigeria which shows that desertification is increasing at an alarming rate of about 0.6km into nigeria but in this case it is reducing drastically. references ariyo, j.a, abdullahi, c.j. stigter, o.z onyewotu and i. musa (2005). community participation in planning desertification, control interventions in northern nigeria. lessons from kano state. a paper presented at the conference on prospects and problems of agricultural development in nigeria, held in ahmadu bello university zaria. june 29th – july 2nd, 2005. auwal, u. (2006). an appraisal of desertification in arid zone of bauchi state. unpublished pgdem thesis department of geography, bayero university kano. babura, d.u. (2001). desertifucation in babura local government area. unpublished pgdem thesis. department of geography, bayero university kano. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 144 bala, a. (2003). an evaluation of drought incidence and hazards in northern nigeria. a paper presented at a seminar on the conservation of the environment. department of geography isa kaita college of education, dutsinma, katsina state 5th november. bins, t. (1990). the threatening deserts: ox blackwell. campbell, d.j (1986). the prospects for desertification in kajiado district kenya, geg. federal office of statistics (1999). annual abstracts of statistics: facts and figures about nigeria. katsina afforestation project unit (2006). a brief on katsina afforestation project unit (fgn assisted) 1st february, 2006. katsina afforestation project unit (2006). annual reports on afforestation projects. katsina afforestation project unit (2009). annual reports on afforestation project. katsina afforestation project unit ktapu. (2009). a brief on katsina afforestation project unit (fgn assited) 5th february, 2009. katsina agricultural and rural development authority ktarda. (2006). land management\ unit, historical background to soil conservation in katsina state. katsina arid zone programme eec/ktsg (1995). soil conservation experience, a paper for ksacdp one day soil conservation strategy workshop 14th december, 1995. katsina arid zone programme eec/ktsg. (1995). historical background of soil conservation efforts in katsina state. msafirri, f. (2009). involving or not involving communities in strategies to combat desertification and drought in kenya. murtala s.k. (2003). an analysis of the problems of desertification in katsina local government area. an nce project, isa kaita college of education dutsin ma, katsina state. nasiru, i.m. (2009). combating desertification and drought in nigeria. daily trust monday, 25th. national population commission (2006). federal republic of nigeria (2009), national population commission official gazette no2, abuja 2nd february 2009 vol 96. njeru, j. (2005). monitoring and modelling crop growth, water use and production crop growth, water use and production under dry land environment, north west of mount kenya. nyong, a.o. and kanoroglou, p.s (1999). the influence of water resources and their locations on rural distribution in north eastern nigeria. a journal of environmental sciences. richard sunday thlakma and omale eche john/geosi vol 4 no 2 (2019) 124-145 145 owen and pickering (1997). global environmental issues. rutledge and new york. sagua, v.o, enabor, e.e, k.o p.r.o, ojanuga a.v, mortimore, m. and kalu, a.e. (1987). ecological disasters in nigeria. drought and desertification federal ministry of science and technology lagos. sani, m. (1996). evaluation of desertification and its effects in jibia local government area of katsina state. unpublished pgdem thesis. department of geography bayero university kano. shittu, k. (1999). an assessment on the socio economic effects of desertification in katsina state. an unpublished bsc project department of geography bayero university kano. stebbing, e.p. (1935). the encroaching sahara: the threat to west africa colonies. a geographical journal. the united nations convention to combat desertification (1997). a new response an age – old problem. united nations conversation on desertification (1977). desertification, it causes and consequences: pergmon press. united nations, department for public information (1997). the united nations convention to combat desertification. whates and jones (1992). land degradation. edward arnold london. 226 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 spatio-statistical analysis of rainfall and temperature distribution, anomaly and trend in nigeria elisha ademola adeleke* and eniola aminat orebayo department of geography & environmental management, university of ilorin, ilorin, 1515, nigeria *corresponding author: adelekeelisha@yahoo.com received 3 june 2019/ revised 16 may 2020 / accepted 14 june 2020/ available online 23 july 2020 abstract this study aims to examine the variability of rainfall and temperature based on spatiostatistical analysis. datazforzthezstudy was gotten from the nigerian meteorological agency and subjected to statistical analysis using mean, standard deviation, time series analysis, t-test and correlation. thezresultszofzthezstudyzrevealedzthatzthe mean rainfall in the area is 108.6 mm, mean temperature is 28o c and mean sunshine is 4.7 hours. the result further revealed that mean onset date in the state is 13th march, mean cessation date is 10th october while thezmeanzlengthzofzrainyzseason is 223 days. the result also showed that rainfall anomaly index in the area ranged between -2.12 and 2.28 while temperature anomaly ranged between -2.31 and 1.73. the correlation coefficient showed that cessation (0.408) and length of rainy season (0.406) is significantly related to rainfall, sunshine hours (0.380) and average temperature (0.867) is significantly related to minimum temperature, sunshine hours (-0.389) and average temperature (0.749) is significantly related to maximum temperature while onset (-0.642) and cessation (0.509) is significantly related to length of rainy season. however, there is a significant difference in onsetzdates,zcessationzdateszandzlengthzofzrainyzseasonzinzthezarea. the area is experiencing a significant increase in temperature, rainfall and sunshine hours and recommends that more tress should be planted in the area and nigerian meteorological agency should also inform farmers about the onset of the rains so as to help the farmers prepare for the planting season. keywords: climate; rainfall; anomaly; temperature; cessation; onset geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 226-249, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.11250 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:adelekeelisha@yahoo.com https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 227 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 1. introduction rainfall is one of the major factors affecting food security especially in countries largely or highly dependent on rain-fed agriculture, given that, in addition to evaporation rate and soil characteristics, it controls the state of soil moisture. the role of moisture in agricultural production is even more important in the tropics, especially nigeria, where rainfall is highly seasonal over most parts and varies from year to year, while the growing season is determined by the availability of rain to meet crop water requirements (odekunle, 2004). the amount of rainfall that is normally received determines which types of agriculture that can be carried out and which crops can be cultivated in a region. the seasonal distribution of rainfall regulates the agricultural calendar in the tropics (vellinga et al., 2013). the relationship that exists between rainfall and the tropical occupation of agriculture in nigeria is that it employs over 80% of the work force. rainfall is arguably the most important meteorological parameter that has the greatest impact on human activity. rainfall distribution and pattern has been a major concern to different people in diverse field. i.e. to the agriculturist, rainfall is a crucial factor that determines the planting season and influences the type of crops to be cultivated. to the hydrologist, rainfall is important in generation of hydro electric power. the volume of water in rivers increases during the rainy season and this boost generation of electricity. morezactionszshouldzbeztakenztozsensitizezthezpubliczzaboutzzthezoccurrences ofwweatherzevents,zwhichziszfrequentznowadayszaszevidencezzofzzchangezzinzzthe climate (ayanlade et al., 2020). rainfall in nigeria is produced by the intertropical discontinuity. tropical analysts have consequently identified the boundary by several names such as the intertropical convergence zone (itcz), intertropical fronts (itf), and recently the intertropical discontinuity (itd). the itd is a warm, moist maritime air masses yielding heavy rainfall. rainfall is copious in all mouths with an annual total often being 250 cm (strahler & strahler, 1988). it is primarily a region of “maximum” surface moisture gradient, known as a humidity discontinuity (oyewo, 2005). 228 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 reductionzinzvolumezofzrainfallzandzsignificantzincreasezinzsurfaceztemperaturezwith thezfarmerszhavingzfirmzperceptionzofzthesezchanges (tarfa et al., 2020). warmer temperatures are very likely to produce more vigorous variability in climate such as increase evaporation, capacity of air to hold more moisture and thus heavier rainstorms. growing industrialization and increasing use of fossil fuels are putting pressure and affecting the regional and global temperatures that are subsequently influencing the overall precipitation levels. increasingztemperaturezandzchangingzpatternszof precipitationzarezamongzthezmanyzconsequences,zwhichzzarezzattributedzztozzclimate change (dammo et al., 2016). a change in temperature is an important indicator of global warming that directly determines the impact of climate change. recent concern about rising global temperature was justified by its negative impact in all sectors of the economy most especially water supply, ecosystems, coastal habitats, and industries. climatezchangezcouldzalterzgroundwaterzmainlyzthroughzchangeszinzthez recharge,z leadingztozmodifyzgroundwaterzlevels (guevara-ochoa et al., 2020). analysiszofzthezresponsesztozquestionszonzperceptionszofzextremezclimatezeffectszindicatedzthatzaboutz70%zofzthezfarmerszwerezawarezofzthezeffectszofzextremez climatezeventszonzcropzproductionzandzyield,zandzoverz50%zindicatedzthatztoozearly rainfall,zlatezrainfall,zprolongedzdrynesszafterzanzzinitialzrainfall,zzexcessivezzrainfall, windstormszwerezthezcommonzweather-relatedzcauseszofzlowzcropzyields (eludoyin et al.,z2017).zoceaniczand/orzatmosphericzinfluenceszonzthezzrainfallzzinzzbeninzzwere examinedzbyzinvestigatingzthezcorrelationzbetweenzthezprecipitationztimezserieszzand severalzindices (ahokpossi, 2018). furthermore, the report on cessation of the rainy season in the country indicated changes from “normal” between 1941 and 1970 to “early cessation” during the 1971 to 2000 period in most stations (nimet, 2008). nimet (2012) as certained that the period of the rainy season in the country has decline from 1941 while the signals of late onset and early cessation of the rainy season set in. thus, the length of the rainy season has remained shrinking, the annual total rainfall is almost the same, thereby giving rise to 229 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 occasional flash floods and drought occurrences during growing period. temperatures across the country showed an increasing trend from mid-20th century to date. the mean temperature anomaly indicated warming in most locations in the country. temperatures have increased from 0.2 to 0.5o c in the high ground areas of jos, yelwa and ilorin in the north and shaki, iseyin and ondo in the southwest to 0.9 to 1.9o c over the rest parts of the country. aiyelokun & odekoya (2016) stated that the temperature regimes from 1983 to 2013 in ijebu ode appears to be varying and changing statistically. furthermore, average temperature in ijebu ode is high in the dry season and low in the wet season and temperature is generally low during august break when rainfall seizes (aiyelokun & odekoya, 2016). thezwatershedzhaszbeenzsufferingzfromzirregularzandzerraticzrainfallzzduringz thezdryzseason.ztemperaturezexhibitedzazstatisticallyzsignificantzzrisingzztrendzzzwith minimumz temperaturezriseszfasterzthanzthatzofzthezmaximumztemperature (ketema &zsiddaramaiah,z2020).ztrendzforzmeanzandzminimumzaverageztemperatureszthrough timezsignificantlyzwhileztheztrendzforzmaximumztemperaturezexhibitedzaznonsignifi cantzincreasingztrendz(asfawzetzal.,z2018).zfactorszthatzmainlyzcorrelatezwithzstream flowzarezprecipitationzandzmaximumztemperaturez(tesfayezetzal.,z2017).zazwarming processzandzanzaccelerationzofzthezatmosphericzevaporativezzdemandzzzwhichzzztook zplacezespeciallyzsincezthezmid-1970s (elferchichi et al., 2017) ricezyieldzandztemperaturezhadzzgenerallyzzstatisticallyzzsignificantzzpositivez trends,zadaptationzstrategiesztozgeneticallyzmodifyzricezvarietieszandzeffectivezwaterz usezstrategieszinzareaszofzrainfallzdeficitzarezrecommendedztozensurezfoodzzsecurityz (akinbilezetzal.,z2020).zwarmzextremezdayszarezassociatedzwithzmidtroposphericzsub sidencezmotionzinzverticalzvelocityzanomalyzthatziszconnectedzwithzthezcorezofzzthez thermalzlowzandztheznetzzconvergentzzflowzzinzznigeriaz(abatanzetzal.,z2019).zthe trendszinzcoldznightszarezlargerzthanzforzcoldzdayszatzbothzthezannualzandzseasonalz scaleszinznigeriaz(abatanzetzal.,z2016). anzincreasingzztrendzzinzzbothzzrainfallzzand temperaturezinzannualzstatistics,zthough statisticallyzinsignificant (umar et al., 2019) 230 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 thezhighzvariationszofzrainfallzatzhigherzlatitudeszrevealzthezunreliableznaturezofzrain fallzaszonezprogressesztowardsznorthern guineazandzvicezversa (buba et al., 2017). thezobservedzspatiotemporalztrendszandzvariabilityzinzrainfallzarezimportantzbasiszfor guidingztargetingzofzappropriatezadaptivezmeasureszacrosszmultiplezsectors (muthoni et al., 2019). there have been limited studies concerned on spatio-statistical analysis of rainfall and temperature. therefore, this research intends to rainfall and temperature analysis based on onset, cessation and length of rainy season. this study aims to examine the variability of rainfall and temperature based on spatio-statistical analysis. 2. methods 2.1 study area the study area is ijebu ode in ogun state, nigeria (figure 1 and 2). the area experiences humid tropical climate which is characterized by alternate wet and dry season seasons like the rest of nigeria. ijebu-ode region on annual basis is under the influence of hot-wet tropical maritime air mass during the rainy season (april-october) and hot-dry tropical continental air mass during the dry season (november-march) (aiyelokun & odekoya, 2016). rainfall is generally heavy with peaks occurring in july and september (double maxima) coupled with high temperature, high evapotranspiration and high relative humidity. the average monthly rainfall for the area ranges between 7.1mm in the month of january to 208.27 mm in the month of june. the annual rainfall is between 1575 mm and 2340 mm. the temperature of the area ranges from 23o c during the dry season to 35o c during the rainy season with an average annual temperature is 27.5o c. furthermore, the area experiences relative humidity of 63 % in the dry season to as high as 95 % during the peak of the rainy season (onakomaiya, 2000). 231 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 figure 1. map of ogun state showing ijebu ode figure 2. map of ijebu ode 232 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 the vegetation of the area is of the tropical rainforest vegetation of nigeria. in terms of vegetation, the state can be divided into three distinctive zones. where the state shares a boundary with the atlantic ocean, the vegetation is of a swampy type with mangroves and other edaphic trees. about 400 km2 is of basement complex rocks of precambrian formation. the whole state is drained by flowing coastal rivers such as ogun, yewa, and shasha from oyo state through the thickly vegetated western part of the state. numerous small rivers and streams are at the south eastern parts flowing perennially through the swampy terrain. according to the national population commission (2006 census), ijebu-ode local government area has a population of 154,032, and an estimated population of 222,653 (2007). the state has enormous industrial potentials. there are also other modern industries producing high quality beer, bicycle tyres, ceramic goods, high quality clay bricks, carpet and clothing materials (onakomaiya, 2000). the data required for the study include mean and annual temperature, rainfall and sunshine hours between 1983-2017. these data were collected from the nigeria meteorological agency (nimet) at the headquarters in oshodi lagos state while the map of ijebu ode was extracted from the administrative map of nigeria using arc gis 10.3 software. onset of the rainy season will be compiled using walter (1967) formula because of its higher reliability in predicting the onset of the rains among different methods. the formula is expressed in equation 1. onset = dm (51-a) (1) tm where dm = number of days of the month containing the onset of rainfall, a = total rainfall for the previous month, tm = total rainfall for the month in which 51 mm or more is reached. the cessation of rainy season is defined as the last occasion of rainfall that record rainfall of 51 mm and above. cessation of the rainy season will be compiled using walter 233 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 (1967) formula because of its higher reliability in predicting the onset of the rains among different methods. the formula is expressed in equation 2. cessation = dm (51-a) (2) tm where dm = number of days of the month containing the cessation of rainfall, a = total rainfall for the previous month, tm = total rainfall for the month in which 51mm or more is reached. therefore, the length of the rainy season is the total number of days between the onset and cessation date. the anomaly index expresses the degree of rainfall and temperature anomaly for the relevant periods in relation to the long term mean rainfall and temperature for the study period. to calculate the rainfall and temperature anomaly for the study period, standardize rainfall anomaly index (sai) will be used. the formula is given in equation 3. sai = 𝑋− x 𝑆𝐷 (3) where x = mean annual rainfall or temperature, x = mean of entire series, sd = standard deviation of the entire series. correlation will be used to measure the relationship between the rainfall and temperature for the study period. 𝔯 = 𝑛(σ𝑥𝑦)−(σ𝑥)(σ𝑦) √[𝑛σ𝑥2−(σ𝑥)2][𝑛σ𝑦2−(σ𝑦)2] (4) where, 𝑦 = temperature, and 𝑥 = rainfall. t test was used to ascertain whether there is a significant difference between onset dates, cessation dates and length of rainy season in the area. time series is defined as a series of observation assumed by a variable over successive time periods. time series analysis helps to fit an array of time bound data on a line of best fit, it helps to show the type of trends existing in the data graphically. time series will be used to examine the trends of rainfall and temperature for the study period and for predict for the future years. the trend line equation of a time series data is as shown in equation 5. 234 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 y= a+b(x) (5) where, a =intercept, b= rate of change per time, and x= coded values of years. 3. results and discussion 3.1 descriptive statistics of onset, cessation and length of rainy season table 1 presents the onset dates, cessation dates and length of rainy season in the area for the study period. during the study period, rainfall started lately in 1983, rainy season started on 16th april (106th day of the year) while it started earliest in 2004, rainy season started on february 3rd (34th day of the year). the mean onset date of rain in the area during the study period is 13th march (72nd day of the year) with a standard deviation of 18.8 and a coefficient of variation of 25.7 %, this implies that onset date during the study period is heterogeneous. furthermore, rainy season started in february in 1982, 1986, 1987, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2004 and 2011 respectively, it started in march in 1981, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1989, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016 respectively while it started in april in 1983, 1990, 1998, 2001, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2017. this result shows that rainfall starts within the month of february to april in the study period. also, during the study period, 27 % of the onset dates was in february, 46 % in march while 27 % was in the month of april. in table 1, the earliest cessation date of the rainy season in the area was in 1983 which occurred on september 22nd (265st day of the year) while the latest cessation date was in 1990 which occurred in the 10th of december (344st day of the year). the mean cessation date of the rainy season in the area during the study period is october 23rd (296th day of the year) with a standard deviation of 15.8 and a coefficient of variation of 5.3%. this implies that cessation dates during the study period was homogeneous. also, cessation dates in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2008 are lower than the mean value of 23rd october while cessation dates in 1981, 1984, 1988, 1990, 1997, 1999. 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 235 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017 are higher than the mean value and cessation dates in 1992, 1994 and 1998 are the same dates with the mean value of 23rd october. table 1. onset, cessation and length of rainy season year onset date julian day cessation date julian day length of rainy season 1981 15th march 74th day 1st november 305th 231 1982 25th february 56th day 17th october 290th 234 1983 16th april 106th day 22nd september 265th 159 1984 8th march 68th day 23rd october 297th 229 1985 20th march 79th day 21st october 294th 215 1986 27th february 58th day 11th october 284th 226 1987 14th february 45th day 19th october 292nd 247 1988 6th march 66th day 26th october 300th 234 1989 9th march 68th day 22nd october 295th 227 1990 11th april 101st day 10th december 344th 243 1991 23rd february 54th day 19th october 292nd 238 1992 9th april 100th day 22nd october 296th 196 1993 21st february 52nd day 20th october 293rd 241 1994 15th march 74th day 23rd october 296th 222 1995 10th march 69th day 20th october 293rd 224 1996 17th february 48th day 18th october 292nd 244 1997 23rd march 82nd day 9th december 343rd 261 1998 14th april 104th day 23rd october 296th 192 1999 26th february 57th day 26th october 299th 242 2000 21st march 52nd day 15th october 289th 237 2001 4th april 94th day 26th september 269th 175 2002 29th march 88th day 24th october 297th 209 2003 25th february 56th day 17th october 290th 234 2004 3rd february 34th day 23rd september 267th 233 2005 13th march 72nd day 28th september 271st 199 2006 7th march 66th day 20th october 293rd 227 2007 1st april 91st day 29th october 302nd 211 2008 9th april 100th day 20th october 294th 194 2009 2nd april 92nd day 13th november 317th 225 2010 11th april 101st day 11th november 315th 214 2011 21st february 52nd day 26th october 299th 247 2012 13th march 73rd day 26th october 300th 227 2013 6th march 65th day 26th october 299th 234 2014 11th march 70th day 26th october 299th 229 2015 15th march 74th day 25th october 298th 224 2016 12th march 72nd day 30th october 304th 232 2017 3rd april 93rd day 27th october 300th 207 mean 13th march 73nd day 23rd october 296th day 223 std 18.8 15.8 20.8 cv (%) 25.7 5.3 9.3 note : cv = climatic variable, std = standard deviation 236 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 as shown in table 1, the lowest length of rainy season of 159 days was recorded in 1983 while the highest of 261 days was recorded in 1997. the mean length of rainy season in the area is 223 days with a standard deviation of 20.8 and a coefficient of variation of 9.3%. this implies that the length of rainy season in the area is homogeneous. furthermore, length of rainy season in 1983, 1985, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2017 are lower than the mean value of 223 days while length of rainy season in 1981, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2009. 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016 are higher than the mean value of 223 days. 3.2 pattern of onset dates figure 3 presents the pattern of onset date of rainy season in the area during the study period. the trend of onset date is upward sloping, this implies that rainfall is starting late in the study period. the trend also shows that the latest date of onset was in 1983 while the earliest date was in 2004. this result implies that onset dates in the area is affected by climate change, rain now starts late in the study area. figure 3. pattern of onset dates y = 0.2065x + 43170 11-dec 31-dec 20-jan 09-feb 01-mar 21-mar 10-apr 30-apr 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 o n se t d a te year onset date linear trendline 237 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 3.3 pattern of cessation dates as shown in figure 4, the trend of cessation dates in the area is upward sloping, this implies that cessation dates in the study area is getting late. furthermore, the earliest cessation date was in 1983 while the latest was in 1990. also, the trend shows that cessation dates where early between 1981 to 1996 and late between 1997 and 2017. this result shows that climate change has led to late cessation of rainfall in the area. figure 4. pattern of cessation dates 3.4 pattern of length of rainy season as shown in figure 5, the trend of length of rainy season is downward sloping, this implies that there is a decreased in the length of rain season in the area. also the result of the trend line equation y = -0.0512x + 224.3 is negative, meaning that the area has been experiencing a significant decrease in length of rainy season over the period of 35 years. this further shows a predicted rate of decrease of about -0.0512 per annum. the y = 0.1479x + 43393 08-aug 28-aug 17-sep 07-oct 27-oct 16-nov 06-dec 26-dec 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 c e ss a ti o n d a te s year cessation date linear trend 238 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 decrease in the length of rainy season is as a result of late onset of rainfall and early cessation. figure 5. length of rainy season 3.5 anomalous rainfall and temperature table 2 presents the years with anomalous rainfall in the study area during the study period. 1994 experienced the driest year with an anomaly index of -2.12 while 2011 experienced the wettest year with an anomaly index of 2.28. furthermore, 1985 recorded the coldest year with a temperature anomaly index of -2.31 while 2006 recorded the hottest year with a temperature anomaly index of 1.73. y = -0.0512x + 224.3 r² = 0.0007 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 le n g th o f th e r a in y s e a so n year length of rainy season linear trendline 239 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 table 2. anomalous rainfall and temperature year anomalous rainfall anomalous temperature 1981 0.92 -0.38 1982 -1.66 -1.15 1983 -1.47 -0.38 1984 -0.67 0 1985 0.03 -2.31 1986 -1.82 -1.35 1987 0.82 1.35 1988 1.08 0 1989 0.81 -0.58 1990 -0.69 1.35 1991 -0.47 0 1992 -0.46 -0.38 1993 -0.39 0.19 1994 -2.12 0 1995 -0.45 0.96 1996 1.09 0.58 1997 0.63 0.01 1998 -0.30 0.03 1999 1.92 0 2000 0.03 0.38 2001 -1.35 0.58 2002 0.23 0.58 2003 -0.32 0.77 2004 -0.16 0.58 2005 -1.39 -0.19 2006 -0.50 1.73 2007 1.12 -1.73 2008 0.38 -0.77 2009 0.61 -1.92 2010 1.00 -1.92 2011 2.28 -0.19 2012 0.26 0.19 2013 0.46 0 2014 0.51 0.19 2015 0.02 1.35 2016 0.32 0.58 2017 -0.29 1.35 in figure 6, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2017 experienced negative anomaly, this implies that these years are dry experiencing rainfall below the normal while 1981, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 240 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 and 2016 experienced positive anomaly, rainfall received in this years are above the normal. figure 6. anomalous rainfall figure 7 presents the graph of temperature anomaly in the area for the study period. temperature recorded in 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1992, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 showed a negative anomaly while 1987, 1990, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2016 showed a negative anomaly. also, 1984, 1988, 1994, 1999 and 2013 experienced a normal temperature for the study area. -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 anomalous rainfall 241 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 figure 7. anomalous temperature 3.6 relationship between rainfall and temperature table 3 presents the correlation coefficients between rainfall and temperature in the study area. the minimum temperature (r = 0.084), sunshine hours (r = 0.220), cessation (r = 0.641) and length of rainy season (0.406) are positive. this implies that minimum temperature, sunshine hours, cessation and length of rainy season are directly related to rainfall amount. however, if minimum temperature, sunshine hours, cessation -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 anomalous temperature 242 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 and length of rainy season increases, rainfall increases and if minimum temperature, sunshine hours, cessation and length of rainy season decreases, rainfall decreases. furthermore, the maximum temperature (r = -0.191), average temperature (r = -0.044) and onset (r = -0.119) are negative; this implies that maximum temperature, average temperature and onset are inversely related to rainfall amount. if maximum temperature, average temperature and onset increases, rainfall decreases and if maximum temperature, average temperature and onset decreases, rainfall increases. the implication of this maximum temperature and average temperature influences rainfall in the area. as indicated in table 3, the correlation coefficient of maximum temperature (0.325), sunshine hours (0.380), average temperature (0.867), cessation and length of rainy season (0.080) is positive. this means that there is a directly relationship between minimum temperature and maximum temperature, sunshine hours’ average temperature and length of rainy season. however, implies that if these variables increase, minimum temperature will increase and if these variables decrease, minimum temperature will decrease. also, onset (-0.118) and cessation (-0.026) is negative; this implies that there is an inverse relationship between onset date, cessation date and minimum temperature. table 3. relationship between the climatic variables variable rainfall min. temp max. temp sunshine average temp. onset cessation lrs rainfall 1 min t. 0.080 1 max t. -0.191 0.325* 1 sunshine 0.220 0.380* -0.389* 1 average t. -0.044 0.867* 0.749* 0.069 1 onset -0.119 -0.118 -0.203 -0.141 -0.191 1 cessation 0.408* -0.026 -0.031 0.079 -0.031 0.318 1 lrs 0.406* 0.080 0.131 0.101 0.131 -0.642* 0.509* 1 note : lrs = length of rainy season, temp./t. = temperature furthermore, the correlation coefficient average temperature (r = 0.749) and length of rainy season (r = 0.131) is positive, this implies that there is a direct relationship between average temperature, length of rainy season and maximum 243 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 temperature. also, sunshine hours (r = -0.389), onset (r = -0.203) and cessation (r = 0.031) is negative, this implies that there is an inverse relationship between sunshine hours, onset, cessation and maximum temperature. in the same vein, the correlation coefficient average temperature (r = 0.069), cessation (r = 0.079) and length of rainy season (r = 0.201) is positive, meaning that there is a direct relationship between average temperature, cessation, length of rainy season and sunshine hours. further, onset (-0.141) is negative; this implies that there is an inverse relationship between onset and sunshine hours. also, the correlation coefficient length of rainy season (0.189) is positive; this implies that there is a direct relationship between length of rainy season and average temperature while onset (-0.191) and cessation (0.031) is negative, this implies that there is an inverse relationship between onset, cessation and average temperature. furthermore, the correlation coefficient, length of rainy season (-0.642) is negative, this implies that there is an inverse relationship between length of rainy season and onset. while onset (-0.642) is inversely related to length of rainy season. in the same vein, cessation (0.509) is directly related to length of rainy season. furthermore, cessation (0.408*) and length of rainy season (0.406*) are significantly related to rainfall, minimum temperature (0.325*), sunshine hours (0.380*) and average temperature (0.867*) is significantly related to minimum temperature. in the same vein, sunshine hours (-0.389*) and average temperature (0.749*) are significantly related to maximum temperature. also, onset (-0.642*) and cessation (0.509*) are significantly related to length of rainy season. 3.7 significant difference between climatic variables table 4 presents the result of student t test to determine if there is significant difference in onset dates, cessation dates and length of rainy season. since calculated t (23.539) is greater than p-value (2.028) for onset; we reject the null hypothesis and accept 244 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 the alternative hypothesis which states that there is a significant difference in onset dates in the study area. table 4. t test at 0.05 significant level test value = 0.95 t df sig. mean difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper onset 23.539 36 2.028 73.13514 66.8339 79.4364 cessation 113.527 36 2.028 296.45946 291.1634 301.7555 lrs 65.148 36 2.028 223.32432 216.3721 230.2765 note : lrs = length of rainy season in the same vein, since calculated t (113.527) is greater than p-value (2.028) for cessation, thus, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis which states that there is a significant difference in cessation dates in the study area. furthermore, since calculated t (65.148) is greater than p-value (2.028) for length of the rainy season, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis which states that there is a significant difference in length of rainy season in the study area. this result implies that onset dates in the area is affected by climate change, rain now starts late in the study area. these results are similar to those reported by zhang & fueglistalerz(2019)zthatzchangeszinzthezatmosphericzcirculationzpatternzcanzzenhance rainfallzinzone placezandzsuppresszrainfallzinzanother. climate change also has led to latezcessationzofzrainfallzinzthezarea.zthesezresultszarezsimilarztozthosezreportedzzby (baezetzal.,z2019)zthatzbyzthezzoccurrencezzofzzallzzdifferentzztypeszofzzdroughtszisz associatedzwithzextremezmeteorologicalzzdroughts,zzwhichzzarezzmainlyzzcausedzzby precipitationzdeficitszinzthezwetzseasonzorzprolongedzrainfallzshortages.zthesezresults arezsupportedzbyzyacoubz&ztayfurz(2020)zthatztherezziszzpronouncedzzdecreasezzin precipitationzatzthezsouthernzregion,zreachingztozalmostzaztotalzzofz300zzmmzzdeficit innearlyz100-yearzperiod. 245 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 the trend of length of rainy season is downward sloping, this implies that there is azdecreasedzinzthezlengthzofzrainzseasonzinzthezarea.zthesezzresultszzwerezzdifferent fromzthosezofzzhangz&zzhouz(2019),zwhozreportedzthatzzforzzthezzglobalzzmonsoon regionzaszazwhole,zsignificantzzincreaseszinzzextremezprecipitationzzandzzassociations withzglobalzwarmingzare alsozidentified,zhoweverzwithzlimitedzspatialzcoverage. the years with anomalous rainfall in the study area during the study period. thesezresultszarezsimilarztozthosezreportedzby olaniyan et al. (2019) zthatzthezintertropicalzdiscontinuityz(itd)zandzzthezzseazzsurfaceztemperaturezz(sst)zzoverzzthe centralzpacific,zexhibitzdirectzteleconnectionzwithzthezonset anomaly. these results are supportedzbyzfitzpatrickzetzal.z(2019)zthatzazpotentialzusezofzlocalzonsetzregionszare presentedzthatzshowszthezlinkzbetweenzthezannualzintertropicalzfrontzprogressionzand localzagronomiczonset. if maximum temperature, average temperature and onset increases, rainfall decreases and if maximum temperature, average temperature and onset decreases, rainfall increases. thesezresultszarezsimilarztozthose reportedzby zsharma et al.z(2018)zthatzthezincreasezzinzzfrequencyzandzzmagnitudezofzextremezzrainfallzzhas beenzattributedztozthezincreasingztrendzzinzzmaximumzzandzzminimumzztemperature. thesezresultszarezsupportedzbyzmeshramzetzal.z(2018)zthatzthezzmonsoonzzandzzthez winter seasonzexhibited aznegativeztrendzinzrainfallzchangeszoverzthezperiodzofzstudy. 4. conclusion the area is experiencing a significant increase in minimum temperature, sunshine hours, rainfall and average temperature while it is experiencing a significant decrease in maximum temperature. however, rains start early in the area and ceases late, resulting to a prolonged length of rainy season because the area is experiencing a decline in the length of rainy season. it could also be noted that onset dates of rains and cessation dates are major determinants of length of rainy season as a change in any of the two variables will affect the length of the rainy season. the rainfall anomaly over all the area revealed that there was a composite nature in which. early warning systems about extreme 246 e.a. adeleke and e.a. orebayo et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 226-249 temperature and rainfall events should be put in place. this will help reduce the cost of destruction caused by this extreme weather events especially in the case of flood. early warning about temperature events can help prevent disease such as meningitis that is related with temperature. the response should involve flood forecasting and early warning using rainfall data, rescue and evacuation and post flood impact assessment, recovery and rehabilitation. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references abatan, a. a., abiodun, b. j., adefisan, e. a., & gutowski, w. j., jr. 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(2019). mechanism for increasing tropical rainfall unevenness with global warming. geophysical research letters, 46(24), 1483614843. doi:10.1029/2019gl086058. https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.30921 research article analysis of the dynamics of water flow and suspension flow discharge in volcano watershed with settlement land use la ode hadini1* , junun sartohadi2 , muhammad anggri setiawan3, djati mardiatno3 , nugroho christanto3 1department of geography, universitas halu oleo, kendari, 93132, indonesia 2faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada, jl. flora bulaksumur, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia 3faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, sekip utara, bulaksumur, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : laodehadini@uho.ac.id introduction the dynamics of suspension flow in a volcano watershed can cause a critical land problem as a result of land use activities. in indonesia, there are over 400 volcanoes, of which 130 are categorized as active (badan geologi indonesia, 2011; handayani, et al. 2013). generally, the cones and upper slopes are not used intensively because there is a threat of high-intensity mountain hazards (asriningrum, et al. 2004; sartohadi & pratiwi, 2014). however, the central slope is used for settlements (nandini & narendra, 2012; alstrom & akerman, 2012; zhou et al., 2016), and foot slopes are used for farmland (bachri et al., 2017). suspension flows from the upper part of volcanic landscapes are sensitive to land use patterns. furthermore, suspension flow dynamics can relate abstract suspension flow into the upstream of volcano watershed is sensitive to land use. in indonesia, a settlement is a form of land use in several volcanic landscapes. there is currently no detailed study on the suspension flow sediment from the settlement land use. the purpose of this study is to investigate the characteristics of the relationship between water and suspension flow discharge. the study was conducted through the measurements at a gully outlet that produced 747 suspension load data. for each rainfall event, suspension load measurements were made in the field, followed by laboratory analysis. additionally, field surveys were used to determine the characteristics of settlement land use and the water flow into the gully system. according to the findings, the peak flow discharge corresponds to the peak suspension discharge, the peak flow discharge comes before the peak suspension discharge, and the peak flow discharge happens after the peak suspension discharge. the average time lag between initial rainfall events and suspension flow was 10.36 minutes, and the suspension peak content varied by an average of 2.22 gl-1. the grain size was also dominated by the clay fraction, averaging 67.86% on the ascending branch and 67.82% on the descending branch. keywords: erosion; discharge; settlements; suspension; watershed article info received : 1 may 2022 revised : 30 march 2023 accepted : 10 april 2023 published : 18 april 2023 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 8 no. 1, april 2023, 19-34 © 2023 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 19 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.30921 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4815-4530 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0059-8335 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7401-1886 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 20 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 water flow responses to the dynamics of watershed properties through land-use activity in volcanic landscapes. it is very important for the qualitative identification of watershed criticality. the use of dynamics of suspension flow for qualitative identification was developed considering that quantitative identification requires a large investment input in terms of time, effort, and cost (kimmins et al. 2007; verstraeten et al. 2007; kironoto, 2008; verma & jha, 2015). suspension flow is closely related to the critical state of the watershed. this is because it is an important part of soil erosion process from a watershed area resulting in soil loss or decreased soil fertility, triggering sedimentation and silting downstream of the water body, which is an indicator of the criticality (panagos et al., 2015; suripin, 2000; merritt et al. 2003; ma’wa & andawayanti, 2009). dynamics of suspension flow properties and changes in watershed conditions can be observed during specific periods of precipitation events by hydrographic analysis of suspension hydrographs. suspension flow dynamics are described in a hydrograph based on flow and suspension discharge parameters (parsons & wainwright, 2000; handayani et al., 2005; oktarina, 2005; walker & mostaghimi, 2009; handayani & indrajaya, 2011; bisantino et al., 2013; miller et al., 2015; yan et al., 2015; gao et al., 2017). this dynamic is related to the equilibrium system of rainfall inflow, infiltration and groundwater storage in the catchment (hergarten et al., 2000; poesen et al., 2003; arsyad, 2006; fryirs & brierley, 2013). several studies have shown that the dynamics of suspension flow in settlements can control the formation of suspension flow (soemarto, 1999; dariah et al., 2003; morgan, 2005; nicótina et al., 2011; rusdi et al., 2013; miller et al. 2015). however, in general, there is no report on the condition of the physical characteristics of the watershed and landscapes with homogeneous settlement land use. until now, the study of suspension flows has been carried out in a wide watershed area with various types of land use. although rainwater input parameters and watershed physical characteristics in a wide watershed are generally heterogeneous, they are assumed to be uniform. therefore, based on the assumption of uniformity, the results have the potential for a large bias toward the real situation in the field. the study of suspension flow of settlement volcanic watersheds needs to be carried out with a key area approach on a small watershed location and homogeneous settlement conditions. the use of the key area approach can make it easier to plan the physical condition of watersheds in the case of uniform land use. this will provide reports that are close to the real situation in the field. furthermore, this can be generalized and applied to volcanic watersheds and settlement land uses with similar physical properties. the study of suspension flow dynamics in the upper part of the settlement volcanic watershed has a different aim. this includes the correspondent response to water flow and suspension flow discharge, the lag time of rainfall occurrence, the beginning of suspension flow formation, as well as the particle size of suspension flow content. methods this research was conducted in the bompon watershed is located on the foot-slopes of the sumbing volcano in the border area of magelang, purworejo, and wonosobo regencies, central java (figure 1). the bompon watershed was chosen as the key area because it has a form of land use in the form of settlements at 9163200 mu – 916400 mu and 396300 mt – 397800 mt at an average altitude 458 m above sea level (wardhana, 2016). with an average annual rainfall of 2,214.5 mm, the climate in this region is characterized by uneven precipitation. the watershed is also in a zone of transition between the tertiary and quaternary volcanic material deposition zones on the foot-slopes of the sumbing volcano. bompon watershed experienced volcanic intrusion which resulted in intensive alteration of the bedrock. the existence of this alteration and weathering process produces a layer of soil more than 10 meters thick (candraningrum, 2013), which is categorized as super thick soil (sartohadi, 2013). 21 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 the settlement key area has dimensions of 288.28 m length and 223.29 m width with a catchment area of about 5.64 ha (5.64 x 104 m2) and a slightly rounded watershed shape (figure 1). the physical characteristics of the settlements are residential buildings, mosques, and road networks which are in the form of concrete and solid soil surfaces. residential housing spreads over most of the settlement, totaling about 40 units, and covering an area of about 0.322 ha (or 3220 m2) with a roof span of approximately between 63 m2 98 m2. the height of the roof stands varies between 3 m – 6 m. vegetation cover can be found among residential land uses in the form of annual plants such as coconut, mahogany and sonokeling, and mpon-mpon plants such as turmeric, javanese turmeric and cardamom. moreover, there are grass and aromatic ginger attached to the surface of the soil at the base of the plant stand. figure 1. the geomorphological units of the settlement land use in bompon watershed on the footslopes of the sumbing volcano, central java 22 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 based on the physical characteristics of the land use, the direct water from the rain falling on the housing roof, ground surface of the open yard, and the vegetation stands converges on the furrows and subsequently flows into the drainage or ditches connected to settlement spas outlets. the appearance of watershed erosion in the key areas of the settlement is controlled by the physical characteristics of the land, such as climate, especially rain intensity, topography (relief), vegetation, soil, and anthropogenic activity. in order to measure the suspension flow in a gully outlet that yielded 747 suspension data, the key area approach was applied in this research. field and laboratory measurements were used to measure the suspension flow during each rainfall event. in addition, field measurements were used to record the catchment area's plant characteristics in detail. in the meantime, field surveys were used to observe the characteristics of water flow into the gully system. then, tables and graphs (suspension hydrographs) were used to show the data and explain the linkage between rainfall and suspension flows. data from rainfall and water level (tma) measurements were used to analyze suspension flow. the data on rainfall were based on the dynamics of the thickness, intensity, and duration of the precipitation just before the formation of the suspension flow. the parameters of the sediment load were used to examine suspension flow, which was later referred to as suspension. the weight and concentration of the obtained suspension were analyzed by filtering. the concentration that passes through a certain outlet per time unit is called suspension discharge or suspension flow discharge (hadini et al., 2021). the suspension discharge can be obtained from the multiplication between suspension concentration and water flow discharge (wulandari et al., 2004; mondal et al., 2015). qs = aq b (1) where qs= suspension discharge (g/s, gs -1); q= water flow discharge (l/s, ls-1). the water flow discharge can be obtained for each water level (tma) observations at settlement spas outlets with a type of broad-crested weirs, which are calculated by the weir discharge equation as follows herschy (2009). q = 0.633√(g)bh3/2 (2) where q= water flow discharge (ls-1); g= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2); b= breadth (m); and h= total head (m). results and discussion the relationship between water flow and suspension discharge the conformity patterns between water flow and suspension discharge during the rising and falling limbs on the hydrograph are shown by the dynamics of suspension flow during rain events in the watershed of key settlement areas. suspension discharge increased in tandem with an increase in water flow discharge at the rising limb. on the other hand, at the falling limb, there was a decrease in suspension discharge as well as a decrease in water flow discharge (figure 2). the three patterns of water flow conformity and suspension discharge are the peak water flow discharge, peak water flow discharge, and peak water flow discharge. the peak water flow discharge occurs after the peak suspension discharge, the peak water flow discharge, and the peak water flow discharge. in the field, there were 38 rain events, with both peaks occurring in 28 of those events. in 5 of those events, the peak of flow discharge occurred before the peak of suspension, and in 5 of those events, it occurred after the peak of suspension (table 1). this 23 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 information indicates that the dynamics of flow discharge significantly influence suspension discharge and consequently affects the correspondent patterns of its peak. this significant influence is in line with soewarno (1991); arianti et al. (2012); maulana et al. (2014). additionally, it was mentioned that the dynamics of rainfall inputs, infiltration rate, and groundwater storage are all parts of a balanced system, along with the dynamics of runoff discharge (handayani et al., 2005). when parameters for infiltration rate and groundwater storage are satisfied, rainfall input causes the production of suspension flow, which follows the dynamics of runoff formation (parsons & wainwright, 2000; oktarina, 2005; walker & mostaghimi, 2009; triatmodjo, 2013; neno et al., 2016). the hydrograph analysis's depiction of the dynamics of runoff production and suspension flow may be used to explain the changing suspension flow that corresponds to rainfall dynamics (handayani & indrajaya, 2011; bisantino et al., 2013; miller et al., 2015; gao et al., 2017). at the beginning of the rainfall event, the flow rate tends to be low when the intensity and duration of rain are still low. along with the increase in intensity and duration of rainfall, suspension discharge increases with flow discharge (figure 2). this is because raindrops are producing more sediment and grinding (erosion) flow at ground level. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 s u sp e n si o n d is ch a rg e ( g /s ) w a te r f lo w d is ch a rg e ( l/ s) time (hour) rainfall event no. 1 q(l/s) qs (g/s) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 s u sp e n si o n d is ch a rg e ( g /s ) w a te r f lo w d is ch a rg e ( l/ s) time (hour) rainfall event no. 9 q(l/s) qs (g/s) 24 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 note : the conformity of water flow discharge and suspension discharge occurs in 3 patterns: a. the peak of flow discharge occurs after the peak of suspension discharge; b. the peak of the water flow discharge corresponds to the suspension discharge; c. the peak of the water flow discharge precedes the peak of suspension discharge. figure 2. the types in the correspondence patterns of the peak suspension discharge and the peak water flow discharge during several rain events table 1. the situation for the suspension measurement elements in every rainfall event no rainfall event the amount of data peak of suspension concentration cp (gl-1) peak runoff qp (ls-1) peak of suspension discharge qsp (gs-1) type of tqp and tqsp 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 1 01-mar-17 6 0.82 28.11 23.15 tqp>tqsp 2 01-mar-17_1 5 2.92 312.07 909.70 tqp>tqsp 3 20-mar-17 3 2.58 1.51 2.63 tqp=tqsp 4 20-mar-17 12 1.51 106.74 161.57 tqp>tqsp 5 25-mar-17 49 1.57 154.82 242.56 tqp=tqsp 6 25-mar-17_1 17 1.23 95.74 117.35 tqp=tqsp 7 26-mar-17 48 2.11 401.52 847.67 tqp>tqsp 8 03-apr-17 17 1.11 25.10 27.91 tqp=tqsp 9 05-apr-17 51 8.26 1270.53 10494.56 tqp=tqsp 10 06-apr-17 24 2.18 0.62 1.30 tqp<tqsp 11 10-apr-17 6 1.63 4.54 7.40 tqp=tqsp 12 11-apr-17 5 0.84 4.54 3.81 tqp=tqsp 13 19-apr-17 5 1.38 4.54 6.28 tqp=tqsp 14 19-apr-17_1 16 1.47 39.53 58.16 tqp=tqsp 15 19-jan-18 7 1.71 6.40 10.95 tqp=tqsp 16 20-jan-18 13 1.42 32.01 45.57 tqp=tqsp 17 22-jan-18 19 1.32 56.26 74.28 tqp=tqsp 18 24-jan-18 37 3.20 167.80 537.05 tqp=tqsp 19 27-jan-18 24 1.48 130.00 192.93 tqp=tqsp 20 29-jan-18 7 1.08 4.54 4.92 tqp=tqsp 21 30-jan-18 13 0.94 32.01 30.09 tqp<tqsp 22 01-feb-18 20 2.31 95.74 220.77 tqp=tqsp 23 02-feb-18 3 0.53 0.55 0.30 tqp=tqsp 24 04-feb-18 20 1.94 47.62 92.45 tqp<tqsp 25 04-feb-18-2 30 4.20 167.80 761.52 tqp=tqsp 26 11-feb-18 2 0.28 1.58 0.44 tqp=tqsp 0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 s u sp e n si o n d is ch a rg e ( g /s ) w a te r f lo w d is ch a rg e ( l/ s) time (hour) rainfall event no. 21 q(l/s) qs (g/s) 25 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 no rainfall event the amount of data peak of suspension concentration cp (gl-1) peak runoff qp (ls-1) peak of suspension discharge qsp (gs-1) type of tqp and tqsp 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 27 13-feb-18 37 7.38 419.44 3096.66 tqp=tqsp 28 14-feb-18 18 2.42 106.74 258.65 tqp<tqsp 29 15-feb-18 17 2.09 142.22 296.82 tqp=tqsp 30 16-feb-18 11 2.00 39.53 79.16 tqp=tqsp 31 20-feb-18 10 0.74 18.83 13.89 tqp<tqsp 32 22-feb-18 9 1.20 32.01 38.33 tqp=tqsp 33 23-feb-18 17 3.69 283.89 1047.62 tqp=tqsp 34 24-feb-18 4 0.59 0.55 0.33 tqp=tqsp 35 24-feb-18_2 19 1.11 52.95 52.95 tqp=tqsp 36 06-mar-18 11 2.53 47.62 120.49 tqp=tqsp 37 07-mar-18 21 4.48 167.80 750.96 tqp=tqsp 38 08-mar-18 26 6.10 456.05 2781.93 tqp=tqsp amount 659 84.38 4959.83 23413.12 min 2.00 0.28 0.55 0.30 average 17 2.22 130.52 616.13 max 51.00 8.26 1270.53 10494.56 the time lag of suspension flow formation and rainfall at the beginning of the rainfall and the formation of suspension flow there is a time lag that varies greatly (table 2). the lowest time lag value is 2 minutes, while the highest is 41 minutes so that the average time lag is 10.36 minutes with a standard deviation of ±7.6 minutes. the standard deviation of the time lag for residential land use is relatively lower than for agroforestry land use, namely ±13 minutes (hadini et al., 2021). there is a time lag between the start of suspension flow formation and the start of rain in this study which is controlled by several aspects of watershed conditions, including the dynamics of rain intensity, duration of previous rain events, and baseflow conditions in the channel. this can be seen in the results of statistical tests with positive correlation test values for aspects of the time lag, namely time lag with the previous rain (0.092), maximum intensity (0.057), and rain duration (0.574) in the previous rain event. several others showed a negative correlation, namely rain intensity (-0.157), runoff discharge (-0.075), suspension discharge (-0.084), and baseflow conditions in the channel (-0.276) (table 3). in the results of this test, there are no factors that provide a significant correlation for the initial time lag of suspension formation at certain levels in settlements. this shows that the difference in the time between the start of the suspension flow reaching the outlet and the start of the rain is determined by a combination involving the dynamics of the rain intensity, the duration of the rain in the previous rain event and the baseflow conditions in the channel, as well as the dynamics of the ongoing rainfall intensity. the combination factors in intensity and duration of rain for the previous and the ongoing rainfall as well as the state of the base flow in the channel can control the beginning of suspension flow formation in line with the concept of flow formation mechanism. suspension flow formation occurs when the soil surface gets excess rain input after vertical absorption into the soil. this changes the humidity state of the initial soil surface, making the soil saturated with water, and forming runoff at the surface when there is still excess rainwater (soemarto, 1999; arsyad, 2006; neno et al., 2016; wang et al., 2015; yan et al., 2015). the time lag between the initial formation of suspension flow and the occurrence of rainfall in residential land use tends to be shorter than in agroforestry. as previously mentioned, both forms of land use have the characteristics of very thick soil and high clay content (> 50%) so that they are able to bind and store more water. however, initial runoff formation in settlements occurred more rapidly in this study. this shows that the characteristics of land cover in the form of housing, and land compaction by human activities in settlements encourage the rapid formation of concentrated runoff into surface runoff. later this situation can practically interfere with the 26 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 process of water infiltration into the soil layer, thereby reducing the absorption and holding capacity of groundwater (mbaya et al., 2012). these results reinforce previous studies on the relationship between soil conditions, infiltration rates, and high groundwater deposits in controlling the formation of surface runoff and sediment carriers reported in handayani & indrajaya (2011) and gumiere et al., (2015). table 2. determinants of the formation of suspension flow in the settlement land use no. rainfall events previous rain events ongoing rain events suspension flow occurrence the time lag (hours) max intensity (mm/hour) duration (minutes) initial rainfall intensity (mm/hour) the initial time lag (minutes) baseflow state (m) suspension flow occurrence flow discharge (ls-1) suspension discharge (gs-1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 01/03/2017 23 39.6 105 12 21.00 0 formed 15.76 24.59 2 01/03/2017_1 4 12 50 2.4 4.00 0 formed 1.56 0.47 3 20/03/2017 7 18 193 19.2 13.00 0 formed 6.40 16.50 4 20/03/2017 4 19.2 99 19.2 12.00 0 formed 8.48 25.27 5 25/03/2017 17 18 146 20.4 13.00 0 formed 1.58 3.12 6 25/03/2017_1 6 30 158 36 16.00 0 formed 47.62 66.77 7 26/03/2017 12 30 104 38.4 7.00 0 formed 1.58 0.57 8 03/04/2017 18 68 116 3.6 16.00 0 formed 1.58 2.51 9 05/04/2017 20 31.2 76 4.8 5.00 0 formed 1.58 1.19 10 06/04/2017 20 97.2 76 22.8 28.00 0 formed 0.01 0.05 11 10/04/2017 2 48 112 10.8 8.00 0 formed 1.58 2.30 12 11/04/2017 32 14.4 39 8.4 14.00 0 formed 1.58 0.98 13 19/04/2017 25 8.4 48 18 8.00 0 formed 1.58 3.71 14 19/04/2017_1 1 18 27 6 13.00 0 formed 4.54 2.19 15 19/01/2018 15 18 81 15 17.00 0 formed 1.58 1.05 16 20/01/2018 14 18 43 6.6 9.00 0 formed 1.58 0.46 17 22/01/2018 47 6.6 73 23.4 19.00 0.005 formed 1.58 0.27 18 24/01/2018 14 23.4 104 9.6 3.00 0 formed 1.58 3.12 19 26/01/2018 16 9.6 158 16.8 5.00 0.005 formed 0.55 0.13 20 27/01/2018 11 160.2 21 16.8 5.00 0.005 formed 8.48 14.66 21 29/01/2018 50 10.8 77 28.2 5.00 0.002 formed 0.55 0.10 22 30/01/2018 23 28.2 81 3.6 5.00 0 formed 8.48 8.47 23 01/02/2018 21 30 76 13.2 4.00 0 formed 4.54 2.51 24 02/02/2018 20 6 60 4.8 41.00 0 formed 0.14 0.06 25 04/02/2018 46 4.8 60 30 7.00 0 formed 4.54 5.20 26 4/02/2018-2 2 30 114 1.2 5.00 0.002 formed 13.27 24.05 27 11/02/2018 60 48 300 12 17.00 0.005 formed 1.58 0.44 28 13/02/2018 23 2.4 45 46.8 2.00 0.01 formed 25.10 60.13 29 14/02/2018 21 4.8 90 4.8 7.00 0.01 formed 4.54 2.47 30 15/02/2018 23 20.4 135 19.2 3.00 0.02 formed 8.48 7.21 31 16/02/2018 23 19.2 53 18 4.00 0.02 formed 13.27 6.52 32 20/02/2018 23 18 7 21.6 9.00 0.002 formed 1.58 0.92 33 22/02/2018 19 25.2 80 21.6 7.00 0 formed 4.54 5.71 34 23/02/2018 21 32.4 120 72 7.00 0 formed 18.83 49.22 35 24/02/2018 24 86.4 102 36 6.00 0 formed 0.14 0.06 36 24/02/2018_2 3 36 45 36 10.00 0 formed 4.54 7.11 37 06/03/2018 21 3.6 150 32.4 9.00 0 formed 4.54 2.87 38 07/03/2018 24 32.4 54 10.8 11.00 0 formed 1.58 2.68 39 08/03/2018 23 31.2 99 33.6 9.00 0 formed 8.48 22.62 average 19.9 29.7 91.7 19.4 10.36 0.0 6.1 9.7 max 60 160.2 300 72 41.00 0.02 47.62 66.77 min 1 2.4 7 1.2 2.00 0 0.015 0.048 sdev 13.2 29.8 53.7 14.5 7.60 0.0 8.8 16.2 27 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 table 3. correlation test results of the relationship between parameter aspects on initial time lag for suspension flow to outlets in the settlement wathershed correlation in each parameter aspects at the key area of settlement watershed parameter aspect the initial time lag to the outlet (minutes) time lag with the previous rain (hours) pearson correlation .092 sig. (2-tailed) .576 n 39 previous max rain intensity (mm/hour) pearson correlation 0.057 sig. (2-tailed) .730 n 39 previous rain duration (minutes) pearson correlation .093 sig. (2-tailed) .574 n 39 initial rain intensity of suspension flow (mm/hour) pearson correlation -.157 sig. (2-tailed) .341 n 39 suspension flow occurrence pearson correlation .(a) sig. (2-tailed) n 39 runoff discharge (ls-1) pearson correlation -.075 sig. (2-tailed) .650 n 39 suspension discharge (g/s) pearson correlation -.084 sig. (2-tailed) .611 n 39 base flow state (m) pearson correlation -.276 sig. (2-tailed) .089 n 39 the initial infiltration rate is influenced by the initial water content in conjunction with infiltration. the mechanism of surface runoff, which involves the fulfillment of groundwater content and infiltration rate in settlements is ineffective because it is disrupted through the formation of faster flow concentrations by land cover from various facilities in the settlement. the concept that the higher the need to meet the initial soil moisture content, the smaller the initial infiltration rate, which in turn can affect the formation of surface runoff to be slower, does not apply in settlements; in fact, surface runoff and suspended flow are faster with the accumulation of faster flow concentrations (haridjadja et al., 1990; asdak, 2004). the characteristics of the grain content of the suspension flow in the settlement watershed's key areas, the concentration of the suspension flow content during peak discharge situations ranged from 0.28 gl-1 to 8.26 gl-1 with an average of 2.22 gl-1 (table 1). during rainfall event 26, the lowest suspension content concentration recorded 0.28 gl -1 with a peak water flow discharge of 1.58 ls-1. while rainfall event 36 produced the maximum suspension concentration of 8.26 gl-1 and had a peak water flow discharge of 1,270.53 ls-1. the peak discharge of a low water flow has a low concentration of suspension content, whereas the peak discharge of a large water flow has a high concentration of suspension content, showing how the peak 28 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 discharge of the water flow impacts the level of concentration of suspension content in settlements. in line with some previous studies, the situations regarding flow discharge affects suspension levels, the association of suspension grain content with flow discharge situations (kellner & hubbart, 2018; hadini et al., 2019), and its relation to flow speed (steegen et al., 2000; tillinghast et al., 2011). the clay fraction dominates the grain size of the suspension content. according to the watershed's surface soil layer's clay content, clay is present in the dominating grain size proportion. based on the proportions of clay fractions measuring less than 0.002 mm, silt fractions measuring between 0.002 and 0.02 mm, and sand fractions measuring between 0.02-2 mm, the analysis of the suspension content's grain size was divided into groups. averaging 1.76% sand, 25.65% silt, and 72.59% clay make up the suspension content in the grain size on the rising limb. meanwhile, the average percentage size of consecutive suspension content in the grain size at the falling limb were sand 2.52%, silt 28.04%, and clay 69.45%. the grain size fraction on the surface soil layer had an average percentage of sand 1.76%, silt 25.65%, and clay 72.59%. the fraction of clay in suspension decreased during the duration of the experiment, going from 72.59% in the rising limb to 69.45% in the falling limb. meanwhile, the fraction of suspension grain size on sand showed an increase from 1.76% to 2.51% and silt from 25.65% to 28.66%. the increase in the size of the grains of sand and silt and the decrease in the size of the clay in the suspension content during the flow shows the difference in the degree of ease of transportation process in the grain size of the suspension between sand, silt and clay, as well as an increase in the transport of sediment originating from erosion in the channel. even with a smaller flow rate, the clay fraction continues to build up in the rising limb. this is so that it may dissolve and be carried by water flow since the clay fraction has very tiny and fine particle sizes. the fraction of silt and sand is larger and coarser, therefore, the decomposition and transport process requires energy at large flow discharges and a longer time (castillo et al., 2007; haregeweyn et al., 2012; nugroho & basit, 2014; hadini et al. 2021). in other words, the increase in silt and sand content of suspension flow indicates that the increase in water flow discharge triggers the destruction of soil aggregates and intensive sediment transport (li et al., 2015; nocoń, 2016; maltsev & yermolaev, 2020). the process of erosion events in key areas of settlements watersheds can be observed in the field. the results showed that the erosion processes were controlled by both physical characteristics of the land, such as the climate, especially the intensity of rain, topography, especially relief, vegetation, soil, and the human activities (figure 3). meanwhile, suspension flows derived from erosion in the channel occurred at the mountain watersheds with settlement land use triggered by the accumulation and concentration of streams that experience an increase in flow discharge (sambodo & arpornthip, 2021). a b 29 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 note: a,b forms of erosion channel from activities in settlement buildings. c, d. source of water production that triggers the concentration of flow from the roofs of houses and compaction of roads in settlements. figure 3. state of erosion sources and sources of sediment production by several settlement facilities that trigger the concentration of flows in watersheds based on this study, natural processes following watershed characteristics and anthropogenic activities such as the type of land use in the volcano watershed area can trigger erosion and sources of suspension production that cause soil loss. consequently, this can lead to a decrease in soil fertility for the in situ area as well as sedimentation and siltation processes at the downstream. these processes can be indicators for the assessment of watershed criticality. this study recommends that land-use efforts in the upstream area of the volcano watershed should involve the analysis of geophysical characteristics of the land, covering climate aspects, especially rainfall, topography (relief), land cover vegetation, as well as anthropogenic activities that include the choice of land management techniques and water drainage channels. moreover, indonesia is dominant with volcanic landscapes that can have relatively the same characteristics with that of bompon. therefore, the results in the form of suspension flow patterns and dynamics on settlement land use in this location can be a reference for managing or selecting land use forms for volcanic landscapes in other areas. conclusion the rising and falling limbs display the suitable pattern in the dynamics of water flow discharge and suspension flow discharge. in the case of peak discharge, there are three different ways that this relationship can occur: (1) the peak discharge of the water flow corresponds to the peak discharge of the suspension; (2) the peak discharge of the water flow precedes the peak discharge of the suspension; and (3) the peak discharge of the water flow occurs after the peak discharge of the suspension. the time lag between the start of the rainfall event and the formation of suspension flow at a particular outlet varies from 2 to 41 minutes, with an average of 10.36 minutes. the peak suspension content of the flow discharge varied between 0.28 gl-1 and 8.24 gl-1, with an average of 2.22 gl-1. the grain size of the suspension content in each fraction of clay, silt, and sand varied during the rising and falling limbs. acknowledgments the author would like to thank the relevant parties who have helped with the implementation and preparation of the paper, especially the education fund management institute (lpdp) for funding doctoral studies as well as funding for this research. the authors also thank the soil laboratory staff and technicians for their assistance during the analysis process, the transbulent team that assisted with field activities and supporting information in the study area in the bompon watershed. c d 30 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 19-34 declarations conflict of interest the authors declare that in the research and preparation of this article, there are no conflict of interests related to certain organizations, institutions, and individuals or groups. ethical approval on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that the paper satisfies ethical standards conditions, no human participants, or animals are involved in the research. informed consent on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that no human participants are involved in the research and, therefore, informed consent is not required by them. data availability data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. references alstrom, k. & åkerman, a.b. 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(2016). sediment sources in a small agricultural catchment: a composite fingerprinting approach based on the selection of potential sources. geomorphology, 266, 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.05.007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.10.015 methods the initial infiltration rate is influenced by the initial water content in conjunction with infiltration. the mechanism of surface runoff, which involves the fulfillment of groundwater content and infiltration rate in settlements is ineffective becau... the characteristics of the grain content of the suspension flow conclusion https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.30246 research article the implementation of disaster curriculum toward disaster preparedness campus at syiah kuala university ahmad nubli gadeng*1,3, enok maryani2, epon ningrum2, iwan setiawan2 1graduate school of the indonesian university of education, jl. dr. setiabudhi 229 bandung 40154, indonesia 2department of geography education, indonesian university of education, jl. dr. setiabudhi 229 bandung 40154, indonesia 3department of geography education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, jl. teuku nyak arief, banda aceh, 23111, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : ahmadnubli@unsyiah.ac.id abstract the earthquake and tsunami disasters in aceh province, indonesia led to several injuries, deaths, unfound bodies, and high property losses on 26 december 2004. this hazardous period has reportedly become a valuable case for syiah kuala university, where various solutions are being considered for eradicating subsequent occurrences. therefore, this study aims to determine the implementation patterns of the disaster curriculum developed and applied at syiah kuala university, to achieve a dpc (disaster preparedness campus) reputation and enhance dp (disaster preparedness) among community members, especially students. a qualitative verification method outlined as a description was used, due to being an inductive approach to the entire experimental process. data collection was also carried out through observation and literature review, as well as several interviews with the following, (1) the head of the technical implementation unit general course of syiah kuala university, (2) the coordinator and lecturer of disaster and environmental knowledge course, and (3) the students of syiah kuala university studying the course. after this process, a delphi method was used to analyze the data obtained, with the outcomes confirmed by a competent expert. based on the results, three important steps were found to improve disaster preparedness among the people of aceh and syiah kuala university students, namely (1) the establishment of the tsunami disaster mitigation research center in 2006, (2) the establishment of the master program study of disaster science in the university's postgraduate program in 2010, and (3) development of the general course of disaster knowledge and environment in 2016, which was a compulsory requirement for all students from various faculties, departments, and programs. this indicated that syiah kuala university was the first campus to mandate a disaster science course in indonesia. these results are expected to improve disaster preparedness for students, with syiah kuala university becoming a dpc (disaster preparedness campus) in indonesia. keywords : implementation; disaster curriculum; disaster preparedness campus article info article history received : 20 february 2022 revised : 6 november 2022 accepted : 9 december 2022 published : 27 december 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 3, december 2022, 304-324 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 304 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.30246 mailto:%20ahmadnubli@unsyiah.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 305 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 1. introduction aceh province is one of the 37 cities located in the western part of indonesia, with its capital being banda aceh. this province geologically lies on the eurasian and pacific plates, as well as the ring of fire exactly part of the circum-mediterranean (murtianto, 2010; banowati, 2013; hermon, 2015; gadeng, 2017). based on this condition, aceh is very prone to various geological disasters, which have reportedly occurred thrice from 2004 to 2016. this includes the earthquake and tsunami occurrences on 26-12-2004, which were caused by the movement of the eurasian and indo-australian plates. the fatalities were more than 237,448 people, with the complete estimation not less than 300,000 (tejakusuma, 2005; rofi et al., 2006; shofiyati, 2005). an earthquake disaster also occurred in central aceh and bener meriah on 02-07-2013, caused by an active fault in peusangan. since the epicentre was located 53 km southwest of bener meriah regency, the fatalities incurred were 42 people (tagana, 2013). additionally, an earthquake occurred in pidie jaya, pidie, and bireun on 07-12-2016, caused by the movement of the active samalanga-sipopok fault. from this condition, the fatalities incurred reached 102 people (tagana, 2016). besides these hazardous conditions, aceh province was also prone to hydrometeorological and social disasters. based on the various disaster phenomena in this province, the acehnese people and students need to have a good level of disaster preparedness. however, these expectations had not been fully realized, according to several previous studies, such as febriana et al. (2015). this showed that community preparedness was in a good category (69%), with disaster knowledge requiring serious attention (63%). in this case, the training and socialization related to preparedness need to be carried out regularly in the community. besides community occurrences, inadequate disaster preparedness is also observed within several school environments in aceh province. this was in line with khairuddin, et al. (2011), where the school communities in aceh jaya, aceh tengah, and pidie jaya were only at the level of understanding of various rescue actions, with no good skills observed for disaster preparedness. for susanti et al. (2014), the community at the disaster preparedness school at sdn 02 banda aceh city was at a very ready level to handle sudden hazardous phenomena. subsequently, nuranda, et al. (2014) also showed that students' attitudes toward handling disasters were not as expected in related mitigation measures at smpn banda aceh city. table 1 comprehensively shows the disaster information and location prone to disaster in aceh province, indonesia. table 1. disaster information and location which is prone to disaster in aceh disaster type location earthquake all regencies/cities in aceh province tsunami sabang, banda aceh, aceh besar, pidie, pidie jaya, bireun, north aceh, lhokseumawe, east aceh, langsa, aceh tamiang, aceh jaya, west aceh, nagan raya, southwest aceh, south aceh, aceh singkil, simeulue. volcanic eruption aceh besar, pidie, pidie jaya, bireun, bener meriah, central aceh. tornadoes/extreme weather all regencies/cities in aceh province extreme waves and abrasion simeulue, aceh singkil, south aceh, east aceh, west aceh, aceh besar, pidie, bireun, north aceh, southwest aceh, aceh tamiang, nagan raya, aceh jaya, pidie jaya, banda aceh, sabang, langsa, lhokseumawe. epidemic of a disease all regencies/cities in aceh province flood all regencies/cities in aceh province landslide all regencies/cities in aceh province except banda aceh. flash floods aceh besar, pidie, pidie jaya, bireun, bener meriah, central aceh, gayo lues, southeast aceh, subulussalam. 306 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 disaster type location drought all regencies/cities in aceh province forest and land fires all regencies/cities in aceh province except banda aceh and lhokseumawe. starving all regencies/cities in aceh province conflict all regencies/cities in aceh province source: aceh disaster management agency (2019) based on table 1, all the regencies/cities in this province were very prone to natural disasters, although great knowledge was often obtained from various occurrences with high casualties. this showed a low preparedness level, indicating that the aceh community was very unprepared for the sudden occurrence of any disastrous phenomena. according to kurniawati & suwito (2017), inadequate community disaster preparedness was a factor influencing greater hazardous risk. this was in line with adiyoso & kanegae (2013), where a high number of fatalities were caused by the unavailability of an early warning system and inadequate preparedness. these results were subsequently supported by daud et al. (2014), where fatalities were highly and mainly incurred by a lack of disaster knowledge and preparedness. regarding this provincial experience, special efforts need to be provided in enhancing disaster knowledge and attitude as a parameter of dp (disaster preparedness). besides this, the enhancement should also be possessed by the students of syiah kuala university, as the main asset in handling disastrous occurrences. based on handoyo et al. (2020), education was an important medium used to prepare and alert communities against the occurrence of disasters. this was due to its provision of a life skill foundation for humans, indicating that individuals living in disaster-prone regions need to be prepared for sudden hazardous conditions (petal & izadkhah, 2008). mutarrak & pothisiri (2013) also stated that disaster education provided adequate awareness and reduced helplessness. additionally, shiwaku et al. (2007) proved that the implementation of disaster education was expected to develop an understanding of dm (disaster mitigation). according to indonesian law 24/2007 concerning disaster management, article 47 clause 2 stated that mitigation activity was carried out through the implementation of education, counselling, as well as conventional and modern training. disaster education should also be applied in the formal educational systems in indonesia, to achieve the maximum learning outcome. for sukoco (2021), students were guided to play an active role in enhancing cognitive, psychomotor, and affective ability in disaster management awareness. chen & lee (2012) also stated that disaster education should be applied in formal educational systems. based on initial observations, syiah kuala university has reportedly started to apply disaster curricula and programs to all its students without exceptions. these actions emphasize the institution's aim to become a disaster preparedness campus (dpc), whose difference to dps (disaster preparedness school) only prioritizes level. this shows that dps starts from kindergarten to the levels of elementary, as well as junior and senior high schools, with dpc only considered for higher education. dpc is the empowerment and enhancement of higher education in disaster risk preparedness and mitigation, through planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (widiamurti et al., 2012). this is to enhance students’ disaster preparedness toward the provision of direct and indirect assistance to the community members. according to widiamurti et al. (2012), the goals of dpc emphasized the enhancement of higher education and community capacities for disaster preparedness, risk reduction, and emergency response. this was in line with lanni (2019), regarding the role of higher education in disaster management in indonesia. these performances were accompanied by maryati (2016), which focused on the synergy of higher education, government, and community members in disaster risk reduction. 307 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 ilham et al. (2016) also prioritized the evaluation of disaster education participation among the medical faculty students of syiah kuala university, after following bdm (block disaster management). additionally, kurniawati & suwito (2017) emphasized the influence of disaster knowledge on preparedness attitude, among the students of the geography study program at kanjuruhan malang university. irrespective of these reports, no analysis has specially explained the concrete and real steps performed by syiah kuala university toward becoming a dpc, to enhance students' preparedness as community change agents. therefore, this study aims to determine the implementation patterns of the disaster curriculum developed and applied at syiah kuala university, aceh province, indonesia, to achieve a dpc reputation and enhance dp among community members, especially students. 2. methods this study was conducted from april to june 2019 at syiah kuala darussalam university, banda aceh city, aceh province, indonesia. a qualitative verification method outlined as a description was used, due to being an inductive approach to the entire experimental process. according to bungin (2010), the verificative qualitative method highly considered the development of formats and strategies for field data collection through an inductive model. creswell (2010) also stated that the method was used for exploring and understanding some individuals ascribed to social or humanitarian problems. this involved important efforts, such as question and procedure assessments, as well as data collection. figure 1. data collection process furthermore, the data collection techniques used were direct field observations and literature reviews, as well as interviews with some important informants, such as (1) the head of the technical implementation unit general course of syiah kuala university, (2) the coordinator of disaster and environmental knowledge course, (3) 11 lecturers of the general disaster knowledge course, and looking for information related to the tsunami disaster mitigation research center through the tdmrc website. looking for information related to the master program of disaster science through the syiah kuala university website. looking for information related to general courses on disaster and environmental knowledge at syiah kuala university, through: 1. head of the technical implementation unit for the general course of syiah kuala university. 2. coordinator of the general course on disaster and environmental knowledge. 3. lecturer of general course on disaster and environmental knowledge. 4. students who take the general course in disaster and environmental knowledge data collection using literature study techniques data collection using interview techniques and documentation studies. data were analyzed using the delphi method. 308 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 (4) 20 students of syiah kuala university, studying disaster and environment course. fig. 2 comprehensively shows the teaching of general disaster and environmental knowledge courses. after these processes, the analysis of data used the delphi method, which is a systematic technique for obtaining opinions from a group of experts. this is often carried out through a series of structured questionnaires, where a feedback mechanism is observed via a round of questions held while maintaining the anonymity of the participant's responses. the technique was also originally developed as an interactive forecasting method, which depended on various experts (foley, 1972; linstone, 1975). in this method, interviews and questionnaires were addressed to the experts and informants, which appropriately determined the study's information details to obtain the best and perfect answers. for more clarity, fig. 1 shows the experimental data collection process. figure 2. the teaching of general disaster and environmental knowledge courses 3. results based on the results, three disaster-curriculum implementation steps were carried out by syiah kuala university to enhance preparedness among aceh community members, especially the students. these steps included, (1) the establishment of the tsunami disaster mitigation research center (tdmrc) in 2006, (2) the development of the master of disaster science within syiah kuala university's postgraduate program in 2011, and (3) the founding of the general course of disaster and environment knowledge in 2016. figure 3 presents the journey of syiah kuala university toward a disaster preparedness campus in indonesia. figure 3. the journey of syiah kuala university toward disaster preparedness campus 3.1 tdmrc (tsunami disaster mitigation research center) of the disaster mitigation technical implementation unit at syiah kuala university to be a disaster preparedness campus, the establishment of tdmrc (tsunami disaster mitigation research center) was initially carried out. this is one of the centres under the technical implementation unit of syiah kuala university's disaster mitigation. the history of tdmrc establishment in this institution emphasized the response to the occurrence of a tsunami in the indian 309 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 ocean, which devastated aceh province and nias islands in south sumatera indonesia on sunday, december 26, 2004. in this case, the institution developed a special program through the rector decree of syiah kuala university no. 1, 2005. this was known as “syiah kuala university for aceh reconstruction”, which was used to facilitate the indonesian government and local community members in developing rehabilitation blueprints after the occurrences of earthquake and tsunami disasters. as the oldest and biggest campus in aceh province, syiah kuala university has rebuilding obligations, which had been completely paralyzed in entire sectors, such as government, education, health, and economics. this was due to the destruction of infrastructural facilities by the 2004 tsunami disasters. besides helping the government to design rehabilitation and reconstruction blueprints, the university also established trc (tsunami research centre) and mc (mitigation centre) through the rector decree of syiah kuala university no. 24 and 215, 2005. the program and activity of trc and mc is overlapping, hence they were merged to become one institution, which is presently known as the tsunami disaster mitigation research centre (tdmrc). this development was carried out through the rector degree of syiah kuala university no. 418 (tdmrc, 2021). as a special forum for sku (syiah kuala university), tdmrc also collaborated with various experts from other domestic and international universities, to run tri dharma of higher education, especially in community dedication and the field of r&d (research and development). from its inception in 2006 to the present, tdmrc had been influential, and it played a big role in promoting and disseminating experts' analytical outcomes. the role and contribution of tdmrc were also generally felt by the community members of aceh province, especially in banda aceh city and aceh besar regency, regarding the disaster risk reduction in the republic of indonesia and several disasterprone neighbouring countries (tdmrc, 2021). besides this, it also became the focal point of the southsouth cooperation and triangular (ssct) for disaster mitigation program in 2011. then, since 2013, tdmrc was asked by national disaster management authority to provide a scientific study for indonesian tsunami management from 2015 to 2019 (tdmrc, 2021). according to tdmrc (2021), the centre's vision was to become the best for tsunami and disaster mitigation studies in the indian ocean region by 2025. its mission also involved the following, (1) providing the outcome and product of an innovative scientific study in disaster risk reduction, (2) giving some services, advocation, education, and training in disaster science and community, regarding risk mitigation, (3) developing and enhancing productive and continuous network, as well as cooperation with various parties in risk reduction, (4) developing the capacity of the institution and human resource in experimental performance, and (5) applying accountable, transparent, professional, and efficient organizational governance. moreover, the study group contained in tdmrc included the following, (1) tsunami hazard team, (2) hydrometeorology hazard cluster, (3) geologic hazard cluster, (4) human safety cluster, (5) education and management cluster, and (6) technology application cluster (tdmrc, 2021). the performances within these clusters also emphasized the reduction of sudden disaster impact, to minimize fatalities, injuries, missing bodies, and property losses. this was to ensure the non-occurrence of numerous bad records in the future. 3.2 master program of disaster science at syiah kuala university five years after the development of tdmrc (tsunami disaster mitigation research centre), syiah kuala university subsequently established the master program of disaster science in postgraduate program. in this case, the background of the establishment was very similar to that of tdmrc. this focused on the earthquake and tsunami occurrences in aceh province on sunday, december 26, 2004, which were the biggest scalar disasters impacting the lives of humans and the environment. these occurrences indicated that high vulnerability levels required the strength of all capable humans in handling sudden disasters. 310 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 the mobilization of the master program of disaster science and its resources was required by every country, to anticipate the future occurrence of natural events (master program of disaster science, 2021). this is to futuristically reduce fatalities and potential losses, as well as effectively recover postdisaster conditions for sustainable national development. in this context, the capacity of disaster science and technology was one of the vital resources required. science and technology are the main capital that should be prepared by disaster-prone countries when handling hazardous conditions for future generations. this shows that the government need to concurrently build science and technology toward enhancing the community disaster preparedness of a country. when human resources do not possess adequate scientific skills, the implementation of advanced disaster-detecting technology becomes useless. this is similar to the condition of adequate disaster science without advanced technological implementation. this explains that undesirable consequences are bound to happen with the occurrence of natural disasters. based on the master program of disaster science (2021), the capacity potential of the science and technology possessed by human resources should be used, to reduce disaster risk as the mandate of the global concept of sfdrr (sendai framework for disaster risk reduction) 2015-2030 and indonesian law 24/2007 about dm (disaster management). moreover, the need for science and technology roles began from understanding threat dynamics, reducing fatalities, and developing human resource capacity for beneficial policy formulation. this proved that the rule applied on an international scale were designed and applied to the entire world, for all countries to be prepared in handling the occurrence of various disasters. to overcome various demands, diversities, and potential disaster threats, syiah kuala university was mandated by the government to establish a master's program (s2) in disaster study. the multi-discipline feature of this establishment is used to design the effective strategy of disaster assessment, including (1) the reduction of bad disaster effects, (2) the response to various community environment threats, and (3) the recovery process from the community and natural environment disasters (disaster science course, 2021). therefore, the graduates of this program were capable of helping the government and community to solve disaster problems before, during, and after existence. this confirmed that students are expected to share their scientific experience with the government and community, as part of informal environmental socialization. since disasters consecutively occur in aceh province and indonesia, various experts with special competence in dm were needed (master program of disaster science, 2021). the enhancement of human resource competence in dm was also needed until postgraduate levels, such as masters and doctorate (disaster science course, 2021). since indonesia is located in a disaster-prone area, competent human resources are highly needed in solving and eradicating the recurrence of hazardous problems. at syiah kuala university, the vision of the master program of disaster science is to become an innovative, independent, and reputable course in south east asia in 2026, to reduce disaster risk through education, experiments, and community service activity (master program of disaster science, 2021). for the mission, the following is observed, (1) produce the master of science having lifelong learning insight and potential in multidiscipline disaster management, (2) produce analytical products and community service in dm, with high-quality national and international publications. the vision, mission, and goal of this educational program are in line with the real condition in indonesia, especially in aceh province, a disaster-prone area. therefore, the presence of alumni in the community is expected to solve various problems effectively and efficiently. this is because many disastrous community problems are capable of being adequately solved, with several assignments still available for government and private institutions to handle. based on these descriptions, the alumni of the master program of disaster science are expected to contribute to indonesia, especially in aceh province. 311 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 3.3 the general course of disaster knowledge and environment in technical implementation unit of syiah kuala university the development of this course has been emphasizing the compulsory participation of all students from various faculties, departments, and study programs since 2016, without exception. these actions portrayed syiah kuala university as the first campus to mandate a disaster knowledge course in indonesia. this was due to its uniqueness in disaster mitigation, as well as its different characteristics from other private and public campuses within the country. the establishment of dkec (disaster knowledge and environment course) began from the historic records of natural disaster occurrence in aceh province, from 2004 to 2016. the occurrence of these geological and hydrometeorological disasters caused a high number of casualties and property losses. this led to the development of the general course of disaster knowledge and environment by sku (syiah kuala university) in 2016, to overcome various problems and increase the understanding of the aceh community members, regarding natural hazards. as the biggest and oldest campus in this province, sku is responsible for the expansion of students’ insight, for them to become part of the community. in this case, students are expected to share their disaster knowledge and experience with the surrounding community. the development of this course also enhances community disaster preparedness and reduces the number of casualties in future occurrences. as contained in rector decree of syiah kuala university no. 503 of 2016 concerning guidance book of curriculum arrangement in sku from 2016-2020, the following policies acted as legal support for the development of the general course, (1) laws of the republic of indonesia numbers 20 of 2003 and 12 of 2012, (2) government regulation of the republic of indonesia number 4 of 2014, (3) regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia number 44 of 2015, (4) regulation of the minister of research, technology, and higher education of the republic of indonesia number 48 of 2015, (5) decree of the minister of national education of the republic of indonesia number 232/u/2000, (6) decree of the minister of national education of the republic of indonesia number 201/o/2002, (7) decree of the minister of national education of the republic of indonesia number 045/u/2002, and (8) decree of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia number 83/mpk.a4/kp/2014. based on these legal supports, seven general courses were mandatory for the students in syiah kuala university (sku), namely (1) civic education, (2) natural science, (3) basic humanities, (4) bahasa indonesia, (5) english, (6) disaster knowledge and environment, and (7) religious studies. this was in line with the rector decree of syiah kuala university no. 409 of 2015. coded mks 106 with 2 credits, the general course of disaster knowledge and environment became compulsory for all active students, especially for the undergraduate (s-1) and diploma (d-3) programs within sku. this course was studied by students in odd and even semesters at the beginning of lecturing. however, the course is not for advanced students in postgraduate programs for masters and doctorate levels. of the 12 faculties existing at syiah kuala university, only 6 are required to participate in the general course of disaster knowledge and environment in the first semester (odd semester), with the remaining selected for the next term (even semester). for each faculty, the system of allocation per semester has reportedly been applied since 2016. this allocation was analysed in advance by the technical implementation unit, through the students' data in each faculty, department and study program. it also considered the number of rooms and chairs available in gcrs (general course rooms) 1, 2, 3, and 4. another consideration emphasized the data of teaching staff or lecturers, which should be obeyed by all students for smooth learning processes. the refusal to uphold this rule subsequently leads to insufficient lecturing rooms and lecturers, causing disturbed and non-optimal academic processes. 312 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 based on the twelve faculties existing in syiah kuala university sku, only eight faculty lecturers taught the general course of disaster knowledge and environment in the odd semester of 2017/2018. meanwhile, the remaining four lecturers from the faculties of veterinary, agriculture, social and political science, as well as dentistry, did not teach this course. in the even semester, only six faculty lecturers taught this course, with those from the departments of law, agriculture, medicine, social and political science, nursery, and dentistry not teaching the program. according to the rector decree of syiah kuala university no. 108/un11/2019 and no. 436/un11/kpt/2019 concerning lecturer appointment to teach in the odd and even semesters of 2018/2019 in the technical implementation unit, a total of 30 and 50 persons were selected to teach the general course of disaster knowledge and environment, respectively. subsequently, the academic background of these lecturers was evaluated. based on indonesian law 14/2005 about teachers and lecturers, article 46 clause 2 stated that they had a minimum academic qualification of a master's (undergraduate and diploma program) and doctoral (postgraduate program) degree. in higher education, literacy for lecturers and teaching staff should be higher than those of their students, for adequate lecture and guidance in the classroom, as well as when finishing the final task of lecturing, such as mini-thesis and scientific papers for undergraduate and diploma levels. regarding indonesian law 14/2005 (article 46, clause 2), syiah kuala university then stated that the lecturers teaching the disaster knowledge and environment course should be masters and doctors. the teaching staff or lecturers for this course should also originate from various reputable campuses in indonesia and the world. in the odd semester of 2018/2019, a total of 19 and 11 lecturers (63.33% and 36.67%) of disaster knowledge and environment courses had master's (s-2) and doctorate (s-3) degrees, respectively. meanwhile, 26 and 24 lecturers (53% and 47%) had master's and doctorate degrees in the even semester, respectively. these staff specifically possessed various knowledge and experience about disaster and the environment, which they were always ready to share with students during the learning processes. this was then accompanied by the evaluation of the students studying the general course of disaster knowledge and environment. from 2016 to 2018, the technical implementation unit staff provided 10 classrooms, which were located in general lecture rooms 1, 2, and 3. in this case, the classes within the public lecture rooms were capable of accommodating 60 students, with the learning processes scheduled for 0.8 a.m to 18.00 p.m and used four times daily or per class. furthermore, a total of 34 and 61 classes were available for the disaster knowledge and environment course originating from five and seven faculties in sku (syiah kuala university) during the odd and even semesters of 2018/2019 year, respectively. in comparison, the number of students and lecturers studying and teaching the course during the odd and even semesters were 1.13 (34/30) and 1.22 (61/50), respectively. this showed that one lecturer only taught one class or study group, with a few teaching two classes. these comparative analyses were very appropriate because the learning services provided to students were less optimal when a lecturer was teaching in many classes. this was mostly caused by fatigue and the teaching period. these results were subsequently similar to the scoring processes, where lecturers often felt fatigued when providing or assessing daily tasks, as well as middle and final exams. this was due to handling many classes and students during the learning process. in this case, lecturers should be provided with the class/study group or teaching period supported by their abilities and reasonableness, for maximum learning outcomes. only students of diploma 3 (d-3) from the faculty of veterinary were also required to participate in the disaster knowledge and environment course, with those from economics and business, engineering, agriculture, as well as mathematics and natural sciences not obliged to be involved. this was because the number of credits that should be acquired by the students of diploma 3 had achieved 313 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 the maximum limit with short study time. based on consensus, many programs of diploma 3 in sku were unable to be reduced or replaced by 2 credits of this course, subsequently leading to the nonparticipation for unsupported departments. moreover, the data of teaching and learning in the disaster knowledge and environment course as applied since 2016 were assessed. these data were subsequently obtained by the technical implementation unit general course of syiah kuala university. this condition tightly emphasized three main activities during the learning process, namely (1) the learning plan process, (2) the learning implementation process, and (3) the learning evaluation process. without these three processes, academic procedures were specifically unable to be smoothly performed. the three processes of the disaster knowledge and environment course will be discussed below. for more clarity, figure 4 displays the learning process of this course. a) the learning plan of disaster knowledge and environment course based on chart 1 of disaster knowledge and environment course learning in syiah kuala university, the learning plan stage was observed. the parameters needed for this stage were the syllabus and the plan being adopted in the technical implementation unit. as contained in these parameters, disaster knowledge and environment course were taught in the odd and even semesters. it was also coded mks 106 with 2 credits and was under a general study program. this course aimed to provide insight and introduction to basic disaster risk reduction (drr) principles, as well as their relation with environmental conditions in a disaster-prone area. the main focus on the subject matter also prioritized understanding the important elements that should be calculated within the sustainable development plan. figure 4. teaching of general course on disaster and environmental knowledge at syiah kuala university regarding rps (2016-2019), the expected learning outcomes of the course (clo) after the academic process are as follows, (1) the ability to understand the basic principles and paradigm of disaster management in indonesia, (2) understanding the theoretical base of disaster risk analysis, (3) capability to analyze a disaster case from various perspective of disciplines (multi-discipline), and (4) understand relatedness between disaster and environment. from 2016-2018, 2019-2020, and 2021general course learning on disaster and environmental knowledge lesson planning learning implementation learning evaluation learning syllabus lesson plan learning handout learning methods learning model instructional media learning assessment 314 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 2022, the coordinators of this course were ella meilianda, s.t, m.t, ph.d, ns.rachmalia, s.kep, mns, and dr. rina suryani oktari, s.kep, m.si, respectively. furthermore, the learning outcome of the study program (plo) indicated that students should understand the theoretical aspects of the disaster and environmental science course, as well as apply the basic principles of dmp (disaster management plan) to reduce risk. regarding the recent semester plan, the expected learning outcomes of the course are as follows, (1) the ability to design a simple contingency plan as an important stage in handling a disaster, (2) understanding the characteristics, parameters, and policies of environmental deterioration and climate change in the republic of indonesia. all lecturers teaching this course in sku (syiah kuala university) should also use a similar syllabus, semester learning plan, and subject matter handout, which had been distributed by the coordinator before the commencement of the lecturing process. additionally, training was provided to the lecturers by the coordinator before the commencement of lectures in the first semester, to equate their perceptions and treatments during the learning process. in this case, all the students are expected to lose similar knowledge regarding the course. b) the implementation of the general course of disaster knowledge and environment based on chart 1, the learning implementation was observed. the parameters needed for this stage were the study handout and semester academic plan, which contained the learning method, model, and media used in the course. in this condition, these parameters were synergistically evaluated and approved by all the related teaching staff. this proved that each lecturer should be able to effectively teach and deliver similar materials. table 2 shows the learning material and outcome of the course, where several sessions were subsequently evaluated. table 2. course outline for disaster and environmental knowledge meetingdiscussion material 1 conception of disaster and history of disaster in indonesia 2 paradigm, disaster management cycle 3 concept of disaster risk reduction (drr) 4 parameter of disaster risk analysis and mapping 5 disaster mitigation and community preparedness 6 organization and institution in disaster management 7 disaster recovery phase 8 middle exam 9 community preparedness in facing disaster 10 introduction to environmental damage & climate change issues 11 characteristic of environmental deterioration and climate change 12 group task (case study) 13 environmental protection and management 14 climate change 15 group seminar 16 final exam in the first session, the course introduction, as well as the conception and history of disaster in indonesia were evaluated. the expectations required from the learning process are as follows, (1) the ability to understand the scope of lecturing material, as well as the outcome of the disaster and environment basic knowledge, (2) understanding the history of big disaster events in the world and indonesia, and (3) development and definition of various disaster terminology. this generated a type 315 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 of local wisdom known as smong, which had been existing among the simeulue people since 1907. smong is another name for the tsunami in simeulue, and the local wisdom helped in successfully saving the life of the simeulue people during the disastrous occurrence on sunday, december 26, 2004. moreover, the second session assessed paradigm and disaster management cycle, with students being expected to carry out the following (1) understand the momentum of change in paradigm and the world disaster management, and (2) the ability to analyze the disaster management cycle, and its application in indonesia. the third session also emphasized the concept of disaster risk reduction (drr), with expectations after the learning process students prioritizing the mastery of the basic principles of drr, as well as its data formulation and relation. this was accompanied by the fourth session, which focused on the parameter of disaster risk analysis and mapping added with a quiz. in this case, students are expected to carry out the following, (1) identify the determinant parameters in disaster risk analysis, and (2) master the quantification method of disaster risk parameter. the fifth session then analyzed the disaster mitigation and preparedness society, with expectations emphasizing the hazard reduction types. based on the sixth session, organization and institution were evaluated in dm (disaster management), with the expectation to identify coordination and cooperation in disaster management. the seventh session also prioritized the post-disaster recovery phase, with students required to analyse this process from various aspects of life. this was accompanied by the eighth session focused on the semester middle exam, regarding a written test encompassing the material of the first to seventh phases. furthermore, the ninth session evaluated community preparedness in handling disasters. this was to identify various kinds of preparedness measures. the tenth session focused on environmental deterioration and climate change issues, with students expected to explain the causes. for the eleventh session, the characteristic of environmental deterioration and climate change was assessed, with the expectation to identify the features and possible relationships. the twelfth session then emphasized the group task to solve an example of a case. in this case, students should be able to identify and analyse the causal factor, risk level, effort of drr (disaster risk reduction) and recovery process from several disaster cases, as well as the effect of environmental deterioration. regarding the thirteenth session, environmental protection and management were evaluated, with students required to identify the set of regulations and legislation related to the preservation of the ecosystem. the fourteenth session also explained climate change, where expectations focus on the identification of agreement and commitment development. from the fifteenth session, a group seminar was assessed, with students expected to identify and analyze the causal factor, risk level, the recovery process, and environmental deterioration effect, as well as stimulate the disaster risk reduction from several cases. additionally, the sixteenth session was the semester final exam, where a written test encompassed the ninth to fifteenth phases. c) evaluation of disaster knowledge and environment course learning the parameter needed for this stage emphasizes the scoring pattern for the disaster knowledge and environment course. this is observed in the semester learning plan and course credit provided by the lecturer to the students before the commencement of the teaching process in the initial semester. the criteria of scoring (indicator) are objectively measured, regarding the grading rubric of each task. this process is carried out by using attendance, active participation in discussion, task accomplishment, written test and group work, as well as seminar presentation. moreover, scoring is carried out throughout the semester, regarding task performances, as well as middle and final exams. based on the final scoring pattern, the score reference implemented in syiah kuala university (sku) is as follows, a 87;78 ab<87;69 b<78;60 bc<69;51 c<60;41 d<51;e <41. the scoring items were also the semester middle and final exams, task, and quiz, accounting for 25% 40%, 25%, and 10%, respectively. 316 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 4. discussion the various breakthroughs developed by syiah kuala university (sku) from 2005 till the present, is responsible for its unique characteristic. all these breakthroughs aligned with the tri dharma of higher education in indonesia (lanni, 2019; tjoetra & maifizar. 2019). the role of the higher education strategy in disaster management is also academically integrated through educational programs and learning, experiments, and community service. this role is realized by the active participation of lecturers and students through various internal and external programs and activities. these were in line with widiamurti et al. (2012), where the real example of higher education tri dharma in supporting disaster risk reduction are as follows, (1) education and teachings, such as integration of disaster risk reduction (drr) into educational activity, training and simulation, as well as supportive infrastructure for drr, (2) experiment, such as campus as disaster analytical center, (3) community services, such as student study service with drr theme, training and simulation, and societal assistance to develop the effort of disaster risk reduction. these breakthroughs specifically differentiated syiah kuala university (sku) from other public and private institutions in indonesia. as mandated by the government, each higher institution should have its culture as its identity (sofia et al, 2019). the various breakthroughs developed by sku are as follows, firstly, the tdmrc (tsunami disaster mitigation research center) owned by the technical implementation unit was established in 2005 and had become a special expert in the detection of disasters. the presence of this establishment is very beneficial for the community as an implementation of higher education tri dharma, especially in analytical and societal services. according to lanni (2019), disaster management was integrated into experimental activity and the scientific publication, when completely conducting various analyses of mitigation and management measures. the final aim of tdmrc also emphasized disaster risk reduction (drr), which often occurred within the community. sofia (2019) also stated that the examples of the activity performed by tdmrc are as follows, (1) providing training to the young generation to become pioneers and initiators for disaster risk reduction, and (2) the provision of education to community members for drr. for example, the practice of drr (simulation, drill) in formal and informal schools led to the development of a community, which is prepared, alert, and tough to disaster. additionally, sofia (2019) indicated that tdmrc developed various features, such as leadership, networking, teamwork, and communication. based on experience, syiah kuala university often sent out groups of students through lppm (research institutions and community service), to perform community service for various locations, regarding the occurrence of disasters in aceh province. this was observed during earthquake occurrences in central aceh and bener meriah on 02-07-2013, as well as in pidie jaya, pidie, and bireun on 07-12-2016. for lanni (2019), higher education packed community service programs with the theme of disaster, for students to directly implement their knowledge and skills in the community while thinking critically to solve the problem. besides the various experience, syiah kuala university also emphasized the development of disaster education. secondly, the seriousness of this institution prioritized the establishment of the master study of disaster science in the postgraduate program. this establishment produced a science master, which had competence in the field of dm (disaster management). the human resources possessing disaster knowledge should also be produced in disaster-prone areas, for example, the students. based on sofia (2019), higher education was the last stair of educational units, which contributed to building the nation's character, especially a disaster-prepared attitude. kurniawati & suwito (2017) also stated that students played various roles in the community, such as change agents and educators of disaster preparedness. they were also able to provide appropriate intervention during the occurrence of 317 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 disasters. this was because students were expected to understand disaster for themselves, as well as their family and community members (lanni, 2019). based on indonesian law 20/2003 concerning the national education system, the curriculum is a set of plans, as well as an arrangement of goal, content, and lesson material. it is also used as guidance for learning activity implementation, to achieve specific educational goals. in the curriculum prevailed in an institution, disaster was included to guarantee its implementation process, with the results achieved expected together. regarding the development of this plan, some principles were observed, namely relevancy and effectivity. according to khaeruddin (2009) and desfandi, (2016), the relevancy principle should be relevant to the development of science and technology, as well as student/community needs and characteristics. however, the effectivity principle emphasized the amount of curriculum and educational goals achieved through learning processes (curriculum implementation). in this case, disaster knowledge and attitude are very needed by the community during hazardous occurrences, especially for those living in red zone areas. the final goal to be achieved emphasized the enhancement of community disaster preparedness, to reduce the number of fatalities during a bad occurrence. since knowledge and attitude are parameters of preparedness, the implementation of disaster curricula in an institution should be effectively and efficiently functional. education is used to develop an understanding of various human resources, regarding the knowledge of disasters (honesti & djali, 2012). based on kurniawati & suwito (2017), the role of education was very influential in the realization of disaster preparedness. clust et al. (2007) also stated that education was the best media used in community disaster preparedness. this specifically prioritized disaster education, which should be importantly possessed by all the people living in red zone areas. moreover, lanni (2019) stated that this type of education should be highly developed, especially for those living in disaster-prone areas. this led to the emphasis on syiah kuala university, which is one of the higher institutions directly affected by the earthquake and tsunami disaster on sunday, 26 december 2004. besides this, the institution is also located in a disaster-prone area, leading to the importance of providing disaster education to all its students. in hidayati (2006), three stakeholders were observed in the reduction of disaster risk, namely individual and household, government, and school community of the school. ilham et al. (2016) also stated that education was taught in various educational institutions, whether at home, school, workplace, or other public spots. one of the educational vehicles having an important role in disaster prevention and preparedness is higher education (he). in this case, syiah kuala university is very responsible for helping the government and community to reduce disaster risk, as one formal educational institution for the public he level in indonesia. according to kurniawati & suwito (2017), the school was the stakeholder playing an important role as the source of knowledge and disaster dissemination understanding. it also played a general role as a practical guide in disaster management, before, during, and after occurrences. based on this description, disaster-prone countries included disaster education in basic educational curricula, to reduce and manage the effect of natural occurrences, such as india, japan, bangladesh, pakistan, and fiji island (okazaki, 2006; shaw et al., 2011). even more, indonesia areas were very prone to disaster, from sabang to merauke and from miangas to rote island. based on musacchio et al. (2016) disaster education focused on the series of counselling and knowledge provisions, regarding the natural phenomena related to disaster risk. it also emphasized the provision of skill and awareness, which better prioritized dm (disaster management). nifa et al. (2017) also mentioned four basic factors about the importance of disaster education, namely (1) in the category of community, children are highly vulnerable to disaster, (2) children are presentation of the nation's future, (3) school is the center of discipline encounter in formal institution discipline, and (4) disaster education learning is expected to become a transfer of community knowledge. in this case, the knowledge of hazardous occurrences aimed to carry out the following, (1) reduce disaster risk, such as 318 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 the potential, historical occurrence, and form of anticipation, (2) enhance knowledge and awareness of disaster signs. it also prioritized the effect of the disaster on individuals, families, and communities, as well as the survival and solution patterns (kemenristekdikti, 2019; lanni, 2019). thirdly, the seriousness of syiah kuala university (sku) emphasized the development of the curriculum through the application of the disaster knowledge and environment course. according to sofia (2019), sku had been attempting to consistently and continuously strengthen students’ character and soft skills since 2016, through the compulsory implementation of the disaster knowledge and environment course. this indicated that the arrangement of the curriculum provided to students should be adequately coordinated and sufficiently prepared to provide maximum outcomes (handoyo et al., 2020). furthermore, the general course of disaster knowledge and environment is included in the compulsory curriculum at syiah kuala university. this proved that the institution had been consistent and very serious in the application of disaster curriculum to the learning processes of all students in strata 1 (s1) and a few in the diploma 3 (d-3) program. these were in line with desfandi (2014), where the ministry of national education applied a disaster curriculum from elementary to senior high school in 2011. although the curriculum was not practically included as a special subject, it was still factually provided in understanding and anticipating natural conditions. from this context, the inclusion of this plan was observed in several subjects, such as geography, natural and social sciences, bahasa indonesia, math, and religion (karyono, 2010; desfandi, 2014). since the learning outcome obtained was not as expected due to the multiple insertions, the government need to develop special subject of disaster education in the indonesian educational curriculum. regarding previous analysis, all the requirements needed by syiah kuala university when applying the general course of disaster knowledge and environment are as follows, (1) competent and experienced teaching staff, and (2) learning device such as syllabus, semester plan, and handout. this was in line with shaw et al. (2011) where disaster education aimed to reduce the various risks encompassing the several learning materials of dm (disaster management). in this case, the implementation of this education enhanced the community awareness of drr (disaster risk reduction). as contained in the syllabus and semester learning plan, this course aimed to provide insight to students, as well as introduce the basic principles of disaster risk reduction and its relation to the environmental condition in a disaster-potential area. therefore, the final outcome enhanced response attitude, which was part of disaster preparedness. for students, the learning outcome expected from disaster education also emphasized the following, (1) the ability to be disaster literate, (2) the ability to enhance the paradigm about the importance of dm (disaster management), (3) possession of good dm skill, (4) development of awareness about the importance of disaster mitigation, and (5) reduction of hazard helplessness (chung & yen, 2016; duong, 2009; sukoco, 2021; boon & pagliano, 2014; muttarak & pothsiri, 2013; shiwaku et al., 2007). according to zainatunnisa & satria (2018), student preparedness, knowledge and attitude, emergency plan, disaster warning system, and resource mobilization were in a very prepared category at 94.7%, 100%, 74.5%, 60.6%, and 69.1%, respectively. this indicated that disaster-education curriculum was effective in enhancing students' preparedness, especially at syiah kuala university. disaster knowledge and attitude is also one the parameter of disaster preparedness. this often enhanced when good learning is obtained from the teacher or formally in various educational levels. handoyo et al. (2020) mentioned that the scheme of handling disaster impact in school should be applied in indonesia. this showed that a 12-year compulsory education encouraged the involvement of each indonesian in institutional learning process. the equipment of students with adequate knowledge and skill often led to the ability of all citizens to handle worse post-disaster situation (kapur & baez, 2017). 319 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 this was in line with the actions of syiah kuala university, where disaster education was provided to students in critical and normal conditions. based on kurniawati & suwito (2017) most de (disaster education) were only implemented in critical conditions and gradually reduced when disaster did not occur for a long time. disaster preparation and handling proved to be quite effective in reducing the bad impact of hazardous occurrences, due to the acquisition of good knowledge by the victims (shiwaku et al., 2016). in austin et al. (2013), the enhancement of skill and simulation was obtained during disaster management training, to improve students' preparedness levels. it also provided opportunities to them, for the possession of a critical stance in responding to each disaster. in addition, chen et al. (2014) indicated that adequate training contributed accurately to the occurrence of disaster. formal and informal disaster education are likely to occur in the community, and family. these are often observed through the local wisdom contained in community environment. for example, “the smong local wisdom traditionally had a close relationship with tsunami disaster mitigation, and had been delivered through the poems contained in manafi-nafi (folklore), mananga-nanga (a lullaby), and nandong (humming), which were introduced to the posterity from the cradle to the old age” (gadeng et al., 2018). besides that, there are still many local wisdoms in indonesian community, which teach disaster education based on the experience of critical conditions in specific areas. irrespective of the enhancement patterns of knowledge and attitude toward disaster, it still does not matter. this is because knowledge and attitude become the main assets very important for students to save themselves when disaster occurs. in this case, they are expected to share these assets with other people around them, to generate faster and broader social effects (paton, 2003). according to kurniawati & suwito (2017), knowledge was the main factor that became the key for preparedness. it also influenced attitude and concern toward disaster preparedness. moreover, finnis et al. (2010) stated that participation in disaster education enhanced the understanding about self-protection attitude when disaster occurs. this enabled the responsiveness of the community to disaster occurrences while possessing good preparedness levels. handoyo et al. (2020) also mentioned that the preparation of a responsive community in toughly handling critical conditions was a massive massive and continuous effort. this method should be complete and structured to reach all people. the final aim of the various breakthroughs developed by syiah kuala university was to become disaster preparedness campus. for lanni (2019) several indonesian campuses has self-declared as disaster preparedness institutions, which provide training and education to its civitas academic. widiamurti et al. (2012) also highlighted that the scopes of disaster preparedness campus are as follows, (1) soft skill, disaster preparedness campus enhanced the target ability in associating with other people and attributes to maximally develop work. for example, the ability in disseminating, advocating, and socializing about the effort of disaster risk reduction, (2) knowledge, attitude, and skill. in disaster preparedness campus, the target ability and attitude in the drr field were enhanced through training and another activity, and (3) non-structural mitigation. for example, increasing knowledge, changing attitude and behavior, as well as regulating drr policy. based on these results, all the goals and scopes of dpc (disaster preparedness campus) were reflected from various programs and breakthroughs, which were carried out by syiah kuala university. the institution is also expected to be declared a dpc while being able to become example for another public and private higher education in indonesian disaster context. 5. conclusion the seriousness of syiah kuala university to become a disaster preparedness campus began since 2005, with various efforts carried out, such as (1) establishment of tsunami disaster mitigation research centre (tdmrc) in 2006. (2) establishment of master study of disaster science in postgraduate program in 2010. (3) development of the general course of disaster knowledge and environment, which was mandatory for all the students from various faculties, departments and study 320 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 programs. all the breakthroughs developed by this institution are part of the tri dharma of higher education in the field of learning, experiment, and community service. these are expected to be beneficial in enhancing the disaster preparedness of indonesia, especially in the aceh community. therefore, the efficacy of all these breakthroughs are to be futuristically tested during the occurrence of natural disasters. conflicts of interest the authors are not involved in a conflict of interest from funds, personal and institutional or any other relationships from this article. acknowledgements i would like to thank to following people who had helped the author in finishing this article. the head of technical implementation unit (general course) at syiah kuala university, dr.teuku muttaqin mansur, s.h, m.h. the coordinator of disaster knowledge and environment course, dr. rina suryani oktari, s.kep, m.si and the lecturers team, dr.denni iskandar, m.pd. references adiyoso,w. & kanegae, h. 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(2016). laporan penanggulangan bencana gempa tektonik kabupaten aceh pidie jaya provinsi aceh tahun 2016. retrieved from ttp://tagana.kemsos.go.id/laporan-penanggulanganbencana-gempa-tektonik-kabupaten-pidie-jaya-provinsi-aceh-tahun-2016/. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560310480686 https://www.ibnurusydy.com/melihat-kembali-patahan-yang-berada-di-aceh/ https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560710817057 http://tagana.kemsos.go.id/laporan-penanggulangan-bencana-gempa-tektonik-kabupaten-aceh-tengah-dan-bener-meriah-provinsi-aceh-tahun-2013/ http://tagana.kemsos.go.id/laporan-penanggulangan-bencana-gempa-tektonik-kabupaten-aceh-tengah-dan-bener-meriah-provinsi-aceh-tahun-2013/ http://tagana.kemsos.go.id/laporan-penanggulangan-bencana-gempa-tektonik-kabupaten-aceh-tengah-dan-bener-meriah-provinsi-aceh-tahun-2013/ http://tagana.kemsos.go.id/laporan-penanggulangan-bencana-gempa-tektonik-kabupaten-pidie-jaya-provinsi-aceh-tahun-2016/ http://tagana.kemsos.go.id/laporan-penanggulangan-bencana-gempa-tektonik-kabupaten-pidie-jaya-provinsi-aceh-tahun-2016/ 324 ahmad nubli gadeng et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 304-324 tdmrc. (2021). about background, vision and mission, research cluster. retrieved from http://tdmrc.unsyiah.ac.id/about/. tejakusuma, i.g. (2005). analisis pasca bencana tsunami aceh. alami: jurnal teknologi reduksi risiko bencana, 10(2). tjoetra, a. & maifizar, a. (2019). peran perguruan tinggi dalam mitigasi bencana (studi kasus pada unit kegiatan mahasiswa penanggulangan kebencanaan universitas teuku umar). in talenta conference series: local wisdom, social, and arts (lwsa) (vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-8). widiamurti, d., setyawan, e., hutagaol, m., & utami, r. (2012). panduan kampus siaga bencana. jakarta: palang merah indonesia. zainatunnisa z. & satria b. (2018). kesiapsiagaan bencana gempa bumi dan tsunami pada mahasiswa yang mengikuti pendidikan bencana. jim fkep ,3 (3) http://tdmrc.unsyiah.ac.id/about/ 127 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 inland water transport and urban mobility in ikorodu-ebutte ero route, lagos, nigeria usman bolaji abdulkadir* and animashaun kikelomo halimat department of geography and environmental management, faculty of social sciences, university of ilorin, pmb 1515, ilorin, nigeria *corresponding author: usman.ba@unilorin.edu.ng received 3 december 2019/ revised 25 march 2020/ accepted 14 april 2020/ published 27 april 2020 abstract lagos city has abundant navigable inland waterways which if fully harnessed would help minimise road traffic congestion, pollution and provide low cost means of long distance travel within the city. this study examines inland water transport services on lagos lagoon focusing on ikorodu-ebutte ero route. primary data were obtained using structured questionnaires. while, secondary data were sourced from relevant government and private agencies. data were analysed using descriptive techniques including frequency counts, tables and graphs. the results revealed an inadequate provision of terminal facilities and vessels in the area. it was also found that most (67.3%) of the trips via water transport in the were mainly for work purpose. in addition, low patronage was observed and it was found to be mostly due to comparatively high cost of fares and passenger safety concerns, as indicated by 67.4% and 58.7% of the respondents respectively. furthermore, high income earners where found to patronise this mode than low income earners. the high frequency of use of water transport by the respondents (71.3% travel by water every day) indicates that, this mode has great potential of being widely adopted, if greater attention is given to its development by both the government and private sector. there is, therefore, a need for more investment in water transportation in the area through the provision of modern infrastructure and vessels. keywords: urban mobility; inland waterways; transport services; sustainable transportation; integrated transport. 1. introduction modern cities are highly transport dependent and this makes it essential for cities to develop efficient transportation systems that provide effective links within the city and for both the national and global transportation systems (hoyle, 1993; kurniasari et al., 2018). a side from being the oldest means of transporting goods and services, inland waterways have been associated with facilitation of commerce, provision of employment and wealth creation among many other benefits (gray, 2004; fellinda, 2006; christodoulou et al., 2019; dai et al., 2019; wiercx et al., 2019; tanko et al., 2019; hossain et al., 2019). looking back to the period of the industrial revolution in europe, waterways played an essential role. they served geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 127-146, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.14714 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:usman.ba@unilorin.edu.ng https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 128 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 as initial corridors of transportation and many of them eventually became important areas of commerce and industrial development. several cities of the industrial revolution era (such as oslo, hamburg and liverpool among others) had most of their industrial and commercial activities located close to the waterfronts. however, from the mid-20th century, the importance of waterborne transport declined significantly with the increasing development of motorways and the associated inland urban sprawl development (international association of public transport, 2013). however, in the recent years, increasing congestion on urban roads has directed attention to the development of other more sustainable forms of transportation. in addition, the fact that efficient transportation systems serve as catalyst for sound land use planning is increasingly being recognised. both of these reasons have provided an opportunity for water transport to play more significant role in urban mobility schemes in many parts of the world (international association of public transport, 2013). water transport provides the opportunity for improving urban transportation by helping to provide faster (hardly experienced congestion), more efficient and better integrated transport services for the urban area (hoyle, 1993). nigeria has about 8,600 kilometres of inland waterways and an extensive area of coastland of over 800 kilometres (ndikom, 2013). up to early 1960s, inland waterways provided important routes for access from the coast to the hinterland and accounted for more than 30% of the total produce transported in the country. however, by the late 1960s the significance of this important means of transportation had declined. at present only about 3,000 kilometres of the country’s inland waterways is being harnessed (badejo, 2011). although, water transport is known to be comparatively cheaper and most efficient for riverine communities, this mode of transport is currently highly neglected and undervalued in the country (ndikom, 2013; adejare et al., 2017). lagos, the commercial capital of nigeria has been observed to possess the necessary inland waterway network capacity to transport commuters to most parts of the city, but the waterways are grossly under utilized. the existing water transport facilities are inadequate both in terms of size and access to commuters (adejare et al.,2017; ogunbajo et al., 2017). ademiluyi et al., (2016) also observe that in spite of the numerous merits of water transport such as the low cost, larger capacity and safety, this mode of transport is yet to be fully tapped to achieve the potential benefits it possesses. they, therefore, called for more attention to water transportation in the state, in terms of greater investment through public or private partnership. it has also been noted that the lagos state government’s 30 year transportation 129 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 improvement plan of integrating the bus rapid transit (brt) with light rail schemes may not solve the congestion problem, except it also incorporatesthe water transport mode (edelman, 2015). the improvement of water transport in lagos has the potential to help address the serious road congestion and its associated problems such as extended travel time, loss of man hour, and negative effects on the environment and human health. if well-developed, water transport would help improve mobility since it could easily be organized to have fixed travel time because it hardly experiences congestion (bayode & ipingbemi, 2016; tobias et al., 2019; tannum & ulvensøen, 2019; iamtrakul & wongbumru, 2019; łapko & panasiuk, 2019; iamtrakul, 2018). focusing on water transport is important and relevant in lagos, because of its high potential for developing this mode of transport. it is also more economical and sustainable compared to road transport. this is because, in the long run, it entails less financial investment since it requires less maintenance and has higher capacity for passengers and goods. although some other studies (adejere et al., 2011; ademiluyi et al., 2016; ogunbajo et al., 2017) have been carried out on inland water transport in lagos state, this study is different from the previous ones because it specifically focuses on the ikorodu-ebutte ero route. this study also adopts both quantitative and qualitative methods essential for an indepth examination of activities on the lagos waterways. this study examines the operation of inland water transport along the ikorodu-ebute ero route in lagos city, with a view to recommend strategies for raising its capability as a mode of transportation in the area. the specific objectives are to: examine the available water transport facilities; determine its contributions to passenger movement; examine the characteristics of the passengers; as certain the problems associated with use of water transport; and to suggest possible strategies to improve water transportation in the area. 2. area of study lagos state is located between longitude 20 42' east and 30 42' east and latitude 60 22' north and 60 52' north, in the southwestern nigeria. it occupies an area of 3,475.1 km2 with 22% of the total land area consisting of creeks and lagoons. it lies entirely within the coastal plain and the land does not rise over 650 m above the sea level. most of its land area lies below 320 m above sea level and this subjects most of the areas to floods and beach erosion. 130 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 according to the 1991 national census the state had a population of 5,725,116, which had increased to 9,113,605 by 2006. the population was estimated to have risen to 11 million by 2011 and to 12.5 million in 2016 (nigerian bureau of statistics (nbc), 2008 and 2013). the city’s metropolitan area which had a population of only 290,000 in 1950 is now estimated to have a population of over 12 million and it is expected to grow to be the world’s third largest city by 2050. seventeen out of the twenty local government areas (lgas) in the state fall within the metropolis while twelve lgas encompass riverine communities (figure 1). lagos state operates 12 ferry routes under the supervision of lagos state water authority (laswa). the routes as identified by ademiluyi (2016), bayode & ipingbemi (2016) are ikorodumarina/cms; marina-mile 2; ikorodu-addax/falomo; ikorodu-ebuteero, marinaijegunegba-ebuteojo; mile 2-marina/cms-mekwen-falomo; badore-ijede; badore-five cowries; marinaoworonshonki; ebuteojo-ijegunegba; oworonshonki-five cowries; and baiyekulangbasa. figure 1. lagos inland waterways routes transportation in the study area is mostly by road which accounts for about 90% of traffic flow in the area. despite the abundance of waterways in lagos, waterborne transport is not as popular as road transport to get around the city. apart from the few regular ferry 131 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 services between lagos island and the mainland, fibre-covered motorised boats and canoes also operate passenger services on the lagoon and some of the creeks. 3. methods data used for this study include data on available water transport facilities, socioeconomic and travel characteristics of the passengers, passenger movement and challenges militating against the development of inland waterways in the area. secondary data were obtained from transport departments of riverine local government areas. official data were also obtained from the lagos state ministry of works and transport, lagos metropolitan area authority, lagos water authority and lagos ferry corporation. primary data were obtained through questionnaire survey using two types of questionnaire. questionnaire (a) was used to derive information from the union officials of vessel operators at the two operational jetties in the area, association of tourist boat operators of nigeria (atbownation) and sea coach water transport union. the data included number, types and capacity of vessels and number of trips made per day. other jetties in the area which are ikorodu terminal (operated by lagos state government) and metro ferry water transport were not in operation at the time of the survey. questionnaire (b) was used to gather information from users of water transport services. after it was estimated through a reconnaissance survey that about 3,000 passengers are transported through the two sampled jetties per day, five percent (150) of the passengers were sampled for the study. this is at 7.8 margin of error and 95% confidence level. systematic random sampling was used to select the passengers on whom the questionnaire was administered.the questionnaire survey was conducted with the aid of four research assistants who were adequately trained for the survey. the data collected were analysed using descriptive techniques including frequency counts, tables and graphs. 4. results and discussion 4.1 water transport facilities available in the area there are four jetties at ikorodu area of lagos state. these are the ikorodu terminal jetty (owned by the lagos state government), association of tourist boat operators and water transporter of nigeria (atbownation) jetty, metro ferry water transport jetty and sea coach water transport jetty (all privately owned). however, only two of them; atbownaton and sea coach water transport jetties were functional at the time of the study in june 2017. the main consequence of inadequate number of operational jetties in the 132 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 area is that people were greatly restricted from accessing water transport mode in the area. the atbownaton jetty had a total of 56 vessels while sea coach jetty had 13 vessels operating from it as shown in table 1. table 1. available water transport vessels in the area name of jetty number of vessels capacity of vessels atbownation jetty 56 20 sea coach : 1. shutter 2. cruiser 3. coaster 1 2 10 2 31 35 total 69 88 as also shown in table 1, the vessels are of different capacity and quality. while the atbowanation use standard vessels of 20 passenger capacity, sea coach jetty operators use a variety of vessels with capacity between two to 35 passengers. most of the vessels were fibre covered locally manufactured vessels while a few were imported standard vessels which were more expensive. an examination of other supporting facilities in the area covered the car parking facilities, passengers’ lounge and other facilities. for instance atbownaton jetty has a car parking facility with the capacity of 80 cars while the sea coach’s facility has a capacity of 50 cars. the sea coach jetty has other facilities such as restaurant and restrooms which were not available at atbownaton jetty (table 2). table 2. other facilities at the jetty area facilities condition of facilities at sea coach jetty condition of facilities atbownation jetty car park capacity 50 cars 80 cars passenger’ lounge capacity 40 passengers 50 passengers jetty structure wooden wooden other facilities none restaurant and rest rooms 4.2 contributions of inland water transport to passengers movements in the area the study further examined the impact of water transport on movements of the people in the study area. the average number of passengers moved per day was estimated using the number and capacity of available water vehicles and the average number of trips made per day. it was found that on average, up to 2,842 passengers were transported by water per day along the ikorodu – ebutte-ero axis of lagos state (table 3). 133 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 table 3. average number of passengers moved per day operators number of vessels capacity of vessels average trip per day total number of passengers per day atbownation 56 20 2 2240 sea coach : 1. shuttle 2. cruiser 3. coaster 1 4 10 2 31 35 2 2 1 4 248 350 total 2842 table 3 shows that atbownation jetty had a high number of passengers movement because of its larger number of water vessels (56) compared to the 15 vessels at sea coach jetty. in addition, the atbownation jetty had a bigger car park, larger waiting room and a restaurant as other facilities that could be attracting more passengers. it could however be deduced that the low number of passengers moved could not be adduced to shortage of vessels, but may be explained by a problem of low patronage. the fact that the vessels do not make more than two trips per day is a clear evidence of this problem. 4.3 characteristics of water transport passengers in the area 4.3.1 socio-economic characteristics majority (68%) of the respondents were found to be males. the preponderance of males among the passengers may be because males were more likely to take risk than females as travelling by water was perceived to be more dangerous than by road in nigeria. the long term neglect of water transport by successive governments has been observed to be responsible for travel safety concerns among the people (adeniyi, 2017). it was also found that most of the passenger fell within the middle aged group. for instance, 75.6% were between 26 – 45 years, while 58% of the passengers were married. in addition, a very high proportion (96.7%) of the respondents had secondary education and higher (table 4). this indicates that most of those who patronise water means of transport in the state were educated. furthermore, most (84%) of the passengers were employed with about 60% of them earning at least n 80,000 per month. 134 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 table 4. social-economic characteristics of respondents characteristics characteristics frequency percentage 18 – 25 5 3.3 age 26 – 35 66 44 36 – 45 47 31.3 46 and above 32 21.3 total 150 100 single 46 30.7 married 87 58 marital status separated 5 3.3 divorced 4 2.7 widowed 8 5.3 no formal education 5 3.3 primary education level of education secondary education 8 5.3 tertiary education 83 55.3 others 54 36 private sector 73 48.7 self employed 29 19.3 government worker 24 16 occupation apprentice 0 0 student 10 6.7 unemployed 13 8.7 others 1 0.7 below ₦18,000 9 6 ₦18,000 ₦49,000 21 14 monthly income ₦50,000 ₦79,000 24 16 ₦80,000 ₦109,000 27 18 ₦110,000 and above 61 40.7 no reponses 8 5.3 4.3.2 travel characteristics the study also examines the travel characteristics of the respondents in the study area such as passengers preferred means of water transport, regularity of use of water transport and purpose of trip of the passengers among others. 4.3.2.1 preferred type of vessel this involved the examination of the respondents most preferred means of water transport among canoes, non-covered motorised vessels, fibre covered motorised vessels and ferry. results show that as high as 71.3% of the respondents preferred fibre covered motorised vessels while none of the respondents used canoe as shown in table 5. the 135 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 preference for fibre-covered motorized vessel by majority of the respondents as shown in table 5 was expected because, it was faster and cheaper than other water vehicles in the area. meanwhile the preference for ferry by significant proportion of the respondent (23.3%) was because of its safety and better comfort when compared to the other available vessels. table 5. travel characteristics of the respondents characteristics frequency percentage preferred vessel type canoes 0 0 non-covered motorised vessel 0 0 fibre-covered motorised vessels 107 71.3 ferry 35 23.3 no response 8 5.3 total 150 100 regularity of travel by water everyday 107 71.3 at least once a week 10 6.7 at least once a month 7 4.7 occasionally 19 12.7 no respond 7 4.7 purpose of trip commerce and shopping 27 18.0 education 0 0 family and social purposes 14 9.3 work 101 67.3 others 0 0 no response 8 5.3 duration of journey less than 15 minutes 17 11.3 15-30 minutes 57 38.0 31-45 minutes 69 46.0 46 mins-1 hour 0 0 above 1 hour 0 0 no response 7 4.7 cost of journey less than ₦200 0 0 ₦200-₦500 0 0 ₦501-₦700 91 60.5 ₦701-₦1,000 53 35.3 above ₦1,000 0 0 no response 6 4.0 136 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 4.3.2.2 regularity of travel by water transport regardingthe regularity of use of water transport by the respondents, it was found that71.3% of them travelled by water transport everyday. meanwhile, another 6.7% used it at least once a week as shown on table 5. 4.3.2.3 purpose of trips an examination of the purpose of trips shows that 67.3% of the respondents depended on water transport to travel to work, while 18% of the respondent’s used water transport for commercial and shopping journeys as also shown on table 5. most (71.3%) of the respondents were found to use water transportation on daily basis (table 5). 4.3.2.4 duration of journey the results further show that 46% of the respondents spent 31-45 minutes on their journey while the duration of trip for 11.3% was less than 15 minutes per trip as shown on table 5. it could be seen that travel time by water in the area was shorter than by road. 4.3.2.5 cost of trips the monetary cost of trips incurred by passengers who travelled by water was however found to be higher than that of road transport. for instance it was found that 60.7% of the respondent paid ₦500 ₦700 per trip, while 34.7% of them incurred between ₦701 to ₦1000 per trip as also shown in table 5. 4.4 problems associated with use of water transport in the area the users of inland water transport in the area faced some challenges associated with their usage of water transport in the area. they indicated problems such as inadequate number of water vessels, poor quality of vessels, lack of adequate security and inadequate safety equipment among others. 4.4.1 insufficient number of water vessels the study found that as high as 68% of the respondents opined inadequate supply of vessels as a problem militating against the development of water transportation in the area as shown in figure 2. as a result intending passengers often had to join long queues at the jetties to get on boats or ferries. 137 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 figure 2. respondents’ opinion on inadequate number of water vessels as a problem 4.4.2 poor quality of vessels the results show that a high proportion of the respondents (62.6%) held an opinion that most of the vessels were of poor quality while 14.7% of the respondents strongly disagreed that poor quality of vessels was a problem of water transport in the area as shown in figure 3. figure 3. respondents’ opinion on poor quality of vessels as a problem 4.4.3 inadequate security inadequate security was seen to be a problem by 61.3% of the respondents as seen in figure 4. as a feed transport mode that did not provide door to door service, it required passengers using other modes of transport to get to the jetty from home. this may require people toparktheir personal cars at the jetty car park for the duration of office hours. figure 4. respondents’ opinion on inadequate security as a problem 33.3% 34.7% 15.3% 11.3% 0% 5.3% 0 10 20 30 40 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree i don't know no response 39.3% 23.3% 14.7% 14.7% 2.7% 5.3% 0 10 20 30 40 50 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree i don't know no response 32% 29.3% 20% 6.7% 6.7% 5.3% 0 10 20 30 40 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree i don't know no response 138 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 4.4.4 inadequate transport safety results show that 58.7% of the respondents perceived transport safety as a problem of water transport in the area (figure 5). the main issues related to safety raised by the people included inadequate safety equipment particularly life jackets, poor boat condition and reckless driving by the operators. figure 5. respondents’ opinion on transport safety as a problem 4.4.5 high cost of transport cost of transport was seen as a problem by as high as 67.4% of the respondents, as seen in figure 6.for instance, a trip that would normally cost about ₦300 by road cost would cost between ₦500-₦700 by water. figure 6. respondents’ opinion on high cost of transport as a problem the results indicate that there was a gross inadequacy of terminal facilities and vessels for water transportation in the area. with only two out of five terminals in operation, the capacity of water transport to facilitate movements in the area had been greatly reduced. this was because access to this mode was denied or made difficult for many people in the area. in addition, the availability of other supporting facilities was very important because these could attract or discourage prospective passengers. this was in line with the findings of chukwuma (2014); bassey & nsa (2018) who noted that inadequate water transport facilities was a major factor impeding the development of inland water transport in nigeria. for 26.7% 32% 22% 10.7% 3.3% 5.3% 0 10 20 30 40 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree i don't know no response 40.7% 26.7% 18.7% 8% 0.7% 5.3% 0 10 20 30 40 50 strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree i don't know no response 139 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 instance, the adequately available car parking facilities allows people with personal cars to keep their cars safe while travelling by boat on a part of their trips, thereby avoiding traffic stress on lagos roads. on the daily basis, water transport contributed to the mobility of almost 3,000 people within the ikorodu-ebute ero axis of lagos city (see table 3). this was very low considering the hundreds of thousands of lagos commuters who continued to travel by road on daily basis. this was an evidence that the potential of water transport had remained mostly untapped in the area. this was in line with the observation of ademiluyi et al. (2016); bayode & ipingbemi (2016) that water transport moves only a small proportion of the total traffic in lagos state. however, while the number of commuters travelling by water in the area waslow,one should still appreciate the fact that these were people that would have added to the road traffic chaos in the area, either as public transport or personal cars passengers. improved access is therefore a major issue that needs to be addressed to maximise the utilisation of water transportation in the area. the two most preferred water vessels in the area were fibre-covered motorised vessels and ferries (table 5). the preference for fibre-covered motorised vessel by the commuters was expected because; it was faster than other water vehicles in the area. meanwhile, the preference for ferry was because of its safety and better comfort when compared to the other available vessels. this implies that the potential of this modes as an alternative to road transport will be greatly increased if more of these modern vessels are introduced into service in the area. the consistency in the use of water mode of transportation by most (71.3%) of the commutersusing this mode as seen in table 5 is a further indication of the great potentials of water transport in the city. this also in line with the findings of ademiluyi et al. (2016) who found a consistency in the use of water transport by most of the commuters traveling by water in lagos city. this further indicates that the patronage of water transport would likely increase with the provision of more jetties andother supporting infrastructure such as car parks that will provide more access to a larger number of people in the area. most of the trips via water transport in the area were based on work purpose. based on the urban transportation modelling system (utms) (flugel & flotterod, 2015) categorisation ofthe purpose of trip in the area into trip distribution based on origin and purpose, majority of the respondents fell within the home-work category. on the average travel to work by road in lagos took not less than 2-3 hours because of the prevalent traffic congestion. this resulted in lagos being regarded as the city with the highest level of road 140 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 traffic congestion in nigeria. therefore, travelling by water at least part of the trip, allows commuters to avoid traffic congestion and reduces travel time though at higher financial cost. the higher rates charged per tripcompared to road travel can be attributed to the near monopoly enjoyed by the few private water transport operators. this is in line with the findings of ogunbajo et al. (2017) who also noted that high cost of travel is amajor problem of water transportation in lagos city. however, while on the surface it may seem more expensive because it implies substituting higher monetary cost for time, in the real sense it is more economical for the city because of the significant man-hour loses attributed to traffic congestion in lagos city. for instance, it was estimated that lagos commuters spent an average of 30 hours on traffic per week which was 75% of weekly working hours (business day online, 2018). however, for the fact that most of water transport users were of the high income earners,it can be deduced that the cost of transport likely plays a significant role in people’s decision to travel by this mode. the implication is that road travel may still continue to attract more lagos commuters because of the relatively lower rates charged. most of the problems associated with the use of water transport in the area are direct result of poor level of investment in this mode of transport. the long term neglect of inland water transport by successive governments has led to the handover of themode of transportto the hands of few private individuals and enterprises. the high cost of acquisition and maintenance of vessels became a major restriction to entrance into this line of business. this was largely responsible for the inadequate supply in the sector. for instance, a locally manufactured 15 seater open (without roof) motorised vessel cost between ₦200,000 ₦300,000 depending on whether it was made of wood or fibre (nwakunor et al., 2016). although, the wooden boats weremore common because of their lower cost, they were still not affordable to many people who may be interested in joining the business in the area. the poor quality of water vessels in the area was another evidence of the low level of development of this mode of transportation, particularly, when compared to road transport. this was another important factor that may discourage prospective passengers. for instance, while most of the boats were without roof (passengers were exposed to the elements), passengers also often had to sit on wooden planks with no backrest. only the roofed fibrecovered boats and ferries were equipped with comfortable chairs while also providing protection from the sun/rain. exposure to rain in particular has been observed to be a major complaint of water transport passengers in lagos (nwakunor et al., 2016). this is not surprising since it will be a serious discomfort to be soaked by rain while commuting to and from the office or school. 141 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 while piracy was not identified as a problem to inland water transport in the area, traffic robberies, theft and other vices were known to be common around lagos jetties due to the presence of touts and other miscreants within and around their vicinity. therefore, passengers were sometimes exposed to some of these problems, such as breakage of their parked cars resulting in loss of valuables. in addition, operation of inland water transport in the area was largely dominated by informal business units and individual operators who wereoften uneducated, rash and aggressive just like their road transport counterparts. therefore, the passengers also often had to put up with verbal abuse and other forms of aggression. as seen in figure 5 the issue of safety was a problem to almost 60% of the commuters. passengers were particularly at risk due to non-adherence to government regulation on provision of life jackets by most operators. even when life jackets were provided they were often the cheapest ones in the market that were highly unreliable (bayode & ipingbemi, 2016). there were also other serious risks attached to navigation on the lagos lagoon such as collusion with other boats or floating logs and risk of fishing nets getting caught on propellers (adeniyi, 2017). for instance, a boat mishap which resulted in the loss of many lives was attributed to poor visibility during a night journey (punch, 2019). these hazards were particularly associated with night journeys which eventually made the state government to ban night travel on the lagos lagoon. poor condition of vessels was also reflected in form of rickety boats, for instance it is not uncommon to find vessels leaking water while travelling on the waterway. the safety issue was further compounded by the problem of overloading and over speeding and other reckless behaviour. for instance, bayode & ipingbemi (2016) attributed about 70% of accidents on the lagos waterways to human error. there was also the problem of hyacinths which often clog waterways, affecting engines and making it difficult to navigate. the high cost of water transport when compared to road mode of transport in lagos state was attributed to factors such as low supply compared to the present demand for their services and high cost of maintenance of vessels (nwakunor et al., 2016; bayode & ipingbemi, 2016).while this observation may be true for some parts of the lagos inland waterways, this conclusion cannot be deduced from this present study. this was because there was alow patronage in the area which could be seen from the low number of trips made by the available vessels. the most likely reason was probably the influence of union control which was usually very strong within the transport industry in the country. the transport unions often fixed rates and made their members abide through force and intimidation. high 142 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 cost of transport may however be a great obstacle to widespread adoption of water transportation in the area, except measures are adopted to reduce cost of travel by this mode of transport. 4.5 possible strategies to improve water transportation in the area based on the findings of this study the following strategies are suggested: (1) to address the problems of gross inadequacy of terminal facilities and vessels for water transportation in the area, the lagos state government should invest more in inland water transportation. this will require the provision of more jetties and making abandoned ones functional. the state government can also provide ferry services to this area and other routes not presently served by government ferry services. this will go a long way in improving the capacity of this mode of transport to facilitate movement and ensure access to more people in the area; (2) there is a need for the operators to acquire modern boats and ferries that will be more reliable, safe and also provide greater comfort in terms of seating and protection from the sun and rain. this will attract more people to travel by this mode of transportation; (3) government should also provide incentives such as tax relief and as well as develop policies that would help facilitate access to credit for individuals and corporate organisations willing to invest in the this sub-sector. this will go a long way to attract investment in water transportation; (3) in addition, safety on the waterways can be improved through the strengthening of the lagos waterways authority (laswa), so that it can effectively perform the duty of enforcing safety regulations on the waterways. regulations such as the use of life jackets by all passengers and crew members, banning of night travels and adequate maintenance of vessels should be strictly enforced. this will help reduce the rate of accidents and fatalities often recorded; (4) security is a major issue that must be addressed to improve water transportation in the area. security on the waterways, areas around and within the jetties must be enforced to encourage more people to utilize this mode of transportation. in particular, car parking facilities around the jetties must be well protected so as to attract the patronage of car owners who commute partly on theroad; (5) there is also the need for public enlightenment on the need to adopt this mode of transportation, focusing on the advantages. this should mostly be directed at reducing the widespread sense of apathy concerning the use of water transport because of safety concerns among people in the area. 143 usman bolaji abdulkadir and animashaun kikelomo halimat / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 127-146 5. conclusion this study examined inland water based transportation in the riverine parts of ikorodu area of lagos state. it was found that the capacity of water mode of transport was greatly reduced due to inadequate provision of jetties and other necessary facilities. therefore, access to this mode was largely denied or made difficult for many people in the area. however, despite the poor infrastructure, water transport played an important role by enhancing mobility in the area. particularly, it provided a fast and more sustainable means of movement within a city with a high level of road traffic congestion. in addition, the frequency of use by the commuters who travel by water is an indication that this mode of transport has a great potential of being adopted by a greater proportion of the population. however, relatively higher cost of journey compared to road travel, poor quality of vessels, safety related issues and poor security in the vicinity of jetties are the major obstacles that may discourage general adoption of water transportation in the area. therefore, while water transportation has great potentials in the area, there is the need for greater attention from both government and the private sector, to significantly raise its capacity to fully compliment the road transport mode. this could be facilitated through a greater investment in water transport infrastructure and provision of modern vessels. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or 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(2019). inland waterway terminal yard configuration contributing to sustainability: modeling yard operations. research in transportation economics, 73, 4-16. doi:10.1016/j.retrec.2019.02.001 106 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 infrastructural organization of geospatial data in the global level: a case study of albanian global mapping dataset milot lubishtani1, bashkim idrizi2*, subija izeiroski3, fitore bajrami lubishtani2 1 department of geodesy, polytechnic university of tirana, tirana, 1001, albania 2 department of geodesy, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, prishtina , 10000, kosovo 3 subsidiary struga, geo-see institute, skopje, 1000, north macedonia *corresponding author : bashkim.idrizi@uni-pr.edu received 12 january 2020/ revised 20 march 2020/ accepted 17 april 2020/ published 24 april 2020 abstract today, the development of economic and financial situation concerning the protection of environment and natural resources in a wider scope depends on the use of geospatial data. one of the main aims of the infrastructural organization of geospatial data is to provide users to be capable of acquiring complete, exact and updated dataset at the right time. this is necessary for providing an ideal environment, where all stakeholders can work collaboratively in an effective way, in order to solve environmental issues and to achieve their targets. global mapping (gm), a project established by united nations, is one of the crucial contributions to the development of global spatial data infrastructure (gsdi). this case study on albanian gm dataset was aimed at performing analyses of infrastructural organization of geospatial data in global-intercontinental level. data standardization of gm as contributor of gsdi was analyzed through developed albanian gm dataset. the main components taken into consideration for performing research analyses were data and metadata, technology, institutional framework, policies, interoperability, network services, search opportunities, and data sharing within gsdi. the main findings of this study are the necessity of infrastructural organization of geospatial data in the global level, known as gsdi, by including official geospatial datasets developed by the national mapping organizations of countries all over the world, in order to be used for environmental monitoring and protection, as well as for early warning management in international level. finally, based on the research results, four conclusions for gsdi are offered, in order to be considered as guideline for further development of unified and globally homogeneous infrastructure of spatial data set. keywords: gsdi; gm; spatial data infrastructure; albania. 1. introduction according to fereira (2005) recent technological advances in geospatial data collection, such as mobile phones, the earth observation and gps (global positioning geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 106-126, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.16901 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:bashkim.idrizi@uni-pr.edu https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 107 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 system) satellites, have created massive data sets with better spatial and temporal resolution than ever. space agencies worldwide planned to launch around 260 earth observation satellites over the next 15 years. this novel scenario points to the need and spurs on motivation for creating new infrastructures and technologies in order to efficiently store, process, analyze and disseminate large amount of spatiotemporal datasets. according to williamson et al. (2005), cignetti et al. (2019), hoffman-hall (2019), petel (2017), specka (2019), thapa et al. (2019) spatial data, also known as geospatial data or geographic information, are defined as data associated with a specific location on the earth, particularly information regarding natural phenomena, and cultural and human resources. spatial data include maps, aerial and satellite images. many organizations from local, national and regional level produce geospatial data for different purposes. nowadays, we face challenges concerning the production and use of geospatial data. some of them are: (1) in most cases data are collected by differen t organizations and are often incompatible, (2) very often data are with poor quality and poor documentation, (3) organizations that produce spatial data are often restricted to distribute high quality spatial data. the spatial data infrastructure (sdi) concept is generally used to avoid gaps within spatial datasets and duplication in data production in addition to other well -known spatial data problems. according to wu et al. (2018), thompson & de beurs (2018), yang et al. (2018), forkel et al. (2017), lu et al. (2017), chen & wang (2017), vasin & yasakov (2016) creating efficient sdis is an innovative way aiming to design an environment for collaboration and cooperation to solve environmental issues. sdi is mainly a collection of five components which are core spatial data, policies, standards, technologies and institutional arrangement that facilitate the access to geographically-related information (park et al., 2016; lee et al., 2015; choi et al., 2019; yu et al., 2016); sinnott & voorsluys, 2016); foster & mayfield, 2016). an efficient way of accessing geospatial information for public use is by developing geoportals. in fact, a geoportal within the framework of an sdi is a gateway for accessing spatial data, metadata, users and tools that are interactively linked with main aim to use geospatial data in a flexible and efficient way. at the other hand, the geoportals are not just tools but they also facilitate the searching procedures for spatial data. four key concepts underpinning all sdis are: (1) the overriding objective of an sdi is to maximize the use of spatial information. this requires ready access to the geographic information assets held by a wide range of stakeholders in both public and private sector, (2) sdis cannot be realized without coordinated action on the part of governments and agency 108 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 partners, (3) sdis must be user driven. their primary purpose is to support decision making for many different purposes, and (4) sdi implementation involves a wide range of activities. these include not only technical matters such as data, technologies, standards, and delivery mechanisms, but also institutional matters related to organizational responsibilities and overall national information policies, as well as questions related to the availability of the financial and human resources needed for this task. concerning the organization of spatial data in the global level, there is an ongoing initiative called global spatial data infrastructure (gsdi). currently gsdi is at an early stage of development, particularly after the establishment of gsdi association in 2002 which includes the development of a proper organizational model, policy and framework, as well as the set up of different working groups for designing and conducting research on the other important components of gsdi. within the framework of this initiative, regional organizations such as eurogi and pcgiap are playing an important role. this initiative was defined by the participants at the second gsdi conference (held at chapel hill, usa, in october 1997) as generally encompassing "the policies, organizational remits, data, technologies, standards, delivery mechanisms, and financial and human resources necessary to ensure that those working at the global and regional scale are not impeded in meeting their objectives". as a result of the growing need for organization and access of geospatial data in many fields, organizations raised the need for development and implementation of spatial data infrastructures (sdi) as well as further researches related to theory and concepts of sdi. hjelmager et al. (2008) state that an sdi is an evolving concept about facilitating and coordinating the exchange and sharing of spatial data between stakeholders from different levels in the spatial data community. one of the core characteristics of well -organized spatial data is the hierarchical structure. these structures can be found nearly everywhere in nature and the man-made environment, e.g. taxonomies, organizations, databases, political systems and government, and parent-child human relationships. the properties of hierarchical systems include simplicity and complexity, upper and lower levels, as well as nested systems within the hierarchical structure. these properties have been adapted in some spatial data applications. in general, it can be said that the higher the level of the sdi, the lower the detail of the data.the hierarchy of sdi systems can be seen in a top down umbrella view (figure 1), or a bottom up building block view (rajabifard et al., 2000; williamson et al., 2005). 109 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 figure 1. a)an umbrella view of sdi b) abuilding block view of sdi the national spatial data infrastructure is established in albania by the law and consists in the national geoportal by the state authority for geospatial information (asig). dataset resources for inspire entries are data from albanian geographic (military) institute (agmi), albanian geologic survey (ags), agency for legalization of urban and informal zones and buildings (aluizni), central technical archive in tirana, central office registration of immovable properties and parcels and its branches, national agency of forest, national agency of water, national agency of environment, national agency of territory administration, urban offices in municipalities or cities hall in albania, private companies. in the republic of albania, the organization responsible for developing nsdi is the state authority for geospatial information-asig. asig in collaboration with norway cadastre authority statens kartverk have started initial activity to establish spatial data infrastructure in albania in compliance with the european initiatives and trends. state authority for geospatial information (asig) was established in 2013, according to law 72/2012 "on the organization and functioning of the national infrastructure of geospatial information in the republic of albania" (www.asig.gov.al). the establishment of the ministry of innovation, information technologies (mitik) and communication affirms and reinforces the government's determination for the implementation of national spatial data infrastructure (nsdi). in addition, ,the adoption of the inspire directive, the establishment of an institutional and legal frame for spatial data generation and distribution, and the provision of their use in a national level, are aimed to hinder all misunderstandings and 110 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 duplication and improve the quality of the final projects deliverable especially for infrastructure studies and the environment. the idea for developing the global map was launched as a result of unsuccessful completion of the imw (international map of the world in scale 1:1.000.000) and contemporary trends as a result of fast growing information technology in the last decade of the 20th century for preparing the digital maps. based on this idea, the global map has to replace the imw with a new map in digital form according to the accepted homogeneous standards for entire globe. if we consider the structure of the global map,especially regarding the standards listed in its specifications, since its beginning till today,we can see that the global map is not designed as a standard map, but it merely represents the gis database format with specifically defined standards. the lack of cartographic key (cartographic symbols), the lack of cartographic/graphic representation, and the absence of define d map projection are the main arguments which prove that global map is notactually a map but it is a gis database, i.e. global map itself does not contain the basic elements that characterize a map (idrizi et al., 2011). global map is a digital geographic dataset covering the global land areain the scale of 1:1,000,000 and spatial resolution of about 1km. it is, easily accessible with marginal costs, currently freely downloadable for non-profit purposes. this research case study on albanian global map data set combines both, the theoretical and practical issues, conducted, by interaction of theoretical components within practical processes for developing gm dataset for one country and analyzing the necessity for infrastructural organization of geospatial data in the global level based on national level data, known as global spatial data infrastructure (gsdi). this research offers the answer to the main question on the importance of gsdi for international cooperation from national up to global level, on issues related to the environment and official early warning global spatial datasets. the study was performed by using the process of developing the albanian global map dataset, as a case study, in which all research analyzes were conducted. 2. methods derived from a literature research, according to crompvoets (2006) the following sdi-components are to be considered as the main bricks of spatial data infrastructures, i.e.: (1) data sources (organizations generating spatial data); (2) users of spatial data (huma n resources), (3) agreed set of rules, standards (technological and data definition), protocols,procedures, instructions, guidelines); (4) policies (legislation (copyright), accessibility, finance) ; (5) institutional framework (arrangements) affecting databases, meta 111 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 data policy,standards; (6) (networked) spatial-datasets (fundamental datasets geodetic) positioning system, digital topographic frameworks, property register, administrative boundaries, elevation model), thematic datasets (soils, hydrology, land use), historical data, and metadata); (7) clearinghouse; (8) legal and technical provision for universal connectivity among databases, directory information and legal rights to interconnect; meta databases and directories describing the content and components of databases; (9) the technologies facilitating the use and transfer of spatial data (networks, electronic data interchange, open gis, data handling facilities, data transfer media). according to idrizi (2018), the basic elements of an sdi are as follows: (1) institutional framework, including legislation, organization, policies and practices; (2) rules for financing and pricing and for handling of security, vulnerability and integrity; (3) standards, including methods for describing spatial data, searching spatial data, ordering and transferring spatial data; (4) fundamental spatial data sets, including geodetic frame, official digital map data, data on real properties, population, buildings and more; and (5) technological framework including human and technical resources, meta data and catalogue services, information network, data distribution, services which makes it easy for users to search, order and collect spatial data. within a national framework of sdi, various datasets (sometimes also indicated by authentic datasets after they have gained a legal status) may be included, such as: (1) co ordinate reference systems; (2) object catalogue including object definitions; (3) geographic name gazetteers; (4) cadastral data; (5) large scale topographic data; (6) elevation data; (7) administrative subdivisions; (8) transportation networks. on the other side, a global framework of sdi may contain a combination of national core datasets or regional datasets. these spatial datasets should be determined a common reference system, object catalogue gazetteers for different types of data in order to be allowed combined use of the different datasets for different purposes. data harmonization is an act of reconciling the definition and representation formats of data elements in a domain of interest. it entails a set of activities that improves the consistency in the use of data elements in terms of their meaning and representation format. in the process of data harmonization, a set of core data elements (data elements expressed using different vocabularies but with identical meaning) can be extracted. one of the main goals of data harmonization is to eliminate redundancies and duplication of datasets in the submission of international trade data. 112 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 there are two general approaches for harmonizing data: input harmonization and output harmonization (peter & emily, 2016): (1) input harmonization aims to achieve standardized measurement processes and methods in all national or regional populations. comparability can be realized through standardization of definitions, indicators, classifications, training, and technical requirements, (2) output harmonization begins with different national or regional measurements, possibly derived from non -standardized measurement processes. interoperability is defined as the ability of information and communication technology (ict) systems and of the business processes they support to exchange data and to enable the sharing of information and knowledge (european commission, 2004). the state authority for geospatial information (asig) of albania, following a successful cooperation, signed on 26th of april 2018, the institutional cooperation agreement with statens kartverk for the implementation of the project was financed by the government of norway for the western balkan countries with the object: "capacity building of the state authority for geospatial information on providing geographic information to users". the objectives of this agreement are: (1) enhancing the capacity of the state authority for geospatial information to provide geographic information to users, (2) developing the plan and the first version of the integrated information system for coastal areas with testing in an are, (3) developing the curricula in mapping and cadaster in university system. the establishment of the national geoportal is in its initial phase of structuring and, performing a harmonization of geospatial data in order for users to find it as complete, accurate and up to date. for the users concerned about these geospatial information (citizens, scholars, etc..), asig suggests that the data obtained from the geoportal, firstly have to be verified and confirmed in the relevant institutions, in order that they may gainthe most accurate final information. the vector data of global map v1/v2 (national and regional version) can be downloaded in vpf (vector product format), shape and gml (geography markup language) formats. vpf is a standard format, structure, and organization for large geographic databases that are based on a geo-relational data model, combinatorial topology and set theory, and are intended for direct use (idrizi, 2017). because the use of vpf files is so limited by the existing gis software’s, on october 10th 2008 the existing gm vector data (national/regional version) has also been published in shape format, which is simpler and more user-friendly format. 113 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 on october 25th 2009, the gml (standardized in iso 19136) format has replaced the former vpf as the official distribution format of gm data, which provides a standard format for transferring digital geographic data (idrizi et al., 2011). the global map product will encompass the entire globe, at a scale of 1:1 million. all the data sets will be consistent with this scale and these specifications (global map specifications version 2.2., 2012). on the other side, a global framework of sdi may contain a combination of national core datasets or regional datasets. these spatial datasets should be determined a common reference system, object catalogue gazetteers for different types of data in order to be allowed combined use of the different datasets for different purposes. data harmonization is an act of reconciling the definition and representation formats of data elements in a domain of interest. it entails a set of activities that improves the consistency in the use of data elements in terms of their meaning and representation format. in the process of data harmonization,a set of core data elements (data elements expressed using different vocabularies but with identical meaning)can be extracted.one of the main goals of data harmonization is to eliminate redundancies and duplication of datasets in the submission of international trade data. there are two general approaches for harmonizing data: input harmonization and output harmonization (peter & emily, 2016): (1) input harmonization aims to achieve standardized measurement processes and methods in all national or regional populations. comparability can be realized through standardization of definitions, indicators, classifications, training, and technical requirements, (2) output harmonization begins with different national or regional measurements, possibly derived from non-standardized measurement processes. interoperability is defined as the ability of information and communication technology (ict) systems and of the business processes they support to exchange data and to enable the sharing of information and knowledge (european commission, 2004). the state authority for geospatial information (asig) of albania, following a successful cooperation, signed on 26 th of april 2018, the institutional cooperation agreement with statens kartverk for the implementation of the project was financed by the government of norway for the western balkan countries with the object: "capacity building of the state authority for geospatial information on providing geographic information to users". the objectives of this agreement are: (1) enhancing the capacity of the state authority for geospatial information to provide geographic information to users, (2) developing the plan and the first version of the integrated information system for coastal areas with testing in an area, (3) developing the curricula in mapping and cadaster in university system. 114 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 the establishment of the national geoportal is in its initial phase of structuring and, performing a harmonization of geospatial data in order for users to find it as complete, accurate and up to date. for the users concerned about these geospatial information (citizens, scholars, etc..), asig suggests that the data obtained from the geoportal, firstly have to be verified and confirmed in the relevant institutions, in order that they may gainthe most accurate final information. the vector data of global map v1/v2 (national and regional version) can be downloaded in vpf (vector product format), shape and gml (geography markup language) formats. vpf is a standard format, structure, and organization for large geographic databases that are based on a geo-relational data model, combinatorial topology and set theory, and are intended for direct use (idrizi, 2017). because the use of vpf files is so limited by the existing gis software’s, on october 10th 2008 the existing gm vector data (national/regional version) has also been published in shape format, which is simpler and more user-friendly format. on october 25th 2009, the gml (standardized in iso19136) format has replaced the former vpf as the official distribution format of gm data, which provides a standard format for transferring digital geographic data (idrizi et al., 2011). the global map product will encompass the entire globe, at a scale of 1:1 million. all the data sets will be consistent with this scale and these specifications (global map specifications version 2.2., 2012). 3. results and discussion the republic of albania has participated in global mapping project since 30th june 2016 in level b, through state authority for geospatial information (asig) as national mapping and spatial data infrastructure organization. republic of albania was the last country participating in gm project, before the dissolution of iscgm and the termination of the global mapping project on august 2016. albanian global map v2, consists both, the vector and raster layers, 8 layers in total, released on 14th of july 2016 in www.iscgm.org, as freely downloadable for non-commercial use (lubishtani & idrizi, 2016). official data wereretrieved from governmental institutions in charge of supplying the current and updated data sets as follows: (1) state authority for geospatial information (asig), (2) institute of transportation, (3) albanian institute of statistics (instat), (4) military geographical institute of albania, (5) ministry of the urban development. in order to harmonize the input data with the gm v2.2 specification, all data received converted, harmonized and generalized, as well reprocessed in cases of satellite 115 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 images. the next table and figure,present the list of the developed layers and the directory structure of albanian gm dataset according to gm v2.2 specification for national/regional version. table 1. global map v1/v2 dataset layers national/regional version vector layers raster layers boundaries land cover drainage land use trasportation elevation population centers vegetation figure 2. gm directory structure (global map specifications version 2.2) as an output of the developed albanian gm dataset, eight maps have been compiled, as follows (lubishati & idrizi 2016; lubishtani et al., 2018): 116 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 figure 3. figure 4. figure 5. figure 6. transportation layer population centers layer drainage layer boundaries layer figure 7. figure 8. figure 9. figure 10. land cover layer land use layer vegetation layer elevation layer from september 2016, based on the letter of approval from asig, the albanian gm data set were migrated to the united nations geospatial information section (ungis), due to decision for transfer of gm data to ungis database, which has been formalized on august 2016, in new york, during the final (23rd) meeting of iscgm (lubishtani & idrizi, 2016). everything is happening somewhere; hence, most information is related to a place. this is the field, where geographic information system (gis) comes in. a geographic information system has been described in several ways during its development and emergence as a technology. one can define gis as a system of hardware and software, procedures and people designed to capture, to store, to manipulate, to analyze, and to display geo-referenced information (longley et al., 2005). sdi interconnects gis-based servers across the internet. as stated by groot & mc laughlin (2000), an sdi encompasses first the networked geospatial databases and data handling facilities, and then other components. this leads to an argument that gis can be considered the sdi block. although the core sdi concept nests within its scope either base data collection activities or myriad applications built upon it, the infrastructure provides an 117 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 ideal environment to connect applications to data influencing both data collection and applications construction through minimal appropriate sta ndards and policies. the role of gis within an sdi is vital. it first creates, manages and serves spatial information, then plays the same role for metadata, and finally provides access to users. briefly we can consider gis an underpinning technology for sdi. the notion that gis is considered a block of an sdi can be seen in figure 11. figure 11. gis as a block of spatial data infrastructure one of the main goals of the development of sdis is to manage and more efficiently use the spatial data assets by considering the needs and information flows from the local level, up through state, national and regional levels and finally to the global (gsdi) level. some of the essential properties of a hierarchical structure relevant for the understanding of hierarchies in general, and spatial hierarchies in particular are as follows: (1) part-whole property: where an element on the higher level consists of one or more elements on the lower level, in view of a part-whole relationship, the higher level is a whole and the lower element is its part, (2) janus-effect: an element at a hierarchical level has two different faces, one looking toward wholes in the higher level and the other looking toward 118 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 parts in the lower level. this property was introduced as a fundamental property of all types of hierarchy, (3) near decomposability property: the third fundamental property of hierarchy is called near decomposability. it is related to the nesting of systems within larger sub-systems, and is based on the fact that interactions between various kinds of systems decrease in strength with distance. components that are closer to each other interact more strongly than components that are far apart, many of them are at the same level. figure 12 summarizes the common functional user requirements associated with the relevant steps in the resource life cycle (díaz et al., 2011). moving clockwise, resources must first be published in the sdi, so that they are available for the other stakeholders. then, these resources need to be made searchable and discoverable in the distributed system. figure 12. sdi resource life cycle as stated in idrizi (2017) the main reasons and needs for standardization of spatial data are as follows: (1) standardization lets peers communicate, (2) minimizes cost of uptake of new information, (3) maximizes utility and stability of information products, (4) permits more applications to operate under known conditions. mainly the following standardization organizations are in relation with sdi’s : (1) international organisation of standardization (iso tc 211, tc 204, jtc-1), (2) inspire, (3) world wide web consortium (w3c), opengis consortium (ogc), wsi–i (web services interoperability organization), gsdi (global spatial data infrastructure), national standards organizations. according to 119 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 nebert (2009), many standardization activities exist with different roles and responsibilities that are relevant to implementing sdis (figure 13). figure 13. geospatial standardization in sdi (nebert, 2009) as can be seen in figure 13 there are close interactions between sdi as a platform and standardization organizations like: ogc, w3c, iso tc 211 as well as with other nsdi’s. some of the main benefits of data harmonization are: (1) provides a common basis for standardizing data for import, export and logistics information, (2) reduces data redundancy, data duplication and costs of data exchange, (3) ensures data compatibility and enables data interoperability among stakeholders, resulting in further facilitation of trade procedures, (4) provides common semantic standards for import, export and logistics information, (5) provides preparation to develop electronic trade documents, (6) supports the establishment of single window facilities: a single-entry point of standardized information and reuse of information to fulfill all import, export and transit related regulatory requirements. as previously mentioned, the interoperability is the capability to communicate, execute programs, or transfer data among various functional units in a manner that requires the user to have little or no knowledge of the unique characteristics of those units (iso 2382 1, 1993). there are four types of levels that obstruct interoperability of spatial data, i.e.: 120 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 cross-border matching of datasets, cross-sector combinations of datasets from different sectors and different content, cross-type of data e.g. combining raster with vector data, and overlap where the same objects coming from different sources contradict both in value and in representation. the global mapping project is an effort in which national mapping organizations (nmos) from more than 180 countries and regions of the world develop global map (gm) through international cooperation (maruyama et al., 2005). the objectives of the global map project are to contribute to solving global environmental problems and achieving sustainable development. in its core meaning, global mapping is a digital geographic dataset of the whole globe which consists of eight thematic layers: boundaries, drainage, population centers, transportation, elevation, land use, land cover and vegetation. these thematic layers of gm dataset should be updated every five years. some of the primary aims of the gm project are: • monitoring and early warning systems for natural disasters; • monitoring and management of natural resources; • assessment of the trends of environmental changes; • local, national and multinational physical development planning; and • informed decision-making of policy makers with a strategic database. according to idrizi (2006), despite the fact thatthe maps are prepared in local/national standards, gm dataset will enable all data of the earth to be: • in one place, • with the same attributes, • in the same format, • in the same coordinate system, • in the same scale, and • with similar accuracy. all structure of data in gm dataset is based on the international iso standards for geographic data, i.e. iso/tc 211the development of global map utilises these following six core iso standards: • iso19136 for the data in gml format, • iso 3166 for nation codes, 121 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 • iso 19115 of metadata of gm-v2 by using iso 19139 for encoding, • iso 15046 standard of metadata of v1, • iso 639 for language code, • iso 8601 for date code. some of the main objectives of asig during the process of building nsdi are: • creating geodetic framework to european standards to enable the support of a unique map of the entire territory of the republic of albania. • establishing national infrastructure geospatial data in the republic of albania, through geoportal where everyone can access to geospatial data that possesses albanian state. • designing and developing geo-information standards and their implementation in institutions, whether manufacturer or the geo update. having a global map dataset in digital form on disposal principally allows the modeling of real life situations and also performance of various data manipulation and spatial data analyses. in practical solving issues concerning global map dataset may have limited uses at national and local scales. however, global map dataset is needed to address global, regional, and trans-boundary and in many cases national concerns and environmental issues. therefore, the albanian gm dataset as the latest updated data set will support all types of spatial analyses. by including albanian gm dataset in the global map, direct contribution on regional environmental analyses will be enabled (lubishtani & idrizi, 2016). the concept of knowledge graph may be applied and integrated to sdis to construct knowledge bases that link the geospatial entities and concepts contained in the data. machine learning and data mining methods, such as latent semantic analysis and labeled latent dirichlet allocation may help automatic inference and generation of high quality metadata from the content of maps and services (li et al., 2015). according to hu & li (2017) sdis heavily rely on computer and information technologies, and are continuously evolving with the technological advancements. techniques commonly used in today’s sdis, such as asynchronous javascript and xml (ajax), enable asynchronous processing to speed up search performance as well as user experience. the strategy for building nsdi in albania will lead to relation of nsdi through following strategic areas: (1) cooperation infrastructure, (2) spatial data and services, (3) standardization, (4) legal framework, (5) geodetic reference system, (6) financing and pricing, (7) research, development and 122 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 education. in this way the generation of an important infrastructure is delivered in the national level such as albpos, orthophoto for albania, increasing the level of spatial data within a global gis. in this context the mitik focuses on the implementation of the inspire directive which is considered not only a precondition for the integration of albania in eu, but also the main base to establish the national policies on eu. the following are some of the potential applications of global map datasets, i.e. developed albanian global map dataset: • monitoring and early warning systems for natural disasters; • monitoring and management of natural resources; • assessment of the trends of global environmental changes; • local, national and multinational physical development planning; • informed decision-making of policy makers with a strategic database; • global/regional/national perspective and contextual information; • developing ecosystem, drainage basins framework for environmental assessment; • quantifying trans boundary issues; • rapid response capability; • environmental priority setting, analytical studies over large areas. 4. conclusion on the basis of the previous text we can see that there are some important similarities between global map and gsdi. the similarities are the global scope of gm and gsdi, their focus on geospatial data and ability to facilitate geospatial analysis and collaboration. this collaboration in some way is slightly different, because it emphasizes o n a specific physical data product rather than spatial infrastructure development. the sdi development can be considered an important synergistic activity with global map project. therefore, the international collaboration provides a number of relevant lessons and experiences for gsdi collaboration. it is also important to note that the global map project has only been in operation for about five years. therefore, the organization may not have much operational history, but it can still offer some insights for gsdi. first of all, gsdi should focus on specific projects because such projects can help engage participants and educate them about 123 milot lubishtani et al / geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 106-126 the importance of sdi activities, such as the importance of metadata and collaboration between participants. with focus and participation in the development of specific spatial data product within global map activities, many countries can be assisted to recognize the importance of gsdi activities and usage. second, the gsdi should develop partnerships and define relationships with other relevant regional and international activities. with defined and developed partnerships with these organizations, gsdi may have access to leveraged resources, increased visibility, and membership. as an example, the provision of an official invitation letter by un to nmo’s to participate in global map project may strengthenth a credibility of the activity and was instrumental in motivating countries' participation. such partnerships can provide synergy and benefits for all the partners. for example, the partnership with pcgiap and pcidea helps increase global map data development and also helps these organizations develop their regional collaborations.third, gsdi needs to develop special activities in order to help developing countries to participate in the international collaborations since they often do not have the resources to participate in such activities. an important mechanism for such outreach is to facilitate country-to-country technical aid and support, such as the level c and level a membership categories in the global map project. special grants and assistance programs are also helpful in this regard, such as the japan international cooperation agency training classes and the esri grant program. fourth, gsdi should also promote and emphasize the benefits of gsdi participation which is essential to increase the active participation in the organization. global map is currently working to distribute such messages to its members to increase active participation in global map project. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references chen, k., & wang, m. 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(2016). a study on concepts and utilization of geo-spatial big data in south korea. ksce journal of civil engineering, 20(7), 2893-2901. doi:10.1007/s12205-016-0504-7 dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 105 spatio-temporal variations of wind speed during harmattan season in northeastern nigeria dantata danlami1, saidu idris1, richard sunday thlakma1 and golly sammy gwandum2 1department of geography faculty of humanities, management and social sciences federal university of kashere, pmb 0182 gombe state, nigeria. 2department of mathematics, college of education p.m.b 011 billiri, gombe state nigeria received 30 january 2019/ revised 4 july 2019/ accepted 15 july 2019/ published 2 august 2019 abstract wind speed is the principal climatic element that drives the marmaton season in west african sub region. it drives the season by conveying huge amount of dust across the northeastern nigeria. the presence of dust in the atmosphere brought by the northeast trade winds during the harmattan season plays a vital role in absorbing and scattering solar radiation. the study examines the spatial and temporal variations of wind speed in northeastern nigeria during the harmattan season with the sole aim of ascertaining its variability, patterns and trends from1984 to 2014. descriptive and statistics such as mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, and time series analysis with arcgis 10.3 was used in examine the temporal and spatial variations of wind speed from 1984–2014 in six synoptic stations of northeastern nigeria. the findings show that wind speed varied both temporally and spatially in the last three decades. the pattern of variations in the six synoptic stations shows rising trends within the study years. it was also found that latitude playing a crucial role in determining the speed of the wind in the study area and as the speed of the wind increases with increasing latitude. keywords: wind speed, harmattan, season, northeast, variation and itd. 1. introduction wind speed is the principal driver of the harmattan season in west african sub region. it is the northeast trade wind that seasonally conveys huge amount of dust across the region that produces the harmattan season between november and december of one year and january, february and march of the subsequent year (danlami, 2017). wind speed which is translated as its capacity for rapid motion plays a very remarkable role in influencing the harmattan season variations in northeastern nigeria. it is important to note that, the variation in wind speed distribution is also important with respect to the impacts of climate variability and change (karabulut al.,2012) and (amadiet al.,2014). wind as an element of climate always moves from geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.4 no. 2 (2019), 105-123, august, 2019 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v4i2.11474 dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 106 area of high pressure to area of low pressure system.the movement of the wind in the first place is determined by pressure gradient in the sahara desert during the period of the low sun (winter period in the northern hemisphere) and the greater the pressure of the air, the faster the wind moves. there is no gainsaying that the speed of the wind determines the amount of dust that is seasonally or annually brought into the region. therefore, assessing the speed at which this climatic parameter moves across the study area during harmattan season will go a long way in making sense out of its spatio-temporal variations in last three decades. wind speed is an environmental resource that facilitate the generation of wind energy. due to recent development in wind energy mostly in developed countries (especially in europe) with desire to reduce environmental impacts of the conventional energy resources, there is a general growing interest in the wind energy development in nigeria (adaramola and oyewola 2011). it is against this background this research examines the spatio-temporal variations of wind speed during harmattan season in northeastern nigeria by assessing its variability, patterns and trends from 1984 to 2014.the northeast trade wind controls the harmattan season in west african sub region; it drives the season by conveying huge amount of dust across the region (danlami, 2017). this wind advances into the savannah belts of nigeria due to the seasonal migrations of the inter-tropical discontinuity (itd). the itd attains its southernmost position around latitude 60.001n in january. this marks the peak of the dry season in west africa with all the areas with the exception of the coastal areas under the influence of the dry northeasterly from the sahara desert (ayoade, 2004). the north east trade wind commonly referred to as the harmattan wind; arise due to synoptic-scale of pressure gradients that align north–south across the saharan desert. high pressure to the north of the bodele intensifies the ne trade winds, leading to an increased entrainment of dust in the bodele depression. in summer, dust mobilization cannot be explained by the large scale meteorological conditions. this highlights the importance of local to regional wind systems linked to the northernmost position of the inter-tropical convergence zone (itcz) during this time (schwanghart and schutt, 2007).harmattan season is highly dependent on air pressure variability in the mediterranean area (schwanghart and schutt, 2007). when the northeast trade wind covers substantial parts of west african countries towards the coast and that is when the dry season is experienced. during the months of november and december to the months of january, february and march, the climate of the west african region is dominated by dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 107 northeasterly trade winds. the subtropical pressure belt system over north africa near latitude 300 north is responsible for the movement of the ne trade wind. the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation known as the corilis force is responsible for the northeast direction of this trade wind. winds are caused by pressure differences that induce airflow from zones of high pressure to zones of low pressure (getis el at., 2011). in other words, wind originates from region of high pressure belt and move to the region of low pressure belt. this trade wind that originates from the subtropical high pressure belt in the northern hemisphere plays a key role in influencing the climate of west africa. it is this wind that blows and pick up fine dust and sand particles otherwise known as crustal materials from the sahara desert and produce the harmattan season across west african sub region. 2. the methods the study area in this article is northeastern nigeria. it comprises adamawa, bauchi, borno, gombe and yobe states. it is approximately located between latitudes 90301n and 140.001n and longitudes 90141e and 150.001n. it shares border with niger republic to the north, lake chad to the north-east, and cameroon republic to the east. plateau and taraba states to the south and jigawa state to the west. the locations of the synoptic stations can be seen in table 1. table 1. locations of the six synoptic stations in the study area s/no synoptic stations latitude (0n) longitude (0e) elevation (m) 1 bauchi 100 28ꞌ 090 50ꞌ 616m 2 gombe 100 27ꞌ 110 10ꞌ 449m 3 maiduguri 110 27ꞌ 130 09ꞌ 300m 4 nguru 120 88ꞌ 100 29ꞌ 321m 5 potiskum 110 70ꞌ 110 04ꞌ 475m 6 yola 090 23ꞌ 120 27ꞌ 163m source: danlami (2017) the table above represents the six synoptic stations spread across northeastern nigeria where climatic data are generated by the nigerian meteorological agency (nimet). the data shows the locations and elevations of the synoptic stations in the five states of northeastern dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 108 nigeria. the bauchi station in bauchi state, gombe station in gombe state, maiduguri station in borno state, nguru and potiskum stations in yobe state, and yola station in adamawa state. from the table, it is glaring that bauchi station has the highest elevation in the western part of the study area and yola station with the lowest elevation in the southern part of the study area figure 1. study area source: danlami, (2017) the meteorological data used for the trend-surface analysis in this study was obtained from the nigerian meteorological agency (nimet). the quantitative data covered a period of 30 years (1984 – 2014). in an attempt to analyze the temporal variations and trends of wind speed in the six synoptic stations (bauchi, gombe, maiduguri, nguru, potiskum and yola) in the study area, mean monthly and mean seasonal data were plotted for each station so as to depict the variations and trends in the last three decades. 3. results and discussion the raw wind speed data was subjected to the statistical tools of mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation; time series through the use of the statistical package for the dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 108 nigeria. the bauchi station in bauchi state, gombe station in gombe state, maiduguri station in borno state, nguru and potiskum stations in yobe state, and yola station in adamawa state. from the table, it is glaring that bauchi station has the highest elevation in the western part of the study area and yola station with the lowest elevation in the southern part of the study area figure 1. study area source: danlami, (2017) the meteorological data used for the trend-surface analysis in this study was obtained from the nigerian meteorological agency (nimet). the quantitative data covered a period of 30 years (1984 – 2014). in an attempt to analyze the temporal variations and trends of wind speed in the six synoptic stations (bauchi, gombe, maiduguri, nguru, potiskum and yola) in the study area, mean monthly and mean seasonal data were plotted for each station so as to depict the variations and trends in the last three decades. 3. results and discussion the raw wind speed data was subjected to the statistical tools of mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation; time series through the use of the statistical package for the dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 108 nigeria. the bauchi station in bauchi state, gombe station in gombe state, maiduguri station in borno state, nguru and potiskum stations in yobe state, and yola station in adamawa state. from the table, it is glaring that bauchi station has the highest elevation in the western part of the study area and yola station with the lowest elevation in the southern part of the study area figure 1. study area source: danlami, (2017) the meteorological data used for the trend-surface analysis in this study was obtained from the nigerian meteorological agency (nimet). the quantitative data covered a period of 30 years (1984 – 2014). in an attempt to analyze the temporal variations and trends of wind speed in the six synoptic stations (bauchi, gombe, maiduguri, nguru, potiskum and yola) in the study area, mean monthly and mean seasonal data were plotted for each station so as to depict the variations and trends in the last three decades. 3. results and discussion the raw wind speed data was subjected to the statistical tools of mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation; time series through the use of the statistical package for the dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 109 social sciences (spss) to show the variations and trends of wind speedin the last three decades. also, the study mapped out the spatial patterns over the six different synoptic stations to observe the spatial patterns over time in the arcgis 10.3 environment. the trend equations were also superimposed on the seasonal mean variations of each synoptic station so as to establish their trends over the years in the study area.the trends and variations of wind speed in all the six synoptic stations of the study area were determined by their monthly and seasonal means in the last three decades. the figures 1.2 to 1.8 show clearly the variations in wind speed in all synoptic stations of the study area. it is also glaring from the figures (1.3 to 1.8) that the speed of wind diminishes as it travels southward across the study area. danlami et al (2018) pointed out that the biu plateau is the most important geomorphologic formation in the study area and the strategic location of the biu plateau on the path of the harmattan wind is responsible for the reduction in the speed of the wind thus reducing the amount of dust reaching the extreme south of the study area resulting to moderate visibility in areas around yolastation.they opined that the plateau is a structural and topographical divide between the upper benue basin to the south and the chad basin to the north. 3.1 monthly distribution of wind speed the speed of the northeast trade wind that brings the harmattan dust from the sahara desert and engulfs the whole of west african sub region varies with time and across space. there are slight variations in the speed of wind during the five (5) months of the harmattan season. the speed of the wind is higher at the source region and decreases as it advances towards the gulf of guinea in the south. the validity of this statement can be seen in the sizes of dust particles that are blown by the wind. larger dust particles are usually dropped along the way and the finer particles are moved further down south (de longueville et al., 2010). this is because at the dust source region, the high velocity of the wind could carry larger dust particles but as the wind grows weak in the course of its journey down south, the larger dust particles are dropped and finer ones are moved further into the gulf of guinea and beyond. the speed of the wind therefore, decreases with increase in distance (space) from its source. the wind speed variations can be clearly seen on (fig. 1.2) across the six synoptic stations of the study area. yola station that is located in lowest latitude has the lowest wind speed with long-term monthly mean between 1.00 to 2.00 knots. maiduguri and potiskum stations with the highest mean monthly dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 110 wind speed between 5.00 to 6.00 knots. gombe, bauchi and nguru fall between 3.00 to 5.00 knots during the harmattan season. the mean monthly wind speeds for the whole stations fluctuate between 2.00 to 7.00 knots throughout the harmattan seasons (november, december, january, february and march) in the study area. wind speed is measured in knot in which one knot of wind speed is equal to one nautical mile or one thousand eight hundred and fifty-two meters (1852m) per hour. the international organization of standardization (iso) standard symbol for knot is kn. figure 2. long-term means monthly distribution of wind speed (1984 to 2014) 3.2 seasonal mean distribution of wind speed the northeast trade wind is the driver of the harmattan season across west africa. it drives the season by conveying huge amount of dust into the atmosphere across west african sub region and beyond. the northeast trade wind that advances into the savannah belts of nigeria due to the sudden migration of the inter-tropical discontinuity (itd) southwards in between october and november remains the dominant wind system during the harmattan season in the study area. it is interesting to note that the subtropical high pressure system is usually strong during the harmattan season and it intensifies the movement of the wind which inevitably accounts for rising of the dust over the source regions (bodele depression) in the sahara desert for onward movement across west africa and beyond. the speed of the wind therefore, determines the amount of dust it carries into the atmosphere. 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00 8,00 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sept oct nov dec w in d s pe ed (k n o ts ) months windspeed bauchi mean gombe mean maiduguri mean nguru mean potiskum mean yola mean dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 111 table 2 shows the influence of latitude and some other local geographical factors that affect the seasonal means distribution of wind speed and coefficient of variations. table 2. descriptive statistics of seasonal wind speed and coefficient of variation s/no stations latitude(y) (0n) mean seasonal wind speed (knots) standard deviation cv (%) 1 bauchi 10.28 3.07 1.72 56.08 2 maiduguri 11.85 5.67 0.69 12.24 3 gombe 10.27 4.21 2.16 51.21 4 nguru 12.88 4.56 0.43 9.40 5 potiskum 11.70 7.08 2.11 29.86 6 yola 9.23 1.68 0.22 12.84 source: danlami (2017) generally, wind speed is relatively low during the harmattan season. it is in the range of 5kn to 20kn in northern nigeria and 5kn to 15kn in southern nigeria (nimet, 2014). the study has found out that wind speed ranges from 1kn to 12kn across the six synoptic stations (fig. 1.3 to 1.8) of the study area. the seasonal means distribution of wind speed in bauchi recorded its lowest in 2003/2004 and the highest in two seasons (2009/2010 and 2010/2011). gombe recorded its lowest wind speed in 1994/1995 and the highest in 2003/2004; maiduguri recorded the lowest wind speed in 1998/1999 and the highest in 2010/2011; nguru recorded the lowest wind speed in 1986/1987 and the highest in 1992/1993; potiskum recorded the lowest wind speed in 1984/1985 and the highest in 1993/1994 and yola recorded the lowest wind speed in 1995/1996 and the highest in 2005/2006. the seasonal means distribution of wind speed in all the synoptic stations in the study area have shown the fluctuating characteristics of the wind speed in all the synoptic stations. the oscillations of the distributions depict most of stationsdominated by the below dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 112 means which are clear indications that the study area is experiencing gradual reduction in the speed of the wind. although all the synoptic stations have shown rising trends; in recent times the distributions in all stations have shown declining patterns and this may not be unconnected with the environmental education and awareness through tree planting campaign as shelter belts to serve as wind breakers by countries within the sudano-sahelian ecological zones. the united nations conference on desertification that came up with “plan of action to combat desertification” has demonstrated great deal of support in promoting and coordinating the plan of action to combat desertification in north africa. figure 3. seasonal mean distributions and trend of wind speed for bauchi station (1984 to 2014) the seasonal mean distribution above shows the trend of wind speed for bauchi station from 1984 – 2014. the mean monthly wind speed is between 1.36kn recorded in 2003/2004 harmattan season and 5.56kn recorded in 2010/2011 and in 2011/2012 harmattan seasons. this fig. 1.3 shows pattern of oscillation around the linear mean where the above average wind speed coincides with the below average. it portrays the inter-annual variation of wind speed in the last thirty (30) years. y = 0,126x + 1,103 r² = 0,371 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00 19 84 /1 98 5 19 85 /1 98 6 19 86 /1 98 7 19 87 /1 98 8 19 88 /1 98 9 19 89 /1 99 0 19 90 /1 99 1 19 91 /1 99 2 19 92 /1 99 3 19 93 /1 99 4 19 94 /1 99 5 19 95 /1 99 6 19 96 /1 99 7 19 97 /1 99 8 19 98 /1 99 9 19 99 /2 00 0 20 00 /2 00 1 20 01 /2 00 2 20 02 /2 00 3 20 03 /2 00 4 20 04 /2 00 5 20 05 /2 00 6 20 06 /2 00 7 20 07 /2 00 8 20 08 /2 00 9 20 09 /2 01 0 20 10 /2 01 1 20 11 /2 01 2 20 12 /2 01 3 20 13 /2 01 4 w in d sp ee d (k no tt s) years mean mean 5 per. mov. avg. (mean) linear (mean) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 113 figure 4. seasonal mean distributions and trend of wind speed for gombe station (1984-2014) the seasonal mean distribution shows the trend of wind speed for gombe station from 1984 – 2014.the mean monthly wind speed is between 1.62kn recorded in 1993/1994 season and 8.34kn recorded in 2003/2004 harmattan season. it shows the pattern of movement around the mean where the above average wind speed coincides with the below average. it portrays the inter – seasonal variation within the period under review. figure 5. seasonal mean distributions and trend of wind speed for maiduguri station (19842014) y = 0,190x + 1,265 r² = 0,523 0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 19 84 /1 98 5 19 85 /1 98 6 19 86 /1 98 7 19 87 /1 98 8 19 88 /1 98 9 19 89 /1 99 0 19 90 /1 99 1 19 91 /1 99 2 19 92 /1 99 3 19 93 /1 99 4 19 94 /1 99 5 19 95 /1 99 6 19 96 /1 99 7 19 97 /1 99 8 19 98 /1 99 9 19 99 /2 00 0 20 00 /2 00 1 20 01 /2 00 2 20 02 /2 00 3 20 03 /2 00 4 20 04 /2 00 5 20 05 /2 00 6 20 06 /2 00 7 20 07 /2 00 8 20 08 /2 00 9 20 09 /2 01 0 20 10 /2 01 1 20 11 /2 01 2 20 12 /2 01 3 20 13 /2 01 4w in d sp ee d (k no tt s) years mean mean 5 per. mov. avg. (mean) linear (mean) y = 0,013x + 5,460 r² = 0,014 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00 8,00 19 84 /1 98 5 19 85 /1 98 6 19 86 /1 98 7 19 87 /1 98 8 19 88 /1 98 9 19 89 /1 99 0 19 90 /1 99 1 19 91 /1 99 2 19 92 /1 99 3 19 93 /1 99 4 19 94 /1 99 5 19 95 /1 99 6 19 96 /1 99 7 19 97 /1 99 8 19 98 /1 99 9 19 99 /2 00 0 20 00 /2 00 1 20 01 /2 00 2 20 02 /2 00 3 20 03 /2 00 4 20 04 /2 00 5 20 05 /2 00 6 20 06 /2 00 7 20 07 /2 00 8 20 08 /2 00 9 20 09 /2 01 0 20 10 /2 01 1 20 11 /2 01 2 20 12 /2 01 3 20 13 /2 01 4 w in d sp ee d (k no tt s) years mean mean 5 per. mov. avg. (mean) linear (mean) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 114 the seasonal mean distribution shows the trend of wind speed for maiduguri station from 1984 – 2014. the mean monthly is between 3.36kn recorded in 1998/ 1999 season and 7.58kn in 2010/2011. the fig. 1.5 shows pattern of oscillation around the mean where the above average wind speed coincides with the below average. it shows the inter-seasonal variation within the last thirty (30) years. figure 6. seasonal mean distributions and trend of wind speed for nguru station (1984 to 2014) the seasonal mean distribution shows the trend of wind speed for nguru station from 1984 – 2014. the mean monthly win wind speed is between 3.62kn recorded in 1986/1987 season and 5.66kn in 1992/1993 season. the fig. 1.6 shows the pattern movement of the seasonal mean where the above average coincides with the below average. this shows the inter – annual variation of wind speed within the period under review. y = 0,001x + 4,544 r² = 0,000 3,00 3,50 4,00 4,50 5,00 5,50 6,00 19 84 /1 98 5 19 85 /1 98 6 19 86 /1 98 7 19 87 /1 98 8 19 88 /1 98 9 19 89 /1 99 0 19 90 /1 99 1 19 91 /1 99 2 19 92 /1 99 3 19 93 /1 99 4 19 94 /1 99 5 19 95 /1 99 6 19 96 /1 99 7 19 97 /1 99 8 19 98 /1 99 9 19 99 /2 00 0 20 00 /2 00 1 20 01 /2 00 2 20 02 /2 00 3 20 03 /2 00 4 20 04 /2 00 5 20 05 /2 00 6 20 06 /2 00 7 20 07 /2 00 8 20 08 /2 00 9 20 09 /2 01 0 20 10 /2 01 1 20 11 /2 01 2 20 12 /2 01 3 20 13 /2 01 4 w in d sp ee d (k no tt s) years mean mean 5 per. mov. avg. (mean) linear (mean) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 115 figure 7. seasonal mean distributions and trend of wind speed for potiskum station (19842014) the seasonal mean distribution shows the trend of wind speed for potiskum from 1984 – 2014. the monthly mean for this station shows between 4.48 kn in 2012/2013 season and 9.42kn in 2002/2003 season. it depicts the pattern of movement where the above average coincides with the below average which portrays the inter – annual variation of wind speed within the period under review. y = -0,007x + 7,196 r² = 0,000 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 12,00 14,00 19 84 /1 98 5 19 85 /1 98 6 19 86 /1 98 7 19 87 /1 98 8 19 88 /1 98 9 19 89 /1 99 0 19 90 /1 99 1 19 91 /1 99 2 19 92 /1 99 3 19 93 /1 99 4 19 94 /1 99 5 19 95 /1 99 6 19 96 /1 99 7 19 97 /1 99 8 19 98 /1 99 9 19 99 /2 00 0 20 00 /2 00 1 20 01 /2 00 2 20 02 /2 00 3 20 03 /2 00 4 20 04 /2 00 05 20 05 /2 00 6 20 06 /2 00 7 20 07 /2 00 8 20 08 /2 00 9 20 09 /2 01 0 20 10 /2 01 1 20 11 /2 01 2 20 01 2/ 20 13 20 13 /2 01 4 w in d sp ee d (k no tt s) years mean mean 5 per. mov. avg. (mean) linear (mean) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 116 figure 8. seasonal mean distributions and trend of wind speed for yola station (1984-2014). the seasonal mean distribution shows trend of wind speed for yola station from 1984 – 2014. the mean monthly distribution is between 1.00kn in 1995/1996 harmattan season and 2.48kn in 2005/2006 season. the station shows a pattern of oscillation around the mean where the above average coincides with the below average. this fig. 1.8 shows a decreasing speed of the wind because it is located at extreme southern part of the study area. this conforms withthe theory that states that the speed of the harmattan wind decreases southward. it shows the inter – annual variation of the speed of the wind within the last thirty (30) years. 3.3 spatial interpolation of sub periods mean of wind speed the surface visibility degradation experienced in the study area is caused by the arrival of the dust brought by the north east trade wind from the bodele depression at the heart of the sahara desert (danlami et al 2018). the arrival of this dust that usually engulfs the region is the most conspicuous sign of harmattan season and therefore, responsible for the degraded visibility. harmattan season low visibility is mainly due to transported dust from the sahara (balarabe et al., 2015). an attempt was made to look at the spatial interpolation of sub period means of surface visibility distribution in the study area with the sole aim of assessing the patterns of the distribution. kriging method of spatial interpolation was employed in this analysis so as to y = 0,001x + 1,652 r² = 0,001 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 19 84 /1 98 5 19 85 /1 98 6 19 86 /1 98 7 19 87 /1 98 8 19 88 /1 98 9 19 89 /1 99 0 19 90 /1 99 1 19 91 /1 99 2 19 92 /1 99 3 19 93 /1 99 4 19 94 /1 99 5 19 95 /1 99 6 19 96 /1 99 7 19 97 /1 99 8 19 98 /1 99 9 19 99 /2 00 0 20 00 /2 00 1 20 01 /2 00 2 20 02 /2 00 3 20 03 /2 00 4 20 04 /2 00 5 20 05 /2 00 6 20 06 /2 00 7 20 07 /2 00 8 20 08 /2 00 9 20 09 /2 01 0 20 10 /2 01 1 20 11 /2 01 2 20 12 /2 01 3 20 13 /2 01 4 w in d sp ee d (k no tt s) years mean mean 5 per. mov. avg. (mean) linear (mean) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 117 determine the spatial variations of visibility in the study area. kriging is a geostatistical technique similar to idw in that it uses a linear combination of weights at known points is used to estimate values at other unknown points (willmott et al., 1985; shuman, 2007). kriging and idw methods have been often used to interpolate temperature and precipitation (su-na et al., 2010). idw measures values closest to the prediction location which will have the greatest influence on the predicted values than those farther away (johnston et al., 2001). the northeast trade wind that seasonally conveys huge amount of dust across the west african sub region that produces the harmattan season between november and december of one year and january, february and march of the subsequent year (danlami, 2017) plays a crucial role in regulating the climatic condition of the region. wind speed which is translated as its capacity for rapid motion, plays a very remarkable role in influencing the harmattan season variations in northeastern nigeria. it is important to note that, the variation in wind speed distribution is also important with respect to the impacts of climate variability and change (karabulut al.,2012; amadiet al.,2014). the movement of the wind in the first place is determined by pressure gradient in the sahara desert during the period of the low sun (winter period in the northern hemisphere). the greater the pressure of the air, the faster the wind moves from the region of high pressure to the region of low pressure system. there is therefore, no gainsaying that the speed of the wind determines the amount of dust that is seasonally or annually brought into the region. therefore, assessing the rate at which this climatic parameter moves across the study area during harmattan season will go a long way in making sense out of the spatial variations of the season in last three decades. the spatial variations and distributions of wind speed in northeastern nigeria can be seen in the six sub periods in (fig. 1.9 to 1.14). the sub period of wind speed distribution for 1984/1985 – 1988/1989 in (fig. 1.9) shows variations between 2.27kn in south to 5.79kn in the north of the study area. maiduguri shows the highest wind speed followed by areas around nguru and potiskum. areas around bauchi, gombe and yola in the south show relatively low wind speed in this sub period. the sub periods of wind speed variations and distributions for 1989/1990 – 1993/1994 and 1994/1995 – 1998/1999 in (fig. 10 and 11) show similar variations and distribution patterns. the variations in (fig. 10) and (fig. 11) cover between 1.98kn – 8.78kn and 1.79kn – 7.40kn respectively. potiskum area in both the sub periods show the highest wind speed followed by dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 118 nguru and maiduguri in the north. areas around bauchi, gombe and yola in both sub periods witnessed relatively low wind speed. the sub period of wind speed variations and distributions for 1990/2000 – 2003/2004 in (fig. 12) shows variation between 1.71 kn in the south and 7.05 kn in the north. areas around potiskum, nguru and gombe witnessed high wind speed while bauchi and yola in the south were low. the sub period of wind speed variations and distributions for 2004/2005 – 2008/2009 in (fig. 1.13) shows variations between 2.71 kn in south and 7.11 kn in the north. potiskum area shows high wind speed followed by nguru, maiduguri and gombe. bauchi and yola areas show low. the sub period for 2009/2010 – 2013/2014 in (fig. 14) shows relatively high wind speed across the study area. it varies between 3.56kn in the south and 6.62 kn in the north. maiduguri areas witnessed high wind speed followed by nguru, potiskum and gombe while bauchi and yola were low. it is important to know that the speed of the wind decreases as it moves southwards due to distance (latitudes) and friction generated by the earth-bound materials carried by the wind in the study area (danlami, 2017). moreover, the undulating plains in the chad basin formation in maiduguri and potiskum are responsible for high speed of the wind experienced in the region. it is important to state here that wind speed tends to be higher in areas where there are no barriers like shelter belts and highlands. figure 9. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (19984/1985 to1988/1989) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 118 nguru and maiduguri in the north. areas around bauchi, gombe and yola in both sub periods witnessed relatively low wind speed. the sub period of wind speed variations and distributions for 1990/2000 – 2003/2004 in (fig. 12) shows variation between 1.71 kn in the south and 7.05 kn in the north. areas around potiskum, nguru and gombe witnessed high wind speed while bauchi and yola in the south were low. the sub period of wind speed variations and distributions for 2004/2005 – 2008/2009 in (fig. 1.13) shows variations between 2.71 kn in south and 7.11 kn in the north. potiskum area shows high wind speed followed by nguru, maiduguri and gombe. bauchi and yola areas show low. the sub period for 2009/2010 – 2013/2014 in (fig. 14) shows relatively high wind speed across the study area. it varies between 3.56kn in the south and 6.62 kn in the north. maiduguri areas witnessed high wind speed followed by nguru, potiskum and gombe while bauchi and yola were low. it is important to know that the speed of the wind decreases as it moves southwards due to distance (latitudes) and friction generated by the earth-bound materials carried by the wind in the study area (danlami, 2017). moreover, the undulating plains in the chad basin formation in maiduguri and potiskum are responsible for high speed of the wind experienced in the region. it is important to state here that wind speed tends to be higher in areas where there are no barriers like shelter belts and highlands. figure 9. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (19984/1985 to1988/1989) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 118 nguru and maiduguri in the north. areas around bauchi, gombe and yola in both sub periods witnessed relatively low wind speed. the sub period of wind speed variations and distributions for 1990/2000 – 2003/2004 in (fig. 12) shows variation between 1.71 kn in the south and 7.05 kn in the north. areas around potiskum, nguru and gombe witnessed high wind speed while bauchi and yola in the south were low. the sub period of wind speed variations and distributions for 2004/2005 – 2008/2009 in (fig. 1.13) shows variations between 2.71 kn in south and 7.11 kn in the north. potiskum area shows high wind speed followed by nguru, maiduguri and gombe. bauchi and yola areas show low. the sub period for 2009/2010 – 2013/2014 in (fig. 14) shows relatively high wind speed across the study area. it varies between 3.56kn in the south and 6.62 kn in the north. maiduguri areas witnessed high wind speed followed by nguru, potiskum and gombe while bauchi and yola were low. it is important to know that the speed of the wind decreases as it moves southwards due to distance (latitudes) and friction generated by the earth-bound materials carried by the wind in the study area (danlami, 2017). moreover, the undulating plains in the chad basin formation in maiduguri and potiskum are responsible for high speed of the wind experienced in the region. it is important to state here that wind speed tends to be higher in areas where there are no barriers like shelter belts and highlands. figure 9. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (19984/1985 to1988/1989) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 119 figure 10. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1989/1990 to1993/1994) figure 11. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1994/1995 to 1998/1999) figure 12. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1999/2000 to2003/2004) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 119 figure 10. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1989/1990 to1993/1994) figure 11. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1994/1995 to 1998/1999) figure 12. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1999/2000 to2003/2004) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 119 figure 10. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1989/1990 to1993/1994) figure 11. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1994/1995 to 1998/1999) figure 12. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (1999/2000 to2003/2004) dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 120 figure 13. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (2004/2005 to 2008/2009 figure 14. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (2009/2010 to 2013/2014) from the above analysis, it is glaring that wind speed in the study area shows a regular distribution pattern in the last three decades. the speed of the wind increases northwards i.e. relatively low in the south and high in the north. this conforms to the work of (adaramola and oyewole 2011) where they reported that wind speed is low in southern nigeria and relatively high in the northern parts of the country. the relief and other local factors in the study area could account for the variations and the distribution patterns of this climatic parameter across the region. it is important to note that maiduguri and potiskum have featured prominently as areas with high wind speed at one point or the other within the sub periods and this may not be dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 120 figure 13. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (2004/2005 to 2008/2009 figure 14. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (2009/2010 to 2013/2014) from the above analysis, it is glaring that wind speed in the study area shows a regular distribution pattern in the last three decades. the speed of the wind increases northwards i.e. relatively low in the south and high in the north. this conforms to the work of (adaramola and oyewole 2011) where they reported that wind speed is low in southern nigeria and relatively high in the northern parts of the country. the relief and other local factors in the study area could account for the variations and the distribution patterns of this climatic parameter across the region. it is important to note that maiduguri and potiskum have featured prominently as areas with high wind speed at one point or the other within the sub periods and this may not be dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 120 figure 13. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (2004/2005 to 2008/2009 figure 14. spatial wind speed distribution in northeastern nigeria (2009/2010 to 2013/2014) from the above analysis, it is glaring that wind speed in the study area shows a regular distribution pattern in the last three decades. the speed of the wind increases northwards i.e. relatively low in the south and high in the north. this conforms to the work of (adaramola and oyewole 2011) where they reported that wind speed is low in southern nigeria and relatively high in the northern parts of the country. the relief and other local factors in the study area could account for the variations and the distribution patterns of this climatic parameter across the region. it is important to note that maiduguri and potiskum have featured prominently as areas with high wind speed at one point or the other within the sub periods and this may not be dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 121 unconnected with the influence of the easterlies wind in shifting the flow pattern of the northeast trade wind. the spatial analysis of the wind speed in the last couple of decades has shown that it is on the rise which agrees with the temporal analysis. this sends a signal that the desert is vigorously advancing into the savannah belts of nigeria because the northeast trade wind is responsible for the desert-like conditions in the sudano-sahelian ecological zone of the study area. the spatial analysis also agrees with what (dahuwa el at., 2018) where they reported that the wind speeds for azare, bauchi state, are high enough to support wind power generation in all strong wind regions of the country. the speed of the wind during the harmattan season is seen to be stronger in the months of december and january and this conforms to what was reported by (waewsak et al., 2011). they opined that wind speedanalysis showed strong and sufficient wind for power generation occurred during the months of january to july and in the month of october 2008 in thasala district in the southern province of thailand where the south east asian monsoon is experienced which is similar to west african monsoon. fagbenle et al., (1980) reported that average wind speed across nigeria is about 3 m/s. in addition, they found that wind speeds are generally higher in the northern part of nigeria than in the southern part of the country. ojosu and salawu (1990a) studied wind speed data from 1951-1975 from 22 stations across the country and they concluded that sokoto area (in northern part) have highest wind speed of about 5.12 m/s in june and annual average of 3.92 m/s 4 conclusion wind speed is the principal climatic element that drives the harmattan season in west african sub region. it drives the season by conveying huge amount of dust from the sahara desert particularly from the bodele depression across the northeastern nigeria. the speed of the wind varied both temporally and spatially with latitude and some geographical factors playing significant role in bringing about the patterns of variations and their trends over the years i.e. it is higher in the north particularly around maiduguri and potiskum areas due to the plains of the chad basin formation and lower in the south due to some geographical factors such the fika hills in the southern part of potiskum and as well as the strategic location of the biu plateau that separate the chad basin formation to the north and the benue trough to the south. dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 122 acknowledgement we wish to acknowledge the nigerian meteorological agency (nimet) for providing us with the data to carry out this climatic study. references adaramola,m.s.andoyewola,o. m. (2011). wind speed distribution and characteristics in nigeria. asian research publishing network (arpn). journal of engineering and applied sciences.issn 1819-6608.www.arpnjournals.com amadi, s. o., udo, s. o. and ewona, i. o. (2014). trends in monthly mean minimum and maximum temperature data over nigeria for the period 1950-2012. international research journal of pure and applied physics,2(4), 1-27. ayoade, j.o. (2004). introduction to climatology for the tropics.2nd ed. spectrum books limitted, spectrum house ring road ibadan, nigeria. balarabe, m., abdallah, k., and nawawi, m. (2015). longterm trend and seasonal variability of horizontal visibility in nigerian troposphere.journal of atmosphere 6:1462-1486; doi:10.3390/atmos6101462. dahuwa, d., promise, k. u., umar, w., bello, i. and mohammed, r. (2018). analysis of wind speed and frequency inazare north eastern part of nigeria. iosr journal of applied physics (iosr-jap) e-issn: 2278-4861.volume 10, issue 1 ver. i. pp 09-17 www.iosrjournals.org doi: 10.9790/4861-1001010917 www.iosrjournals.org danlami, d., gwari, m., suleiman, s., and bara, a. (2018). temporal and spatial variations of groung surface visibility during harmattan season in north-eastern nigeria.ceylon journal science, 47(4), 337 – 346. doi: http://doi.org/10.4038/cjs.v47i4.7551. danlami, d. (2017). spatio-temporal variations of harmattan season in northeastern nigeria.m.sc. dissertation (not published) submitted to the department of geography, bayero university, kano, nigeria. de longueville, f., hountondji, y. c., henry, s. and ozer, p. (2010). what do we know about the effects of desert dust on air quality and human health in west africa compared to other regions? journal: science of total environment fagbenle, r.l., fasade, a.o., amuludun a.k. andlala,p.o.( 1980). wind power potentials of nigeria. 12th biennial conference of the west african science association, university of ife, nigeria. getis, a., getis, j., bjelland, m. and fellmann, j.d. (2011).introduction to geography. 13thed. the mcgraw-hill companies, inc., 1221 avenue of the americas, ny10020. dantata danlami, et al/ geosi vol. 4 no. 2 (2019) 105-123 123 karabulut, m., demirci, a. and kora, f. (2012). analysis of spatially distributed annual, seasonal and monthly temperatures in istanbul from 1975 to 2006.world applied sciences journal, 12(10), 1662-1675 ojosu, j.o. and salawu, r.i. (1990).an evaluation of wind energy potential as a power generation source in nigeria.solar & wind technology.elsevier.volume 7, issue 6, 1990, pages 663-673 schwanghart, w. and schutt, b. (2007). meteorological causes of harmattan dust in west africa. journal of science direct geomorphology. shuman, m. (2007) evaluation of five gis basedinterpolation techniques for estimating the radonconcentration for unmeasured zip codes in thestate of ohio, master of science degree in civil engineering, university of toledo, 28-29 pp. waewsak, j., chancham, c., landry, m. and gagnon, y (2011).an analysis of wind speed distribution at thasala, nakhon si thammarat, thailand.journal of sustainable energy & environment 2 pp 51-55 willmott, c., robeson, s. and philpot, w. (1985). smallscale climate maps: a sensitivity analysisof some common assumptions associated withgrid-point interpolation and contouring. american cartographer 12(1):5-16. acknowledgement the editorial board would like to thank and express appreciation to all peer reviewers who have reviewed the manuscripts for publication of geosfera indonesia vol. 5 no. 2, august 2020. marinela istrate (scopus id : 56672996500) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania lucian rosu (scopus id : 56958158800) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania mihai niculita (scopus id : 55022909500) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania tin lukic (scopus id : 54795557700) department of geography, university of novi sad, serbia fatih adiguzel (scopus id : 57204062132) , department of geography, nevşehir haci bektaş veli üniversitesi, nevsehir, turkey elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia prima widayani (scopus id : 57188879871) faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia ivan taslim, (scopus id : 57203022349) department of geography, universitas muhammadiyah gorontalo, indonesia efdal kaya, (scopus id : 57202135756) department of architecture and urban planning, iskenderun technical university, iskenderun, turkey batuhan kilic, (scopus id : 57204675825) geomatic engineering department, yildiz technical university, istanbul, turkey nailul insani, (scopus id : 57208471498) department of geography, universitas negeri malang, indonesia rendra zainal maliki department of geography education, universitas tadulako, indonesia https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=56672996500 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=56958158800 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55022909500 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=54795557700 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57204062132 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57192649049 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57208468203 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57188879871 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57203022349 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57202135756 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57204675825 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57208471498 https://scholar.google.co.id/citations?user=qivrcmkaaaaj&hl=id geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia (ristekdikti), no. 30/e/kpt/2019 (20172022). indexed by : 180 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.31624 research article conservation zone delimitation based on physical properties in langsa watershed, aceh province faiz urfan*, ayu sekar ningrum study program of geography education, universitas samudra, langsa, 24416, indonesia *corresponding author, e-mail address : faiz.urfan@unsam.ac.id 1. introduction river has a crucial role in meeting several human needs, such as household, environmental sanitation, agriculture, industry, tourism, sports, defense, fisheries, power generation, and transportation. similarly, its influence on nature significantly determines the life of animals and plants (leclerc & grégoire, 2017; wu, 2018; xia & dong, 2019). the tendency to exploit human livelihoods in watershed has resulted in a diminishing functioning of river ecosystems. this is characterized by physical changes in the watershed, such as narrowing, siltation, river pollution, and flood risk (mutia et al., 2020; roba et al., 2021; sihombing et al., 2021). over time, population growth has increased, which caused the watershed area to be densely populated by human activities, such as logging, public facilities, trade, and services (nasrudin et al., 2019). an essential aspect in mapping watershed conservation is the assessment of river conditions and selecting the area based on the degree of damage using abstract watershed zoning is essential for regional development, specifically the conservation aspect. langsa is a city in aceh province that has no watershed zoning map as a basis for development. therefore, this study aims to delimit the conservation area in the langsa river basin, aceh province, based on three factors, which include rainfall, slope, and vegetation density. the data used are digital elevation models (dem), langsa city rainfall, and satellite imagery from landsat 8 oli tirs. furthermore, the data was obtained online from the website of badan informasi geospasial also known as geospatial information agency, the united states geological survey, and badan pusat statistik or central bureau of statistics. the data was processed using the quantum gis 3.16 application with scoring and weighted overlay. in this study, the langsa watershed was divided into three areas, namely cultivation, buffer, and conservation. the cultivation area dominates the langsa watershed with a sloping morphology, moderate rainfall, and moderate vegetation density. also, the conservation area has a high morphology with high rainfall and vegetation density, while that of the buffer has characteristics that falls between the cultivation and conservation areas. each zone namely cultivation, buffer, and conservation has respective areas of 63.75 km2, 4.84 km2, and 3.55 km2 with different land use priorities. for example, the cultivation zones are prioritized for agricultural and urban areas. buffer is separated for perennials, while conservation zones are for protected forests or national parks. keywords : langsa watershed; conservation area; buffer area; cultivation area article info article history received : 14 june 2022 revised : 9 august 2022 accepted : 20 august 2022 published : 28 august 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 2, august 2022, 180-193 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i2.31624 mailto:faiz.urfan@unsam.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 181 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 technology. this study aimed to conserve the watershed as an effort to control and preserve the environment based on the function of each area, such as the upstream, middle, and downstream. the control and preservation aspects include protection, utilization, and maintenance of watershed ecosystems sustainably through technology. according to bismark et al. (2007), conservation activities are part of watershed management and depend on human behavior towards nature, beliefs, and the ability to protect wildlife without compromising the basic life necessities. the basic concept of conservation is to maintain the availability of natural resources. therefore, watershed conservation is defined as an effort to preserve the environment, which includes protection, maintenance, and information regarding various efforts to save the ecosystem and its environment based on the roles and functions of each area. the purpose of watershed management is to control the connections and trade-offs between natural resources and the environment around the watershed, as well as human activities in order to preserve environmental functions and community welfare (setyowati, 2014). langsa city has a river that stretches from the southwest to the northeast with about 6.9 km (mutia et al., 2020), but its watershed area has not been accurately determined due to its natural conditions. also, the geospatial information agency called badan informasi geospasial has not released a watershed map for this place. debie et al. (2019) and wang et al. (2018) found that the watershed is a very important ecosystem for water protection and related landscape problems for conservation. however, the lack of community knowledge and less stringent government regulations make it difficult to conduct further analysis of ecological zoning in this aspect (jiang et al., 2022; sihombing et al., 2021). the langsa watershed has become a serious concern for the government and educational institutions. this is reinforced by the turbid condition of the langsa river water due to sedimentation, high erosion rates, and flood disasters that occur yearly (ardiansyah & sumunar, 2020). this makes sun et al. (2020) conclude that detailed planning is required to create comprehensive management, such as zoning of watershed conservation areas in langsa city. in this current study, the langsa watershed area is divided into three zones, namely conservation, buffer, and cultivation. this helps to observe, analyze, and evaluate problems in the main areas that represent the origin of the flood disaster (sihombing et al., 2021). it is important to note that these three zones are interconnected thereby making this study to be very critical and urgent. consequently, this helped the government, ngos, and educational institutions utilize the watershed conservation zone as a reference for ecological development in the langsa watershed in order to solve problems related to clean water scarcity and flood disasters (roba et al., 2021). one of the studies on ecological area zoning was conducted by liu et al. (2015), at the upstream and midstream of the tarim river basin in china. the study solved drought problems in the upper and middle tarim watershed using a comprehensive zoning method of ecosystem service functions with two categorical aspects, namely quantity and magnitude of change or quality. this helps to quantitatively analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of the four indicators, as well as the characteristics of increasing and decreasing spatial aggregation. furthermore, the qgis reclassification tool was employed to classify areas having more than two essential zones as high-quantity ecosystem services. this is consistent with jiang et al. (2022) that proposed a network-based framework for ecological zoning taking yunnan province, china as a case study. the results showed five ecological zones, which include protection, enhancement, corridor construction, restoration, and non-ecological network. from the studies mentioned above, no mapping has been performed in relation to the zoning of watershed (jothimani et al., 2022). as such, this present study serves as a reference for further investigations on watershed conservation. according to funan et al. (2022) and wang et al. (2022), the langsa watershed zoning map is very important as a follow-up to control land suitability for the three zones. indarto (2020) identified that the importance of the watershed position as a comprehensive 182 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 planning unit is the basic requirement for maintaining a balance when using forest, land, and water resources. srinivas et al. (2020) added that the lack of precise watershed management often exacerbates ecosystem degradation. this implies that comprehensive planning is needed to establish a management approach, specifically related to the zoning of conservation areas in the langsa watershed. therefore, this study aims to delimit the conservation area in the langsa river basin, aceh province. 2. methods this study was conducted in langsa city, which is located on the east coast of aceh province at positions 4024'35”4033'47” n and 97053'14” 98004'42” e, with an area of 262.41 km2 as shown in figure 1. to identify the langsa watershed, an analysis was performed through the digital elevation model (dem) extraction (ali et al., 2020; ardiansyah & sumunar, 2020). figures 2 and 3 show the delimitation procedures for the langsa watershed and its result, respectively. this procedure was conducted because no official map of the langsa watershed was released by the government or other authorized institutions. in addition, watershed delimitation is very important to focus on areas useful for watershed-based regional development planning in langsa city. the data used were obtained from the following sources: (1) the topographical map of indonesia was collected from the big website (big, 2001). this data was utilized for the delimitation of the langsa watershed boundary. (2) the image of dem langsa city was obtained from the geospatial information agency (big, 2022) also known as badan informasi geospasial (big). this data was employed for creating the langsa watershed boundary and its topographic map. it is important to note that dem is processed using strahler order and upslope area analysis in the qgis application in order to create the langsa watershed map. consequently, high accuracy vector data was produced based on the morphology displayed by the dem image using interpolation. in the analysis, rainfall data obtained from several weather stations were employed in order to produce an isohyet and rainfall distribution map. (3) landsat 8 oli tirs image was obtained from the united states geological survey (usgs, 2022). table 1 shows the landsat 8 image specifications data that was utilized for creating a vegetation density map for the langsa watershed using normalized difference vegetation index (ndvi) analysis. furthermore, the ndvi analyzes vegetation density based on visible and near-infrared sunlight reflected from plants. the map shows areas with high, medium, and low vegetation density (amiri & pourghasemi, 2022). each level of vegetation density has a different index value, such as high vegetation density with a score of 0.45 < ndvi < 0.58, medium of 0.33 < ndvi < 0.45, and low with ndvi <0.33. 183 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 table 1. specifications of landsat 8 imagery used in this study no specifications 1 location : langsa city 2 date acquisition : january 30th 2021 3 cloud cover : 20% 4 spatial resolution : 30 m 5 temporal resolution : 16-day repeat cycle figure 1. study location in langsa city, aceh province, indonesia. data analysis was conducted using quantum gis (qgis) 3.16 application with an open-source license. an assessment and weighted overlay technique were employed between three maps, namely rainfall, vegetation density, and slope (asdak, 2020; bismark et al., 2007; suprayogi et al., 2015). it is important to note that these three maps were employed in the zoning system of this study location, and was tested with overlay techniques as well as area assessment using the qgis application. furthermore, they are categorized based on scores and weights analyzed using the overlay technique as shown in table 1. the scores and weights are processed in order to divide the watershed into conservation (lin et al., 2020), buffer (bismark et al., 2007), and cultivation areas (mello et al., 2021). each region has different characteristics, for example, the conservation areas have very high human use limits, while the cultivation is used for settlement and agriculture. the buffer zone is a transitional area with intermediate characteristics between the conservation and cultivation areas. 184 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 figure 2. langsa watershed delimitation procedure 185 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 table 2. score and weight for overlay technique category/class score weight slope 1. flat 1 40% 2. sloping 2 3. slightly steep 3 rainfall 1. low 1 40% 2. high 4 vegetation density 1. high 1 20% 2. medium 2 3. low 3 source: suprayogi et al. (2015) figure 3. langsa watershed delimitation from dem extraction through basin selection, fill sink (wang and liu) and flow direction analysis. (a) clipped dem by the administrative boundary of langsa city; (b) analysis of fill sink and flow direction to produce river nets; (c) analysis of watershed basin yields watershed boundaries; (d) the final result of the analysis showed the periphery of the langsa watershed. 186 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 3. results and discussion it is important to reiterate that this study presents a conservation zoning map based on three parameters, namely slope, rainfall, and vegetation density. bharath et al. (2021) observed that the slope of the river is an essential factor to investigate as it controls the water flow rate from upstream to downstream. furthermore, the watershed’s slope describes the elevation change level at a given distance along the main direction of the river. the results of data analysis from dem images showed the slope’s average value is 0-8%, indicating that the langsa watershed’s gradient is homogeneous. moreover, in some areas, it is between 8-15% and 15-25%. it has been observed that slope is an essential factor to consider because it controls the flow rate of river water from upstream to downstream. this denotes that the watershed’s slope is the level of elevation change at a certain distance along the main flow direction. the langsa watershed rainfall data obtained from the central statistics agency (bps) in 2021 was processed with the quantum gis 3.16 application in order to produce a rainfall distribution map using interpolation analysis. this is used for processing data points in areas on the rainfall map and the results showed that the highest average monthly rainfall was 339 mm/month, while the lowest was 113 mm/month. in addition, the highest rainfall distribution was recorded in the peak areas of the langsa watershed. the place has high erosion intensity when it rains heavily throughout the day. meanwhile, chen et al. (2019) stated that low rainfall occurred in areas with sloping to flat topography, and are not affected by flooding even when it rains heavily all through the day. the vegetation density level was determined by analyzing the ndvi, and the result showed the percentage of vegetation density, living plants or leaf area index, the active radiation fraction for photosynthesis absorption, photosynthetic capacity, and the estimate of co2 absorption (jothimani et al., 2022; patowary & sarma, 2018). furthermore, the vegetation density in the langsa watershed is a plant area with good conditions, high leaf biomass, canopy, and high chlorophyll vegetation. the dark green area that represents the vegetation is upstream of the langsa watershed and it has a stronger nearinfrared reflectance. the result of ndvi is seen in the index value for determining the vegetation density of langsa watershed, which varies from low, medium, to high levels. figure 4 shows the slope map, monthly rainfall, and vegetation density. figure 4. slope, rainfall, and vegetation density are the determinants of conservation zoning in the langsa watershed. the three maps are overlaid to produce the zoning of the langsa watershed conservation area. 187 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 from the figure 4, the zoning system was reviewed based on the characteristics of each overlaid map and then adjusted to the watershed ecosystem’s features, namely upstream, middle, and downstream areas as shown in figure 5. it was observed that the langsa watershed was divided into 3 zones for conservation efforts, which include conservation (liu et al., 2015), the buffer (bismark et al., 2007), and cultivation (mello et al., 2021). the conservation area, represented by dark green color belongs to slope class iii with 15-25% moderate value, high rainfall of 339 mm/year, and a total area of 3.55 km2. in addition, the place has a high density and is located upstream of the langsa river. the buffer area has 8-15% fairly steep slope, belongs to class ii, and has high lattice rainfall of 339 mm/year. it also has moderate vegetation density with an area of 4.84 km2, and is located in langsa lama district which is not far from the conservation. meanwhile, the light green cultivation area belongs to slope class i with 0-8%, low relative rainfall of 113.67 mm/year, and a low vegetation density. this place has an area of 63.75 km2 and is located almost throughout the langsa watershed. figure 5. zoning of conservation areas in the langsa watershed. the figure shows that the langsa watershed needs to be dominated by cultivated areas because most of the morphology of the langsa watershed is flat and sloping. in comparison, the rainfall in the langsa watershed is overwhelmed by low intensity. according to asdak (2020), conservation areas tend to have a high drainage density, without flood, and a forest stands vegetation type with water catchments. the ecosystem in the upstream 188 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 watershed is the most critical part because it protects the entire place. this indicates that changes in land use/building construction in the area is likely to have both negative and positive impacts on the whole watershed. this makes the place to always be the planning focus in managing the unitary watershed. the langsa watershed conservation area is located upstream of the river. based on patowary & sarma (2018), the upstream feature is a fairly steep morphology that affects erosion intensity, such as the runoff and erosion rate of the hill. it was observed that there is no change in the flow when the number of slopes increases and even tends to be horizontal. this is because the amount of rain often limits runoff, hence the slope value causes water to move faster and takes less time to reach the ground surface, resulting in frequent overflow. it is important to note that zoning was used for spatial planning in the watershed-based langsa city. according to appiah & asomani-boateng (2020), watershed-based spatial planning reduces the negative impacts of human-made development, such as river pollution, flooding, and clean water crises. langsa city is lowland and homogeneous area with rivers and a reasonably dense network. it has the same climate as the territory of indonesia, including two seasons, namely the rainy and the dry season, which is influenced by monsoons. the watershed in the location has a parallel river flow pattern with two tributaries converging at a point downstream. based on sihombing et al. (2021), this flow pattern has great potential for flooding the downstream. figure 6 shows the upstream status of the langsa watershed, with a river width of 12 m. even though the vegetation density was very high as shown in figure 6a, the exploitation of sand mining material is still widespread according to figure 6b. the exploitation of sand mining reduces vegetation density and the water absorption capacity of the soil in the upstream area. this condition is certainly not caused by watershed-based regional planning and therefore, needs to be followed up conservatively. (a) (b) figure 6. river conditions in the langsa watershed conservation area, which is located upstream. (a) vegetation density upstream is very high. (b) there are sand mining activities upstream that harm the ecosystem. the buffer zone is adjacent to the core area and protects the ecosystem from adverse environmental influences. furthermore, it significantly maintains the sustainability of river functions, has good water flow absorption, protects habitats, and secures from natural disasters, such as floods. it was observed that the river’s width in the buffer area was 17 meters with an uneven riverbed. this is formed due to the distribution of flow velocity, sedimentation, and erosion processes. figure 7 shows the condition of the river contained in the buffer zone. in figure 7b, settlements are on the river banks, even when the vegetation density is high. therefore, there is a need to specially monitor human activities in buffer zones in order to preserve the river ecosystem (ahmad abdo & prakash, 2020). 189 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 (a) (b) figure 7. river conditions in the langsa watershed buffer area with an average river width of about 17 m. (a) river conditions in the buffer zone with sloping morphology. (b) residents' houses can be found in the buffer zone adjacent to the riverbank. the cultivation zone primarily develops and manages resources in an area, including natural, human, and artificial. the langsa watershed cultivation area is located in the river’s downstream area that flows into the sea. furthermore, river located in the zone tends to be comprehensive and have varying river depths which are deeper than buffer areas. the cultivation area needs to be managed appropriately under conservation principles and supported by annual and seasonal cultivation for the city to independently produce all the primary needs from community cultivation. the langsa watershed cultivation area has tremendous potential for river silting. it was observed that the accumulated sediment tends to be higher over time and therefore reduces the river's capacity for large-intensity rainwater, specifically during the rainy season. this causes a natural disaster called flooding in the downstream watershed. it even becomes a seasonal disaster in the langsa watershed every rainy season. figure 8 shows the physical conditions in the cultivation area. (a) (b) figure 8. river conditions in the langsa watershed cultivation area that located in the downstream area. (a) river conditions in the cultivated area with a homogeneous flat morphology. (b) the community uses the land for agricultural purposes (rice field). the condition of the cultivation area in the langsa watershed, located in the downstream region is seen in the figure 8. it was observed from figure 8a that the flat and homogeneous land morphology decreased the river flow velocity, while figure 8b shows where the people use river water for irrigation in agriculture, particularly for cultivating rice. the agricultural land in the cultivation area is vulnerable 190 faiz urfan & ayu sekar ningrum / geosfera indonesia 7 (2), 2022, 180-193 to land conversion into settlements. this reduces the adequate distribution of rain and irrigation water, as well as the soil absorbing rainwater in the rice field, which further exacerbates the erosion and sedimentation occurrence in the downstream watershed. a more concise explanation of the conservation zoning in the langsa watershed is seen in table 3. table 3. characteristics of cultivation, buffer, and conservation zone area characteristics utilization location cultivation zone low slope, slow river flow, high sedimentation. large-scale agricultural areas, settlements, and urban development. downstream buffer zone transition area with characteristics between cultivation and conservation zones. plantations, perennials, production forests. middle stream conservation zone high slope, fast river flow, high erosion. protected forest, primary forest, national park. upstream 4. conclusion in this study, the langsa watershed conservation zoning map was divided into three areas. first, the conservation area located in the langsa watershed upstream is characterized by 15-25% steep slope with high rainfall of 339 mm/month, high vegetation density (0.45 < ndvi < 0.58), an area of 3.55 km2, and 12 m width. the area has been prioritized as a protected forest or national park. second, the buffer zone is directly adjacent to the second main area, namely upstream and downstream. in addition, it is a transition zone for two regions and is characterized by 8-15% moderate slopes, high rainfall of 339 mm/month, with 0.33 < ndvi < 0.45 moderate vegetation density, as well as 17 m width, and an area of 4.84 km2. this area is useful as a production forest or perennials for the benefit of the community. third, the cultivation area is the downstream zone in the watershed ecosystem that functions as a land-use area for agriculture, aquaculture, and services. the cultivated area has 0-8% relative flat slope, low rainfall of 113 mm/month, a low vegetation density (ndvi <0.33), and an area of 63.75 km2. therefore, the place is safe as urban development areas or large-scale agricultural land for food products. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. acknowledgments this study was supported by the research institute, community service and quality assurance (lppm-pm) universitas samudra with grant number 322/un54.6/tu/2020. references ahmad abdo, z., & prakash, s. 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(2019). spatial characteristics of physical environments for human settlements in jinsha river watershed (yunnan section), china. geomatics, natural hazards and risk, 10(1), 544–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2018.1532461. geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 5 no. 2, august 2020 available online since 1 june 2020 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/issue/view/952 geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 5 no. 2, august 2020 available online since 1 june 2020 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/issue/view/952 geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 5 no. 2, august 2020 available online since 1 june 2020 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/issue/view/952 geosfera indonesia, vol. 5 no. 2 (2020) accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019 . editorial team editor in chief fahmi arif kurnianto (scopus id: 57208473928) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia advisory international editorial boards mihai ciprian margarint (scopus id : 36698019400) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania franck lavigne (scopus id : 15738234900) physical geography laboratory, université paris 1 panthéon-sorbonne, france fahrudi ahwan ikhsan (scopus id : 57208469257) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia mustafa ustuner (scopus id : 56246446800) department of geomatics engineering, yildiz technical university, turkey bashkim idrizi (scopus id : 55937683800) department of geodesy, university "mother teresa" -skopje, macedonia guillermo hector re (scopus id : 7102894803) department of geology, universidad de buenos aires, buenos aires, argentina laras tursilowati (scopus id : 55317967300) indonesian national institute of aeronautics and space (lapan), indonesia kuppanagounder kumaraswamy (scopus id : 6602935596) department of geography, bharathidasan university, tiruchirappalli, india copyright (c) 2020 geosfera indonesia journal and department of geography education, university of jember focus and scope geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education : collaborative learning; comparative learning; curriculum; e-learning ; instructional technology; learning community; life skills ; remedial teaching; taxonomy of educational objectives (bloom's taxonomy); new technology; industry and education : a continous collaboration; blended learning; character; constructivist learning; disrupting innovation; expeditionary learning; flexible learning; flipped classroom; flipped learning; gamification; global view; ground up diversity; high-quality teachers; hip-hop education (hiphoped); lesson study; mobile education; problem based learning; process oriented guided inquiry lessons (pogil); project based learning (pbl); start-up; student centred learning; autodidacticism (self-teaching); informal learning; unschooling or homeschooling; pisa task, (2) physical geography : tectonics and regional structure; glacial processes and landforms; fluvial sequences; fluvial processes and landforms; mass movement; hillslopes and soil erosion; slopes processes; karst processes and landforms; aeolian processes and landforms; coastal dunes and arid landforms; coastal and marine processes; theoretical and quantitative geomorphology; soil geomorphology; soil geography; lithology; hydrogeography, (3) human geography : cultural geography; political geography; social geography; population geography; urban geography, (4) geographic information system (gis) : data collection and acquisition; data structures and algorithms; spatio-temporal databases; spatial analysis, data mining, and decision support systems; cartography; location based services; uncertainty handling in spatial data; topology; geo-computation; geo-telematics; spatial information infrastructures; interoperability and open systems; applications of geoinformation technology (all possible domains), (5) remote sensing: multi-spectral and hyperspectral remote sensing; active and passive microwave remote sensing; lidar and laser scanning; geometric reconstruction; physical modeling and signatures; change detection; image processing and pattern recognition; data fusion and data assimilation; dedicated satellite missions; operational processing facilities; spaceborne, airborne and terrestrial platforms; remote sensing applications, (6) environmental science : environmental geography; environmental education; climate change; land use and cover change; pollution; natural resources management; conservation; management and valorisation of waste; development of methods for environmental quality management; environmental system modelling and optimization; environmental analysis and assessment; social, economic and policy aspects of environmental management, (7) disaster risk reduction : risk awareness and assessment including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis for natural disaster risk reduction; knowledge development including education, training, research and information for natural disaster risk reduction; public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislation and community action for natural disaster risk reduction. publication information secretariat of geosfera indonesia department of geography education, university of jember, fkip building, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, east java, 68121, indonesia. telp. (0331) 334988 / 330738 email : geografi.fkip@unej.ac.id website : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi copyright (c) 2020 geosfera indonesia journal and department of geography education, university of jember geosfera indonesia (geos. ind.) : | issn: 2598-9723 (print)| issn: 2614-8528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. its published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia (ristekdikti), no. 30/e/kpt/2019. this journal has been covered by following indexing and abstracting services: (1) cabi : cab abstracts (web of science); (2) directory of open access journal (doaj); (3) ebsco; (4) google scholar (5) one search (national library of republic of indonesia); (6) sinta 2. table of contents a new algorithm for the grid cell-based runoff routing model based on travel time concept 160-185 baina afkril, m. pramono hadi, slamet suprayogi a preliminary study on tsunami disaster in yogyakarta: identification of vulnerability order and components 186-195 lina wahyuni, muh. aris marfai, m. pramono hadi soil zonation and the shaking table test of the embankment on clayey soil 196-209 ripon hore, sudipta chakraborty, md. fayjul bari, ayaz mahmud shuvon, mehedi ahmed ansary modeling land use and land cover dynamic using geographic information system and markov-ca 210-225 millary agung widiawaty, arif ismail, moh. dede, n. nurhanifah spatio-statistical analysis of rainfall and temperature distribution, anomaly and trend in nigeria 226-249 elisha ademola adeleke and eniola aminat orebayo the facies and metamorphism types determination of metamorphic rock in the part of mekongga complex 268-287 m. musnajam, ahmad tarmizi abd karim , n. nurfadillah, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, andri estining sejati building density level of urban slum area in jakarta tenty melvianti legarias , renny nurhasana, edy irwansyah land value potential zonation : implication towards urban planning 288-300 revi mainaki, anita eka putri, dwiyono hari utomo copyright (c) 2020 geosfera indonesia journal and department of geography education, university of jember 250-267 cover geosfera 5,2 malam.pdf (p.1) geosfera indonesia akredcover.pdf (p.2) focus and scope2.pdf (p.3-4) acknowledgement the editorial board would like to thank and express appreciation to all peer reviewers who have reviewed the manuscripts for publication of geosfera indonesia. marinela istrate (scopus id : 56672996500) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania lucian rosu (scopus id : 56958158800) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania mihai niculita (scopus id : 55022909500) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania tin lukic (scopus id : 54795557700) department of geography, university of novi sad, serbia fatih adiguzel (scopus id : 57204062132) , department of geography, nevşehir haci bektaş veli üniversitesi, nevsehir, turkey elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia prima widayani (scopus id : 57188879871) faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia ivan taslim, (scopus id : 57203022349) department of geography, universitas muhammadiyah gorontalo, indonesia efdal kaya, (scopus id : 57202135756) department of architecture and urban planning, iskenderun technical university, iskenderun, turkey batuhan kilic, (scopus id : 57204675825) geomatic engineering department, yildiz technical university, istanbul, turkey nailul insani, (scopus id : 57208471498) department of geography, universitas negeri malang, indonesia rendra zainal maliki department of geography education, universitas tadulako, indonesia faisal arif setiawan department of geography education, universitas lambung mangkurat, indonesia geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia (ristekdikti), no. 30/e/kpt/2019 (20172022). indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia (ristekdikti), no. 30/e/kpt/2019 (20172022). indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia (ristekdikti), no. 30/e/kpt/2019 (20172022). indexed by : geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 5 no. 3, december 2020 available online since 30 december 2020 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/issue/view/1064 geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 5 no. 3, december 2020 available online since 30 december 2020 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/issue/view/1064 geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 5 no. 3, december 2020 available online since 30 december 2020 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/issue/view/1064 geosfera indonesia, vol. 5 no. 3 (2020) accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019 . editorial team editor in chief fahmi arif kurnianto (scopus id: 57208473928) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia advisory international editorial boards mihai ciprian margarint (scopus id : 36698019400) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania franck lavigne (scopus id : 15738234900) physical geography laboratory, université paris 1 panthéon-sorbonne, france fahrudi ahwan ikhsan (scopus id : 57208469257) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia mustafa ustuner (scopus id : 56246446800) department of geomatics engineering, yildiz technical university, turkey bashkim idrizi (scopus id : 55937683800) department of geodesy, university "mother teresa" -skopje, macedonia guillermo hector re (scopus id : 7102894803) department of geology, universidad de buenos aires, buenos aires, argentina laras tursilowati (scopus id : 55317967300) indonesian national institute of aeronautics and space (lapan), indonesia kuppanagounder kumaraswamy (scopus id : 6602935596) department of geography, bharathidasan university, tiruchirappalli, india copyright (c) 2020 geosfera indonesia journal and department of geography education, university of jember focus and scope geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education : collaborative learning; comparative learning; curriculum; e-learning ; instructional technology; learning community; life skills ; remedial teaching; taxonomy of educational objectives (bloom's taxonomy); new technology; industry and education : a continous collaboration; blended learning; character; constructivist learning; disrupting innovation; expeditionary learning; flexible learning; flipped classroom; flipped learning; gamification; global view; ground up diversity; high-quality teachers; hip-hop education (hiphoped); lesson study; mobile education; problem based learning; process oriented guided inquiry lessons (pogil); project based learning (pbl); start-up; student centred learning; autodidacticism (self-teaching); informal learning; unschooling or homeschooling; pisa task, (2) physical geography : tectonics and regional structure; glacial processes and landforms; fluvial sequences; fluvial processes and landforms; mass movement; hillslopes and soil erosion; slopes processes; karst processes and landforms; aeolian processes and landforms; coastal dunes and arid landforms; coastal and marine processes; theoretical and quantitative geomorphology; soil geomorphology; soil geography; lithology; hydrogeography, (3) human geography : cultural geography; political geography; social geography; population geography; urban geography, (4) geographic information system (gis) : data collection and acquisition; data structures and algorithms; spatio-temporal databases; spatial analysis, data mining, and decision support systems; cartography; location based services; uncertainty handling in spatial data; topology; geo-computation; geo-telematics; spatial information infrastructures; interoperability and open systems; applications of geoinformation technology (all possible domains), (5) remote sensing: multi-spectral and hyperspectral remote sensing; active and passive microwave remote sensing; lidar and laser scanning; geometric reconstruction; physical modeling and signatures; change detection; image processing and pattern recognition; data fusion and data assimilation; dedicated satellite missions; operational processing facilities; spaceborne, airborne and terrestrial platforms; remote sensing applications, (6) environmental science : environmental geography; environmental education; climate change; land use and cover change; pollution; natural resources management; conservation; management and valorisation of waste; development of methods for environmental quality management; environmental system modelling and optimization; environmental analysis and assessment; social, economic and policy aspects of environmental management, (7) disaster risk reduction : risk awareness and assessment including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis for natural disaster risk reduction; knowledge development including education, training, research and information for natural disaster risk reduction; public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislation and community action for natural disaster risk reduction. publication information secretariat of geosfera indonesia department of geography education, university of jember, fkip building, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, east java, 68121, indonesia. telp. (0331) 334988 / 330738 email : geografi.fkip@unej.ac.id website : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi copyright (c) 2020 geosfera indonesia journal and department of geography education, university of jember geosfera indonesia (geos. ind.) : | issn: 2598-9723 (print)| issn: 2614-8528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. its published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia (ristekdikti), no. 30/e/kpt/2019. this journal has been covered by following indexing and abstracting services: (1) cabi : cab abstracts (web of science); (2) directory of open access journal (doaj); (3) ebsco; (4) google scholar (5) one search (national library of republic of indonesia); (6) sinta 2. table of contents the assessment of deforestation impact towards microclimate and environment in ilorin, nigeria 301-317toluwalope mubo agaja, elisha ademola adeleke, enekole esther adeniyi, precious temilade afolayan development of multimedia learning geography based on adobe flash to increase students’ curiosity 318-334 wahid yuda rejeki* and m. mukminan geospatial approach for the analysis of forest cover change detection using machine learning 335-351 r. sanjeeva reddy, g. anjan babu, a. rama mohan reddy emerging geospatial technologies in environmental research, education, and outreach 352-363sergio bernardes, margueritte madden, ashurst walker, andrew knight, nicholas neel, akshay mendki, dhaval bhanderi, andrew guest, shannon healy, thomas jordan a review paper on monitoring environmental consequences of land cover dynamics with the help of geo-informatics technologies copyright (c) 2020 geosfera indonesia journal and department of geography education, university of jember 364-389 ziyad ahmed abdo, satya prakash cover geosfera 5,3.pdf (p.1) geosfera indonesia akred.pdf (p.2) focus and scope.pdf (p.3-4) 288 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 land value potential zonation : implication towards urban planning revi mainaki1, anita eka putri1*, dwiyono hari utomo2 1department of geography education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas siliwangi, jl. siliwangi no. 24, kota tasikmalaya 46115, indonesia 2department of geography education, faculty of social science, universitas negeri malang, jl. semarang 5, malang, 65145, indonesia *corresponding author : anita.eka@unsil.ac.id received 15 april 2020/ revised 7 august 2020 / accepted 15 august 2020/ available online 22 august 2020 abstract potential land prices are strongly influenced by various factors, cimahi city has three subdistricts displaying unique characteristics, since it is located between two districts and one large city, which affects the potential price of land. the potential price of land is crucial to identify, especially in determining the policies of related agencies, the purpose of this research was to zoning potential land prices in cimahi city. this study engaged a quantitative approach utilizing data collection technique in the form of observation, literature, documentation, and interviews, then analysis was conducted using a gis which composed of assessment, weighting, coating, and buffering. the study population was all sub-districts in cimahi. the research samples were taken from several sub-districts which were influenced by districts and cities characteristics indicators such as accessibility, land usage, and land ownership status. the results showed land prices potential was classified as low, medium, and high which was derived by several indicators. it could be concluded that the potential land price is strongly influenced by the surrounding area features, especially urban and district infrastructure. . keywords: land value potential; zonation; urban planing 1. introduction land is needed by humans for all forms of activities, especially for living and farming to meet their daily needs. land ownership in indonesia have been regulated in government policy related to the start of laws, legislation, government regulations, presidential regulations, presidential decrees and other technical rules (virgo et al., 2011). cimahi city presents unique characteristics to investigate how the land price is predicted, since cimahi city is one of the bearers and directly adjacent to the city of bandung with proximity of 12 km as the capital of west java province. cimahi city is bordered by bandung regency and west bandung regency in the other side. ownership along with rapid development are determining the value of a particular currency, the more strategic or the closer residence to meet human needs, certainly the higher it gets to be paid. land prices are mainly drived by several factors (anggraini et al., 2015; geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 288-300, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.17442 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:anita.eka@unsil.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 289 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 glaeser et al., 2005) namely (1) physical factors such as soil type, slope, elevation, land area and land utilization; (2) economic factorssuch as purchasing power, interests, amount of benefits offered, interest rates and land beneficial; (3) social factors namely population, security level and community lifestyle; (4) government factors namely taxes and related policies; (5) location and accessibility such asaccessibility towards education, health facilities, main roads, markets, transportation, mobility pace and etc; (6) availability of facilities for electricity networks, clean water, telephone networks, religious amenities, education, health and the tranquil spots. a study result indicated that land prices are drawn by several factors (fakhirah, 2010; hidayanti, 2013) as follows (1) distance aspect upon road accessibility; (2) elevation aspect which correlates to temperature and water; (3) distance towards donwtown or main activities spots; (4) zoning; (5) mobility pace; (6) land topography; (7) land area, and (8) land usage types. the land classification scheme to determine the price of land in a certain parameter including land purposed for (1) settlements; (2) trade and services; (3) industry; (4) transportation, communication and facilities; (5) a relatively complex trading industry; 6) urban areas within downtown and (7) urban areas within urban areas (rusdi, 2013; prabowo et al., 2016; sasono & susetyo, 2018; prihandoko, 2018). land prices would possibly increase in accordance to the occurrence of economic activity that is correlated towards infrastructure such as roads, government financial and other activities in centrals (rynjani & ragil, 2015). the significant of zoning as a form of reconstruction is to estimate the potential price and to determine certain area performing a spatial approach. a research showed how zoning could be utilized as basic decision-making theories of the region's level of urgency (hermawan & mainaki, 2019). zoning could also be conducted using basic relics and other object indicators with reconstruction principle to determine the potential or forecasts of a particular are (mainaki & hermawan, 2019). once the zoning results are identified, the results are not only beneficial for decision making, but also could be used as a learning resource, as the map becomes a basis in identifying an area as a whole, to compherend the thoughts that would foster spatial intelligence. the results of this study could be used as one of the additional indicators in determining the purchase of shelter for the community in cimahi as one of the growing centers (hilman & mainaki, 2020; rahayu & haryatiningsih, 2013). the other side of cimahi is bordered by west bandung regency, which is a new administrative area that has expanded, only a few years since the district was formed. this 290 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 feature establishes the city of cimahi occupies urban areas both within the middle of urban and in the suburbs. it has a relatively diverse area with social characteristics and physical potential, therefore land utilization determines the price of the land is relatively varied and has not been zoned in a wider scope area. hence, land price predictions in cimahi city which are essential information for urban planning and management (koka et al., 2013). a few researchers focused on development, since the potential price of land turns high or low. there have been limited studies concerned on a smaller scale and rarely utilized a regional approach, which was a draw back if a study attempted to analyze particular zone or region. therefore, this current study aimed to describe the potential price of land in the form of reports and zoning maps engaging scoring and weighting on gis, the purpose of this research was to zoning potential land prices in cimahi city. 2. methods in order to analyze the potential of land prices in the city of cimahi, this study employed a quantitative research approach using procedural steps based on the geographic information system (gis). the basic analysis was performed for potential prices which later used as a feasibility study, as the indicators used in the study were based on relevant agency documentation research (putri et al., 2020) namely (1) preliminary study to determine the topic, issues formulation, objectives and results to be obtained; (2) determine the research methodology and instruments development in accordance to collected data; (3 ) data collection was gained by documentation method were taken from (a) national land agency (bpn) of cimahi city to obtain data regarding land ownership status, land use and land area, (b) cimahi city transportation agency to obtain data relating to the existing road network in the city; supported by literature review and field observations based on documentation data to identify and strengthen research results referring to various scientific references, hence the basis of zoning grows vivid as it is founded upon theory (mainaki & putri, 2020) data processing obtained relation upon the geographic information system (gis) includes (a) scoring; (b) weighting; (c) determining the maximum score and weight to identify the range of scores (kusumo & nursari, 2016; gunawan et al., 2014; siagiaan et al., 2015). the analysis unit in this study was urban villages, thus the population was all urban villages in cimahi city and the sample was several urban villages that displayed similar characteristics of one to two district. the potential land prices were determined using scoring 291 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 and weighting tables (table 1, table 2, table 3, table 4, table 5), the higher score means the higher potential land price and vice versa as the basis of map overlay is presented below: table 1. the process of scoring data based on the area of the land or building no. land use large large (>10000 m²) is being (1000-10000 m²) narrow (<1000m 2 ) 1. rice fields 3 2 1 2. plantation 3 2 1 3. offices/schools/hospitals/health centers 3 2 1 4. factory/industry 3 2 1 5. shops/supermarkets/markets 3 2 1 6. settlements 3 2 1 7. empty land 1 1 1 (source: 2019, analysis results) table 2. the process of scoring data based on land utilization no. land use score 1. rice fields, plantations and vacant land 1 2. offices/schools/hospitals/health centers and settlements 2 3. shops/supermarkets/markets and factories/industries 3 (source: 2019, analysis results) table 3. the process of scoring (scoring) data based on accessibility no. road type score close (<50 m) is being (50-100 m) far (> 100 m) 1. distance to frontage road 3 2 1 2. distance to boulevard 3 2 1 3. distance to provincial road 3 2 1 (source: 2019, analysis results) table 4. process of scoring data based on mastery of land ownership no. criteria score 1. right to use (tni hp) 1 2. right of use (mobile) 2 3. right to build (hgb) 2 4. customary property/rights (hm/hma) 3 (source: 2019,analysis results) table 5. the process of weighting (weight) based on map effect no map weight information 1 land use 3 the type of use and area of land greatly influences the value of land and impacts on prices and determination of tax rates. 2 road network 3 affordability of land affects the value of the land and the calculation of the tax rate. 3 land tenure 2 to identify land tenure (property rights or state property) in determining taxes. (source: 2019, analysis results) 292 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 the overlay calculation for zonation is performed as follows: minimum total score = (minimum score of land area x minimum weight of land use map) + (minimum land use score + minimum weight of land use map) + (minimal score of adjacency to road x minimum weight of road network map) + (minimum land mastery score x minimum weight of status map land) minimum total score = (1x3) + (1x3) + (1x3) + (1x2) = 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 = 11 maximum total score = (maximum land area score x maximum weight of land use map) + (maximum land use score + maximum weight of land use map) + (maximum score of adjacency to road x maximum weight of road network map) + (maximum score of land mastery x maximum weight of status map land) maximum total score = (3x3) + (3x3) + (3x3) + (3x2) = 9 + 9 + 9 + 6 = 33 zonation range : = ∑𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 − ∑ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 (1) = 33−11 3 = 7.33 rounded 7 hence, the zonation range is: 11 to 18 = low land price potential; 19 to 26 = potential medium land prices; 27 to 33 = potential high land prices. 3. results and discussion land utilization in the city of cimahi (figure 1) presented practically similar characteristics of land use in each village that was dominated with settlements, rice fields and plantations. however, in the south side were relatively large industrial and shopping areas which indicated on how the southern part gained the potential for higher land prices compared to central and northern parts. the northern part is bordered by west bandung regency while the southern part is bordered by bandung city. hence, considering both the land utilization and location, the south side seemed promising higher price potential and vice versa occurred upon the north that obtained lower price potential. the road network in cimahi (figure 1) has been relatively wide-spread, as each place was connected with local avenue and highway. the central part was cut across over provincial road in a single direction, that way the south was remarkably more strategic than north. the south was through fare towards provincial road one-way and two-way, making it more strategic than the central and northern parts of cimahi. this phenomenon explains why 293 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 the south has higher potential land prices according to the road network adjacency and accessibility upon low to high, namely the north, center and south. according to land ownership status (figure 1) in the north and south, most of them earned the land ownership/customary ownership rights status. in the southern part obtained land utilization rights, where the central part obtained of land use rights status (military),as cimahi as a military basis in the sense of the community implying that the middle part was inventory or land of country that was only function for military. the northern and southern displayed interests for the benefit upon other human activities, means the northern and southern parts will likely draw a higher potential land price compared to the central part of cimahi city. potential land prices (figure 2) in the north or cimahi utara sub-district used pasirkaliki sub-district as sample possed regular or irregular residential or irregular land use conditions and rice fields, the land use status of all customary property rights. this urban village presented practically similar characteristics as other urban villages in north cimahi sub-district. it endowed potential high land prices of customary property rights status, in term of residential or regular land utilization and relatively adjacent towards the road based on distance factor, while areas with potential taxes were customary land/customary land status with regular and relatively moderate or far-off residential land use by road. based on the analysis conducted to the middle section with setiamanah village as a sample that displayed identical characteristics towards other urban villages within central cimahi sub-district, it could be concluded that setiamanah and other urban villages within the central part of cimahi city enjoyed high and medium land prices, most of which were potentially due to land use of military status of usufructuary rights (government land). the other minority gained high potential price, since those earned customary land/customary rights status. the sample of the southern part or the southern district of cimahi in the current study was the cibeber village, with land status, land use and various road conditions as appeared in other villages in the southern part of cimahi city. the administrative map, land status, land use and road network of cimahi city is presented be on figure 1. 294 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 figure 1. administrative map, land status, land use and road network of cimahi city revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 figure 2. map of land use, land status, potential land prices in pasirkaliki, setiamanah and cibeber villages in cimahi city 295 296 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 cibeber sub district demonstrated a relatively diverse land prices potential (figure 2). the potential high price was expected for land with customary property rights status, strategically adjacent towards one or two-way provincial roads, supported with residential and industrial/market land use. land use is the land with right to establish building or military base, while the potential for low land prices was presented with the condition upon usufructuary land status of employment for paddy fields or plantations and relatively remote towards the main road in accordance with the direction of proximity to the road. considering the influence of land status, land use, adjacency, and land accessibility, cimahi city endowed potential of land prices across north to south. in the north side was potentially possess low prices, while in the south showed higher value, and in middle had more diverse potential land prices. the map of landuse, land status, and potential land prices in pasirkaliki, setiamanah and cibeber village in cimahi city is presented on figure 2. the results showed that potential for the low, medium and high land potential prices within cimahi city were strongly influenced whether by road network or land utilization in the term of urban village surroundings. land status affects the land prices potential, however not by two other aspects. this result is in accordance with research conducted by fakhirah (2010) and hidayanti (2013) which land prices were drawn by (1) distance aspect towards road accessibility; (2) elevation aspect that relates to temperature and water; (3) accessibility towards center of activities or activities; (4) zoning; (5) mobility pace; (6) land topography; (7) land area and (8) land use type. the result also comformable towards rusdi (2013); prasetya & sunaryo, (2013); sasono & susetyo (2018); prihandoko (2018) which described the land classification scheme to determine the land price in a certain parameter, namely land use for (1) settlements; (2) trade and services; (3) industry; (4) transportation, communication and facilities; (5) a relatively complex trading industry; (6) urban areas within downtown and (7) urban within the urban areas. the results showed the correlation between several studies in a single result with a specific area and broader approach (regional approach). this result is in accordance with research conducted by elmanisa et al. (2017) examined land prices across jakarta, bogor, depok, tanggerang and bekasi or abbreviated as jabodetabek illustrated how land prices in these areas were relatively high due to resources and infrastructure, especially within metropolitan area of the capital. in indonesia, there are several areas with zoning potential for research land, as urban areas in cimahi city gained relatively high land prices which tended to be close to bandung city as the capital area of 297 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 west java province and otherwise, it tended to below or moderate once the areas were rather remote towards bandung city or closer to urban areas. this research is also in line with the research of hidayanti (2013) that engaged highresolution satellite image analysis to zoning land prices in jetis district, yogyakarta utilizing relatively similar indicators. the results are quite equal, which strengthened the research results of cimahi city with relatively similar results are obtained. therefore, the results of this study could be utilized as a general reference for upcoming research regarding zoning potential land prices in various regions. in contrast to research of masykuroh & rudiarto (2016) which attempted on changes in land prices, as there was an effect highway development, in this case is accessibility aspect. there was an increase of land prices towards the area nearby the road or highway gate of ungaran. the result supports the research undertaken,since accessibility aspect significantly affects the potential price of land. research of rahati et al. (2015) is also in line with this study, as the occurrence of land damage due to natural disasters had greatly reduced land prices, certainly, it is related to the physical aspect that is being affected by the damage and causes material loss. based on the research discussions according to several other studies, this study presents a parallel and general position, what distinguishes this study from other research is that the location demonstrates intriguing characteristics. in this study of cimahi city, which represented an area that obtain characteristics established upon cities and districts. 4. conclusion all over areas in cimahi city obtained a road construction network that was relatively evenly crossed by city roads, sub-district roads and provincial roads. the southern part of cimahi city possed an area that was supported with bandung city namely factories, shophouses and industrial areas, where the land status was dominated by ownership and user rights,therefore most land prices were relatively high. the central area was dominated by settlements and military areas utilization with land status dominated by military rights. hence, most areas displayed the potential for moderate land prices as those were the central controlled by municipalities or regencies, while the northern part was dominated by open land use such as plantations and land. rice fields ownership and use rights, thus most of the potential land prices were low and moderate due to excess, by the district area. 298 revi mainaki et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 288-300 conflict of interests the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgment we would like to express our gratitude to universitas pendidikan indonesia, specifically bachelor degree programs that have provided us opportunities to perform research and formulated the journal articles. references anggraini, s., prawira, y. c. s., untung, m., & indonesia, p. 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(2011). land value indexation in indonesia: a pilot study in pontianak city. facing the challenges-building the capacity congress. proceeding fig congress. fix-dikonversi_3.pdf (p.1-6) 1 hal fix (1) edited.pdf (p.7) 2 hal fix edited.pdf (p.8) fix-dikonversi_2.pdf (p.9-13) m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 the facies and metamorphism types determination of metamorphic rock in the part of mekongga complex m. musnajam1*, ahmad tarmizi abd karim2,n. nurfadillah3, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan4, andri estining sejati5 1mining engineering study program, universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka, jl. pemuda 339, kolaka, 93561, indonesia 2faculty of civil and environmental engineering, universiti tun hussein onn malaysia, parit raja, batu pahat johor, 86400, malaysia 3department of geology engineering, universitas halu oleo, kampus hijau bumi tridharma anduonou, kendari, 93132, indonesia 4department of geography education, universitas jember, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, 68121, indonesia 5geography education study program, universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka, jl. pemuda 339, kolaka, 93561, indonesia *corresponding author : musnajam3@gmail.com received 5 april 2020/ revised 15 july 2020 / accepted 21 july 2020/ available online 28 july 2020 abstract lambolemo village is geomorphologically dominated by hilly slopes morphology. lithology in the form of metamorphic rocks are mica schists and chlorite schists. the present research aimed to determine the facies and metamorphism types of metamorphic rocks in lambolemo village. the research methods engaged were field observation and laboratory observation utilizing petrographic analysis. observations stage generated texture data and set of mineral both macroscopically and microscopically. the minerals were discovered within metamorphic rock of the research area, namely: muscovite, quartz, biotite, and chlorite. these findings then classified into two zones, there were chlorite zone and biotite zone. these zones were embodied into greenschist facies with chlorite mineral index. the greenschist facies was characterized with chlorite, albit, epidote, and actinolite minerals appearance. the metamorphic rock had a foliation structure. the structure was commonly generated by a regional metamorphic process, which was particularly a feature of the clear alignment, translucent minerals from flat minerals, such as : mica, chlorite and minerals that obtained fibers or scents. keywords: determination; facies; metamorfism type 1. introduction the rock cycle illustrates the process of rock formation, started from magma to magma. rock that located in extreme deep point experiences changes from pressure and temperature. according to ahmed et al. (2017) the process of rock forming until turns to geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 250-267, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.17340 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. 250 mailto:musnajam3@gmail.com https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 251 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 magma is known as the rock cycle. according to (kurnianto et al., 2018) ijen volcano existence is the example of volcanic rock deposits producing, which means rock is derived from magma. the deep zone rock, once reaches a certain temperature, would melt into magma. rock that have not reached the melting zone then changes into metamorphic rock. the process is known as the metamorphism process. according to hasria et al. (2017) metamorphic rock development is a result of magma and pressure. according to (ca et al., 2019) one of the basement rocks envolved is metamorphism. the metamorphism process leads texture and mineral composition from previous rock changed. both of these components could determine facies metamorphism that formed in a region zone. metamorphic facies is metamorphic rock group with similar condition which is characterized by a group of permanent mineral. according to geng et al. (2018) facies metamorphism in china is the outlined of the metamorphic rock map zone. lambolemo village is an area located in samaturu district, kolaka regency. this area is geomorphologically dominated with the sloping hills. based on the pre-research stage, the lithology of this area was composed of metamorphic mica schist and chlorite schist. then, the findings of mineral rock composition were optic mineral, facies, and metamorphism types. referring to the geological map of the lasusua-kendari sheet, this area is dominated by metamorphic rocks. the region is attached to the mekongga complex which is the oldest rock constituent formation in the southeast arm of sulawesi. according to hamimu et al. (2019) there are two metamorphic rock complexes in southeast sulawesi, namely pompangeo complex and mekongga complex. considering the results of early measurements of foliation upon research location, metamorphic rocks were generally dominated by the southeast-northwest direction. the southeast-northwest direction was the general direction of the strike slip fault on the southeastern arm of sulawesi. referring to surono (2013) both kolaka fault and the konaweha fault are active and affecting the surrounding rock. furthermore, according to (maulana et al., 2018) the fault direction likely affect the development of metamorphic rock zone. the research object was simulating, since it recorded complex geological information. research regarding rock determinism which concerned facies and metamorphism types in the mekongga complex has not been conducted. geological maps were slightly limited to the general type of rocks. according to tóth & schubert (2018) the formation of complex metamorphic rocks has become a distinctive study as in the körös complex in hungary. 252 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 the relevant research (soesilo et al., 2015) identified the metamorphism type of metamorphic belt in the area between java sea and mangkalihat peninsula and also western part of central sulawesi. the research (setiawan et al., 2015) revealed the metamorphic evolution through determining the facies and metamorphism type of meratus complex in south kalimantan. the research (chen et al., 2018) investigated the metamorphic rocks in wuliangshan mountains with the facies and metamorphism types. nugraha & hall (2018) focused in wallace biodiversity area that determined the petrology and heavy mineral with depositional environments. the research (moniruzzaman et al., 2014) concerned in determining the mineral elements for human nutritions. the research (kurnianto & nurdin, 2020) conducted observation of rock stratigraphy by investigating the patterns and types of rocks and also engaging digital elevation model (dem) and medium format photo. there have been limited studies concerned on how to determine the other minerals (facies and metamorphism type such as depositional, nutrients, and dem). therefore, this research intended to collect detail findings relating metamorphic rocks that were not tagged neither in the geological map nor in other rock research within mekongga complex section. the objective of this research was to determine the facies and metamorphism types of metamorphic rock in part of mekongga complex in lambolemo village, samaturu district, kolaka regency, southeast sulawesi, indonesia. 2. methods the research types of this study were field research and laboratory research. field research in the sense of lithological observation and measurement of foliation. while, laboratory research in the form of rock slice obsevaration sample used petrographic methods. this research was conducted in may, 2017 in lambolemo village, samaturu district, kolaka regency, southeast sulawesi. according to (anggara et al., 2018) the petrographic method is engaged in obtaining the microscopic data. the research data consisted of primary and secondary data. primary data was attained from direct observations in the field and laboratory analysis results of the texture and mineral type of metamorphic rocks. field data in the form of lithology and foliation data, while the results of laboratory analysis in the form of texture and mineral type of metamorphic rocks. secondary data was obtained from regional geological maps within research area. according to (idrus et al., 2014) regional geological map performs as a complement in analyzing the metamorphic rock complex. according to (amaluddin et al., 2019; nursalam et al., 2019) 253 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 geological and geography maps are functioning as additional and instant information for research. the research instruments is described in the table 1 below. table 1. the research instruments no. instrument functions 1. topography map on scale 1:25.000 based map for field orientation, plotingfield point observation, and identified topography condition. 2. gps (global positioning sistem) recorded the coordinate point 3. geology compass determined the picture and drawing direction 4. geology hammer collected sampling 5. loupe observed the rock constituent minerals in the field 6. field note media to record data observation 7. stationery recorded the results of field observations 8. meterrol measured outcrop dimensions 9. sample bag a safety to put rock samples 10. camera captured images 11. microscope investigated rock samples microscopically research procedures followed 4 steps. first step was preparation. preparation is all kinds of preparation activities regarding field equipment and literature study. field equipment has been described in table 1 above. literature study was objected to determine regional geological conditions, research methods and literature of metamorphic rocks. second step was collecting both primary and secondary data. third step was data analysis. during this step, rock samples were selected for petrographic analysis. the rock samples being analyzed were sliced with a thickness of 0.03 mm and 0.05 mm to be observed under a polarization microscope. the tool used in analyzing metamorphic rocks was a nikon ufx-dx series magnification of the 10x ocular lens and 10x, 20x and 40x magnification objective lenses. the meaning of microscopic,since it used the polarization microscope to determine the slice of minerals. the macroscopic means to analyze the mineral not guiding by microscope or determination by direct observation. fourth was formulating conclusion based on rock samples observation using petrographic method as the results of texture and metamorphic rock minerals similarities within the reseach area. according to this data, it could be used to determine the metamorphism facies formed in the reseach area and the metamorphism type of the research 254 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 area by investigating the classification of metamorphism facies and the metamorphism type determination. the figure 1 shows the research flow diagram. figure 1. research flow diagram 3. results and discussion the research area covered two types of rocks namely mica schist and chlorite schist. macroscopic and microscopic description of mica schist macroscopically had a gray appearance in fresh condition and brown-colored in weathered condition. rock texture was lepidoblastic, with foliation rock structure. the mineral composition were muscovite, quartz, and biotite. figure 2 shows the rock figure of mica schist location. figure 2. mica schist rocks with photo direction n 2500 e preparation steps literature study data collection steps primary data: lithology& foliation secondary data: regional geology map macroscopic and microscopic data analysis field tools petrography metamorphic rock texture facies classification and metamorphic type determination facies and metamorphic type biotite muscovite 255 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 each mineral description that formed rock could be seen in the table 2 below. table 2. the description of minerals of rock framer in mica schist no. mineral percentage mineral description 1. muscovite 70 gray, white spout, glass luster, perfect cleavage, concoidal fracture, 2.5 mohs hardness scale 2. quartz 15 white-colored, white spout, glass luster, no cleavage, concoidal fracture, 6.5-7 mohs hardness scale 3. biotite 15 black, black spout, glass luster, no cleavage, concoidal fracture, hardness 2.5 mohs hardness scale table 3 shows the result mica schist mineral sample. table 3. rock framer of mica schist identification sample number structure type microscopic 1 schistosic the slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz, biotite and opaque minerals. 3 schistosic the slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz and opaque minerals. 4 schistosic the slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz and opaque minerals. 6 schistosic this stone slice was brown, lepidoblastic texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz, biotite and opaque minerals. 7 schistosic this slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz, oxide minerals and opaque minerals. 8 schistosic the slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz, biotite and opaque minerals. 9 schistosic the stone slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz and opaque minerals. 11 schistosic the stone slice was purplish blue-shaped,lepidoblastic texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite and quartz. 12 schistosic the slice was purplish blue-shaped, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of muscovite, quartz, biotite and opaque minerals. figures 3 and 4 illustrate the result mica schist mineral sample 256 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 figure 3. mica schist sample number 1 figure 4. mica schist sample number 12 the description of macroscopic and microscopic of the chlorite schist. macroscopically, it had gray-colored appearance in fresh conditions and brown in weathered conditions. the rock texture was lepidoblastic with foliation rock structure. mineral composition were chlorite and muscovite. figure 5 shows the rock in the chlorite schist location. 257 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 figure 5. chlorite schist rocks with photo direction n 1620 e each mineral description that formed rock could be seen in the table 4 below. table 4. the description of rock framer minerals of chlorite schist no mineral percentage mineral description 1. chlorite 70 greenish, white spout, glass luster, no cleavage, concoidal fracture, 2.5 mohs hardness scale 2. muscovite 15 gray, white spout, glass luster, perfect cleavage, concoidal fracture, 2.5 mohs hardness scale table 5 shows the result chlorite schist mineral sample. table 5. rock framer of chlorite schist identification sample number structure type microscopic 2 schistosic these rock slices were green, lepidoblastic texture, mineral formed of chlorite and muscovite. 5 schistosic these rock slices were green, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral composition formed of chlorite and muscovite. 10 schistosic this slice of rock was grayish green, lepidoblastic in texture, mineral formed of chlorite, quartz and opaque minerals. chlorite muscovite 258 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 figure 6 and 7 present the result of chlorite schist mineral sample. figure 6. chlorite schist sample number 2 figure 7. chlorite schist sample number 10 the metamorphic descriptions in megascopic are based on color appearance, texture, structure and mineral composition. color is a physical property of minerals that can be 259 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 directly observed. color does not entirely reflect the original color of the mineral, since the mineral color is not only derived from the mineral itself, but also occurs from other substances which pollute the mineral. according to (nelson eby et al., 2015) first identification and description relating to mineral is based on the color, for example the glass green in color. lepidoblastic texture is a metamorphic rock texture based on mineral form, this texture is dominated by the presence of flat rock-forming minerals. foliation structure is the presense of a planar structure in a rock mass. according to (bucher & rodney, 2011) the texture and structure of the rock characterize the identification of rock minerals, one of which is the foliation structure. according to (cárdenes et al., 2013) the mica matric of muscovite has typical lepidoblastic texture. this foliation could occur due to the juxtaposition of minerals into layers (gneissossity), grain orientation (schistossity), planar cleavage surface (cleavage). foliation is can combine of its. according to (usda, 2012) foliation shaped from gneissosity, schistosity, cleavage, and banned rock with code 7-10. according to (song & suh, 2014) across foliation could be found upon rock samples that were taken in the mid-west region of south korea. mica schist microscopically had purplish-blue, lepidoblastic texture, schistose structure. the mineral composition composed of muscovite, quartz, biotite, and opaque minerals. figure 8 shows the rock figure found in the mica schist of the small slice. figure 8. schist mica rock in the small slice (a) muscovite, (b) quarts, (c) biotite, (d) opaque mineral, (e) clay mass based d b c e a 260 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 each mineral description that formed rock could be seen in the table 6 below. table 6. optic description of mica schist mineral mineral composition percentage optic mineral information muscovite (a) 50 purplish blue-colored interference, dichroic pleochroism, subhedral shape, 1-way cleavage, no fracture, high relief, high intensity, mineral size 0.01-0.10 mm, darkenss angle 42°, oblique darkness type. quarts (b) 15 grayish white interference color, dichroic pleochroism, subhedral-anhedral shaped, no cleavage, no fracture, low relief, low intensity, mineral size 0.02-0.5 mm, darkness angle 47°, corrugated darkness type. biotite (c) 15 brown interference color, dichroic pleochroism, subhedralanhedral shaped, no cleavage, no fracture, moderate relief, moderate intensity, mineral size 0.02-0.5 mm, darkness angle 90 °, parallel darkness type. opaque mineral (d) 10 colorless, anhedral (glass) shaped, low intensity, low relief, size 0.1-0.10 mm. clay mass base (e) 10 black, translucent, subhedral-anhedral shaped, the high mineral intensity with high relief and mineral size 0.020.08 mm. chlorite schist microscopically was green-colored, lepidoblastic texture, schistocic structure. mineral composition composed of chlorite and muscovite. figure 9 shows the rock figure found in chlorite schist of the small slice. figure 9. schist chlorite rock in the small slice: (a) muscovite, (b) chlorite, (c) opaque mineral, (d) oxide mineral b c d a 261 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 each mineral description that formed rock could be seen in table 7. table 7. optic description of chlorite schist mineral mineral composition percentage optic mineral information muscovite (a) 20 purplish blue-colored interference, dichroic pleochroism, subhedral-shaped, 1-way cleavage, no fracture, high relief, high intensity, mineral size 0.010.8 mm, darkenss angle 38°, oblique darkness type. chlorite (b) 65 green interference-colored, dichroic pleochroism, anhedral-shaped, 1-way cleavage, no fracture, high relief, high intensity, mineral size 0.01-0.10 mm, darkness angle 27°, oblique darkness type. opaque mineral (d) 5 black, translucent, subhedral-anhedral shaped, the high mineral intensity with high relief and mineral size 0.01-0.2 mm. oxide mineral (e) 10 brown, anhedral-shaped, the moderate mineral intensity, moderate relief, and mineral size 0.01-0.8 mm. the microscopic description of metamorphic rocks is based on color appearance, texture, structure, and mineral composition. color is a representation of absorption appearance or wave length absorption upon light entering anisotropic minerals. lepidoblastic texture is a metamorphic rock texture composed of mineral form, this texture is dominated by the presence of flat rock-forming minerals. foliation structure is the appearance of a planar structure in a rock mass. foliation structures and concepts follow concepts (ahmed et al., 2017; bucher & rodney, 2011; usda, 2012). observation of mineral colors with megascopic handkerchief samples was significantly different compared to color observation microscopically. muscovite had dichroic pleochroism, since there were changes in two different colors, the shape of the mineral was observed by perceiving or observing the boundary areas as well as boundary lines of the mineral. muscovite had a sub hedral mineral form, in which the crystal was limited to only a part of the crystal itself. according to (singh et al., 2012) petrological samples have various type depending to the purpose, the megascopic or proximate analysis is thicker than microscopic or petgorraphic and chemical purpose. according to (xu et al., 2017) the minerals of oregon sunstones have dicroic, due to the color shifting from red to green. rocks found in the research area were mica schist and chlorite schist. mica schist was composed of muscovite, biotite, and quartz minerals. chlorite schist was composed of 262 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 chlorite, muscovite and quartz minerals. the four minerals were flat-shaped, each rock had a schistose structure and lepidoblastic in texture, naming the structure and texture referring to the structure and texture type division according to (usda, 2012). schistose is a foliation structure produced by the alignment of relatively large flat minerals such as mica and chlorite. lepidoblastic is a metamorphic rock texture that is dominated by flat minerals and shows a parallel orientation such as biotite and muscovite minerals. the determination of the type of protolith rock was based on the petrographic analysis. through thin slice petrography analysis, it was recognized that the metamorphic rock in the research area was dominated by quartz and muscovite minerals, a side from there was also a clay base mass, which indicated the protolith of the schist within research area was originated from sedimentary rock, namely claystone. according to (bucher & rodney, 2011; kohn, 2014; lanari et al., 2019) slicing is a technique to anaylize rocks and minerals. based on schist constituent mineral in the research area, it was divided into 6 mineral groups. the rock constituent minerals were chlorite and muscovite; chlorite and quartz; muscovite and quartz; muscovite, quartz, biotite, and chlorite; muscovite, quartz, and biotite; biotite and quartz. according to (lewerentz, 2017) the mineral assemblage of chlorite and muscovite, chlorite and quartz, as well as muscovite and quartz are embodied into chlorite zone which is characterized by the presence of quartz, chlorite, muscovite and albite minerals. furthermore (lewerentz, 2017) describes the set of mineral muscovite, quartz, biotite and chlorite; muscovite, quartz and biotite; and biotite and quartz are embodied into the biotite zone which is characterized by the presence of quartz, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, and albite minerals. other reinforcement concepts by (kohn, 2014) related to names given to various facies. the name is based on a set of mineral groups that will develop in mass mafic compositions under various pressure, temperature and mineral conditions that define each facies. especially related to temperature through temperature-time analysis. based on zoning by (lewerentz, 2017), schist of the study area was embodied into the chlorite zone and biotite zone, both zones were included in the greenschist facies with index minerals, namely chlorite. chlorite was located at the bottom of the schist, then with high temperature of the greenschist the low-schist green high was characterized by the presence of biotite with 4250-4500 c temperature, in line with the metamorphism facies chart by (kohn, 2014). according to (noor et al., 2016) the greenschist facies are characterized by chlorite, biotite, muscovite, clay, and codierite. 263 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 according to the metamorphic rocks observation of the research area, it had a foliation structure. foliation structure was marked through the alignment of metamorphic minerals and schistosic structures, a structure in which flat minerals (biotite, muscovite) were more dominant than granular minerals. this structure was primarily a result of a regional metamorphosis process, very typical were the clear pieces of flat minerals such as mica, chlorite and fibers mineral. according to (bucher & rodney, 2011) regional metamorphism occurs in a significant wide area while local metamorphism occurs in quite a narrow area ranging from a few meters to kilometers. according to (candan et al., 2016) the gabbroic dikes in tauride block, western turkey is one of several small locations samples that is wellpreserved as locally metamorphic rock converted into eclogitic metagabbros and amphibolites. there have been limited studies concerning on how to determine the mineral (facies and metamorphism type such depositional by (nugraha & hall, 2018), nutrients by (moniruzzaman et al., 2014), and digital elevation model (dem) by (kurnianto & nurdin, 2020). the research finding was related to the determination of facies and metamorphism types of metamorphic rock. according to (moniruzzaman et al., 2014) the determination of minerals occupies important information about mineral from various regions for human life benefits. the finding research indicated the minerals determination within mekongga complex section that mica schist and chlorite schist were included in the greenschist facies and regional metamorphis process. prior this, the mineral was described macroscophic and microscophic. this revealed the research novelty, that the facies and metamorphis type part of mekongga complex in lambolemo village displayed differences towards the findings of the metamorphic rocks that were not contained neither in the geological map nor the other rock research, specially in the mekongga complex section. 4. consclusion the metamorphic rocks in lambolemo village as part of mekongga complex reveals that mica schist and chlorite schist obtain lepidoblastic textures. the mica schist composed of muscovite, quartz, biotite, and opaque minerals. the chlorite schist composition formed of chlorite and muscovite. the schist mineral was embodied into the chlorite zone and biotite zone, both zones were embodied to wards the greenschist facies. both mica schist and chlorite schist metamorphism types were regional metamorphism. 264 m. musnajam et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 250-267 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgments thanks to universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka and the collaboration team in the universiti tun hussein onn malaysia, universitas jember, and universitas halu oleo that developed the engineering geography topic. references ahmed, k. j., zaki, m. m., rizvi, h. a., zoheb, m. m., & 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(2017). protoenstatite: a new mineral in oregon sunstones with “watermelon” colors. american mineralogist, 102(10), 2146–2149. https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2017-6186 2. methods sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 352 emerging geospatial technologies in environmental research, education, and outreach sergio bernardes, marguerite madden*, ashurst walker, andrew knight, nicholas neel, akshay mendki, dhaval bhanderi, andrew guest, shannon healy, thomas jordan center for geospatial research, department of geography, university of georgia, athens, georgia, ga 30602, united states of america *corresponding author: mmadden@uga.edu received 1 november 2020/ revised 16 december 2020 / accepted 22 december 2020/ published 30 december 2020 abstract drawing on the historical importance of visual interpretation for image understanding and knowledge discovery, emerging technologies in geovisualization are incorporated into research, education and outreach at the center for geospatial research (cgr) in the department of geography at the university of georgia (uga), usa. this study aimed to develop the 3d immersion and geovisualization (3dig) system consisting of uncrewed aerial systems (uas) for data acquisition, augmented and virtual reality headsets and mobile devices, an augmented reality digital sandbox, and a video wall. we were working together integrated data products from the uas imagery, including digital image mosaics and 3d models, and readily available gaming engine software to create augmented and virtual reality immersive visualizations. the use of 3dig in research is demonstrated in a case study documenting the seasonal growth of vegetables in small gardens with a time series of 3d crop models generated from uas imagery and structure from motion photogrammetry. demonstrations of 3dig in geography and geology courses, as well as public events, also indicate the benefits of emerging geospatial technologies for creating active learning environments and fostering participatory community engagement. keywords: environmental education; geovisualization; augmented reality; virtual reality; uas, photogrammetry 1. introduction there is an old saying, “seeing is believing.” regarding remote sensing and image processing for environmental research, education and outreach, the saying should be adapted to read, “seeing is believing and understanding.” long before there were computers available to analyze and classify remotely sensed imagery acquired from aerial or satellite platforms, men and women bent over light tables and examined hardcopy aerial photographs with the aid of a stereoscope and visually interpreted the features they viewed in three dimensions. anson (1968) described that “photographic interpretation originated when the images recorded on sensitized geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 352-363, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i3.20719 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 301-317, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:mmadden@uga.edu https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 353 material by radian energy were first recognized during photographic processing. the recognition process became valid for the individual who recalled or recognized a familiar object, person, or scene which created a response in the mind of the interpreter.” with the advent of computer technology, the conversion of hardcopy to digital imagery and the evolution of analog to digital image processing, researchersexplored the use ofautomated methods of image understanding while maintaining the importance of visual image assessment. the application of computerbased systems by a photo interpreter is to enhance the digitized photographs to facilitate human interpretation. although great strides have been made in applying digital image processing to automatically classify various surface features, these techniques still fall far short of the human interpreter (colwell, 1997). by the 2000s, digital image classification was well-established and great advances were made in refining image classification algorithms, multi-sensor image data fusion and mainstream use of dedicated image processing software (campbell, 2002; lillesand et al., 2003; jensen, 2007; sabins 2007). the need for visual understanding of image features remains and important component of even the most sophisticated computer algorithms. early image classifications methods (e.g., supervised image classification) relied on training sets identified by humans and of consisting o f pixels identified in an image as representative of ground features to be classified (lillesand et al., 2003). the elements of image interpretation, (i.e., tone, shape, size, pattern, association, shadow, texture and resolution) published in a seminal publication by olson (1960), integrated different aspects of image understanding into a single framework that is still used today as the basis of many image processing algorithms including pixel-based classification, object-based image analysis, automated feature extraction, machine learning and deep learning. the subject of human factors in image interpretation, cognition and remote sensing is discussed ascentral to mixed methods research, geospatial intelligence, perceptual processes and the capture of expert knowledge towards the automation of the interpretation process in white et al. (2018). current challenges include the interpretation and integration of multiple data types, especially dynamic data, while taking advantage of emerging technologies in geovisualization (hoffman, 2018). the potential of using multimedia in cartography and visualizing environments using virtual reality was recognized by early geospatial visionaries in the 1990s and early 2000s (taylor, 1994; cartwright, 1994; slocum et al., 2001). cartwright (1994) noted cartographers have always designed and produced maps using numerous media elements and tools including sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 354 computer graphics, photogrammetry, statistical analyses and geographic information systems (gis). “the ability to integrate picture, sound and movement gives the ability to assemble almost any combination of presentation package required for a particular spatial data presentation, including graphic solutions using space-time data” (cartwright, 1994). discussions on the use of geographic multimedia and hypermedia recognized the integration of new methods of digital data integration, display and interaction with users within gis and early adoption of hypertext for linking internet content within digital cartographic designs (stefanakis et al., 2006).virtual realities were also being promoted as gaming technologies evolved and cartographers recognized the advantages of virtual interfaces to geographic content for research and graphic communication (cartwright, 2006; bainbridge, 2007). the visualization of changing vegetation patterns related to terrain characteristics and disturbances such as wildfires, insect infestation and human impacts also were explored as three-dimensional, time-series geovisualizations and virtual realities (madden et al., 2006 & 2009). this study aimed to developed the 3d immersion and geovisualization (3dig) system consisting of uncrewed aerial systems (uas). 2. methods researchers at the department of geography’s center for geospatial research at the university of georgia have created a 3d immersion and geovisualization (3dig) system aimed to bring multiple technological components for data acquisition, extended reality or xr (i.e., virtual, augmented and mixed reality) and geovisualization for earth science research, education and outreach. the motivation for 3dig began with the recognition that students are increasingly visual learners. they enter universities with experience using 3d immersive video games and expectations regarding the use of modern technologies for learning. recognizing the need for geography-ready immersive technologies that support visual and experiential learning led to the design of the 3dig system. we hypothesized bringing 3d graphics and visualization technologies to traditional lectures and instructional materials would promote student learning and understanding of geographic concepts that are often difficult to grasp. sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 355 the components of 3dig include uncrewed aerial systems (uas), virtual and augmented reality headsets and mobile devices, an augmented reality sandbox and a video wall (bernardes et al., 2018, figure 1). a dji phantom 4 pro quadcopter and a dji matrice 600 pro hexacopter are used to acquire high spatial and temporal resolution images and videos. the phantom 4 pro uas has features such as attitude control, automatic take-off and landing, collision avoidance and video game-like flight controls that facilitate flying by students and young researchers with no previous exposure to uas. the matrice 600 pro hexacopter allows a heavier payload with multiple sensors such as the micasense 5-band multispectral, velodyne lidar and flir thermal sensors. the cgr personnel with remote pilot certification provide flight training, demonstrations and instruction for students to obtain their own certification required for conducting research and outreach. virtual and augmented reality goggles (e.g., oculus rift, quest and microsoft hololens) are demonstrated in classes and used by students in many courses in the geosciences and other fields to expose students to emerging technologies and provide immersive experiences in virtual and augmented landscapes, international cities and a variety of landforms (bernardes et al., 2020, figure 2). figure 1. the 3d immersion and geovisualization (3dig) system incorporates uncrewed aerial system (uas) data acquisition, virtual and augmented reality and video wall for use in research, education and outreach sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 356 the augmented reality sandbox was designed and built in-house by uga-cgr students and faculty. the system consists of two xbox kinect sensors configured to interact with the topography of the sand contained within a wooden box supported on a frame at waist height. a downward-pointing projector is connected to a laptop such that the display of geospatial data and model output can be projected onto the surface of the sand. intended to be interactive and participatory, users gather around the sandbox and are encouraged to move the sand with their hands to build “mountains and valleys” that can even recreate the topography of real locations. see petrasova et al. (2015), for a complete discussion of tangible modeling and software/hardware requirements for constructing an augmented reality sandbox. the uga-cgr sandbox was designed to be transportable with casters and a telescopic structure such that the frame can be lowered to fit through doorways and wheeled to classrooms, laboratories, other buildings or even public spaces. in this way, exposure to the augmented reality technology can be maximized and to-date the sandbox and mobile goggles have been used in 55 courses and 13 public events for over 6,000 individual interactions. figure 2. virtual reality headsets allow students access to remote environments, immersive experiences in a variety of landscapes and exposure to cultural resources sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 357 figure 3. (a) augmented reality sandboxdesigned and built in-house at the university of georgia’s geography department center for geospatial research for (b) participatory tangible experiences and geovisualization of geographic concepts the final component of the 3dig system is a video wall consisting of four nec 46-inch high-performance commercial grade video displays that are daisy chained and controlled by a single windows-based computer using tilematrix technology. visual integration of the four individuals displays is facilitated by reducing the bezel width (i.e., the outside edge of the display) to 1.9 mm (minimum) or 3.8 mm (maximum) per display. the use of serviceable wall mounts and inter-display wall calibration also provides an improved visualization experience. when combined with augmented reality goggles, multiple students in the class are able to see what the person wearing the microsoft hololens goggles is experiencing. although not in threedimensions, the two-dimensional view displayed on the video wall allows students to see the augmented reality that is otherwise invisible to everyone except the person wearing the headset (figure 4). (a) (b) sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 358 figure 4. the video wall combined with augmented reality goggles allows multiple students in the class to see what the person wearing the microsoft hololens goggles is experiencing 3. results and discussion a case study applying emerging technologies used by 3dig for research, education and outreach was performed, by using ua sand photogrammetry for small farm agricultural monitoring, research and outreach to local communities. acknowledging small farms and community gardens are important in local culture, economies and food supplies, integrated geospatial techniques of uas image acquisition, structure from motion (sfm) photogrammetry, field-based measurements of plants and 3d crop models were developed to assist farmers and community gardeners who may not normally have access to advanced geospatial technologies. a uas was used to fly low-altitude imagery of vegetable gardens throughout the growing season. digital image mosaics and 3d crop models were produced with sfm photogrammetric software (metashape by agisoft) that depict the growth forms of individual plants and can be measured to quantify changes in crop biomass over time (figure 5a). gaming engine software such as unity or unreal engine can then be used to convert 3d models to augmented reality displays to visualize virtual gardens in a classroom or public setting (figure 5b). sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 359 a) b) figure 5. (a) 3d crop models produced by photogrammetry and uas images of small gardens can be converted to augmented reality displays (b) for public viewing emerging developments in virtual, augmented and mixed reality and increased accessibility to the hardware and software required to access their implementations have led to renewed interest and new possibilities for uses in research, education and outreach. çöltekin et (a) (b) sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 360 al. (2020) provide a thorough review of research challenges and future directions in xr within the spatial sciences. noted is the need for a consensus of definitions for fundamental terms of extended reality because there is ambiguous use of virtual, augmented and mixed reality (çöltekin et al., 2020). this is especially important when these advanced technologies are being incorporated into educational materials, research manuscripts and outreach demonstrations in order to minimize confusion and harmonize the discussion of advantages and limitations. milgram & kishino (1994) presented a continuum of realities ranging from the real environment to the virtual environment and predicted future experiences will be increasingly mixed virtual and real views of the world around us. as of 2020, it is estimated that over 6,000 students, ranging from pre-kindergarten (i.e., less than five years old) to university levels of education, have been exposed to the 3dig system in 55 courses or course sessions in a variety of disciplines including physical geography, weather and climate, geographic information systems, geology, earth sciences, environmental design and psychology (bernardes et al., 2020). numerous undergraduate and graduate students have been involved in the uas data acquisition, image processing and the development of content for extended reality demonstrations (bernardes et al., 2018). current research is being conducted to assess the effectiveness of the use of extended reality to enhance the understanding of complex geospatial concepts and understanding of the physical environment. indeed, the development of the 3dig has led to the creation of the disruptive geospatial technologies laboratory within the uga center for geospatial research that further explores cutting-edge technologies for data acquisition, manipulation, teaching, learning and discovery. these technologies have been developed, implemented or modified by 23 students at uga, through a variety of on-the-job training and mentorship experiences. see digtl (2020) for additional information and updates on projects, research and teaching tools addressing critical issues in human and environment relationships. the 3dig system in research and outreach components have demonstrated both the advantages and limitations of advanced geovisualization techniques. trade-offs of enhanced and multi-dimensional visualization of our environment must be weighed against the cost of extended reality devices, the need for advanced skills in computer programming and additional training of instructors. sergio bernardes et al / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 352-363 361 4. conclusion in conclusion, the 3dig system developed at the university of georgia combines geospatial technologies with photogrammetry and emerging visualization techniques to spark excitement, foster engagement and create active learning environments. emerging technologies provide opportunities for research, education and outreach that are rooted in the visual interpretation of aerial imagery and combined with technologies for state-of-the-art training, enhanced geovisualization and participatory community involvement. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgements the assistance of students at the university of georgia who have volunteered their time during several phases of the project is gratefully appreciated. this research was supported by the uga center for teaching and learning, the uga center for research and education at wormsloe and the wormsloe foundation. references anson, a. 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(2018). remote sensing and cognition: human factors in image interpretation. florida : crc press. https://doi.org/10.1559/152304001782173998 geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021 available online since 25 april 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021 available online since 25 april 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021 available online since 25 april 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia, vol. 6 no. 1 (2021) accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 . editorial team editor in chief fahmi arif kurnianto (scopus id: 57208473928) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia advisory international editorial boards mihai ciprian margarint (scopus id : 36698019400) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania fahrudi ahwan ikhsan (scopus id : 57208469257) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia mustafa ustuner (scopus id : 56246446800) department of geomatics engineering, yildiz technical university, turkey bashkim idrizi (scopus id : 55937683800) department of geodesy, university "mother teresa" -skopje, macedonia guillermo hector re (scopus id : 7102894803) department of geology, universidad de buenos aires, buenos aires, argentina laras tursilowati (scopus id : 55317967300) indonesian national institute of aeronautics and space (lapan), indonesia m. asyroful mujib (scopus id : 57217104177) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia lyubka pashova (scopus id : 6506546577) national institute of geophysics, geodesy and geography, bulgarian academy of sciencesdisabled, sofia, bulgaria layout editors yucha risdarani (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) m. mitasari (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) giofani ginolla ardiyanto (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qarud7btkxdsqlrwobcji-eacl76rta8/view?usp=sharing https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57208473928 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=36698019400 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57208469257 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=56246446800 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55937683800 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=7102894803 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55317967300 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57217104177 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=6506546577 focus and scope geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education : collaborative learning; comparative learning; curriculum; e-learning ; instructional technology; learning community; life skills ; remedial teaching; taxonomy of educational objectives (bloom's taxonomy); new technology; industry and education : a continous collaboration; blended learning; character; constructivist learning; disrupting innovation; expeditionary learning; flexible learning; flipped classroom; flipped learning; gamification; global view; ground up diversity; high-quality teachers; hip-hop education (hiphoped); lesson study; mobile education; problem based learning; process oriented guided inquiry lessons (pogil); project based learning (pbl); start-up; student centred learning; autodidacticism (self-teaching); informal learning; unschooling or homeschooling; pisa task, (2) physical geography : tectonics and regional structure; glacial processes and landforms; fluvial sequences; fluvial processes and landforms; mass movement; hillslopes and soil erosion; slopes processes; karst processes and landforms; aeolian processes and landforms; coastal dunes and arid landforms; coastal and marine processes; theoretical and quantitative geomorphology; soil geomorphology; soil geography; lithology; hydrogeography, (3) human geography : cultural geography; political geography; social geography; population geography; urban geography, (4) geographic information system (gis) : data collection and acquisition; data structures and algorithms; spatio-temporal databases; spatial analysis, data mining, and decision support systems; cartography; location based services; uncertainty handling in spatial data; topology; geo-computation; geo-telematics; spatial information infrastructures; interoperability and open systems; applications of geoinformation technology (all possible domains), (5) remote sensing: multi-spectral and hyperspectral remote sensing; active and passive microwave remote sensing; lidar and laser scanning; geometric reconstruction; physical modeling and signatures; change detection; image processing and pattern recognition; data fusion and data assimilation; dedicated satellite missions; operational processing facilities; spaceborne, airborne and terrestrial platforms; remote sensing applications, (6) environmental science : environmental geography; environmental education; climate change; land use and cover change; pollution; natural resources management; conservation; management and valorisation of waste; development of methods for environmental quality management; environmental system modelling and optimization; environmental analysis and assessment; social, economic and policy aspects of environmental management, (7) disaster risk reduction : risk awareness and assessment including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis for natural disaster risk reduction; knowledge development including education, training, research and information for natural disaster risk reduction; public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislation and community action for natural disaster risk reduction. publication information geosfera indonesia (geos. ind.) : | issn: 2598-9723 (print)| issn: 2614-8528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. its published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020. this journal has been covered by following indexing and abstracting services: (1) cabi : cab abstracts ; (2) directory of open access journal (doaj); (3) ebsco; (4) google scholar (5) one search (national library of republic of indonesia), (6) web of science. secretariat of geosfera indonesia department of geography education, university of jember, fkip building, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, east java, 68121, indonesia. telp. (0331) 334988 / 330738 email : geografi.fkip@unej.ac.id website : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember table of contents rethinking urbanization: a transit-information-communication – technology-oriented development path for the developing countries and post-industrial towns 1-19 schuman lam, heng li, ann t.w. yu landslide hazard analysis using a multilayered approach based on various input data configurations 20-39 ilyas ahmad huqqani, tay lea tien, junita mohamad-saleh quantifying the significance of distance to temporal dynamics of covid-19 cases in nigeria using a geographic information system 40-54 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe, umar saleh anka, sodiq opeyemi ibrahim, usman ahmad adam assessment of water balance at mayang watershed, east java 55-76ariska mia christiwarda sihombing, indarto indarto, sri wahyuningsih development of web-based gis alert system for informing environmental risk of dengue infections in major cities of pakistan 77-95 naureen zainab, aqil tariq, saima siddiqui 96-126 assessing the impacts of climate variability on rural households in agricultural land through the application of livelihood vulnerability index ginjo gitima, abiyot legesse, dereje biru copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember cover geosfera 61rev.pdf (p.1) 1.pdf (p.2) focus and scoperev.pdf (p.3-4) acknowledgement the editorial board would like to thank and express appreciation to all peer reviewers who have reviewed the manuscripts for publication of geosfera indonesia. marinela istrate (scopus id : 56672996500) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania lucian rosu (scopus id : 56958158800) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania mihai niculita (scopus id : 55022909500) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania tin lukic (scopus id : 54795557700) department of geography, university of novi sad, serbia fatih adiguzel (scopus id : 57204062132) , department of geography, nevşehir haci bektaş veli üniversitesi, nevsehir, turkey elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia prima widayani (scopus id : 57188879871) faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia ivan taslim (scopus id : 57203022349) department of geography, universitas muhammadiyah gorontalo, indonesia efdal kaya (scopus id : 57202135756) department of architecture and urban planning, iskenderun technical university, iskenderun, turkey batuhan kilic (scopus id : 57204675825) geomatic engineering department, yildiz technical university, istanbul, turkey nailul insani (scopus id : 57208471498) department of geography, universitas negeri malang, indonesia rendra zainal maliki department of geography education, universitas tadulako, indonesia faisal arif setiawan department of geography education, universitas lambung mangkurat, indonesia aulia ulfa farahdiba (scopus id : 57208130620) , department of environmental engineering, universitas pembangunan nasional "veteran" jawa timur, indonesia guruh samodra (scopus id : 55053491600) faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia andri estining sejati (scopus id : 57211280452) geography education study program, universitas sembilanbelas november, kolaka, indonesia wahid akhsin budi nur sidiq (scopus id : 57201676728), department of geography, universitas negeri semarang, semarang indonesia pertiwi andarani (scopus id : 55959123900), department of environmental engineering, universitas diponegoro, semarang, indonesia prama ardha aryaguna (scopus id : 56236908900), department of survey and mapping, faculty of engineering, universitas esa unggul, jakarta, indonesia ionuț minea (scopus id : 56951000900), faculty of geography and geology, department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university, 20 a, carol i bd., 700505 iasi, romania rosmadi fauzi (scopus id : 6508044388), department of geography, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 (2020-2025). indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 (2020-2025). indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia (journal initial : geosi, journal abbreviation : geos. ind.) : issn: 2598-9723 (print) ; issn: 26148528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. geosfera indonesia welcomes high quality original research articles, short communications, and review articles written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world about : (1) geography education, (2) geography (physical geography and human geography), (3) geographic information system (gis), (4) remote sensing, (5) environmental science, and (6) disaster risk reduction. it is published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 (2020-2025). indexed by : 196 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 soil zonation and the shaking table test of the embankment on clayey soil ripon hore1*, sudipta chakraborty2, md. fayjul bari1, ayaz mahmud shuvon2, and mehedi ahmed ansary1 1department of civil engineering, bangladesh university of engineering and technology (buet), dhaka, 1000, bangladesh 2bangladesh network office for urban safety (bnus), bangladesh university of engineering and technology, dhaka, 1000, bangladesh *corresponding author : riponhore@gmail.com received 22 march 2020/ revised 5 june 2020 / accepted 21 june 2020/ available online 28 june 2020 abstract the main objective of this research was to model the zonation of wrap faced embankment on soft clay foundation, by applying a shake table test. also, to investigate the dynamic behaviors of clay soil, such as acceleration amplification, displacement and pore water pressure of wrap faced embankment. this was done with respect to changes in frequencies of 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz and 15 hz respectively. constant acceleration (0.1 g) and surcharge (19 kg) were applied by using a laminar box, placed on a shake table testing machine. the main elements of this research were the laboratory test, which was used for preparing reconstitute soil samples, and wrap faced embankment with frequency arrangement. after applying all test parameters, dynamic parameters were increased by rise in elevation with respect to frequency. the result shows that the maximum dynamic parameters were found at the frequency of 10 hz. it is beneficial to the relative performances of the wrap faced embankment, which is the updated design parameter. keywords: seismic; clay soil; frequency; shake table test; wrap faced; soil zonation 1. introduction the soil-foundation formed from soft clay becomes the focus of seismic engineering. in some cases, the foundation on soft clay is creating a problem for the design and construction of any type of structure. in bangladesh, the southern part of the country, an geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 196-209, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.17873 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 197 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 excessive amount of soft clay is found in the khulna and bagerhat districts and also in the surroundings of dhaka city (hore et al., 2019). bangladesh has the largest delta in the world. therefore, very large alluviums are deposited on its surface. the oldest deposits are the barend, madhapur and lamaicregion clay. the sediments deposited are not evenly distributed throughout the country. at the northern part, it is about 128 m thick and this is where granite is extracted for construction purposes. conversely, the thickness was gradually increased towards the south. at the centre, the capital city, dhaka of bangladesh has a sediment covering of over 22 km (al zaman & jahan monira, 2017; alam & islam, 2009; bazlar rashid et al., 2018; haque et al., 2013; hore et al., 2019). earthquakes or any seismic effects may cause a major damage on this type of soil. the earthquakes or any sinusoidal waves (railway vibration) have often created significant problems during the design and construction of the embankment. moreover, it may be damaged due to the softening of soilfoundation (ering & sivakumar babu, 2020; krishna & latha, 2007; kumar et al., 2020; latha & krishna, 2006; zhou et al., 2020). the soil and structure interaction (ssi) system was considered in this experimental study, to simulate actual soil-foundation (bullock et al., 2019; çelebi et al., 2019; he & jiang, 2019; hore et al., 2020; srilatha, et al., 2013; srinivasan et al., 2016). soft soils in dhaka, bangladesh were used to build the soilfoundation. krishna & latha (2007) determined the result of shake table tests on geotextilereinforced wrap faced soil-retaining walls. a total number of 9 model tests were described, such as development, experiment methodology, and outcomes. srilatha et al., (2013) illustrated the effect of frequency of base shakes on the dynamic response of unreinforced and reinforced soil slopes. xiao et al., (2014) investigated the earthquake response of a slurry wall and presented a minimized scale shake table test. in this research, soil-cement-bentonite (scb) was evaluated. this is also a common type of slurry wall. reinforced soil is only slightly damaged during the recent seismic disasters in japan (suzuki et al., 2015). the seismic behaviour of this soil wall is formed from clay, cement-treated clay, sand based on shake table tests and results of the pull-out. fleming et al., (2016) conducted a contemporary phenomenon on soft clay soil, to determine the consequences of soil improvement on the seismic resistance of piles. yazdandoust (2017) conducted a recent laboratory test to assess the character of 1-g shake table tests. many researchers also performed a shake table test to study the seismic responses of different soil structures on soft soil (beskhyroun et al., 2011; 198 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 edinçliler & toksoy, 2017; hamayoon et al., 2016; hassan & pal, 2018; helwany et al., 2017; madhavi latha & manju, 2016). few researchers focused on shake table tests on soft clay soil in south asian regions. in bangladesh, there have been limited studies related to shake table tests of wrap faced retaining walls, on soft clay. therefore, the purpose of this research was to study the effects of frequency on reinforced soil wall models. the objectives of this study were to: a) measure the response of wrap faced and reinforced soil retaining wall, which was subjected to dynamic loading through shake table; b) investigate the acceleration amplification, deformation, and pore water pressure with respect to frequency response; c) to zone the wrap faced embankment on the soft clay foundation, by applying a shake table test, and d) draw the contour maps using plaxis 3d software. 2. methods 2.1 area of study the clay soil sample was collected at a depth of 1.5 m below the existing ground level from the dhaka city of bangladesh as shown in figure 1. these homogeneous, stiff, reddish brown samples were at first oven-dried. subsequently, the dry lumps were then powdered gently by using a wooden hammer. it was finally sieved through a 200 standard sieve to obtain clean clay-like soil powder. this type of clay is very dominant in catchment areas (areas around ariver) with a thickness from 1 to 20 m. a total number of 1000 drill holes were carried out for the standard penetration test (spt) in and around bangladesh. furthermore, 470 drill holes were chosen for the formation of soft clay layers. in addition, a map identified with zoning for spt values were from 1 to 5. the total area was divided into five subsections according to the thickness of soft clay soil. the lower range of soft clay thickness is 0 to 1 and the higher range is between 10 to 20. from the thickness map and bore log, spt n zone was realized. the target of this study was to obtain the accuracy of the seismic design of roadway and rail sub structure, based on the aforementioned necessities. on this model embankment, 100 shake table tests were experimented. the analysis implemented a repeated loading and unloading process. 199 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 figure 1. study area and the thickness map for soft soil in bangladesh 2.2 using equipment and materials the shake table facility, which is computer-controlled, was used to simulate the horizontal shake action associated with dynamics. the platform of testing was a square, with a dimension of 2.5×2.5 m² and an approximate payload capacity of 1100 kg, made up of steel plates. the range of acceleration is 0.05 g to 2 g. the frequency range is 0.05 to 50 hz with a maximum amplitude of ±200 mm. the highest velocity is 0.03 m/s. the shake table test machine is shown in figure 2. the laminar box is positioned on the shake table as presented in figure 3. figure 2. shake table test apparatus figure 3. laminar box mounted on shake table a laminar box was constructed on the shake table apparatus to reduce boundary effects wherever possible. the laminar box neither resists nor promotes soil displacement to 200 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 accommodate the movement of soil. the laminar shear box has 24 hollow aluminum layers of frames developed at bangladesh university of engineering and technology (buet). every layer consists of an internal structure with internal dimensions of 915 mm × 1220 mm × 1220 mm. a laminar box was constructed on the shake table apparatus to reduce boundary effects wherever possible. the laminar box neither resists nor promotes soil displacement to accommodate the movement of soil. the laminar shear box has 24 hollow aluminum layers of frames developed at buet. every layer consists of an internal structure with internal dimensions of 915 mm × 1220 mm × 1220 mm. sylhet sand was used as the backfill material that was available locally. the unified soil classification system classified the sand as poorly graded sand (s.p). the maximum and minimum dry densities were 18 kn/m³ and 16 kn/m³m3, respectively. the specific gravity of the sand particles was 2.34. the relative density of sand was 60%. the soft clay soil in dhaka was used in this research work.the liquid limit and water content of this soil sample were found at 40% and 23% respectively. the soil sample used was prepared, by using 50% of water content (1.25 times of liquid limit). cohesion was obtained by 14.8 kn/m² and friction was obtained by 1.0 from the direct shear test. the water content of the soil sample was 14%, and the unconfined compressive strength (qu) was 19 kpa, after the loading had been done. the thickness of the clay layer in the soil sample was 6 m. reconstituted soil sample preparation was displayed in figure 4. figure 5 illustrates the schematic diagram of the test configuration. figure 4. preparation of clay layer figure 5. schematic illustration of shake table test 2.3 testing procedure the dimension of the laminar box was 1220 mm deep, and the size of the plan area was 915 mm × 1220 mm. in lifts of equal height, the model was constructed while 201 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 reinforcing each lift with a layer of woven geotextile. to measure pore water pressure, two pore water sensors (p1 and p2) were placed as shown in figure 5. besides this, 6 acceleration sensors (a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, and a6) were placed on different points of the model, to measure acceleration. a1 and a2 sensors were placed in clay soil layers. three displacement sensors (lvdt1, lvdt2, and lvdt3), were placed on different locations of the model to measure the displacement of the embankment. table 1 shows the test sequence. table 1. test sequence test name acceleration amax(g) frequency hz relative density (%) surcharge (kg) ft1 0.1 1 60 19 ft2 0.1 3 60 19 ft3 0.1 5 60 19 ft4 0.1 10 60 19 ft5 0.1 12 60 19 ft6 0.1 15 60 19 3. results and discussion the total number of 100 shaking table tests were conducted for this research. in this section, 6 shake table tests were described among the 100 shaking tests to evaluate the seismic response of the model retaining wall. the chosen base accelerations for this research were 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, 0.4 g, and 0.5 g respectively. the natural frequency in this shake table test was determined to be 16 hz. therefore, input frequency should be less than the natural frequency of the model. the input frequencies were 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz and 15 hz respectively. the surcharge pressures selected for this study were 19 kg, 34 kg, and 49 kg. a total number of 470 layers of soft clay soil were also presented in the gis interface map. the standard penetration test (spt) zonation map was prepared based on spt n value. the spt zone map has four sub sections. the lower range of spt zonation map is 1 to 2 and the higher range is greater than 5. the n value is less than five, showing the existence of soft clay content of that area. this influences the dynamic behaviours of the embankment, (hore et al., 2019). from the map (figure 6), the green colour shows the spt value between 1 to 2. the capital of bangladesh, dhaka, is occupied with soft clay zone containing spt value 1 to 2. the output result was the dynamic behaviour like acceleration amplification, displacement and pore water pressure. this was shown in the contour map and the graph. the research 202 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 showed that dynamic behaviour of the soil depends on the soil standard penetration test result. the zonation map using standard penetration test (n) value was shown in figure 6. figure 6. zonation map using standard penetration test (spt) 3.1 acceleration response the dynamic parameters for acceleration amplification response were ft1, ft2, ft 3, ft4, ft5, ft6 with frequencies of 1 hz , 3 hz , 5 hz , 10 hz , 12 hz and 15 hz respectively. these were conducted at 0.1 g base acceleration and 19 kg surcharge pressure, as shown in figure 7. figure 8 shows the acceleration amplification variation with respect to frequency without clay layers. figure 7 displays the two sensors in the clay soil sample layer for the different frequencies of 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz and 15 hz from ft1, ft2, ft3, ft4, ft5, and ft6 model tests respectively. from the figure, it can be seen that acceleration amplitude decreases, with increasing normalized elevation,for the frequency of 1 hz. conversely, acceleration amplitude increases with rise innormalized elevation for other frequencies. the previous figure shows that acceleration amplification and frequency are not directly proportional. in fact, within the range of tests conducted, accelerations were amplified less for 1 hz, 3 hz, and 5 hz and more for 10 hz and 12 hz compared to that of 15 hz at all elevations. moreover, accelerations at normalized elevations of 0.25, 0.5, 075, and 1 203 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 were amplified closer or slightly more than 1 for the frequency of 1 hz. the differences in acceleration amplification for various frequencies were increased with increase in wall height. at a normalized height of 1, for 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz, and 15 hz, the values for acceleration amplification were 1.04, 1.24, 1.46, 3.26, 2.47, and 1.80 respectively. these test results of acceleration are partially similar to the (cai et al., 2019; fleming et al., 2016; hore et al., 2020). 3.2 face displacement response figure 9 shows the displacement profiles observed for tests ft1, ft2, ft3, ft4, ft5, and ft6 with frequencies 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz and 15 hz respectively. it was observed that at the highest elevation (z/h=0.875), the displacement was maximum. the highest normalized displacement of 2.01% was observed for 12 hz frequency. the corresponding values for the frequencies of magnitudes 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz and 15 hz were 0.02 %, 1.99 %, 2.05 %, 2.01 % and 1.93 % respectively. these test results of face displacement response are partially similar to the (krishna & latha, 2007; srinivasan et al., 2016; suzuki et al., 2015). figure 7. acceleration amplification (clay layer) response on frequency figure 8. acceleration amplification response on effect of frequency frequ whole.grf acceleration amplification n o rm a li se d e le v a ti o n , z/ h 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 test no. freq. ft1 1hz ft2 3hz ft3 5hz ft4 10hz ft5 12hz ft6 15hz frequu.grf acceleration amplification n or rm al is ed e le va ti on , z /h 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 test no. freq. ft1 1hz ft2 3hz ft3 5hz ft4 10hz ft5 12hz ft6 15hz 204 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 3.3 variations of pore water pressure figure 10 shows the effect of frequency for fixed base acceleration (0.1 g) and surcharge (19 kg) on acceleration amplification, strain and pore water pressures. the variations were for tests ft1, ft2, ft3, ft4, ft5 and ft6 with the frequency of 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz and 15 hz respectively for 0.1 g base accelerations and 19 kg surcharge. the pore water pressures increase with increasing elevation. the pore water pressure was 0.07 kpa at frequency of 10 hz. the maximum pore water pressure for model tests ft1, ft2, ft3, ft4, ft5, and ft6 were 0.02 kpa, 0.03 kpa, 0.03 kpa, 0.11 kpa, 0.09 kpa, and 0.07 kpa respectively. figure 11 shows the contour map (plaxis 3d output results) of acceleration, displacement, and pore water pressure response. figure 9. displacement profile response on frequency figure 10. pore water pressure variations 0.1g_19kg new.grf normalised face displacement, h/h (%) n o r m a li s e d e le v a t io n , z /h 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 0.3 0.36 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.6 0.66 0.72 0.78 0.84 0.9 test no. freq. ft1 1 hz ft2 3 hz ft3 5 hz ft4 10 hz ft5 12 hz ft6 15 hz 0.1g_19 kg.grf pore water pressure, kpa n o r m a li s e d e le v a t io n , z /h 0 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25 0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.8 test no. freq. ft1 1 hz ft2 3 hz ft3 5 hz ft4 10 hz ft5 12 hz ft6 15 hz 205 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 figure 11. contour map of acceleration response figure 12. contour map of displacement response figure 13. contour map of pore water pressure response this research discusses the results found from 6 different shake table tests from 100 combinations, on the embankment with soft clay models. the acceleration of thistest varied from time to time. the acceleration of the test were as follows: 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, 0.4 g and 0.5 g. during the shake table test, the natural frequency was the first calculated and its test result was 16 hz. therefore, the other frequencies should be less than the natural frequency. the other frequencies were 1 hz, 3 hz, 5 hz, 10 hz, 12 hz and 15 hz. this means that the 206 ripon hore et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 196-209 frequencies ranged from 1 hz to 15 hz. during the shake table test, surcharge pressure varied for each test. changing the surcharge pressure and wrap faced embankment was newly created. the surcharge pressures were 19 kg, 34 kg and 49 kg. after conducting the unconfined compressive test, the result was 20 kpa. the wrap faced embankment height was 4 m and therefore, the model was developed. the length (l) of the geotextile reinforcement was 3.75 m. also, 20 cycles of sinusoidal shakes were subjected to the model wall. all of the present model walls were later constructed with sand placed on the same medium to loosen density. the sand embankment properties were as follows: i) average unit weight ii) the relative density which were 18 kn/m3 and 60% respectively. these results obtained were similar to that of other researcher swho only used sand embankment without clay soil (eric et al., 2013; goktepe et al., 2019; srilatha et al., 2013). the cyclic behaviour of the soft clay has been analysed based on the different input frequency. the face deformations were high for low-frequency shaking, low for surcharge pressures and high for base accelerations. the pore water pressures were observed to increase with a rise in base motion frequency. three contour maps were drawn to investigate the acceleration amplification, deformation, and pore water pressure with respect to frequency response. these maps also showed dynamic parameters such as acceleration amplification, deformation, and pore water pressure representations of the soft soil. these results were very important for observing the dynamic behaviour of wrap faced soil retaining walls on the soft clay layer. this can be applied to improve incorporating dynamic loading, considering the design specification of this type of retaining wall (railway and road embankment). 4. conclusion the shake table test on wrap faced embankment on the clay soil foundation, is a new form of test. the lower range of spt zonation map is 1 to 2 and the maximum range is greater than 5. in bangladesh, embankment on soft clay soil plays a very vital role in seismic perspective. therefore, the research opportunity of this area will bring about an upgrade to seismic design specifications. from the test results, it was discovered that face deformation increases with rise in elevation. at high elevations and frequencies, pore water pressure is also high. these test results are beneficial in understanding the relative performance of the wrap faced 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(2020). insights on nonlinear soil behavior and its variation with time at strong-motion stations during the mw7.8 kaikōura, new zealand earthquake. soil dynamics and earthquake engineering, 136(29), 106215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106215. https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.31862 research article species distribution modelling using bioclimatic variables on endangered endemic species (bubalus depressicornis and bubalus quarlesi) septianto aldiansyah 1 * , khalil abdul wahid 2 1 department of geography, faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, universitas indonesia, depok, west java, 16424, indonesia 2 department of geography, faculty of social science, universitas negeri malang, jl. semarang 5, malang, east java, 65145, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : septiantoaldiansyah863@gmail.com introduction the populations of lowland anoa (bubalus depressicornis) and mountain anoa (bubalus quarlesi) in sulawesi have declined by less than 2,500 adults with a population loss rate of up to 20% in the last 14 -18 years (burton et al., 2016a; burton et al., 2016b; arini et al., 2020) caused by poaching (o'brien & kinnaird, 1996; burton et al., 2005), and deforestation (mustari, 2019; arini et al., 2021), thus making anoa move to specially protected areas (burton et al., 2005; steinmetz et al., 2014; mustari, 2019). the iucn categorizes the status of these two anoas as endangered species (en). this status indicates a high level of threat and has the potential to become extinct in the future if abstract sulawesi island is an island located in the wallacea area. most of the fauna on the island of sulawesi is a transitional fauna from australia and asia. this study aims to model the potential distribution of the species bubalus depressicornis and bubalus quarlesi using famous models in the present and in the future as a result of climate change phenomena throughout the island of sulawesi and beyond their natural habitat. the parameters used are bioclimatic variables and in-situ presence data. the method used is maximum entropy by comparing the glm, svm, and rf algorithms. the model is evaluated with reference to the values of auc, cor, tss, deviance, and observation data. the rf model is quite good in modeling the distribution of b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi species with auc values of 0.92 and 1, cor values of 0.59 and 0.84, tss values of 0.87 and 1, and deviance values of 0.37 and 0.08, respectively, while the results of data observations show values of 80% and 84%. b. depressicornis was most affected by bio14=0.665, while b. quarlesi was most affected by bio2=0.525, which means that this endemic species is suitable to live in a tropical climate with a warm and wet climate throughout the year, where the difference in temperature at night and during the day is very large. in the future, b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi are estimated to be compatible in an area of 143,281.78 km2 (81%) and 136,892.89 km2 (77%) of the sulawesi. keywords: species distribution model; bubalus depressicornis; bubalus quarlesi; bioclimatic; climate change article info received : 21 june 2022 revised : 3 february 2023 accepted : 4 march 2023 published : 18 april 2023 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 8 no. 1, april 2023, 1-18 © 2023 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 1 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.31862 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5432-8322 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4732-9079 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 2 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 conservation action is not taken immediately. anoa is included on cites appendix i, namely: one type of animal that is strictly prohibited to be hunted or traded in whole or in part. the price of anoa meat can reach idr 22,500/kg (usd $1.57) (burton et al., 2005). anoa is classified as a rare and protected wild animal based on the decree of the minister of agriculture of the republic of indonesia no: 421/kpts/um/8/1970, minister of agriculture number: 90/kpts/2/1972, law number 5 of 1990 and government regulation number 7 of 1999. anoa occupies the top position for five criteria, including endemicity, population status, habitat conditions, threats, and species management status. species distribution modeling (sdm) is the most popular species distribution analysis method worldwide for predicting the probability of a species based on environmental, bioclimatic, and topographical variables (byeon et al., 2018; jung et al., 2019; yoon & lee, 2021). this model has been identified as one of the best global predictive methods when estimating the similarity of climatic conditions to the presence of known species (phillips et al., 2006). the performance and quality of the sdm model will be better when including bioclimatic variables (partly or completely) in the prediction modeling (truong et al. 2017; ahmed et al., 2020; ahmadi et al., 2020). the sdm analysis using the bioclimatic variable has been able and proven to be able to model estimates of the distribution of living things in the future (morales-barbero & alvarez, 2018; jung et al., 2019). this is supported by more than 75% of research that has adopted sdm related to terrestrial ecosystems and always uses part or all of the bioclimatic variables provided by worldclim (booth, 2018; dyderski et al., 2018). zhang et al. (2023) modeled the global distribution potential of gentiana rhodantha using bioclimatic data in china which found that the degree of habitat fragmentation would increase, but the suitable area would decrease and its distribution would shift northeastward in the future. hosni et al. (2022) found a significant correlation between sdm and the ecology of the pest galleria mellonella using only bioclimatic data. although sdm exhibits a wide distribution, there is an economic impact of the pest on honeybee's population and global distribution. bandara et al. (2022) also found sdm's ability to model the distribution of the species kerivoula malpasi and kerivoula picta in sri lanka using bioclimatic data and found the distribution of k. malpasi to be fragmented and likely to be spatially adjacent to k. picta in the future. several previous anoa studies focused on areas with relatively narrow areas (e.g., irawati & arini, 2012; wardah et al., 2012; ranuntu & mallombasang, 2015; priyono et al., 2020). as a result, these studies are limited to research areas, exploration outside natural habitats, and requires time and money. this limitation is what this research tries to overcome which makes the study different from previous studies. this research is intended to explore the use of climate and environmental data as well as the in-situ distribution of species obtained from open and public data sources using the sdm for a wider scale. this model is quite effective when used to determine the current distribution and possible future potential distributions if it only uses climate data (elith et al., 2011; booth, 2018; ahmed et al., 2020; amiri et al., 2020; andersen et al., 2022). this study aims to: 1) model the potential distribution of bubalus depressicornis and bubalus quarlesi not only in their natural habitat but also outside their natural habitat. ex-situ conservation will be possible after the discovery of new areas outside the original habitat. 2) comparing several famous regression models to get an overview of the distribution of species as well as testing a regression model that is suitable for modeling the distribution of endemic species. 3) modeling the prediction of species distribution as a result of future climate change phenomena to see how much influence climate change has on the distribution of this anoa species in its natural habitat. methods study area this study focuses on the entire area of sulawesi island and surrounding islands which is located between 01.7°n-05.8°s and 112.7°e-125.3°e. this area is the eleventh largest island 3 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 in the world with a projected area of 177,518.41 km2 by wgs 1984, located on the east side of kalimantan, west of the maluku islands, south of the lesser sunda islands and north of mindanao (philippines). the study area in this research is presented in the following figure 1. figure 1. location of (a) modelled area, in (b) sulawesi, (c) indonesia. model selection maximum entropy (maxent) is the method used in this research (phillips et al., 2006) which has proven successful in predicting the distribution of various fauna species using only species presence data (guo & liu, 2010; elith et al., 2011). there are three algorithm models adopted, namely: generalized linear model (glm), support vector machine (svm), and random forest (rf). each algorithm can transform nonlinear data between abnormal distributions and derived variables from independent variables (mccullagh & nelder, 1989; shabani et al., 2016), redundant data reading, errors during modeling, dependence on distributional assumptions (ravand & baghaei, 2016; hamidi et al., 2018; schmidt & finan, 2018) or with large amounts of data (howard et al., 2014), which can reduce over-fitting when predicting distributions (ren et al., 2015; hill et al., 2017). species distribution model data on the presence of species and environmental parameters that reflect the relevance of habitat variables will be explored using maxent (phillips et al., 2006; elith et al., 2011). maxent method runs on rstudio software (rstudio team, 2020) by utilizing available packages. the data used are 19 worldclim climate data for an average of 1970-2000 with a resolution of 1 km (worldclim, 2020) and the climate model intercomparison project version 5 (cmip5) which is the average prediction of climate conditions for 2080-2100 (taylor, 2009) with an accuracy of up to 0.5 km and is quite good at simulating geographic and temperature distributions (kamruzzaman et al., 4 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 2021). representative concentration pathways (rcp) data on cmip5 used is 8.5 (high scenario) to model the distribution of species in 2092 (taylor, 2009). worldclim and cmip5 spatial resolution data are reduced to 2.5 km according to the standard factor approach (wilby et al., 2004). the model is built from worldclim data called "bio" which is called from the rstudio software. data management is done by excluding climate data that has a high correlation value (vifcor = 0.7) and then knowing the relative importance of these variables. prediction of future climatic conditions using climatological data models with the same variables and with a spatial resolution of up to 2.5 km (wilby et al., 2004) for the next 70 years (taylor, 2009). there were 296 observations for b. depressicornis and 15 observations for b. quarlesi recorded in database of the global biodiversity information facility (gbif). however, only 15 data for b. depressicornis and 4 for b. quarlesi were used after ignoring duplicate data, coordinate errors, and data that did not have coordinates. it is assumed that each presence of data represents 1 species. the maxent model is built on predictors called the “biome”. replication (cross-validation) was applied 100 times. the resulting model is named "m". distribution modeling is carried out based on "biom" and "m" data. the species distribution model has then been processed into arcmap 10.4.1 software by dividing the distribution model class into 2 classes using interval equal method to see how far the suitability of climatic conditions for these species is. model evaluation the model of each algorithm was evaluated and compared by looking at the value of receiver operating characteristics area under curve (roc-auc) with cross-validation (shabani et al., 2018), correlation (cor), true skill statistics (tss) (fourcade et al., 2018) and deviance (agresti, 2018). the auc value represents the model validation based on the classification of positive and negative values for variables and presence data. a good auc value if value is above 0.7 (shabani et al., 2018). the evaluation was also carried out on the distribution model that had been classified using the results of observations from mustari (2019). in addition, predictions of the distribution of b. depressicornis (burton et al., 2016a), and b. quarlesi (burton et al., 2016) from the iucn red list were also used. the research flow chart can be seen in figure 2. 5 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 figure 2. research flow chart results and discussion endemic species distribution model this prediction model only displays scatter predictions based on presence data in pixels only. in figures 3a and 4a, the glm model does not have a low level of sensitivity to the location of the presence of low data on all species, this can be seen from the almost even distribution in all regions and generalized areas that are not species habitats. in contrast to glm, the svm model is slightly sensitive to non-habitat areas (low distribution = red) in b. depressicornis (figure 3b) and b. quarlesi (figure 4b) when viewed from the point of distribution of species presence. in figure 3c, the rf model shows the level of sensitivity to topographic variations and selects areas that show the presence of b. depressicornis (points of presence) as the distribution area of this species, such as rawa aopa watumohai national park (rawnp) (41) conservation area in southeast sulawesi province. the rf model also highlights the conservation area of the bogani nani wartabone national park (bnwnp) (5). areas of distribution of b. quarlesi such as the conservation area of the gandang dewata national park (tngd) (32) in central sulawesi are also 6 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 highlighted (figure 4c). both of these areas are b. depressicornis habitats in sulawesi. in addition, this model also highlights the lore lindu national park (tnll) (25) conservation area. the bnwnp (5) was also highlighted, but with a moderate level of distribution. figure 3. distribution model of bubalus depressicornis: (a) glm model; (b) svm model; (c) rf models. figure 4. distribution model of bubalus quarlesi: (a) glm model; (b) svm model; (c) rf models. determining the type of climate that is suitable for both species must go through a test of relative importance derived from variables. based on the correlation test on the selection of existing variables. seven variables have the potential to affect the distribution of b. depressicornis, namely bio2: diurnal range, bio8: temperature of wettest quarter, bio9: temperature of driest quarter, bio14: precipitation of driest month, bio15: precipitation seasonality, bio18: precipitation of warmest quarter, and bio19: precipitation of coldest quarter. likewise with b. quarlesi, but without the bio14 variable. the variables above represent trends in average annual temperature and annual rainfall over a period of years; seasonal range of temperature and annual rainfall; and the temperature of the coldest and warmest months, and the rainfall of the wet and dry months which are extreme environmental factors/limiting the movement of species. based on the correlation, it shows that the distribution of b. depressicornis is influenced by bio14=0.665 and also influenced by bio9=0.036 and bio19=0.036. the training correlation shows that the distribution of b. quarlesi is most influenced by bio2=0.525 with the least influence by bio15=0.175 and bio19=0.1755. the contribution of each parameter is presented in figure 5. 7 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 the results of the relative importance of the variables indicate that these two species are suitable for living in a tropical climate. the climate is usually warm and wet all year round and the rains are heavy and continuous. one day in an equatorial climate can be very similar to the next day. however, the gap between the hottest and coldest temperatures in 24 hours is larger than the change in the average temperature throughout the year (mcknight, 2000). anoa has adapted perfectly to the geology, physics, climate, and landscape of the island of sulawesi (mustari, 2019). the typical vegetation that inhabits most of the forests on sulawesi island is very suitable for the life of anoa (broto, 2015) and cannot be separated (mustari, 2019), because it can reduce the intensity of sunlight (aldiansyah, 2022) and maintain a macro-climate that is the habitat of anoa. figure 5. relative bioclimatic variable importance of bubalus depressicornis and bubalus quarlesi. besides being influenced by the structure and geological conditions in the pleistocene period (nugraha & hall, 2018), the endemicity of this species is influenced by climate, soil, the shape of the earth's surface, and factors from other living things (whitten & henderson, 2012). the endemicity of mammals in sulawesi requires ideal climate and weather conditions, especially air temperature and rainfall so that they can support the survival of species in nature (whitten & henderson, 2012). a study conducted by kasim (2002) and jahidin (2003) explained that anoa will faint and even die if left under the scorching sun without any protection. model accuracy based on data analysis, it shows that the distribution of svm and rf models is the best, although in some cases both models have advantages and disadvantages. in b. depressicornis species, svm and rf showed strong auc values (table 1). when referring to the accuracy results, svm is the best, but based on observations from several studies, svm makes mistakes. for example, buton island, which is the original habitat of b. depressicornis (martin et al., 2012; mustari, 2019), such as those found in lambusango wildlife sanctuary (ws) and north buton nature reserve (nr) (mustari, 2019). in the svm model, these two habitats are classified as areas with a low distribution of b. depressicornis, even though the area is the original habitat of this species (mahmud, 2009). although rf is not better than svm, rf is quite sensitive in classifying the distribution of this species when viewed from the appearance of the topographical structure which is the habitat requirement of this species (mustari, 2003; mustari, 2019; aldiansyah, 2022). the accuracy values of each model based on the auc, cor, tss, and deviance values are presented in table 1. 8 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 table 1. model accuracy evaluation species model glm svm rf auc bubalus depressicornis 0.88 0.89 0.92 bubalus quarlesi 0.99 1 1 cor bubalus depressicornis 0.5 0.86 0.59 bubalus quarlesi 0.85 1 0.84 tss bubalus depressicornis 0.8 0.83 0.87 bubalus quarlesi 0.99 1 1 deviance bubalus depressicornis 3.41 0.26 0.37 bubalus quarlesi 1.03 0.4 0.08 the distribution of the b. depressicornis species on sulawesi island can still develop, given the many factors that cause this species to thrive outside its natural habitat. in addition to climatic and topographical factors, other factors that can affect the distribution of b. depressicornis species are the abundance of feed types, and the availability of habitat components needed by animals, such as vegetation types and water availability (ranuntu & mallombasang, 2015). evenly distributed throughout the anoa's original habitat which can minimize the possibility of competition between other mammals for food (broto, 2015), as well as species breeding activities outside their natural habitat (ex-situ) carried out in captive breeding centers or conservation forest areas (mayasari et al., 2018). therefore, any area that has the above factors has the potential to become a distribution area for the b. depressicornis species on the island of sulawesi. the distribution modeling of b. quarlesi using the glm, svm and rf models also showed the same results as the b. depressicornis species. some built-up areas in west sulawesi province and agricultural/plantation areas in south sulawesi province were classified as having high b. quarlesi distribution. although it has a difference in the cor and deviance values of the rf model to the svm model. the rf model gives quite realistic model results when compared to the svm model. overall, the model used displays very good results, but it can be affected by many factors such as an error such as pixel size, number of samples, and area of study. the author suspects that there are some limitations in this study, such as the pixel resolution that uses 2.5 km so that it is possible to generalize the surrounding pixels if the unit is changed to 1 km or more in detail. the distribution of the two species is very minimal and uneven. the author is also limited to three species distribution model algorithms. the selection of variables on several factors that influence their distribution in nature is not taken into account such as human activities which are a real threat to this species (o'brien & kinnaird, 1996; burton et al., 2005; mustari, 2019; arini et al., 2020; aldiansyah, 2022). research conducted by collins & mcintyre (2015) on thirty studies on modeling the distribution of species in the world that the glm model is only used in 43% and 20% of rf. other models that are mostly applied such as artificial neural network (ann), boosted regression trees (brt), biomod, classified tree analysis (cta), flexible discriminant analysis (fda), general additive model (gam), generalized boosted model (gbm), multivariate adaptive regression splines (mars), mixture discriminant analysis (mda), and surface range envelopes (sre). different results will be obtained when using different distribution models (shabani et al., 2016) and different results will be obtained if using the same model based on the species and study area studied. in future types of research, it is hoped that the model will be tested more diverse and the data more evenly distributed across the region. 9 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 new distribution model both of our distribution models are based only on 15 (b. depressicornis) and 4 (b. quarlesi) presence points. the local distribution of the two anoa species is difficult to identify because these species occur in forest patches at different elevations or in a sympatric/parapattric manner (burton et al., 2005). based on the skull and bone records of b. quarlesi and b. depressicornis, as well as morphological descriptions, it is only found in the central sulawesi region, northern of buton island (burton et al., 2005), the northern peninsula, and along the southeast peninsula (groves, 1969). the b. depressicornis species is currently distributed on the northern peninsula of sulawesi island, as far east as bnwnp, in the central region, throughout the eastern and southeastern parts of the island, but this species is no longer found on the southwestern peninsula. (burton et al., 2005). the new distribution modeled by bioclimatic variables as well as in-situ species distribution data obtained from gbif gives promising results. figures 6a and 6c present a distribution map of species grouped with at least 50% probability. this area includes b. depressicornis covering an area of 105,417.19 km2 (59%) and b. quarlesi covering an area of 90,139.42 km2 (51%) of the total area of sulawesi (fern green color shows the distribution area). about 80% of the areas matched the presence of b. depressicornis (figure 8a), whereas 84% of the areas matched the presence of b. quarlesi (figure 8b). area match values based on auc were 0.92 for b. depressicornis and 1 for b. quarlesi (table 1). this value shows strong results. some conservation areas that were and are still natural habitats for b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi are classified correctly and incorrectly based on the distribution and important habitats of anoa such as conservation areas, and protected forests in sulawesi, presented in figure 8. validation the distribution models of b. depressicornis (burton et al., 2016a), and b. quarlesi (burton et al., 2016b) in figures 6b & 6d, have similar patterns and regions. the b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi are estimated to inhabit or fit in at 97,800.7 km2 and 70,967.1 km2, respectively. this area is smaller than the estimated area of this study. the predicted distribution model also has corridors, b. depressicornis also shows connectivity from the side of the corridor between west sulawesi and south sulawesi, and b. quarlesi between west sulawesi and central sulawesi which did not exist in previous studies (figures 6a & 6c). as for b. depressicornis which has a corridor that connects from south sulawesi around bone bay to southeast sulawesi, from the data released by iucn, this corridor is not predicted but can be identified in the new distribution model (figure 6a & 6b). the iucn in 2016 also recorded that there is a possibility of b. depressicornis experiencing extinction in southeast sulawesi and this data has similarities with the new distribution model shown in figure 7. however, this statement is not entirely true, because in june 2022 two b. depressicornis were seen which were identified based on visible physical characteristics, namely the anoa parent looks solid black while the cubs are yellowish brown in the vicinity of the nickel mining area of konawe regency (yunus, 2022). the new distribution model covers several important distribution areas and habitats (mustari, 2019). areas confirmed to have b. depressicornis, such as: mount tinombala (17), takolekaju mountains (24), nantu-boliyohuto ws (7), rawnp (41), tanjung peropa ws (43), tanjung amolengo ws (44), tanjung batikolo ws (45), north buton nr (49) (figure 8a). the areas confirmed to have b. quarlesi include: mayoa-mampi-seko (25), mount pompangeo (26), faruhumpenai nr (31), forest in the toraja mountains (37), and gdnp (32) (figure 8b). other areas confirmed to have a mixture of b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi both from dna fossils and the presence of species such as the panua nr (6), llnp (11), kambuno katena protected forest (38), latimojong mountains (35), tanjung polewali ws (42), mangolo nature park (46), grand forest park tanjung nipa nipa (47) (figures 8a & 8b). 10 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 figure 6. anoa distribution prediction: (a) a new model of bubalus depressicornis; (b)prediction of bubalus depressicornis from iucn (2016); (c) new model bubalus quarlesi; (d) prediction of bubalus quarlesi from iucn (2016). figure 7. predicted distribution of bubalus depressicornis and probability of extinction: (a) sulawesi; (b) southeast sulawesi. 11 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 figure 8. the prediction of the distribution of anoa overlaps with the results of observations for the species identified by mustari (2019) in sulawesi: (a) bubalus depressicornis; (b) bubalus quarlesi. future species distribution scenarios distribution scenarios for b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi are still viable in most areas of sulawesi if viewed from future climatic conditions. it is estimated that b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi still fit in an area of 143,281.78 km2 (81%) and 136,892.89 km2 (77%) of sulawesi's area. however, both of these species experienced a reduction in the distribution area. the area, including buton island and the surrounding islands, is an area that is predicted to be unsuitable as a habitat for b. depressicornis from a climatic aspect. other areas include the pati-pati ws (13), rawnp (41), tanjung peropa ws (43), tanjung amolengo wildlife refuge (44), tanjung batikolo ws (45), tanjung polewali ws (42), north buton nr (49), and lambusango ws (50) also cannot become a habitat for b. depressicornis due to climate change (figure 9a). the lambuyanpangimanan ws (14) is not suitable as a habitat for b. quarlesi (figure 9b). according to leclerc et al. (2020), sulawesi is potentially very vulnerable to climate change. in addition to being a threat to island ecosystems (leclerc et al., 2018), climate change will have an impact on populations in nature (leclerc et al., 2020). sulawesi has never been identified by climate change for the mammal category (pacifici et al., 2018) or other taxonomic groups (foden et al., 2013). anoa tends to be picky in habitat and food as a result of their inability to tolerate even small climate changes (leclerc et al., 2020). if mammals that reproduce quickly are more at risk of extinction (gonzález-suárez et al., 2013), anoa that reproduces slowly will be more vulnerable to extinction because they are known to only give birth to 1 child/birth (mustari, 2019; mustari, 2020). this became serious after this study was conducted. this study can provide an overview of the first actions for conservation efforts in their natural habitat. 12 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 figure 9. distribution prediction of anoa 2092: (a) bubalus depressicornis; (b) bubalus quarlesi. conclusion three models can visualize the distribution of species based on presence data and bioclimatic variables only. the best model based on the comparison of statistical tests and observational data shows that the rf model is quite good for modeling species distribution. variables that have a high correlation with climate are bio2, bio8, bio9, bio14, bio15, bio18, and bio19. the results of the relative importance show that b. depressicornis and b. quarlesi are only suitable for living in a tropical climate with a warm and wet climate throughout the year, where the difference in temperature at night and during the day is very large. there is a corridor connecting the b. quarlesi area, which is between west sulawesi and south sulawesi, and b. quarlesi between west sulawesi and central sulawesi. ex-situ conservation actions can be carried out on these two species because most of sulawesi's areas have suitable habitats from a climate perspective. however, as climate change occurs, some areas that are native habitats are becoming more vulnerable. in the future, b. depressicornis is estimated to be compatible in an area of 143,281.78 km2 or equivalent to 81% of the total area, while b. quarlesi is estimated to be suitable for an area of 136,892.89 km2 or equivalent to 77% of total area of sulawesi. the habitat areas that are thought to be unsuitable include the pati-pati ws, rawnp, tanjung peropa ws, tanjung peropa wildlife reserve (wr), tanjung batikolo ws, tanjung polewali ws, preserve north buton nr, lambusango ws on b. depressicornis, and lambuyan-pangimanan ws on b. quarlesi. acknowledgments the authors extend their appreciation to dean of faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, universitas indonesia. 13 septianto aldiansyah & khalid abdul wahid / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 1-18 declarations conflict of interest the authors declare that in the research and preparation of this article, there are no conflict of interests related to certain organizations, institutions, and individuals or groups. ethical approval on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that the paper satisfies ethical standards conditions, no human participants, or animals are involved in the research. informed consent on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that no human participants are involved in the research and, therefore, informed consent is not required by them. data availability data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. references agresti, a. 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[20 june 2022]. zhang, h., sun, x., zhang, g., zhang, x., miao, y., zhang, m., ... & huang, l. (2023). potential global distribution of the habitat of endangered gentiana rhodantha franch: predictions based on maxent ecological niche modeling. sustainability, 15(1), 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2021.106430 https://www.kompas.id/baca/nusantara/2022/06/07/habitat-terganggu-anoa-muncul-di-lokasi-perusahaan-tambang-di-konawe https://www.kompas.id/baca/nusantara/2022/06/07/habitat-terganggu-anoa-muncul-di-lokasi-perusahaan-tambang-di-konawe methods study area model selection species distribution model model evaluation model accuracy new distribution model validation future species distribution scenarios conclusion 1 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 improving the urban planning of the green zones in aldammam metropolitan area, ksa, using integrated gis location-allocation and accessibility models ashraf abdelkarim research center, ministry of housing, riyadh, 84428, saudi arabia corresponding author: dr.ashrafgis2020@gmail.com received 6 february 2020/ revised 22 february 2020/ accepted 1 march 2020/ published 10 april 2020 abstract in the present study, the location-allocation and the accessibility models of gis were integrated with the urban planning standards of the ministry of municipal and rural affairs of kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa) in order to enhance the spatial planning and the environmental sustainability of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area, ksa. the integration of these models provides a framework for investigating the efficiency of the spatial distribution of the green zones and generating alternatives either by suggesting new effective service or by improving an existing one. to achieve these purposes, the accessibility within (5, 10 and 15) minutes to the service areas in the green zones that is classified into nine types (“neighborhood gardens”, “specialized parks”, “cities gardens”, “children’s gardens”, “district gardens”, “streets and squares gardens”, “sports city”, “sports clubs” and “playgrounds”) was analyzed through analyzing the network structure of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. the location-allocation model was used based on the maximum coverage within response time of no more than 10 minutes.the study revealed poor distribution of the green zones, the low per capita green zones rates with only (3.52 m2/person) and there were no green zones in 45 districts representing 33.3% of the total districts in the investigated area. consequently, al-dammam metropolitan area suffers from the weakness of the green zones structure and the shortage in fulfilling the needs of population. the current needs were determined as nine services by two “sports cities”, two “sports clubs”, two “streets and squares gardens”, one “district garden”, one “children’s garden” and one “specialized park”. it is recommended that the results of this study be taken into consideration by the decision makers while developing the urban planning strategies for improving the infrastructure efficiency as the ksa vision 2030. keywords: urban planning; environmental sustainability; green zones; accessibility; locationallocation models; fair and efficient spatial distribution; ksa vision 2030. 1. introduction there is an increasing scientific recognition (daniel et al.2017; dinand and sjerp 2017; angela 2014; dongkun & hyeyeong,2011) of the importance of the functional, recreational, environmental and health roles played by the open green zones in the people’s geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 1 (2020), 1-46, april, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i1.16708 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:dr.ashrafgis2020@gmail.com https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 2 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 life in the modern cities. it plays a vital role in reducing the air and audiovisual pollution and improving the local climatic conditions in cities. the open green zones exist not only to give a good view and reflect the welfare but also to provide many other environmental, psychological, social and visual benefits. this makes it one of the basic services that must be provided in a city. studying the green zones has gained the attention of many researchers in many aspects including; allotment gardens (jürgen & martina 2015; daniels & kirkpatrick 2006), green urban landscapes (hand et al., 2016; sarel et al., 2014), accessibility to green spaces (dong et al.2015; lina et al., 2017), general garden planning (yuhong & jim 2011; jim 2015), forest planning and management (tenley & jennifer 2015; liisa et al., 2001), national parks and demographic change (greg et al.,2014; mario et al.,2014), assessment of the spatial distribution efficiency of the green zones (hao et al., 2017) and the modern techniques of the assessment and planning of the green zones (root et al., 2017). in the context of urban planning, green areas include different areas, such as parks, urban forests, nature reserves, waterways, playgrounds and other informal green areas (la rosa 2014; la rosa and privitera 2013; dai 2011) in this study the concept of green lands can be defined according to the urban planning guide issued in may 2019 by the ministry of municipal and rural affairs in saudi arabia: it is a collection of unbuilt and abandoned lands for use as a breathing space for surrounding uses and urban blocks. the ministry of municipal and rural affairs has classified the green lands into nine main categories in its guide, namely: children's gardens, a nearby garden, and a garden, the neighborhood, the city park, the street gardens and squares, a specialized park (corniche), a playground, sports clubs, and a sports city which have been adopted in the current study. many studies (rahman & smith, 1996; fisher & rushton, 1979) have demonstrated the effect of site analysis in urban regional planning services. one of the most important methods is the accessibility and location-allocation modeling. accessibility is broad (gould 1969) and the simple definition of accessibility is how fast or how far one has to go to reach a place, and refers to the spatial relationship, or degree of connection between this site and all other places in the region, although it is often defined as a relative proximity from one place to another (yin & xu, 2009). accessibility analysis and location-allocation modeling studies provide a spatial quantitative information to evaluate the former local planning decisions and to generate 3 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 alternatives either by suggesting new effective service systems or by improving the existing service systems, this is because the local planning decisions made by government or local leaders are often far from ideal. the application of geographic analysis in services planning has been introduced in the recent years as a highly dynamic research area (abdulkader, 2018). the application of the gis accessibility and location-allocation models depends on the existence of spatial and demographic distribution in a specific manner and determining the demand locations based on specific criteria for selecting the best sites for services (abdulkader, 2018). the minimum impedance and maximum coverage models are regarded the most efficient models for planning the green zones services (daskin & dean 2004). there is a growing interest in public urban green lands as one of the most important elements of sustainable urban planning around the world, simply because it provides important ecosystem services for urban dwellers, including recreational and sports activities. most studies have shown that access to urban green lands is associated with increased wellbeing, physical health and social communication (de vries et al., 2003; maas et al., 2006; kondo et al., 2018; villeneuve et al. 2012; wood et al., 2017; wu et al., 2015) and reduced chronic job-related stress (herrera et al.2018). in addition, urban green lands can support biodiversity (strohbach et al., 2009; dallimer et al., 2012), support a range of benefits known as ecosystem services (tratalos et al.2007; bolund & hunhammar, 1999), and mitigate the effects of urban heat island (onishi et al., 2010). accessibility and location allocation were used as effective information to measure the efficiency of the spatial distribution of the transportation network and widely inequitable access to health services (francisco et al., 2017), access to primary health care centers in johannesburg (hunadi, 2014), to allocate an improved site to earthquake relief centers (bahram et al., 2018), to allocate the site to fire stations (samira et al., 2018), spatial analysis of fire stations in india (javaid et al., 2017), land planning (geurs, 2004), urban planning (zhong et al., 2016; wei & yang, 2016), and tourism planning (pan & cong 2012; jin et al., 2010). with regard to the application of accessibility and the allocation of sites in green areas, they were applied in the study of access to green areas of shanghai (fan et al., 2017), access to nearby greenery and human health (dinand & sjerp, 2017), and the effects of population density on the quantity and structure of green spaces (daniel et al., 2017), accessibility 4 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 analysis for nearby gardens (muge et al., 2016), citizen comfort analysis using accessibility to green areas(lin et al., 2019), accessibility using land suitable for public parks in larkana (imtiaz et al., 2011), modelling of access for older people to green areas in high-density cities (fangyinget al.2016), and planning urban green areas environmental network (haifeng et al., 2015). according to gis modelling, gis spatial modelling methods in gis include buffer analysis(li et al., 2016), analysis of the minimum approach distance (yin et al., 2008), the gravitational indicator method (hu et al., 2005; zhou & guo, 2004), the cost resistance analysis (ma & cao, 2006), analysis of possible spatial access to green area (yin 2008; li & liang, 2009; ma & lu 2011; zhoa et al., 2015). distance is a dominant aspect of accessibility indicators for nature or urban green lands, and the frequency of the effects of green land use decreases as the distance increases (coombes et al., 2010). most studies have confirmed that access to natural environments outside the home at a distance of 300 meters is associated positively with mental health indicators (triguero-mas et al., 2015), and in the united states the standard for walking is a mile or 400 meters at most (sturm & cohen, 2014).the importance of access to nearby green lands was also recognized in the policy, with the european environment agency recommending that green lands must be accessible within a 15-minute walk from the residents' residence (department for environment food and rural affairs 2019). the urban planning for the use and management of the green zones is of exceptional importance especially in cities located in hot and dry latitudes like al-dammam metropolitan area. the green zones are regarded one of the planning treatment methods for creating suitable and comfortable climatic conditions for the population. the nature of the desert climate, the rapid increase in the population and urbanization particularly after the petroleum discovery, the increasing air and audiovisual pollution as a result of the development of the petroleum city and the resulting increase of human activities makes the existence, management and development of the green zones a necessity in the urban environment of aldammam metropolitan area. the present study aiming to improve the spatial urban planning of the green zones at aldammam metropolitan area ensures that neglecting the planning of green zones based on integrating the standards of urban planning with the accessibility and location-allocation models leads to the misuse of the green zones. this may increase the inadequacy o f the 5 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 environment for fulfilling the environmental climatic and recreational needs of the population besides lowering the per capita rates of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area compared to other arabian and international cities. compared to the previous studies, this study is distinguished by combining two of the most effective scientific methods in the process of evaluating and planning services and green areas. these are the accessibility method in information systems and site allocation models. this study was also distinguished from the other studies in that it applied local and international planning standards in assessing green areas. this study is also unique because it took into consideration 9 different types of green areas and did not depend only on one or two types, which gives the study a comprehensive characteristic in its handling of the topic of green areas. the previous studies also revealed the shortage of studies in the arab library about the effective systematic integration of modern methods with geographic information systems in its handling of urban planning issues that put the green areas at the top of their priorities. this study takes on special importance for a number of considerations, including the apparent lack of urban green lands research in the arab regions in general and in the saudi arabian community in particular, unlike in the european and northern american regions. therefore, there is no opportunity to compare the locations of green lands that differ. there is no study in the field of the current research subject, which is the integration of accessibility models and the allocation of location in gis in order to improve the spatial planning of green lands. therefore, this study is unique as one of the first studies in the arab library that applies. it is also noticeable that there is a section of these studies that are listed in the context of previous studies which are consistent with the researcher's study in improving the spatial planning of health services by applying accessibility models and the allocation of location in gis.however, it was applied to areas outside the arab region. moreover, this helps the methodology and methods used in this study to generalize the results to urban planning models in other similar areas, in addition to demonstrating the true importance of gis model studies in urban planning. this study seeks to determine the efficiency of the spatial distribution of the green zones and its compatibility with the residential neighborhoods in al-dammam metropolitan area. it ensures the needed functional effectiveness and suggests new services based on modern unique approach through integrating the urban planning standards with the accessibility 6 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 models. it aims to determine the efficiency and pattern of the distribution of the green zones with its various types through several analytical and statistical gis techniques. this study also seeks to determine the current and future needs of the different types of green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area using the location-allocation technique. 2. area of study al-dammam metropolitan area lies in the eastern province of ksa, at the arabian gulf coast between the waters of the arabian gulf and the dunes of ad-dahna desert. it is located between latitudes 26° 06' n to 26° 30' n and longitudes of 49° 40' e to 50° 15' e. administratively, it consists of three cities (al-dammam, al-khobar and al-dhahran) with total 135 neighborhoods and overall area of 59 thousand hectares. al-dammam metropolitan area is the third largest urban community in ksa as the population increased from 360 thousands in 1980 to 1.9 million in 2019. it is limited to the east and north east by the arabian gulf, to the south by al aziziah and half moon cities, to the north west by sihat city, and to the west by ad-dahna desert. the general land slope in al-dammam metropolitan area is towards the gulf forming the so-called coastal plains (figures 1, 2and 3). one of the main features of al-dammam metropolitan area is the arabian gulf coast that extends from the south to the north in the eastern and northeastern borders of the area forming a distinctive water front. al-dammam metropolitan area is dominated by the strip pattern that appears in the traditional planning designs of the new buildings of al-dammam and al-khobar cities. 7 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 z figure 1. the location of al-dammam metropolitan in the kingdom of saudi arabia in 2019 8 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 2. the location and administrative divisions of al-dammam metropolitan area as of year 2019 9 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 3. districts of al-dammam metropolitan area as of year 2019 10 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 the privilege of the location of al-dammam metropolitan area allowed it to be the center of economic and administrative growth in the eastern province of the ksa. aldammam metropolitan area has very good transportation facilities, as it is linked to the other cities in the kingdom by a good transportation network. internationally, al-dammam metropolitan area is not less than its competitors on the arabian gulf coast; dubai, abu dhabi, doha, manama and kuwait. nationally, it is regarded as a main development center and a tourist attraction area for tourists from all over the kingdom and from the neighboring countries. al-dammam metropolitan area is a major and vital source for petroleum oil in ksa and the world. it contains about 20 % of the world’s oil reserves. the petroleum sector in aldammam metropolitan area gained extra importance after the discovery of large oil, natural gas reserves that are enough for over a century of production at the current rates. the petroleum industries have contributed significantly to the development of al-dammam metropolitan area, it led to an increase in the population and urbanization rates, expansion of the urban activities and lack of services of the green zones in the area. 3. methods this study combined the analysis of the accessibility to the green zones service areas to evaluate and to determine its coverage based on defined time intervals, with the locationallocation analysis. this also aims to plan the future of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area and determine the areas of deficiency and suggest new locations for services. gis network analysis is one of the most powerful tools used in this study as it is largely connected to the roads network which is the main transportation mean (esri, arc gis 2019). other spatial and statistical analysis tools were also used for determining the green zones spatial distribution pattern. the methodology of assessment and planning of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area has gone through five stages using the arc gis software (figure4), as follows: the first stage was collecting the required data for the surface network analysis including roads layer and service locations layer and other descriptive information such as information about the road segments (distance, time required, waiting time, speed and 11 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 direction). all the collected data were projected by the same projection system to ensure that the results and outputs have the same ground projection. the second stage was carrying out the “topology” on the roads layer in order to solve any spatial errors. the third stage included building the attribute table and filling specified attributes with the corresponding descriptive data to act as weights when performing the surface network analysis. the fourth stage included building the network data-set on the roads layer with filled attribute weights after being processed against the topology errors. the fifth stage included performing the accessibility analysis based on service area analysis to evaluate the current standings of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area and to determine the coverage of services within time intervals of 5, 10 and 15minutes. the accessibility analysis is accessed from the network analysis toolbar in arc gis after activating it. figure 4.the adopted methodology and stages of the study 12 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 the parameters of the accessibility analysis layer were defined as follows: the impedance weight attribute (distance or time), the outputs fit to the borders of the roads network layer using the “trim polygon” tool, and the output ranges merged using the “merge by default break” tool. after setting the parameters of the analysis layer and adding the layer of services locations (facilities) in the “network analysis window”, the output was obtained by solving the network using the “solve” tool. the output for all the administrative sections is then obtained for each section individually to determine the percentage of service coverage for each administrative section.figure 5 illustrates the structure of the model of accessibility to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. the fifth stage also included performing the location-allocation analysis for planning the future of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area and for defining the areas of deficiency and suggesting new services. the location-allocation model is performed after building the roads network. it is accessed from the network analyst toolbar and it’s parameters such as impedance weight attribute and value (distance or time), the number of facilities (facilities to choose), the impedance cutoff, and the location-allocation problem type. figure 6 illustrates the structure of the location-allocation model for the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. there are seven types of the location-allocation models (hakimi1964), in the present study; the maximum coverage type was used (rahman and smith 1996) with the formula: maximize {𝐹 = ∑ 𝛼ᵢ𝑥ᵢ}𝑖∊𝐼 (1) where (i) is the group of demand points or the time duration or the population as weight, (xᵢ) is the location-allocation parameter with either zero or one value only. after setting the parameters of the analysis layer and selecting the “maximize coverage” location-allocation type, the spatial locations of services (facilities) and the demand points were provided for the administrative sections of the study area and were represented by points layer in the network analysis window. 13 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 5.the structure of the accessibility model to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. 14 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 6.the structure of the location-allocation model of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area the network is then solved using the “solve” tool for obtaining results and suggesting new locations for services in all the administrative sections in al-dammam metropolitan area of study. 15 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 various gis spatial and statistical analysis tools were used in this study such as; geographic distribution measuring tools (“standard distance” and “directional distribution”), and proximity analysis tools (“buffer”), these tools were implemented effectively to evaluate the spatial distribution pattern of the green zones in the investigated area. this study depended on official governmental sources for data represented by the gis unit (issue 101, 2019) provided by the secretariat of the ksa eastern province. twelve digital gis layers were obtained including; the administrative borders of the cities of the ksa eastern province, the administrative division of al-dammam metropolitan area, the boundaries of the neighborhoods of al-dammam metropolitan area, and nine different green zones layers including; children’s gardens, neighborhoods gardens, districts gardens, cities gardens, streets and squares gardens, specialized parks (corniche), playgrounds, sports clubs, and sports cities. maps for the urban expansion were also obtained. 4. results and discussion 4.1. geographical distribution of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area many studies (mirchandani & francis 1990; marsh & schilling 1994; tammy 2004; tsou et al., 2005; tammy & zvi, 2007) ensure that the spatial equilibrium is the main aim of the spatial expansion, this can be beneficial for social, urban and regional sustainability and to the rational share of the public welfare. reaching the spatial equilibrium is an effective way for achieving the maximum social welfare, in some cases the geographic redistribution is the solution for correcting the misdistribution and achieving the fair equilibrium (yasenovskiy & hodgson 2007; puerto et al., 2009; ma et al.,2017; wu et al., 2018). from the analysis of results in (table 1) and (figure 7), it was found that the total number of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area was 697 with total area of 6.88 million square meters. there were 311 “neighborhoods gardens” representing 45% of the total number of green zones with total area of about 1.1 million m2. there were 214 “specialized park” representing 31% with total area of about 2.2 million m2. the “districts gardens” with total amount of 85 gardens represented about 12% of the total number with total area of about 976 thousand m2. the40“children’s gardens” represented about 6% with total area of about 44 thousand m2. al-dammam city’s green zones were the largest in total number with 402 representing about 58% of the total green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. while, al-khobar city 16 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 constituted 232 green zones representing 33%. finally al-dhahran city constituted only 63 green zones representing 9% of the total number of green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. it was found that al shatie al gharbi district in al-dammam city constituted the largest number of green zones in the city with 140 zone representing about 34.8% of the total green zones in the city, followed by al hamra district by about 9.7%, and then as salam district by 4.7%. figure 7.the geographical distribution of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area, 2019 17 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 regarding al-dhahran city, the first rank was ad doha al janubiyah district with 22 green zones representing 34.9%of the total number of green zones in al-dhahran city, followed by ad dana al shamaliyah district with 28.6% and then ad doha al shamaliyah district with 14.3%.concerning al-khobar city. al-morjan district constituted the largest share of the total number of the green zones in the city by 48 green zones representing 20.7% then al kawthar district by 12.5% and ash sheraa district in the third rank by 10.3%. table 1.the geographic distribution in terms of numbers and areas of the green zones in aldammam metropolitan area. al-dammam metropolitan area al-khobar city al-dhahran city al-dammam city (1000 m2) number (1000 m2) number (1000 m2) number (1000 m2) number 1148.33 311 641.97 157 109.11 36 397.25 118 neighborhood gardens 2296.02 214 289.8 8 0 0 2006.22 206 specialized parks 44.9 40 18.65 18 8.37 11 17.07 11 children’sgardens 976.1 85 357.47 31 116.13 10 502.5 44 district gardens 236.46 8 53.92 1 34.33 3 148.21 4 streets and squares gardens 565.33 13 206.93 8 156.43 2 201.97 3 city gardens 1335.26 3 1146.22 1 0 0 189.04 2 sports city 231.31 15 224.95 7 0 0 6.35 8 sports clubs 56.29 8 1.39 1 19.94 1 34.96 6 playgrounds 6889.19 697 2941.3 232 444.31 63 3503.58 402 total green zones the number of green zones distributed over the districts of al-dammam metropolitan area differed due to the different demand rates. it was noticed that the green zone type with teh largest number was the “neighborhoods gardens” serving over 67 districts representing about 49.6% of the total number of districts in al-dammam metropolitan area. while the least frequently established green zone type was the “sports cities” serving about 3 districts only representing about 2.2%. the geographical distribution of the green zones has been affected by the urban growth, as al-dammam metropolitan area witnessed an unprecedented increase and development in the urban area. during 1934 to 2018 period, the urban area increased 1281.6 times, from 34 hectares in 1,934 to 43,575 hectares in 2018 by total increase of 43,541 hectares with average annual increase of 518 hectares throughout the period. it was found that the urban mass formed before 1934 including; ar rabi, as souq, gharb al-dhahran, al thuqbah and al 18 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 khobar al janubiyah districts constituting the largest share of the green zones services (fig. 8). while, the newly founded urban mass including; al fursan and al hadabah districts in northwestern al-dammam metropolitan area, and al aqiq, al kawthar, al lo’lo’, al amwaj and ash shera districts in south al-dammam metropolitan area suffered a serious deficiency in the green zones despite the plan to build them. it was also noticeable that the geographical distribution of the green zones was influenced by the density of the population. the general population density in al-dammam metropolitan area was 33person/hectare. at the cities level; al-khobar city was the most densely populated in al-dammam metropolitan area by 35 person/hectare, followed by aldammam city by 33 person/hectare and then al-dhahran city by 25 person/hectare (figure8). al thuqbah district in al-khobar city is characterized by the high population density reaching 659 person/hectare, followed by al eskan district in al-dammam city by 634 person/hectare. meanwhile, al jawhara district in al-dammam city had the lowest population density, as low as 0.26 person/hectare. it was noticed that districts with population density of more than 200 person/hectare contained large numbers of green zones (i.e. there was a direct correlational relationship between the population density and the number of green zones with a strong correlation up to 98%). 19 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 8. (a)the urban growthand (b) the population density in al-dammam metropolitan area by analyzing the characteristics of the geographical distribution of the green zones in aldammam metropolitan area using gis spatial and statistical “standard deviational ellipse” analysis tools, it was found that the green zones were distributed over al-dammam metropolitan area in nw-se (northwest-southeast) direction, ellipse and characterized by small size with 74.97% of the length of diameter extoending from north to south. the ellipse shape included 71 districts representing 52.59% of the total number of districts, while, the other 47.41% fell outside the ellipse (figure 9). the geographical distribution of the types of green zones was obtained using the “standard deviational ellipse” tool and showed the distribution details as follows: for the “children’s gardens”, the distribution direction took nw-se axes, the ellipsoid was characterized by large size with 61.46% of the length of diameter extending from north to 20 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 south. the ellipse included 87 districts representing 64.44% of the total number of districts.while, 35.56% of the districts fell outside the ellipse. regarding the services of (“neighborhoods gardens”, “districts gardens”, “city gardens”, “streets and squares gardens”, “specialized parks (cornice)”, “playgrounds”, “sports clubs”, and “sports cities”), the distribution direction took n-s (north-south) direction and the ellipsoid was characterized by its small sizes with lengths ranging from 24.24 to 69.47% of the length of the diameter extending nw-se (northwest-southwest). figure 9. the distribution direction, standard deviational distance, and the mean center for the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area, 2019 21 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 from the analysis of the “mean center” results, it was found that the mean geographic center of the (“children’s gardens”, “neighborhoods gardens”, “district gardens”, “city garden”, and “specialized parks”) services lie in gharb al-dhahran district; while, for the “streets and squares gardens”, the geographic center lied in the hagr district; for the “playgrounds”, it lied in abdallahfouad district; for the “sports clubs”, it lied in the sports city district; and for the “sports cities”, it lied in al hussam district. from the analysis of the “average nearest neighbor distance” results, it was noticable that the spatial distribution of the green zones had a “clustered pattern” with value of (0.45) and zvalue of (-27.65) which was lower than the critical value of z-parameter. for the types of green zones of (“children’s gardens”, “neighborhoods gardens”, “districts gardens”, “specialized parks”, and “sports clubs”), the pattern of distribution was “clustered patterns” with values ranging from (0.28 to 0.49) and z-values ranging from -6.63 to 19.93. while, the green zones types of (“cities gardens”, “streets and squares gardens”, and “playgrounds”) were found to have “random patterns” of distribution with values ranging from (1.02 to 1.28) and z-values from (0.11 to 1.52). the distribution pattern of the “sports city” type of green zones was found to be a “dispersed pattern” with value of (3.51) and zvalue of (8.33) (figure 10). figure 10.the nearest neighbor analysis for the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area, 2019 22 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 4.2. evaluation of the efficiency of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area 4.2.1. basics and criteria of the urban planning (quantitatively and spatially) for the assessment of the green zones efficiency determining the efficiency and adequacy of the spatial distribution of the green zones is a very important element of the contemporary urban planning (castella et al., 2005), which gained enormous benefits from the modern techniques, especially, the gis spatial and statistical analysis tools. this comes for ensuring the ease of accessibility to the green zones through selecting (allocating) the optimal locations and through the fair distribution of these zones (ohta et al., 2007; howerton, 2006; zhu et al., 2005). the optimal traffic rates an area of focus to the planners, geographers and decision-makers; this reflects the importance of the development of the spatial analysis in gis. spatial analysis is one of the most important functions of the gis because the results of this analysisare used as the basis of the decisions making and new maps generation (cody & heather 2017; johannes & hubert 2017). this study is based on the standards set by the ksa ministry of municipal and rural affairs for evaluating the efficiency and planning the current and future needs of green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. therefore, the results of study were introduced to the decision-makers (table 2). table 2. the 2019 planning standards (quantitative and spatial) of green zones in aldammam metropolitan area the spatial buffer of the services (m) per capita green zones rates (m 2 /person) service population rates higher limit lower limit higher lower (person) 10000 meter 5000 meter 0.2 0.18 5000001000000 sports city 500 meter 250 meter 0.8 0.4 100000-250000 sports clubs 1200 meter 800 meter 1 0.7 50000-100000 playgrounds 5000 meter 2500 meter 0.8 0.6 +100000 specialized parks 1000 meter 500 meter 0.7 0.45 50000-150000 streets and squares gardens 5000 meter 2000 meter 0.4 0.3 +40000 city gardens 800 meter 400 meter 0.5 0.4 15000-25000 district gardens 250 meter 100 meter 1.2 0.9 3000-5000 neighborhood gardens 275 meter 50meter 0.33 0.22 1500-4000 children’s gardens 5.93 4.15 total 23 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 reviewing the current standings of the per capita rates of the green zones in aldammam metropolitan area (figure11)and (table 3), it was found that the rate was 3.52 m2/ person. this rate was lower than the standard rate of 5.9 m2/ person determined by the ministry of municipal and rural affairs of ksa. at the cities level; it was found that the per capita rates of the green zones in al-dammam city was 3.15 m2/person. while, for alkhobar city, it was 4.21 m2/person, and for al-dhahran city, it was 3.03 m2/person. it was clear that in al-dammam and al-dhahran cities, the rates were obviously lower than the standard rate, while in al-khobar city, it was fairly compatible with the planning standard rate. table 3.the 2019 per capita rates of green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area green zones al-dammam city al-dhahran city al-khobar city al-dammam metropolitan area “neighborhood gardens” (m2/person) 0.36 0.74 0.92 0.59 “specialized parks” (m2/person) 1.80 0.00 0.41 1.17 “children’s gardens” (m2/person) 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.02 “district gardens” (m2/person) 0.45 0.79 0.51 0.50 “streets and squares gardens” (m2/person) 0.13 0.23 0.08 0.12 “city gardens” (m2/person) 0.18 1.07 0.30 0.29 “sports city” (m2/person) 0.17 0.00 1.64 0.68 “sports clubs” (m2/person) 0.01 0.00 0.32 0.12 “playgrounds” (m2/person) 0.03 0.14 0.00 0.03 total (m2/person) 3.15 3.03 4.21 3.52 at the districts level, there were four main categories of the per capita rates of green zones. the first category was for the districts with per capita rates less than 2.5 m2/person. this included 40 districts representing 29.63% of the total districts in al-dammam metropolitan area, inhabited by 1,116,127 inhabitants representing about 57% of the total population. al jalawiyah, azzuhur, al anoud, arrawdah, hagr, al muraikabat, al mazruiyah, ohud, al wahah, and al badee districts were the most important districts included in the first category. the second category comprised of districts with per capita ranging from 2.5 to 5 m2/person, including 17 districts representing 12.6% with 226,139 inhabitants representing 11.5% of the total population. 24 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 11. the per capita rates of total green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area, 2019 the most important districts of the second category included: arrakah ash shamaliyah, an nuzhah, al hussam, al firdaws, tuhamah, al aziziyah, ad dabab, al faisaliyah, ad dana al janubiyah, and ad doha al shamaliyah. the third category comprised of districts with per capita rates ranging from 5 to 7.5 m2/person, this category was represented by 3 districts (an nawras, king fahd suburb, and al manar) representing 2.22% of the total districts and containing 20,573 inhabitants representing 1.1% of the total population in al-dammam metropolitan area. the fourth category comprisedof districts with per capita green zones rates of more than 7.5 m2/person.it comprised of 30 districts representing about 22.22% of the total districts in al-dammam metropolitan area, inhabited by 163,427 inhabitants representing about 8.3% of the total population. the districts of al fanar, arrayyan, an nur, al hamra, as sadafa, al shatie al gharbi, qasr al khalij, as salam, as safa, and an nada were regarded the most important districts included in the fourth category. from the previous statistical analysis, it was found that there were existing green zones in 90 districts representing about 66.6% of the 25 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area and inhabited by 1,526,266 inhabitants. while, the other 45 districts with 432,478 inhabitants did not own any green zones. by applying the gis “buffer” technique to evaluate the effectiveness of the green zones types; it was found that; using 250m buffer for the “neighborhoods gardens”, about 47% of the districts fell outside the 800m effective buffer of the “districts gardens” (figure12), 87% of the districts fell outside the 275m effective buffer of the “children’s gardens”, 44% of the districts fell outside the 5,000m effective buffer of the “specialized parks” (figure13), 81% of the districts were outside the 1,000m effective buffer of the “streets and squares gardens”, 81% of the districts were outside the 500m effective buffer of the “cities gardens” ( figure14), 84% of the districts were outside the 500m effective buffer of the “sports clubs”, and 24% of the districts were outside the 10,000 m effective buffer of the “sports cities” (figure15). figure 12.the effective buffers of green zones of (a) districts gardens, and (b) neighborhoods gardens in al-dammam metropolitan area, 2019. 26 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 4.2.2. the accessibility analysis for evaluating the efficiency of the green zones green zones represent the main lung for hiking and spending the leisure time. it indicates a better standard of living of the population as it protects the natural and environmental resources and enhances the environmental conditions. therefore, it became a necessity the existence of green zones and open areas connected by an integrated network for fulfilling the various needs of population. in fact, applying the accessibility and the location-allocation models represent a planning enhancement and assessment processes depending on mathematical modeling in gis (cromley & mclafferty, 2002; rais & viana2010; cho 1998). figure 13.the effective buffers of green zones of (a) children’s gardens, and (b) specialized parks in al-dammam metropolitan area (2019) 27 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 14.the effective buffers of green zones of (a) streets gardens, and (b) cities gardens in al-dammam metropolitan area ( 2019) figure 15.the effective buffers of green zones of (a) sports cities, and (b) sports clubs in aldammam metropolitan area (2019). the analysis results of the accessibility to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area within time intervals of 5, 10, and 15 minutes revealed that: for the “districts gardens” 28 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 130 districts representing 96.3% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area. while, within 10 and 15 minutes, the coverage included all the 135 districts. for the “neighborhoods gardens” service; the coverage within 5 minutes included all the 135 districts (figure16). for the “children’s gardens” service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 103 districts representing 76.3% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area.while, within 10 and 15 minutes, the coverage included all the 135 districts. for the “specialized parks” service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 103 districts representing 76.3% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area. while, within 10 minutes, the coverage included 129 districts (95.6%), and within 15 minutes, the coverage included 134 districts (99.3%) (figure17). for the “streets and squares gardens” service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 110 districts representing 81.5% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area. while, within 10 minutes, the coverage included 131 districts (97%), and within 15 minutesincluded all the 135 districts. for the “cities gardens” service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 113 districts representing 83.7% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area, while, within 10 minutes, included 130 districts (96.3%), and within 15 minutes included all the 135 districts (figure 18). figure 16. access on foot to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) districts gardens, and (b) neighborhoods gardens depending on the gis accessibility to service area technique 29 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 17. access on foot to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) children’s gardens, and (b) specialized gardens depending on the gis accessibility to service area technique figure 18. access on foot to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) streets gardens, and (b) cities gardens depending on the gis accessibility to service area technique for the “sports city” service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 83 districts representing 61.5% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area. while, within 10 minutes, the coverage included 110 districts (81.5%), and within 15 minutes included 122 30 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 districts (90.4%). for the “sports clubs” service; the coverage area within 5 minutes included 110 districts representing 81.5% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area. while, within 10 minutes, the coverage included 128 districts (94.8%), and within 15 minutesincluded 133 districts (98.5%) (figure19). 4.3. combined coverage of green areas for neighborhoods in dammam metropolitan area at this stage, raster's sum was compiled to map the green areas resulting from the analysis of the networks of the 9 types: neighboring garden, specialized park, children's gardens, cities gardens, neighborhood park, street and squares park, sports city, sports clubs, and playgrounds within the information system environment. the spatial analyst tool was selected from the toolbox, from which the algorithm was selected on the map algebra and then on the raster calculator(figure 20). dammam in terms of their access to green areas were as follows: 4.3.1. neighborhoods with high green areas (coverage ranges from 85-100%) the results of the analysis of the different accessibility analysis in dammam metropolitan area revealed that there were sixty-four districts representing about 47.4% of the total number of dammam metropolitan areas. figure 19. access on foot to the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) sports cities, and (b) sports clubs depending on the gis accessibility to service area technique 31 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 the level of green areas was high and was highly spatially suitable for living for easy access to green areas with the least distance and the fastest time. 1,325,218 inhabitants constituting 67.7% of the total population of dammam metropolitan area, with an area of about 171.7 square kilometers representing 28.8% of the total area of dammam metropolitan area. these districts were concentrated in the center and north of dammam metropolitan area, which benefited from its unique geographical location and its organic tissue with clear boundaries. where the kernel were included,most of the neighborhoods in this category were very high in occupancy and construction and were characterized by high population density. these factors combined made this category enjoy the best coverage of the green areas of the dammam metropolitan area 4.3.2 . neighborhoods with medium green areas: (65-85% coverage) this category included forty-eight neighborhoods representing about 35.5% of the total neighborhoods of dammam metropolitan. the population of these neighborhoods was 492,146 inhabitants, which constituted 25.1% of the total population of dammam metropolitan area. these neighborhoods were located around the former high-class north and south, and these neighborhoods were characterized by a medium population density, and an appropriate road network. 32 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 20.classification of green areas coverage based on arithmetic addition (raster's sum) 33 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 4.3.3 .neighborhoods with low green areas: (covered less than 65%) this category included twenty-three neighborhoods representing about 17% of the total neighborhoods of dammam metropolitan area, inhabited by 141,387 inhabitants, which constituted 7.2% of the total population of dammam metropolis, living on an area of about 205.3 square kilometers representing 34.4% of the total area of dammam metropolitan area. the reasons behind the low rate of access to the green areas of these neighborhoods was due to its distance from the old nucleus of dammam metropolis, which were completed by many services, facilities and infrastructure, and the poor road network in addition to the distance from the facade of the nile corniche, which wasattracted by many green areas services. there was a reflection of many of the factors that influenced the map of the green areas in urban area, which came at the head of the distribution and density of the population, the age and modernity of the neighborhoods, the area and location of the neighborhoods, modern urban extensions, transportation and transportation, private sector participation, and retail planning of secretariats. 4.4. the location-allocation model for determining the current needs and for planning the future of the green zones the location-allocation model was regarded a very powerful tool for planning the public utilities to find the best locations for facilities to ensure the maximum benefit and the fair sharing of services. its applications was previously limited because of data unavailability. however, currently there are existing “land information systems” in many cities providing the required data and parameters for the location-allocation model. achieving the spatial equilibrium of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area through allocating locations for the green zones services is an effective planning approach for maximizing the social welfare and improving the spatial planning of the green zones. the gis-based locationallocation model allows generating planning alternatives either by suggesting an effective service or by improving an existing one. in the present study, the “maximum coverage” location-allocation model was applied with response time of no more than 10 minutes. the results were as follows: within response time of 10 minutes, the “sports city” service covered 105 districts representing 77.8% of the total 135 districts in al-dammam metropolitan area. the covered (serviced) districts by the 34 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 “sports city” service were found to be located in the central and northern parts of aldammam metropolitan area. to ensure all the districts are covered by this service, two “sports cities” are suggested to be allocated, one in the north western part of al-dammam metropolitan area and the other one in the southern part. within response time of 10 minutes, the “sports clubs” service covered 123 districts representing 91.1% of the total 135 districts. the covered districts by the “sports clubs” service were found to be located in the central and northern parts of al-dammam metropolitan area. to ensure all the districts are covered by this service, two “sports clubs” are suggested to be allocated, one in the north western part of the area and the other one in the southern part (figure 21). within 10 minutes response time, the “streets and squares gardens” service covered 128 districts representing 94.8%, these districts were found to be covering all al-dammam metropolitan area except the northwestern and southern parts of the area. to cover all the districts by this service, two “streets and squares gardens” are suggested to be allocated in the missing parts of the area. within 10 minutes response time, the “cities gardens” service covered 127 districts representing 94.1% of the total 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area; these districts were found to be covering all area except of the northwestern part of the area. consequently, one “city garden” is suggested to be allocated in the northwestern part of the area (figure22). within 10 minutes response time; the “children’s gardens” service covered 134 out of the 135 districts representing 99.3%, the missing district was found to be located in the northwestern part of the area. consequently, one “children’s garden” is suggested to be allocated in this part of the area. within 10 minutes response time; the “specialized parks” service covered 125 districts representing 92.6% of the total number of districts in the study area; the covered districts were found to be located in the northern and eastern parts of the investigated area. hence, one “specialized park” is suggested to be allocated in the northwestern part of the area as this part is not currently covered by this service. it was also found that, all the 135 districts of al-dammam metropolitan area were covered by the services of “districts gardens” and “neighborhoods gardens” within the defined 10 minutes response time (figure 23). 35 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 21.the suggested locations in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) sports cities, and (b) sports clubs based on the gis location-allocation modeling figure 22.the suggested locations in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) streets gardens, and (b) cities gardens based on the gis location-allocation modeling 36 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 figure 23.the suggested locations in al-dammam metropolitan area; (a) children’s gardens, and (b) specialized gardens based on the gis location-allocation modeling 5. recommendations the recreational services provided by the green zones are regarded the main development elements in al-dammam metropolitan area. any deficiency either in the type, quantity or spatial distribution is a strong limitation of the sustainable urban development. the current increasing population rates, the urban expansion, and the increasing regional, functional, and administrative roles of al-dammam metropolitan area puts extra lodes on the urban planning of the area. in addition, the lower per capita rates of green zones in aldammam metropolitan area and the deficiency of coverage and accessibility to all the services of green zones during the defined 5, 10, and 15 minutes time to the service. this gives a negative effect and poses a great challenge for the green sustainability and the recreational activities. this study recommends the redistribution of the green zones regularly based on the density and needs of population in all the districts of al-dammam metropolitan area. this requires fulfilling the current deficiencies of green zones that are estimated in this study by nine green zones services, i.e. two “sports cities”, two “sports clubs”, two “streets and 37 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 squares gardens”, one “district garden”, one “children’s garden”, and one “specialized park”. it is also recommended that the area of the green zones should be increased to raise the per capita rates to meet the planning standards of the ministry of municipal and rural affairs of ksa. attention should be paid to the unused 40 km long waterfronts through the establishment of some recreational facilities such as gardens, parks, and high class restaurants. these waterfronts can be also better used through building terraces, planting them, providing seating places and ensuring regular cleaning and maintenance. the recreational areas should be provided with other services and facilities to form the so-called “combined services areas” in the form of hierarchy. these combined services areas should be planned as planning units divided according to the density of population and the demand on the services. this will raise the efficiency, decrease the supply cost and make it easy for the public to deal with these services. this study recommends the need to increase the availability of toilets in the gardens and permanent maintenance of them, with the need for the presence of cleanersto work continuously to maintain children's toys in the gardens, with increased signage and placement in each corner of the gardens, with the need to install waste baskets commensurated with the nature of the areas green gardens. some the industrial uses have become within the urban cluster; therefore, there is a need to turn them into green areas to improve the urban environment of the present. this study also recommends activating the social partnership between both the public and private sectors through exchanging opinions and views for improving the efficiency of the green zones services. the governmental support to the private sector is also preferred for improving the green zones and facilitating regular continuous maintenance of its services and providing the most up to date services with modern techniques as the needs of the population in al-dammam metropolitan area. finally, it is also strongly recommended taking into consideration the factors of ease of accessibility to public services together with the urban planning standards and the gis spatial and statistical analysis techniques while planning and/or evaluating the green zones in cities (i.e. the methodology of this study is recommended to be applied on similar green zones in other cities). 38 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 6. conclusion the population growth, urban expansion, and the rapid growth of civilization attributed to the petroleum discovery in al-dammam metropolitan area yielded a negative effect on the urban environment in the area. the lower per capita rates of green zones that differs from one district to another makes it a necessity to reconsider the planning and distribution of the green zones, especially with the current spatial expansion and the increasing land prices that led to the existence of some other types of land-use in areas previously planned to be allocated for green zones. therefore, increasing the area of the green zones became a necessity for achieving the sustainable environmental equilibrium in al-dammam metropolitan area. this study combined the gis accessibility and location–allocation models with the urban planning standards of the ministry of municipal and rural affairs of ksa for improving the spatial planning of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area. using the accessibility models only allows the evaluation of the current services provided by the green zones, but, it is not capable of suggesting new locations for services or reallocation of existing services. therefore, there is a need to integrate accessibility analysis into the location-allocation model. the results of applying this unique integrated technique revealed the lower per capita rates of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area by 3.52 m2/person than the defined standard of 5.9 m2/person of the ministry of municipal and rural affairs of ksa. at the cities scale; in al dammam city, the per capita rate was 3.15 m2/person. while, in al khobar city the rate was 4.21 m2/person, and in al dhahran city the rate was 3.03 m2/person. therefore, the per capita rates of the green zones in al dammam and al dhahran cities was sharply lower than the planning rates, while, the rate in al khobar city was fairly compatible with the standard planning rates. there are 90 districts representing 66.7% of the total districts in al-dammam metropolitan area containing green zones, while the other 45 districts that represent 33.3% contained no green zones. there is deficiency in the coverage of the services to all the districts within time of (5, 10, and 15) minutes. the services coverage range from 75% to 98% of the districts. the “specialized parks” and “children’s gardens” services came in the lowest rank by covering only 75% of the total districts. while, the “sports clubs” service came in the first rank by covering 89% of the districts. al-dammam metropolitan area suffers deficiency in fulfilling the needs of its population of green zones services. the deficiency 39 ashraf abdelkarim/ geosi vol 5 no 1 (2020) 1-46 was determined in this study by nine services to be established including two “sports cities”, two “sports clubs”, two “streets and squares gardens”, one “district garden”, one “children’s garden” and one “specialized park”). this study provides a spatial decision support system that enables the decision makers to better evaluate and plan the green zones services in a scientific, balanced, reasonable and clear manner for seeking the sustainable development. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest 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(2005).“a gis-based multicriteria analysis approach to accessibility analysis for housing development in singapore.”proceedings of ssc spatial intelligence, innovation and praxis: the national biennial conference of the spatial sciences institute, melbourne. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-007936 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00560.x https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.035 1. introduction 3. methods 4. results and discussion 4.1. geographical distribution of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area 4.2. evaluation of the efficiency of the green zones in al-dammam metropolitan area 4.2.1. basics and criteria of the urban planning (quantitatively and spatially) for the assessment of the green zones efficiency 4.2.2. the accessibility analysis for evaluating the efficiency of the green zones 4.3. combined coverage of green areas for neighborhoods in dammam metropolitan area 4.3.1. neighborhoods with high green areas (coverage ranges from 85-100%) 4.3.2. neighborhoods with medium green areas: (65-85% coverage) 4.3.3. neighborhoods with low green areas: (covered less than 65%) 4.4. the location-allocation model for determining the current needs and for planning the future of the green zones 5. recommendations 6. conclusion 40 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 research article quantifying the significance of distance to temporal dynamics of covid-19 cases in nigeria using a geographic information system ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe1, 2* , umar saleh anka1,3 , sodiq opeyemi ibrahim1,3 , usman ahmad adam4 1nigerian environmental society, nigeria 2department of microbiology, faculty of life sciences, university of benin, benin city, edo state, pmb. 1154, nigeria 3 department of geography, faculty of earth and environmental sciences, bayero university, kano state, nigeria 4 department of geography, sa’adatu rimi college of education, kumbotso, kano, nigeria received 16 december 2020 /revised 8 april 2021 /accepted 17 april 2021 /published 25 april 2021 abstract the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) is caused by a new strain of coronavirus that spreads primarily by close contact. although nigeria adopted lockdown measures, no defined strategies were used in setting the distance threshold for these lockdowns. hence, understanding the drivers of covid-19 is pivotal to an informed decision for containment measures in the absence of vaccines. spatial and temporal analyses are crucial drivers to apprehending the pattern of diseases over space and time. thus, this study aimed to quantify the significance of distance to the temporal dynamics of covid-19 cases in nigeria using the geographic information system. incremental spatial autocorrelation was used to analyze datasets of each month in arcgis. march, april, may, and june exhibited patterns with no significant peaks, while july and august exhibited patterns with two statistically significant peaks. the first and second peaks of july were 301,338.39 and 365,947.83 meters, respectively, while august was 301,338.39 and 336,128.09 meters, respectively. therefore, a significant difference in the clustering of covid19 over distances between july and august was established. this indicated that progression in the spread of the virus increased the virus's spatial coverage while the distance of risk of exposure decreased. this study's findings could be utilized to establish maximum movement restriction areas to contain the spread of covid-19. keywords: distance; incremental spatial autocorrelation; covid-19; disease; nigeria 1. introduction covid-19 is a respiratory disease that emerged in late 2019 caused by a new coronavirus that presents pneumonia-like symptoms. therefore, it has high transmission competence and spreads primarily when people are in close contact (dhama et al., 2020). geosfera indonesia *corresponding author. email address : ifeyinwa.obuekwe@uniben.edu (ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe) vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021, 40-54 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i1.21405 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0187-7731 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7984-0947 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4635-8521 mailto:ifeyinwa.obuekwe@uniben.edu 41 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 covid-19 is causing an ongoing pandemic in many countries and territories, and therefore, it is a global health crisis (mckee & stuckler, 2020). infected people are accommodated and isolated in designated health facilities across the world for treatment. in the absence of a vaccine to prevent or aid speedy recovery, a significant concern is that, as the number of infected people increases, the healthcare system will be overwhelmed (murray et al., 2020). nevertheless, efforts to prevent further spreading are ongoing in many nations as vaccines, and antiviral drugs are awaited. in response to the worldwide covid-19 outbreak, many sub-saharan africa countries have implemented strict lockdown measures to emulate high-income countries to contain the spread of the virus (teachout & zipfel, 2020). however, severe restrictions placed on people's travel may impact different livelihoods, especially the world’s poorest people (woodhill, 2020). gradually, the impact of the lockdown is unfolding and remains largely guesswork. despite the likelihood of severe impact of lockdown on livelihoods, there is no adequate information to help guide the threshold with which movement restriction can be placed. details about places where cases may arise concerning identified cases could help enhance movement restriction decisions. wang et al. (2021) claimed that the temporal trends of covid-19 across space require deliberation when considering lifting lockdown. this makes the need for a timely knowledge of the temporal and spatial patterns of covid-19 transmission. however, knowledge of the geographical mean distances between the locations of cases and the direct estimation of distances between sequential cases requires both the recognition of cases and their infectors (salje et al., 2016). such contact tracing efforts are nearly impossible because of two major restrains, cost and time. thus, limited data hinders the ability to characterize the space and time scales where cases tend to occur. estimating mean transmission distances have been possible previously only in situations where there is available data for most cases in a transmission network or detailed epidemiological data on who infected whom (memish et al., 2014; marziano et al., 2017; yang et al., 2020). in the absence of data on where covid-19 cases were discovered in nigeria, there is the need to seek alternatives that can help in decision-making before the spread of the virus is beyond management capacity. hence, this study's novelty was that it demonstrated an approach to quantify the significance of temporal dynamics in the mean transmission distance of recorded covid-19 cases in nigeria. this was based on the use of geographic information system 42 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 software, data of the monthly covid-19 recorded cases, and the coordinates of the capital of the thirty-six (36) states in nigeria and the federal capital territory. this study aimed to quantify the significance of distance to the temporal dynamics of covid-19 cases in nigeria using the geographic information system. 2. methods 2.1 description of study area nigeria covers an area of 923,769 square kilometers, and it’s bordered by different countries on the north, south, east and west. on the north is niger and chad, south is gulf of guinea while the east and west are cameroon, benin and niger respectively (national bureau of statistics, 2011). 2.2 study area ecosystem the coast of nigeria is surrounded by flowering trees in marshes which are traversed by estuaries and rivers as well as the great niger basin (national bureau of statistics, 2011).eastwards however, lie successive belts of tropical rain forests and the undulating plateau, rising from 609.6 meters on the average to 1,828.8 meters. grassland vegetation interspersed with trees and shrubs is seen midway north of the country however, this stops at the north-east desert which is the grassy coast region. river niger receives its benue counterpart at lokoja, and from there flows into the atlantic ocean for about 547 kilometers. its tributaries include include sokoto, kaduna and anambra rivers (national bureau of statistics, 2011). however, the benue river is fed by two rivers namely katsina-ala and gongola. nigeria has other rivers which include cross river, benin and ogun rivers (national bureau of statistics, 2011). 2.3 study area population and geopolitical zones the population of nigeria in mid-year of 2020 is estimated at 206,139,589 people based on united nation data (worldometer, 2020). nigeria practices democratic system of government and each state and the federal capital territory has their elected officials. the elected officials are from political parties within the country. 43 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 figure 1. nigeria 36 states and the federal capital territory in their geopolitical zones (gis lab geography department, 2020) 2.4 research design the study was an explorative research. due to the newness of covid-19, explorative research has been adopted in several studies (scarpone et al., 2020) as it offers researchers the opportunity to study a problem that has not been thoroughly studied in the past. 2.5 data and sources of data the study made use of publicly available covid-19 and spatial datasets. the covid-19 dataset used include monthly recorded cases from march to august, 2020. the data were downloaded from nigeria centre for disease control (2020) website (https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/). this data is updated once a day (at 23:59 wat).the spatial data used for this study was shapefile of nigeria including states and coordinates of state capitals. the spatial data were sourced from the geographic information system laboratory, department of geography bayero university, kano. https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/ 44 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 2.6 data analysis the monthly covid-19 recorded cases for the 36 states and the federal capital of nigeria were subjected to incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis in arcgis 10.5 with the use of a conceptualized fixed distance. the incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis work in such a way that it calculates the moran’s i index and z score of a single data set at multiple distances. z-score is a standard deviation which measures the distance of a raw score from the mean. also, the rule of thumb for pattern analysis like spatial autocorrelation is that the z-score and p-values obtained determine the confidence level which can be used to accept or reject a null hypothesis. hence, the threshold for determining the confidence level of a z-score and p-value is shown in table 1. hence, analyzed fixed distances were derived from each of the possible distance between a data point (a state capital) and all other data points (other state capitals). as in the case of this study, moran’s i index was run for all the possible distances that existed between the 36 states and the federal capital of nigeria. instead of using the moran’s i index value, the distance was used to plot the z scores. this enabled a standardized distance-based comparison of statistical significance using the threshold in table 1. larger positive z scores indicate high significant clustering (table 1). thus, in each of the plots, distances of the first peak and maximum peak were identified, as the first peak indicates lower statistically significant clustering while the maximum peak indicates the distance that clustering or spatial autocorrelation was of most statistical significance in the data set. also, different colors were used to indicate the z-scores each distant point belong to as well as which distance is characterized as a peak. table 1. critical p-values and z-scores for different confident levels (moran, 1948) z-score (standard deviations) p-value (probability) confidence level (%) < -1.65 or > + 1.65 < 0.10 90 < -1.96 or > + 1.96 < 0.05 95 < -2.58 or > + 2.58 < 0.01 99 furthermore, the distance of each state capital to other state capital and the federal capital was first obtained in arcgis via point distance analysis. the obtained distance was then exported to excel where the mean was determined. in addition, bar graph was used to visualize the mean distance and distances where covid 19 clustering were significant. afterwards, 45 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 distances with significant peaks was compared with the mean distance of each state capital and the federal capital to other state capital and federal capital. the flowchart of the methodology for the study is summarized in figure 2. figure 2. flowchart of the method of the study 3. results and discussion after the index case of covid 19 in february, by the end of march, lagos has recorded 62 cases and was the highest state in nigeria with recorded cases (figure 3). this was followed by the federal capital territory, which had a recorded 9-28 victims. south western states that were closer to lagos were also observed to have recorded 4-8 victims. the cases recorded in kaduna, bauchi, ekiti, edo, benue, enugu, and rivers were within 1-3 while the other states had no recorded cases. alkhamis et al. (2020) also observed that after about a month from the first reported case of covid-19 in kuwait, the size was small despite sporadic infections. gayawan et al. (2020) also stated that covid-19 initially had a slow spread across africa, only for the situation to escalate in the last week of march. in april, although lagos still had the highest recorded cases, the spread of the virus in the north within the addition of one month is a course to worry about (figure 5). kano state that had no recorded case in march had the same range of 77-219 recorded cases with the federal capital territory. this implies that the rate of spread in the north was high in april, despite the federal government imposing a lockdown on lagos, ogun, and abuja on march 30, 2020. the high 46 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 spread indicates the lockdown was not as effective as that of china's strict lockdown (prem et al., 2020). may's spread exceeds that of march and april combined with kano having more recorded cases than the federal capital territory. despite the lockdown, border porosity, which is an issue in most african countries (okunade & ogunnubi, 2019), makes it hard to restrict mobility effectively. the ability to contain human mobility has been an issue worldwide as migrant workers and travelers have been the mostly affected and responsible for spreading the virus (kuwait government online, 2020; gayawan et al.,2020). there was an increase in the spread of covid-19 between june and july. however, the range of increase in abuja and oyo for july exceeded kano, edo, delta, and rivers state (figure 9 and figure 11). it was also observed that cross river was the last state to record the covid19 case in nigeria (figure 11). as of august, all the states in nigeria had a recorded case of more than 52 except kogi. also, states like kano, kaduna, plateau, oyo, ogun, ondo, edo delta, river lagos, and the federal capital territory each had more than 1000 recorded cases. the variability in the monthly pattern of covid-19 that can be observed from 3,5,7,9, 11 and 13 was how clustered the covid-19 cases are. in march, the first cluster was observed where states around lagos had high recorded cases (figure 3). the cluster that stood out in april, may, and june was that of kano state and the state around it. by july and august, more cases have been recorded in most states, thus resulting in a smaller number of states forming a cluster. studies of wang et al. (2021); kim & castro (2020), and xie et al. (2020) also observed spatial clustering about covid-19 distribution at a national scale. 47 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 figure 3. covid 19 recorded cases-march figure 4. spatial autocorrelation by distance-march figure 5. covid 19 recorded cases-april figure 6. spatial autocorrelation by distance-april ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 48 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 figure 7. covid 19 recorded cases-may figure 8. spatial autocorrelation by distance-may figure 9. covid 19 recorded cases-june figure 10. spatial autocorrelation by distance-june ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 49 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 figure 11. covid 19 recorded cases-july figure 12. spatial autocorrelation by distance-july figure 13. covid 19 recorded cases-august figure 14. spatial autocorrelation by distance-august figure 13. covid 19 recorded cases-august figure 14. spatial autocorrelation by distance-august ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 50 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 figure 15. mean distance of nigeria state capitals and the federal capital to other states capital and federal capital with peak category 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000 900000 m e a n d is ta n c e i n m e te r state capital and fct with peak category ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 despite more visible clustering, the trend in the clustering of the covid-19 over distance shows no significant peak from march to june (figures 4, 6, 8, and 10). however, that of july and august exhibited patterns with two statistically significant peaks (figure 12 and figure 14). the first and second peak of july were 301,338.39 meter (z score =2.098; p<0.036) and 365,947.83 meter (z score = 2.299; p=0.022) respectively while that of august were 301,338.39 meter (z score =1.918; p=0.055) and 336,128.09 meter (z score =2.013; p=0.044) respectively (figure 12 and figure 14). the result shows that the mean distance of july and august's first peak was the same (301,338.39 meter). therefore, the distance where the spatial processes responsible for clustering is the most pronounced was about 301,338.39 meter. also, the second peak of august (336,128.09 meter) was less than that of july (365,947.83 meter). this implies that there was a significant drop in the mean transmission distance between july and august 2020. this was attributed to the fact that the spread has increased among neighboring state as more states recorded a similar range of covid-19 cases. blank et al. (2016) used a similar approach, observed spatial clustering of bacterial canker severity, and showed that disease severity had significant spatial autocorrelation with dominant pattern recognized as clustered. a drop in mean transmission distance throughout foot-and-mouth outbreaks was similarly reported by salje et al. (2016). kiang et al. (2020) also found a significant spatial correlation associated with covid-19 infections in china. each state capital and the federal capital had a mean distance of more than 300,000 meters to other states and federal capital (figure 15). although, only yola, maiduguri, sokoto, and damaturu have a mean distance above 600,000 meters (figure 15). this is because these states are in the far north of the country, bordering the niger republic. also, each of the state and the federal capital had a mean distance that is above the first and second peak of july and august except for lokoja that has a mean distance (361,924 meters) that was less than the second peak of july (365,947.83 meters) (figure 15). this implies that the interstate lockdown placed to curb the spread of covid-19 was justifiable as any movement within the minimum and maximum significant peak distance can fast-track the spread of covid-19. this corresponds with salje et al. (2016) 's assertion, who claimed that a fundamental property of infectious disease dispersal is the average spatial distance between transmission-linked cases. although this study does not compare covid-19 spread with population density nor socioeconomic activities. however, covid-19 cases have been clustered around two states in nigeria (kano and lagos). moreover, this cannot be farfetched from the fact that kano and lagos happen to be the most populous states in nigeria with vibrant industrial and 51 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 122 ifeyinwa sarah obuekwe et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 40-54 commercial activities. rapone (2020); rocklöv & sjödin (2020) also pointed out that high population density and socioeconomic status are essential drivers of the spread of covid-19. the disbelief regarding the presence of the virus also results in people taking preventive measures lightly. even six months after the first case of coronavirus was reported in nigeria, many nigerians still doubt its existence (csr-in-action, 2020). negligence could be detrimental to the spread to other states. kiang et al. (2020) also reported that people with a history of travel in epidemic areas fail to isolate themselves on time, thus accelerating transmission risk. thus, a study of this capacity that was able to showcase the significance of the temporal dynamics of covid-19 can help guide decision-making regarding how a movement should be restricted to reduce the clustering phenomenon observed across nigeria. 4. conclusion this study has shown that the point location of each state capital in nigeria and recorded cases for each of the 36 nigeria states and the federal capital territory, abuja displayed the significance of temporal dynamics in the mean transmission distance of recorded covid-19 cases in nigeria. this indicates that progression in the spread of the virus increased the spatial coverage of the virus while the distance of risk of exposure decreased. this information could be utilized to establish maximum movement restrictions to contain the spread of covid-19 through lockdown as implemented by the nigeria government. this method can also be applied to well-detailed data and a small proportion of adequately collected data. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references alkhamis, m. a., al youha, s., khajah, m. m., ben haider, n., alhardan, s., nabeel, a., … al-sabah, s. k. 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(2020). towards improved social distancing guidelines: space and time dependence of virus transmission from speech-driven aerosol transport between two individuals. physical review fluids, 5(12). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevfluids.5.122501. 54 https://doi.org/10.31920/2050-4306/2019/v8n1a4 https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-2667(20)30073-6 http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca8559en/ https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa038/5807719 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epidem.2016.10.001 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12942-020-00225-1 https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/teachout-and-zipfel-2020-policy-brief-.pdf https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/teachout-and-zipfel-2020-policy-brief-.pdf https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa934 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/nigeria-population/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140929 https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevfluids.5.122501 r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 335 geospatial approach for the analysis of forest cover change detection using machine learning r. sanjeeva reddy1,*, g. anjan babu1, a. rama mohan reddy2 1 department of computer science, sri venkateswara university, tirupati, andhra pradesh, 517502, india 2 department of computer science & engineering, sri venkateswara university, tirupati, andhra pradesh, 517502, india *corresponding author : haisanjeevareddy@gmail.com received 13 october 2020/ revised 11 december 2020 / accepted 24 december 2020/ published 30 december 2020 abstract spatial data classification is famous over recent years in order to extract knowledge and insights into the data. it occurs because vast experimentation was used with various classifiers, and significant improvement was examined in accuracy and performance. this study aimed to analyze forest cover change detection using machine learning. supervised and unsupervised learning methods were used to analyze spatial data. a vector machine was used to support the supervised learning, and a neural network method was used to support unsupervised learning. the normalized difference vegetation index (ndvi) was used to identify the bands and extract pixel information relevant to the vegetation. the supervised method shows better results because of its robust performance and better analysis of spatial data classification using vegetation index. the proposed system experimentation was implemented by analyzing the results obtained from support vector machine (svm) and nn (neural network) methods. it is demonstrated in the results that the use of ndvi mainly enhances the performance and increases the classifier's accuracy to a greater extent. keywords: spatial data; normalized difference vegetation index; ndvi;vegetation index, support vector machine; neural network; forest cover change 1. introduction the knowledge of various social, economic, and cultural aspects is considered a correct viewpoint in land management and its planning. in various scenarios, landscape changes did not show up ultimately. therefore, to give exceptional improvement to the lands, different geographic tools are used such as geographic information system and photogrammetry. the point judges of the criteria of forest management that the population is decreasing in some regions. therefore, most of the land is covered with trees and bushes, seriously affecting the landscape (an et al., 2007). to describe the data and gather useful geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 335-351, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i3.20157 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 301-317, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 336 information regarding the earth's surface, geographic information has been considered as a fruitful source. there are various applications involved, such as digital image analysis, analysis, and detection of a change in environmental conditions, science, education. however, these areas are a source of the right domain to conduct adequate research. geospatial approach for the analysis of forest cover change detection using machine learning. the spatial data is gathered from satellites that include images and define information regarding the image's pixels. the data collected seems unstructured and complex, and then this data is evaluated to get that hidden information. this process is mainly called spatial data analysis, and to get and relocate the landscape in spatial data is known as geospatial data analysis. these landscape types are identified and classified by utilizing techniques that involve deep learning and machine learning. svm is one of the adequate mechanisms used in ml, and in it, the kernel function is activated to conduct the descriptive analysis on the dataset of images. the features are extracted and based on those features, and the machine classifies the landscape types. the main landscape types involved are bare soil, urban land, waterbody, natural vegetation, and forest area. the spatial data gathered was very difficult to cater to, and it involves various critical issues regarding orientation, structure, and other atmospheric conditions (aubrecht et al., 2009; addink et al., 2007). the ongoing writing study on distant detecting information, characterization utilizing ai techniques incorporates the rich data regarding the spatial information focal points, natural biology, accuracy farming, science and building, and military use. recently, the distant detecting information characterization has been finished utilizing better ai and profound learning approaches (pozdnoukhov & kanevski, 2006). the diverse order strategies were utilized on far off detecting information. in high dimensional space, the impediment of dimensionality may yield excellent outcomes. the high dimensional information dealing with is a fundamental task in the enhancement issues (gangappa et al., 2016). subsequently, the enhancement technique, such as svm may regularly be unaware of high dimensional space (acharya & yang, 2015). there is numerous grouping calculation which is regularly used to anticipate the class objects in the spatial data. the regulated learning techniques for spatial information are neural networks, choice tree technique, irregular timberlands order techniques, k-implies bunching and arrangement strategy, harsh set based information decrease and characterization technique, and fuzzy rough set based order method (singh et al., 2016; chi et al., 2008; pal, 2005). the fluffy rationale and neural networks are utilized in spatial information characterization. the r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 337 adequate measure of research work commitment has been on fluffy and unpleasant based components (shanthini et al., 2017; foddy & mathur, 2004; al-obeidat et al., 2015; ham et al., 2005). numerous different calculations have been utilized in advancement issues. in the graphic models, the preparation information with class marks was given at preparing a calculation. in request to get prepared, these techniques (rawat & kumar, 2015) utilize some spatial information highlights, for example, spatial goal, entropy, mean eleven and mean slop, and other pertinent highlights in the input information. we firmly contend that expectation exactness depends on the noteworthy highlights utilized in that model. various machine learning techniques were used to identify different landscape images, and they are considered supervised learning. it involves training data, and the classifier learns from the training data, and other decisions are mainly based on the lear ning of the classifier. the classifier was done its training based on the features extracted. sometimes more the faster features are the classifier's efficiency; however, the feature's amount may affect the classifier performance in some cases. as we can say, the classifier takes more time to validate those features of the dataset gathered, and the performance of the system falls. this may also lead to affect the accuracy of the classifier badly. therefore, for this purpose and feature extraction, some feature reduction techniques are also being involved in the classification process. dimensionality reduction is used to make the dimension space more accurate for the spatial data. ultimately, we emphasize the evaluation of machine learning methods suitable for spatial data pixels. this study aimed to analyze forest cover change detection using machine learning. this research also aimed to find out suitable machine learning techniques that efficiently extract the features, reduce the features according to the demand, and distinguish the features based on the dataset's pixel information. 2. methods 2.1 supervised and unsupervised learning in supervised learning, labeling is involved, in which there is a specific outcome against each entity. furthermore, based on those outcomes, the algorithm accuracy is computed. while on the other hand, in an unsupervised approach, unlabeled data is provided in which the patterns are formed based on the features extracted. this study aimed to analyze forest cover change detection using machine learning. r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 338 2.1.1 supervised learning supervised learning contains a properly labeled dataset and then train the algorithm based on this labeled data (mahmon & ya'acob, 2014). the term fully labeled means that the training dataset contains answers to each question or query. a complete illustration of labeled data and its supervision through supervised learning is shown in figure 1. for example, as related to this study, the forest images are labeled according to the years and their specific characteristics, and then after classification, it is to be identified which ones belong to specific families. when the model is fully trained, it is tested on a new set of images, and the models have to predict values against each set of images fed into it. figure 1. algorithm learns labelled data with supervised learning the support vector machine (svm) is a supervised learning method, and they automatically analyze data, make classes, and put each object into a class by using some rules (gangappa et al., 2017). in svm, labeled data is manipulated for all the classes to be the data classified. the following equations (equation 1 and equation 2) for the svm are as follows: 1 1i iu w l for v      (1) 1 1i iu w l for v      (2) r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 339 supervised learning is mainly used in two scenarios, one in the classification problems and the other in the regression problems. in classification problems, the prediction of values is made by the classifier in which data is recognized based on class. while in regression problems gather continuous data, and in it, the effect of one variable on the variable is identified, such as for a particular value x, what would be the expected value of the variable y. 2.1.2 unsupervised learning in contrast to supervised learning, unsupervised learning contains a deep learning model with a set of instructions on what to do next. in the training dataset, no labeling is involved, and the dataset is without any desired outcome. the network automatically gets the useful features and then analyzes the structure based on the features extracted. the illustration of unsupervised learning is given in figure 2. figure 2. illustration of unsupervised learning the unsupervised scenario data is arranged in two ways, either by arranging clustering or association, which are deeply explained as follows: (1) clustering: in clustering, the data is divided into clusters or groups having the same properties. based on those features or properties, the images are identified and put in their respective groups, which is mathematically explained in equation 3. for example, it is somehow not possible in different scenarios to distinguish the plants or trees based on their appearance. such as all plants have left and stems branches. furthermore, in clustering, these features (equation 3) are locked in different groups. 2 1 1 ( ) (|| ||) mzz m n m n j b a b     (3) || ||m na b  distance among ix and jv , mz total data points, z total cluster centers. r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 340 (2) association: in this way, the algorithm tries to learn without the data being labeled. the algorithm takes some different decisions, such as the forest images are not labeled according to their specific characteristics and fed into the classifier. this is a case of an association, in which highlights of an information test associate with different highlights. by taking a gander at a couple of crucial characteristics of an information point, a solo learning model can foresee different properties with which they are ordinarily related (maity, 2016). the dataset used in this study was landsat 8, and it consists of earth images based on two mechanisms, which are operational land imager oli and thermal infrared sensor trs (lu & yang, 2009). data were collected near the infrared and panchromatic band. the dataset collected consists of various landscape types such as vegetation area, water area, and bare land. more details of the dataset used are illustrated in table 1. table 1. dataset used with respect to its attributes different attributes of dataset used values related to those attributes image format geo tiff orientation north up (map) pixel size 30 meters the data is gathered through remote satellites by using special remote sensors. they mainly reflect the energy on the earth's surface. different types of remote sensors are used, such as spot, landsat, and sar. these sensors contain spectral resolution, and the wavelength represented on the spectral resolution plane is known as the band. different remote sensing systems have different bands. however, in this research work, we have used landsat dataset sensing images, which consists of 11 electromagnetic spectral bands and mainly have 30 meters of spectral resolution. this section presents a framework for spatial data. it contains essential information regarding handling data, evaluating and validating the data to compute useful results. the complete procedure is illustrated in figure 3, as given below. r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 341 figure 3. the pipeline of the main classification framework r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 342 first, pre-processing is done to make the instructed data in a structured format. in it, the dataset is considered as input. at first, the images are digitized to represent the intensity of each pixel in the spectral band. before starting the primary procedure, the raw data need some extra techniques to be used in order to correct errors and avoid noise. the main techniques involved are radiometric correction, geometric correction, and noise removal. after implying these techniques, the data is aligned to the real-world coordinates. in the next step, the vegetation indices are computed to be implied in different scenarios like climate change, detection, monitoring, and modeling of vegetation studies. this procedure helps in combining the information of different bands, and it is also very fruitful to find ndvi by using the following equation (equation 4). nir red ndvi nir red        (4) the final step is to get the region of interest of the image shape file is created. the training and testing samples are also extracted for classification. then the training model is built by using machine learning techniques. 3. results and discussion when the land data was pre-processed, class labels are generated geometrically, such as water, bare land, and forest. then region of interest is extracted from the image and is saved in the shapefile. moreover, from the shapefile, training samples are collected and used in the building of the model. all the features were combined in a shapefile, and then they are used for classification purposes. the features are were represented by the pixel values having specific intensity. the figures (figure 4 – figure 7) show the innumerable spectral assets, which are extricated from the spatial dataset starting from the year 2005 to 2020. r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 343 figure 4. area of land-use in 2005 figure 5. area of land-use in 2010 figure 6. area of land-used in 2015 r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 344 figure 7. area of land-used in 2020 the spatial trials are divided into two training and testing sections. the training and testing sections are collected based on 70% and 30% phenomena. the svm and nn models were used in the classification process. the detailed performance of land cover categories of 2005 and 2020 is deeply illustrated in table 2. the model accuracy and other statistics related to ndvi are recorded and shown in figure 8. the mean of land-use (lu)/land cover (lc) and fcc are shown in figures (figure 9 figure 13). figure 8. accuracy and other statistics related to ndvi -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 ndvi r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 345 table 2. land cover categories related to the area square kilometres and area in percentage from 2000 to 2020 the use of ndvi mainly enhances the performance and increases the classifier's accuracy. this result is in line with the results reported by somching et al. (2020), ramos et al. (2020), ahmad et al. (2020), nachapa et al. (2020), gumma et al. (2020), zurqani et al. 2020), liu et al. (2020) that machine learning can improve accuracy in analyzing land-use and land cover change. land-use change from forest to bare land or rocky land is the most dominant. this result is supported by the findings of mirici et al. (2020), yu et al. (2020), devi et al. (2019), that land-use change from forest to bare land and rocky land is becoming dominant due to urbanization and increasing human needs. land-use change from forest to bare land or rocky land occurred mostly in the northern region (figure 9-figure 13). these changes are caused by human activities that require wood as building material. urbanization also causes the human need for forest wood to increase, especially to build new settlements. furthermore, the accessibility of forest locations is also a factor that causes the conversion of forest land to bare land or rocky land. figure 9. mean of land-use/land cover and fcc of 2000 years 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 landuse/land cover categories area in (sq km) area in (%) area in (sq km) area in (%) area in (sq km) area in (%) area in (sq km) area in (%) area in (sq km) area in (%) less forested 563.0274 21.4 578.387 22.0 559.8693 21.3 632.1591 24.0 504.6606 19.2 rocky 739.6398 28.1 647.5645 24.6 785.8458 29.9 700.2333 26.6 731.9502 27.8 bare land 644.6781 24.5 564.9028 21.5 634.9212 24.1 573.1749 21.8 530.2575 20.2 water body 60.1938 2.3 52.10608 2.0 51.5898 2.0 43.7445 1.7 37.2285 1.4 forested 621.9 23.7 786.5129 29.9 597.213 22.7 680.1273 25.9 825.3423 31.4 total 2629.4391 100 2629.47328 100 2629.4391 100 2629.4391 100 2629.4391 100 r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 346 figure 10. mean of land-use/land cover and fcc of 2005 figure 11. mean of land-use/land cover and fcc of 2010 figure 12. mean of land-use/land cover and fcc of 2015 r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 347 ndvi with false color composite (fcc) analyzes land changes with very high accuracy. this result is in line with the results reported by oon et al. (2019), das & pandey (2019), murad & pearse (2018), that the fcc can improve accuracy for vegetation analysis. moreover, the fcc is also able to identify bare land in green color. this result is in line with the results reported by khalil & haque (2018), rajani & varadarajan (2018), sharma et al. (2016), that that the fcc is also able to identify bare land. 4. conclusion the accuracy tends to increase when a new band formed in the slack of spatial image. the svm model performed better than nn method, so we can say that supervised learning increases the system's accuracy and performance compared to unsupervised learning. the classification is performed with the spatial vegetation index related to ndvi. it is also observed that if different vegetation indices are used and evaluated on different datasets, there are great chances that the system's accuracy improves to a large extent. figure 13. mean of land-use/land cover and fcc of 2020 r. sanjeeva reddy et al /geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 335-351 348 conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references acharya, t. d., & yang, i. 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(2020). evaluating the integrity of forested riparian buffers over a large area using lidar data and google earth engine. scientific reports, 10(1) doi:10.1038/s41598020-69743-z. the final step is to get the region of interest of the image shape file is created. the training and testing samples are also extracted for classification. then the training model is built by using machine learning techniques. 3. results and discussion when the land data was pre-processed, class labels are generated geometrically, such as water, bare land, and forest. then region of interest is extracted from the image and is saved in the shapefile. moreover, from the shapefile, training samples are... the accuracy tends to increase when a new band formed in the slack of spatial image. the svm model performed better than nn method, so we can say that supervised learning increases the system's accuracy and performance compared to unsupervised learnin... 210 modeling land use and land cover dynamic using geographic information system and markov-ca millary agung widiawaty1, arif ismail1,2*, moh. dede3, n. nurhanifah1 1 department of geography education, faculty of social sciences education (fpips), universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung city, west java, 40154, indonesia 2 study program on survey, mapping and geographic information, faculty of social sciences education (fpips),universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung city, west java, 40154, indonesia 3 master program on environmental science, postgraduate school (sps), universitas padjadjaran, bandung city, west java, 40132, indonesia *corresponding author : arifismail@upi.edu received 27 april 2020/ revised 30 june 2020 / accepted 5 july 2020/ available online 12 july 2020 abstract the need for built-up area increases along with a rise in population growth in many regions. this phenomenon leads to a tremendous change in agricultural land and decrease in the environmental carrying capacity. therefore, this study aims to determine land use and land cover (lulc) dynamics and the drivers used for its modeling in 2030. this is a quantitative study, which uses the dynamic models of geographic information system (gis) and markovca. data were obtained from the cnes-airbus satellite imageries in 2009, 2014, and 2019 by using google earth at east cirebon. the drivers include road density, distance to cbd, total population, distance to settlements, land slope and distance to rivers. the interaction between drivers and lulc change was analyzed using binary logistic regression. the results showed that the rise of built-up area reached 36.4 percent and causes the loss of 0.78 km2 of agricultural land from 2009 to 2019. the lulc simulation in 2030 shows an increase in the built-up area by 82.85 percent with probabilities above 0.6. meanwhile the significant drivers for changes include road density and distance to settlements. in conclusion, efforts to reduce lulc change in agricultural land into built-up area is by re-strengthening spatial planningbased environmental awareness for the community. keywords: built-up area; gis; lulc; markov-ca; spatial modeling geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 210-225, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.17596 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. mailto:arifismail@upi.edu mailto:arifismail@upi.edu https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 212 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 1. introduction land is a valuable resource formed from biotic and abiotic components on the earth's surface (asselen & verburg, 2013). its various forms and uses are referred to as land use and land cover (lulc) (aspinal & hill, 2008). land growth rates and human needs have varying patterns, although it is a limited resources– its value typically appreciates over time. it has both direct and indirect impacts on humans which leads to the dynamic phenomenon of lulc, such as the transformation of agricultural land into built-up area (gashaw et al., 2017). this condition is caused by several factors or drivers, from the physical and social environment (kusratmoko et al., 2017). in indonesia, the rate of land conversion follows a linear pattern from 1.8 percent to 2.1 percent (bps, 2013). there is an increase in the demand for built-up areas such as housing, amenities, infrastructure as well as employment in the industrial sector due to the 2030 demographic dividend. this led to the shrinkage of productive-agricultural lands that served as food barns. cirebon is one of the regions which has agricultural comparative-advantage, as well as a similar pattern of lulc conversion (dede et al., 2016; dede et al., 2019). this is evident in the emergence of its regional planning (rtrw) from 2018 to 2038 and regional regulation on sustainable agricultural land (lp2b), these two policies have the directives to protect 45,000 hectares of agricultural land against lulc change. lulc change in the western region of cirebon occurred due to industrialization, while in the eastern part, it is caused by the development of new residential and industrial areas for numerous multinational companies. another region that experiences this change is gebang sub-district. its development is rapidly instigated by the local government because this region has poor economic growth than the western region of cirebon. this actualization was realized by the residential and industrial projects carried out on lands formerly used for agricultural purposes. assuming, the rate of lulc change is not properly controlled, it tends to cause several impacts as well as a decline on environmental carrying capacity (hidajat et al., 2013). the factors that affects this phenomenon is geographically determined through an efficient method referred to as spatial modeling . its dynamic nature is predicted using spatial modeling and geographic information system (gis) subsequently, the use of vector and raster data based on remote sensing imageries is ideal for future purposes (dan-jumbo et al., 2018). an lulc spatial modeling relating to physical and social factors is capable of determining (didactic) and illustrating the dynamic process (heuristic) to produce useful outcomes for the regional development planning (sanders, 2007; kangalawe 211 212 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 & lyimo, 2010). it is also used to evaluate the changes in probability, the influence of the factors or drivers, and dynamic scenario based on certain trends in space and time (kumar et al., 2015). markov-cellular automata (ca) is a dynamic spatial model composed of cells (pixels or grids), each of which is systematically arranged. it is also robust in predicting the transitions or spatial and temporal dynamics among a number of lulc types…. 2014). this model is a computational method for determining dynamic systematic changes that depend on certain rules developed temporally (liu, 2012). it functions in accordance with the principle of game play, it is sensitive to cell size, and neighborhood configuration or similar to three or more existent parcels (moreno, 2008). markov-ca, when compared with other dynamic models has advantages such as the ability of individuals to boost information that has under the regular principles, regulates their evaluation, and analysis of the spatial (space) characteristics, used to easily predict land use in the future (gambo et al., 2018). knowledge of existing lulc changes and the probability of its dynamics in the future is important for regional development, particularly in rural areas proposed as growth centers such as gebang district, and cirebon regency. previous studies generally examined the lulc changes in critical watershed, peri-urban, metropolitan, and megapolitan regions (lahti, 2008; chavula et al., 2011; li et al., 2019). furthermore, the studies carried out in rural areas, primarily focuses on the use of land for agricultural purposes and forestry (sodikin et al., 2018; voight et al., 2019). according to previous studies, its factors or drivers tend to have an effect on the biogeophysical aspects rather than the regional socio -economic conditions. therefore, efforts to examine lulc changes in rural areas with potentially significant landscapes are essential for adaptive and sustainable regional development policies. this study aims to determine the dynamics of lulc in gebang district representing the eastern cirebon and the future application of gis and markov-ca models. 2. methods 2.1 study area this research was carried out at gebang sub-district, east cirebon regency, west java. this area is situated between cirebon, kuningan and brebes regency. it has a tropical climate characterized by an average temperature of 32o celsius and annual rainfall of approximately 2000 to 2500 mm. gebang has an altitude of 0 to 37 m above sea level and the region is suitable for the cultivation of rice, pulses and sugarcane, however it is quite susceptible to flood and tidal rising. this study applied saturated sampling in 14 villages 212 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 (figure 1). subsequently, lulc dynamic model is an input for environmental conservation as well as efforts to protect productive agricultural land. 2.2 data acquisitions basic information on lulc was obtained using the 2009 cnes-airbus imagery which had a spatial resolution of 0.96 meters. the analysis of land changes were initiated based on a temporal span of 10 years which was due to the independent implementation of development policies in the region – in the early 2000s, gebang was separated from babakan. the second temporal (time) data was obtained with the 2014 cnes-airbus imagery. meanwhile, the first law of geography refers to the dynamics of lulc's spatial modeling which stated that everything is related, however those that are closer are more influential than distant things (sui, 2004; de smith et al., 2007; foresman & luscombe, 2017). consequently, all spatial phenomena are formed due to reciprocal relationships with their neighboring environment, which leads to geographical closeness that offers stronger and more influential interactions. this is common in cross-sectional phenomena such as land use, therefore the markov-ca, is a suitable mathematical model (hamad, et al., 2018; hua, 2017). figure 1. study area this study utilized primary data obtained from field surveys carried out as part of testing land use in 2019, however secondary data was derived from reliable sources, namely 213 214 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 scientific articles, official reports of government and non-governmental institutions (table 1). these data are validated according to geospatial criteria in order to enable lulc dynamic spatial modeling. table 1. data acquisition and research variables variable or driver data data acquisition land slope (x1) raster aster dem (2019) distance to rivers (x2) vector field survey (2019) and buffering hot-osm bnpb data (2019) distance to cbd (x3) vector buffering based on field survey (2019) total population (x4) atribut indonesian statistical agency (bps) (2019) road density (x5) vector big tanah air-geoportal (2019) distance to settlements (x6) vector buffering based on visual-supervised classification of cnes-airbus (2019) land use and land cover (y) vector and raster visual-supervised classification of cnes-airbus imageries (2019) and field survey (2019) 2.3 data analysis this research applied a quantitative approach for making interpretation and drawing inferences from changes in the dynamic system which occurs due to its drivers and the lulc predictions by the markov-ca model. supposing the outcome is combined with nonparametric statistical analysis, the determinants or drivers influencing this phenomenon are discerned (quan et al., 2006; deng et al., 2009). therefore, the results from markov-ca were combined with the logistic regression method to obtain the probability value in the modeling of lulc in gebang (equation 1). logistic regression is defined as a type of non parametric statistics, which involves the interaction between variables relating to an actual situation in the absence of classical assumption test. the modelsproduce potential lulc dynamics in the future. the probability of spatial dynamics is determined by the transformation of standardized z values (hosmer, 2013). through this model, the intervention of independent variables that are highly significant pr oduces several scenarios of lulc probabilities. ln ( p 1-p ) = α + β1 x1 +β2 x2 + …. + βn xn ( (1) where ln is the natural logaritmic, p probability value, α regression constant, and β predictor coefficient. the results from the validation of spatial modeling were obtained using data from ground truth which involves 30 lulc samples from all villages in gebang sub-district. this 215 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 effort is evident in the overall accuracy and kappa values (as shown in equation 2 and 3) (widiawaty et al., 2018). overall accuracy = l1 + l2 + …. + ln n ( (2) overall kappa = oa ea 1 ea ( (3) where l is lulc types, n total samples, oa observed, and ea expected agreement. 3. results and discussion the analysis of lulc dynamics started in 2009 because the study area showed the independent implementation of development policies after it was separated from babakan sub-district in the early 2000s. during this period lulc was dominated by agricultural land and salt-fisheries with an area of approximately 29.11 km2 (82.38 percent), other large proportion consist of built-up areas (2.93 km2) and plantations (2.60 km2). in 2014, the builtup area gained a significant increase of approximately 0.93 km2, five years later. however, various conditions caused a decline at the plantations and agricultural lands to relatively 0.26 – 0.58 km2 (as shown in figure 2). in accordance with the aquacultural sector, there was a decline in areas utilized as salt-fisheries and they were transformed into mangrove forests due to lack of management. it is assumed that the prediction of lulc information during the final periods are based on the interpretation and classification of imageries, obtained in 2019 and 2030 using gis and markov-ca model. the model used a redundant temporal dynamics with pixel resolution 5 m x 5 according to the geospatial regulation in indonesia (law 4/2011 of geospatial information). the lulc model has an overall accuracy of 93.33 percent and kappa of 0.92, therefore it is valid and needs to be recommended for future purposes. the high-level of accuracy is considered prevalent due to the detection of lulc using high satellite imagery resolution with an accuracy of relatively 0.80 (ustuner et al., 2017). the lulc model in 2019 showed several changes in built-up areas, furthermore its increase caused a decline in agricultural lands, plantation, etc (figure 3). the occurrence of accretion led to the development of mangrove vegetation of approximately 0.02 km2. sediment materials from ci beres and ci sanggarung accumulated in the shoreline of gebang. in 2030, gebang sub-district is expected to be highly-dynamic because the built-up areas was approximately 20.67 percent, tend to increase to 3.99 km2 due to the function of non-vegetated land and plantations with a probability of 0.43 – 0.45. changes in lulc were 216 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 also detected in agricultural land and shrubs with a probability of relatively 0.10 as shown in table 2. the direction of the dynamics in this region starts with the exhaustion of agricultural land which is converted to non-vegetated land till it is covered with marshes and woody plants. initially, it was made up of agricultural land which gradually became compact and used to build settlements as well as other infrastructures to support human needs. this is common in various parts of the world to prevent subsidence thereby resulting in the conversion and utilization of inappropriate human activities to manage the environment (minderhoud et al., 2018). therefore, the agricultural land is directly converted to built-up areas. figure 2 shows that agricultural land decrease every time. figure 2. lulc change in gebang and prediction in the future table 2. lulc change probabilities lulc type probability wb ma pt nv ba al mr sf water bodies (wb) 0.322 0.049 0.171 0.002 0.114 0.089 0.023 0.231 mangroves (ma) 0.182 0.029 0.047 0.003 0.038 0.029 0.008 0.666 plantations (pt) 0.029 0.002 0.346 0.001 0.447 0.167 0.002 0.007 non-vegetated (nv) 0.015 0.005 0.042 0.009 0.437 0.162 0.001 0.331 built-up area (ba) 0.021 0.001 0.090 0.000 0.870 0.015 0.001 0.002 agricultural land (al) 0.003 0.000 0.063 0.009 0.122 0.789 0.000 0.014 marsh (mr) 0.042 0.007 0.158 0.002 0.126 0.149 0.078 0.439 salt area & fisheries (sf) 0.047 0.022 0.011 0.007 0.053 0.054 0.001 0.804 mean 0.083 0.014 0.116 0.004 0.276 0.181 0.014 0.312 210 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 lulc transition shows that human intervention in agricultural activities has the tendency to change the land into a built-up area. this condition is driven by lack and the pragmatic attitude of young people to become farmers – due to the fact that poverty aided in accelerating the rate of land conversion in the cirebon regency, particularly in gebang district. the results from the gain and loss analysis show that the developed area was approximately 4.38 km2, while the agricultural land was reduced to 4.22 km2 as shown in table 3. the lulc dynamics shows that a significant interaction exists between the decline in agricultural land and increase of built-up area. this pattern leads to food inequality because the human population continues to grow while there is a decline in agricultural lands, particularly in developing countries due to modernization and industrialization (ouedraogo et al., 2010; mhawish & saba, 2016). figure 3 shows the expansion of built-up area in previous periods tends to be close to the road. figure 3. lulc dynamic map of gebang 3.1 driven factors of lulc change lulc change in a dynamic system occurs due to various factors. the ca model produces predictions which combines with non-parametric statistical analysis useful in 217 218 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 determining the various factors that influences this phenomenon referred to as drivers (kamwi et al., 2018; munthali et al., 2019). therefore, the lulc modeling in gebang subdistrict is combined with the markov-ca logistic regression methods to obtain the probability value of the dynamics. the testing involved 6 (six) factors or drivers known as independent variables namely land slope, distance to rivers, distance to cbd, population, road density, and distance to the built-up area which were analyzed and reclassified as shown in figure 4. lulc change is a dependent variable which consists of both changed and nonchanged lands. figure 4. drivers of lulc changes 219 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 table 3. gain and loss all types of lulc in gebang lulc type area (km 2 ) gain & loss (%) 2009 2014 2019 2030 2009 2014 2019 2030 water bodies (wb) 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.50 -0.89 -3.93 2.10 mangroves (ma) 0.05 0.12 0.10 0.04 129.5 -18.02 -62.78 plantations (pt) 2.60 2.34 2.41 2.19 -9.96 3.01 -8.99 non-vegetated (nv) 0.08 0.13 0.11 0.06 74.27 -16.83 -43.62 built-up area (ba) 2.93 3.86 3.99 7.30 31.79 3.52 82.94 agricultural land (al) 20.6 20.0 19.9 16.8 -2.78 -0.92 -15.36 marsh (mr) 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 -25.46 -14.99 -3.59 salt area & fisheries (sf) 8.49 8.29 8.34 8.41 -2.36 0.54 0.86 table 4. interaction between drivers and lulc variable or driver β exp(b) sig. status land slope (x1) 0.021 1.021 0.746 not significant distance to rivers (x2) 0.032 1.033 0.442 not significant distance to cbd (x3) -0.090 0.914 0.254 not significant total population (x4) -0.061 0.941 0.415 not significant road density (x5) 0.228 1.256 0.001 significant distance to settlements (x6) 1.776 5.907 0.000 significant constant -8.647 0.000 0.000 significant table 5. lulc dynamic model validity model accuracy and drivers influence accuracy (percent) nagelkerke test (r and r 2 ) significance without drivers using drivers p-value α 50.2 66.0 0.493 and 0.243 0.00 0.05 goodness of fit (gof) hosmer-lameshow chi-square value chi-square table dof p-vaue α status 10.61 15.51 8 0.225 0.05 fit relative operative characteristics (roc) 0.73 ln ( p 1-p ) = 8.65 + 0.02 x1+ 0.03 x2 0.09 x30.06 x4 + 0.23 x5 + 1.18 x6 (4) the result from logistic regression test implies that road density and distance to built up area have a significant influence of approximately 95 percent confidence level (table 4). this condition shows that the pattern of lulc changes tends to be close to the existing builtup area which has quality accessibility (saputra & lee, 2019). in addition, six drivers simultaneously have a significant influence on lulc change, the r -value obtained from the 220 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 nagelkerke test is0.493, and an increase was detected in the value of markov-ca based on gof and roc (as shown in table 5). however, lulc changes also occur without influencing the drivers. this is evident in the 0.757 value of the epsilon which shows that other factors such as socio-economic conditions and political policies also influences the lulc preferences (yirsaw et al., 2017). the interaction value between the drivers and lulc change in the regression model is shown in equation 4. the statistical results also known as the drivers of socio-economic aspects are more influential than the biogeophysical aspects in gebang. these are certainly different from previous studies which stated that slope and distant water bodies are significant drivers (hassen & assen, 2017; dibaba et al., 2020). this shows that abrupt knowledge of the socioeconomic condition is necessary in the analysis of lulc change, although the nature of these drivers tends to be dynamic and difficult because they are the two main causes of urbanization – in the context of the development of rural and urban landscape (han et al., 2015). 3.2 probability lulc in 2030 the values of the input independent variable (drivers) stated in equation 4 predicts the probability of lulc change in 2030. out of the six drivers, four of them are constant namely slope, distances to the river, built-up area, and cbd. therefore, the spatial probability of lulc in gebang is only affected by two dynamic drivers namely population number and road density which are both significant variables. population number in 2030 is obtained from the prediction of the population growth from 2009 to 2019. gebang sub -district has a population growth of 1.42 percent per year, therefore in 2030 it is predicted to be 67,449 people (approximately 10.77 percent). the increasing road density in 2030 is derived from the national average road development which is relatively 0.12 percent per year (istiono, 2014). the results from processing and inputting data for the drivers into a logistic regression equation produced a probability scenario of lulc change as shown in figure 5. this pattern of change is similar to the research carried out by mienmany (2018) which predicts that almost all types of lulc have a potential change towards the built-up area. in 2030, the probability of lulc change is predicted to be high in four villages – gebang kulon, gebang ilir, gebang mekar, and gebang udik. these areas are close to the gebang cbd and have high density, due to the influence of national arterial roads (pantura). its existence offers a variety of socio-economic benefits for the population due to the role of 221 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 interregional interaction, and the presence of built-up areas (mcandrews et al., 2017; yesuph & dagnew, 2019). the total area of 0.55 km2 has a probability of approximately 0.4. this value is smaller when compared to the land probability of 0.001 – 0.1 with an area of 3.06 km2, irrespective of the changes. figure 5. a) pattern of lulc change transition and b) probability change of lulc gebang in 2030 4. conclusion the integration of gis and markov-ca led to the emergence of a dynamic lulc model and information on various factors which influenced its changes in the gebang subdistrict. this research discovered that from 2009 to 2030 there tends to be an increase in built-up area accompanied by a decline in agricultural land and plantations. the predictions of 2030 also showed that the developed area was expanded to appr oximately 20.67 percent, while the largest land loss of relatively 18.5 percent occurred in agricultural land. two drivers that have significant influence on lulc change is road density and distance to built 222 millary agung widiawaty et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 210-225 up area. in addition, the total chances of lulc occurrence in this region was approximately 4.31 km2. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgements this research is part of spatial dynamic project which were supported by fpips univesitas pendidikan indonesia (upi). the authors are grateful to dr. iwan setiawan (head of spig program, department of geography education, fpips-upi) and nurul huda (math teacher of sma negeri 1 babakan, cirebon regency) for their various contributions. references 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(2017). land use/land cover change modeling and the prediction of subsequent changes in ecosystem service values in a coastal area of china, the su-xi-chang region. sustainability (switzerland), 9(7) doi:10.3390/su9071204. 160 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 a new algorithm for the grid cell-based runoff routing model based on travel time concept baina afkril1*, m. pramono hadi2 and slamet suprayogi2 1doctoral program of geographical science, faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, jl. kaliurang, sekip utara, bulaksumur, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia 2faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, jl. kaliurang, sekip utara, bulaksumur, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *corresponding author : bafkril@gmail.com received 8 april 2020/ revised 5 may 2020 / accepted 20 may 2020/ available online 1 june 2020 abstract the grid cell-based routing model has recently been used to simulate direct runoff hydrographs at catchment scales. this study develops a flexible event-based runoff routing algorithm to simulate a direct runoff hydrograph (drh). the experiment was based on the spatiotemporal inputs of a hydrological data set. the flexibility is based on the time step and grid cell size applied in the original store-dhm. rainfall distribution was obtained using radar data adjusted by the measured point ground, while the runoff yield was determined using the nrcs-cn method. the parameter distribution was captured in the gis environment as raster data formats. furthermore, it was converted into ascii data formats for scripting the routing algorithm using matlab programming codes. the model algorithm was tested for storm events within two small study river systems in yogyakarta, indonesia. one event in each catchment was selected and calibrated to the observed hydrograph, treating the curve number (cn) and manning coefficient (n) values as parameter calibrations. in the end, two events were selected for validation. the proposed routing model algorithm simulates drhs of all selected events in the study areas with excellent performance. the nashsutcliffe coefficient was greater than 0.75 for all drh during validation, and the volume bias and peak discharge error were less than 25%. keywords: algorithm; cell-based runoff routing; travel time; gis; direct runoff hydrograph. 1. introduction rainfall-runoff models at catchment scales are simplified hydrological processes and mechanisms. however, capturing runoff phenomena in catchments is still complex. these models are constructed based on mathematical descriptions of the hydrologic cycle. their architectures are determined according to their purposes (singh & woolhiser, 2002). geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 160-185, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.17351 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 161 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 runoff generation and routing are the essential components that should be prepared in every modeling (beven, 2012). the runoff generation counts how much rainwater turns into overspill and becomes part of a storm hydrograph. it is related to rainfall and catchment characteristics, which are significant issues in hydrological abstraction. moreover, it shows how the catchment responds to rainfall by producing excess rainwater flowing to the surface and subsurface. the routing component represents the runoff distribution to shape the hydrograph at the outlet or any selected point of observations along the channel pathway in the catchment. the runoff yield can be counted using the curve number (cn) method, also called the soil conservation service-curve number (scs-cn) or natural resources conservation service-curve number (nrcs-cn) method (usda, 2004a). to estimate the runoff, the approach relies on land covers and treatments, soil types, and antecedent hydrologic conditions. it is a conceptual rainfall loss calculation method supported by empirical exercises, which also represents the infiltration loss model (ponce & hawkins, 1996). although the cn method was initially developed from experimental agricultural watersheds in the usa, it has been adapted by scientists worldwide in counting the runoff yield. the cn method does not involve spatial variability in counting runoff (ponce & hawkins, 1996). soulis & valiantzas (2012) introduced a simplified concept of a two-cn heterogeneous system to figure out its spatial variability in a watershed. the study established that the approach sufficiently describes the cn-rainfall variation in natural watersheds. gonzalez et al. (2015) proposed a vegetation correction factor to adjust the vegetationadjusted cns and applied it for monthly runoff estimation. they recorded better results compared to standard approaches. also, they argued that the adjustment is vital for flash flood monitoring and forecasting. it is quite challenging to represent the cn-rainfall variation in a real heterogeneous catchment. in hydrological modeling, calculating the composite cn using the traditional scs-cn is tedious and time-consuming (rawat & singh, 2017). the use of gis technology has made it easier to spatially present the values and calculate the runoff yields within the catchment. bansode & patil (2014) estimated the runoff in gp-3 watershed, india, using scs curve number and arcgis on a daily, monthly, and yearly basis. the results showed linear correlations between rainfall and runoff, where the yearly runoff was the best-fitted correlation. using the same method and approach, rawat & singh (2017) estimated the surface runoff from jhagrabaria’s semi-arid ungauged agricultural watershed and established a strong linear correlation of annual rainfall-runoff. additionally, ahmad et al., (2015) 162 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 applied the curve number method with remote sensing and gis to estimate runoff potential within the sheonath river basin in india. they revealed that the remote sensing and gisbased scs-cn are essential in estimating runoff within catchments of similar geohydrological characteristics, as well as in land use planning and watershed management. vojtek & vojteková (2016) applied the curve number method, coupled with gis, in estimating surface runoff to define potential flood risk areas in the vycoma catchment. the study concluded that the approach is suitable for locating potential risk areas prone to flooding. maina & raude (2016) assessed suitability for harvesting surface runoff. they used the curve number method with geospatial techniques in njoro catchment, kenya. the results showed that about 50% of the catchment had curve numbers between 82 to 89, indicating the potential for rainwater harvesting. satheeshkumar et al., (2017) used the scs-cn method and gis approach to estimate rainfall-runoff in pappiredipatti watershed, south india. the approach was proven efficient, consuming less time and facility to handle extensive data set. site selection of artificial recharge structures could be identified by the watershed as a larger environmental area. rohman et al., (2019) examined the impact of land-use changes on curve numbers to quantify the effectiveness of the natural flood management (nfm) approach in the ciliwung basin, west java, indonesia. the results showed that flood risks are primaril y affected by the changes in the cn values. al-juaidi (2018) evaluated the impact of land-use alterations on runoff volumes for the gaza strip using a simplified gis-based scs-cn method. the results showed that land-use changes play a significant role in cn number and runoff volumes. in this paper, the cn method was used as predictive values based on hydrological catchments. the variability of the runoff yields in a catchment was implied from the constructed grid cells. the routing structures and procedures can be simple or complex depending on the spatiotemporal considerations, physical processes involved, and computation resources. the development of geographic information system (gis) technology and computing program codes have eased all the routing procedures, leading to the fast production of the model outputs. gis technology can capture all the catchment boundaries. the spatial and temporal variability of any hydrological characteristics within the catchment can be depicted in a more detailed manner. the area fraction of the catchment in grid cells makes its application advanced in the distributed hydrological modeling. furthermore, the routing program codes can be incorporated within the gis environment or built separately and then interconnected using command tools available in the gis software. 163 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 the grid-based runoff routing based on the travel time concept has recently been proposed to simulate direct runoff hydrograph (drhs) at catchment scales. for instance, melesse & graham (2004) proposed a grid-based runoff routing model based on timeinvariant. they assumed that the travel time in each cell is not varying during the storm event. the proposed method constructed the runoff hydrograph directly through the cell to cell routing. du et al., (2009) studied the variability of travel time within the grid cells. they modified the method proposed by melesse & graham (2004) by involving time variability in runoff generation and spatially distributed direct hydrograph (sddh) model. the travel time from the origin of the runoff cell to the outlet cell was determined cumulatively along the flow path. the direct runoff hydrograph (drh) at the outlet was obtained by summing up the volumetric rate from total contributing cells for all time intervals. zhao & wu (2015) applied the concept of grid cell travel time on the soil surface with different micro-topography scales to simulate runoff hydrographs. the contributions of three parameters, including rainfall intensity, mean flow velocity, and ponding time depression were used to determine the flow time. additionally, the duration from the most upstream to the outlet cell was defined as a sum of all travel times along the path. the runoff rate was estimated by the summation of the rain rate from all contributing cells for all time intervals. asfaw et al. (2018) developed a simple runoff generation and routing in the gis environment to construct an event-based model prediction of metaldehyde concentrations at certain abstraction sites. using the curve number method in a surface runoff generation module, the model predicted the arrival of peak metaldehyde concentrations using the curve number method in surface runoff. to determine the total travel time from the source cell of runoff to the outlet, it is acceptable to physically sum up all cell travel periods along the flow path. however, kang & merwade (2011) established that counting for a volumetric flow rate in a cell using the sddh approach is inconsistent with the mass balance principle in the cell. this is because the volumetric flow rate in a cell is counted several times from upstream cells of different paths. consequently, the outlet cell consistently receives high volumetric flow rates due to the repeated computation of flow accumulation. to overcome these issues in the travel-time concept, kang & merwade (2011) proposed the storage-release based distributed hydrologic model (store dhm). the approach treats all cells in the raster grid as storages for water from adjacent cells. the stored water is then released to downstream cells using a continuity equation combined with manning's formula. the model has the capability to maintain the water balance in each cell since the processes of incoming-storing-outgoing in all cells are 164 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 counted once in each time step. however, the approach has flexibility issues since the minimum travel time must be determined first using the critical cell travel time (cct) condition. this ensures that the travel time in a cell always exceeds the chosen fractional time of rainfall. using this approach means the cell size should be selected to satisfy the cell’s travel time for the chosen rainfall time fraction. this is especially the case in small catchments where large grid cells are inappropriate. in this study, a new algorithm for runoff routing based on the concept of the store dhm without relying on the cct is presented. the process of storage-release involves using different approaches when the travel time is less than the model time step before proceeding to the next step. this is conducted by applying a looping mechanism as an iterative process in the model. a “loop” statement in a computation program is a control statement that executes a block of codes repeatedly to meet a condition given for the block. 2. methods 2.1 area of study the model program was applied to two small study river systems in yogyakarta province, indonesia. the study river catchments were delineated using a 15 m dem that was converted from a 12.5 m contours map. the first river system is located at the upstream of the sumur mbandung catchment, as shown in figure 1. the second river system is located at the upstream of the sempor catchment, as shown in figure 2. the study area at sumur mbandung catchment covers an area of about 1.84 km2. it is located at elevation ranges of 160 m – 390 m above sea level. the outlet is at 439,538.77 meters east (me) and 9,126,419.00 meters south (ms) of the universal transfer mercator (utm) coordinate system of zone 49s. the second study area covers an area of about 1.47 km2 in a river system at the upstream of the sempor catchment. it is located at the elevation ranges of 600 m – 831 m above sea level while the outlet is at 432,023.00 me and 9,155,540.00 ms of the utm coordinate system of zone 49s. 165 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 figure 1. study river system in sumur mbandung catchment 166 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 figure 2. the study river system in sempor catchment 2.2 data resources the model needs rainfall data, land use and land cover (lulc) types, along with soil types to be processed later as input data. also, flow data is used for model testing. the rainfall data were collected from two sources, including the portable automatic rainfall recorder rain gage (arr) and the meteorological radar. one arr of 0.2 mm for 1 tick measurement was installed within each of the study areas, as shown in figure 1 and figure 2. the rainfall radar data was from the x-band multiparameter radar (xmpr) operated by the 167 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 hydraulic laboratory of the engineering faculty, gadjah mada university. the radar is installed at the merapi volcano museum, about 3 km from sempor catchment and about 30 km from sumur mbandung catchment. the rainfall radar data is available at http://data.hydraulic.lab.cee-ugm.ac.id/. after brief verifications in the field, the lulc types were delineated from the google earth map (image of august 2016). figure 3 and figure 4 show the lulc maps of the study areas in sumur mbandung and sempor catchments, respectively. figure 3. map of land uses and land covers in the study area of sumur mbandung catchment http://data.hydraulic.lab.cee-ugm.ac.id/ 168 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 figure 4. map of land uses and land covers in the study area of sempor catchment the forest predominantly covers the study area in sumur mbandung catchment. in the middle part, there is a wide area of non-irrigated paddy fields with high runoff production. in sempor catchment, the study area is predominantly covered by agricultural land. the zalacca palm plantation covers the most significant area among all agricultural lands. 169 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 the soil types were obtained from the map provided by the bureau of planning and development of yogyakarta. based on the soil map, the study area in sumur mbandungcatchment has latosol soil with a sandy, loamy clay texture. in contrast, sempor catchment is mostly covered by regosol soil with a sandy texture. the flow data were obtained by installing two automatic water level readings (awlrs) at the outlet of the river system. the readings were installed both at upstream and downstream sections. the flow was determined using a continuous slope area method by applying manning’s formula of two cross-sectional areas. the drhs were obtained using the constant slope method of baseflow separation. 2.3 model construction 2.3.1 water balance concept in the grid-based water balance concept, a cell is perceived to be a bucket that stores, receives, and releases water. representation of mass flow balance in the grid cells routing can be written as follows: (kang & merwade, 2011) 𝑆(𝑡)𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑄(𝑡)𝑗,𝑖 ∆𝑡 + 𝑆(𝑡)𝑗,𝑖−1 + ∑ 𝐼(𝑡)𝑘,𝑖∆𝑡 8 𝑘=1 − 𝑂(𝑡)𝑗,𝑖 ∆𝑡 (1) where s(t) is water stored in a cell (m3), q(t) is the runoff in a cell resulted from excess rainfall within δt, or excess rainfall intensity (m3/s). i(t) is the inflow from the adjacent cells (m3/s), o(t) is the outflow to the downstream cell (m3/s), δt is the time step interval (s), i is the incremental time step (i = 1, 2,…, n), j the cell’s index (j = 1, 2,…, m), while k is the adjacent cell’s index (k = 1, 2,…, 8). the outflow, o(t), in eq. (1) depends on the residence time or flow travel time in each cell. the following conditions are applied to calculate the outflow 𝑂(𝑡)𝑗,𝑖 = { 𝑆𝑗,𝑖−1 ∆𝑡 , if 𝑇𝑗,𝑖−1 < ∆𝑡 𝑆𝑗,𝑖−1 𝑇𝑗,𝑖−1 , if 𝑇𝑗,𝑖−1 ≥ ∆𝑡 (2) the conditions given in eq. (2) indicate that all stored water is released to a downstream cell when the travel time, tj,i-1, is less than the time step (δt). furthermore, only a portion of or exactly all of the stored water is released when tj,i-1 is greater than or equal to δt. 170 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 in applying the routing concept of eq. (1), the cell networking representing the flow directions and the flow paths in the networking system needs to be prepared. also, the runoff and the travel time in each cell should be calculated. 2.3.2 flow direction in the gis environment, the flow direction refers to the 3x3 grid cell rule using direction codes or the d8 grid method (tarboton et al., 2009), as shown in figure 5(a). to satisfy the water balance, a cell may receive incoming flows from 7 neighboring cells. additionally, the water stored may only flow out to one downstream cell. in this study, recoding the flow directions was performed for simplification in building the computation program, as shown in figure 5(b). figure 5. flow direction codes: (a) arcgis basic codes, (b) codes used in model construction. 2.3.3 runoff calculation the runoff yield in each grid cell was computed after the excess rainfall was calculated. the depths’ distribution within the study area was constructed using inverse distance weight (idw) in arcgis software. the data points used for applying the idw method were obtained from the radar adjusted to the ground rain gage (arr). due to lack of equipment, it was the only arr installed in each study area. it involved adjusting the total rainfall depth of a point radar by measuring the same coordinate as the position of the arr to the total depth of rainfall. the depth was determined by the gage counted within the duration of an event to obtain a multiplication factor. afterward, the multiplication factor was used to obtain other points of radar values within the study area. by this approach, it is assumed that the rainwater falls vertically from the sky to the earth. therefore, the rainfall measured by the gage is recorded by the radar. moreover, it is hypothesized that the storm occurs uniformly in time throughout the entire study area. the runoff in each cell is the volume of the excess rainfall in each time fraction, δt, calculated as follows: 171 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 𝑄(𝑡)𝑖 = (𝑃𝑒(𝑡))𝑖 ∆𝑡 𝐴 (3) where q(t) is the runoff in a cell at time step i (m3/s), pe(t)i is the excess rainfall depth at time step i (m), δt is the time fraction (s), and a the cell size (m2). based on eq. (3), the runoff volume, v(t), in each cell can be written as follows: 𝑉(𝑡)𝑖 = (𝑃𝑒 (𝑡))𝑖 𝐴 (4) the excess rainfall, pe(t) in eq. (3) was calculated using the nrcs-cn method as follows: (usda, 2004a) 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃 − 0.2𝑆 − 𝑆(𝑃−0.2𝑆) 𝑃+0.8𝑆 (5) where p is the rainfall depth (mm) and s is the maximum soil water retention parameter (mm) calculated by the equation below: 𝑆 = 25400 𝐶𝑁 − 254 (6) where cn is the curve number determined based on land characteristics and soil properties (the values were referred to usda (2004b) and the antecedent rainfall condition (arc) class (table 1). the standard cn values were determined based on the arc class ii, i.e., cn(2). the cn values for arc class i and iii are calculated using eq. (7) and eq. (8) (chow et al, 1988). 𝐶𝑁(1) = 4.2𝐶𝑁 (2) 10−0,058𝐶𝑁 (2) (7) 𝐶𝑁(3) = 23𝐶𝑁 (2) 10+0,13𝐶𝑁(2) (8) table 1. classification of antecedent runoff condition (mccuen, 1998; usda, 2004b) arc class soil condition 5-day antecedent rainfall depth (mm) dry season wet season i dry < 12.7 < 35.56 ii average 12.7 – 27.94 35.56 – 53.34 iii wet > 27.94 > 53.34 the pe(t) and qe(t) in eq. (3) in all cells for each incremental time step were computed using matlab software, after converting the rainfall raster data proceeded in the gis environment into ascii data. 172 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 2.3.4 travel time calculation two kinds of flow were considered in calculating the flow travel time, including overland and channel. (1) overland flow travel time the overland travel time in any given cell j for each incremental time step i is estimated using eq. (9). (𝑇𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 = 𝐿𝑗 (𝑣𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 (9) where tl is the travel time (s), l is the flow length (m) (l = cell width in case the flow is in horizontal or vertical directions, or l = 20.5 of the cell width where the flow is in a diagonal direction). vl is the flow velocity (m/s), and the l subscript indicates the overland flow. the overland flow velocity in a cell can be estimated by combining the steady-state uniform flow expression with manning's formula (singh & aravamuthan, 1996; kang & merwade, 2011). in the steady-state uniform flow, the unit width discharge in a cell can be written as follows: (kang & merwade, 2011) (𝑞𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 = (𝜑𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 . 𝐿𝑗 = 𝑦𝑗,𝑖 . (𝑣𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 (10) where q is the unit width discharge (m2/s), 𝜑 is the flux (m/s) as given by eq. (11), and y is the flow depth (m). the flux is defined by the following equation: (𝜑𝑙 )𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑆𝑗,𝑖 𝐴𝑗 ×∆𝑡 (11) where s is the storage in the cell (m3), a is the cell’s area (m2), and δt is the time step interval or rainfall time fraction (s). the overland flow velocity can be estimated using manning’s formula (chow et al., 1988) as given in eq. (12): 𝑣𝑙 = 𝑠 1 2⁄ × 𝑦 2 3⁄ 𝑛 (12) where s is the slope (m/m), and n is the manning roughness coefficient. rearranging eq. (12) to obtain y and substituting it into eq. (10), the overland flow velocity can be written as follows: (𝑣𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑠𝑗 0.3 × (𝜑𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 0.4 × 𝐿𝑗 0.4 𝑛𝑗 0.6 (13) for the sake of simplicity in programming, the velocity in eq. (13) is expressed differently as given by eq. (14). 173 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 (𝑣𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 = (𝐾𝑠𝑛 ) 0.6 × ((𝜑𝑙)𝑗,𝑖 × 𝐿𝑗 ) 0.4 (14) where ksn is the slope-manning coefficient written as: 𝐾𝑠𝑛 = 𝑠𝑗 0.5 𝑛𝑗 (15) therefore, the overland flow travel time in any given cell is calculated using eq. (9) after substituting the velocity, eq. (14). (2) channel flow travel time as in overland flow travel time derivation, the travel time in any given cell for channel flow is estimated by the following equation: (𝑇𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 = 𝐿𝑗 (𝑣𝑟)𝑗,𝑖 (16) where the subscript r refers to channel flow. the channel flow velocity in any given cell for each incremental time step can be estimated by combining the continuity equation with manning's formula based on the assumption of a wide channel (melesse, 2002; kang & merwade, 2011). the assumption is reasonable because the cell size is larger than the actual channel. the continuity equation for each incremental time step for channel flow is written as follows: 𝑆𝑗,𝑖 ∆𝑡 = 𝐴𝑗 × (𝑣𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑦𝑗,𝑖 × 𝐵𝑗 × (𝑣𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 (17) where b is the width of the cell (m). the manning's formula for channel flow is written as follows: (melesse, 2002; kang & merwade, 2011) 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑠 1 2⁄ ×𝑅 2 3⁄ 𝑛 (18) where r is the hydraulic radius (m) as the ratio of the cross-sectional area to its wetted perimeter. by using a wide channel assumption, the hydraulic radius can be replaced by the flow depth (r = y). similarly, the channel slope can be replaced by the slope as in overland flow (s = sj). replacing these two flow parameters in eq. (18) and substituting it into eq. (17), then rearranging the substituted equation, the velocity expression for channel flow is obtained, as given by eq. (19). (𝑣𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑠𝑗 0.3 𝑛𝑗 0.6 × ( 𝑆𝑗,𝑖 𝐵𝑗∆𝑡 ) 0.4 (19) to organize the scripting of the computation program in a good pattern, eq. (19) can be rewritten in the same form as in the overland flow, eq. (14). 174 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 (𝑣𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 = (𝐾𝑠𝑛 ) 0.6 × ((𝜑𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 × 𝐵𝑗 × 𝐿𝑗) 0.4 (20) where ksn is defined as the same as in eq. (14) and 𝜑𝑟 as the flux in wide channel given by (𝜑𝑟 )𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑆𝑗,𝑖 𝐴𝑗 × ∆𝑡 (21) therefore, by substituting the velocity in eq. (20) into eq. (16) the channel flow travel time is obtained. 2.3.5 routing model concept the concept of the routing is schematically depicted in figure 6. each cell, j, represents a single value of excess rainfall as a runoff yield in each incremental time step, i. the value is calculated based on the nrcs-cn method. the runoff from the most upstream cell is then routed to the outlet cell of the study catchment through a flow path constructed by flow direction connectivity using gis software. during the routing processes, accumulations co-occur at cells that receive flows from upstream. this means that the outlet receives all these simultaneous flow accumulations at each time step. the two critical parameters in this model include the curve number (cn) and surface manning roughness (n). the cn values are related to the amount of excess rainfall in each cell at every incremental time step. in this regard, the length of the time step, δt, corresponds to the time fraction of the recorded rainfall. furthermore, the n values are related to the speed of the flow. since cell travel time is the critical issue, the consequence of selecting the grid cell size and the time step to the cell travel time is crucial in the proposed routing model development. the time step is used as the basis of a hydrograph. additionally, the flow in a cell should only be the runoff and water from its neighboring cells stored within a duration that is equal to or greater than the given time step. this means that the travel time of the flow in the cell should at least be equal to the travel time in the neighboring cells. in the case of an unfavorable deviation, flows from upstream cells also contribute to the volumetric rate. this may cause inconsistency in determining the basis time as well as the calculated discharge. therefore, this study mainly focused on constructing an algorithm to deal with this inconsistency. this was achieved using looping or iteration in the routing model. importantly, the loop statement satisfied a cell travel time following the time step. the step block justifying looping for travel time at outlet cell is performed before executing the next time step (i+1). 175 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 dem rainfall depth slope (j) n (j) cn (j) excess rainfall (j,i) area (j) flow length (j) flow direction (j) inflow volume (k,i) hydrograph (joutlet,i) soil type lu/lc velocity (j,i) travel time (j,i) justifying looping for travel time at outlet (joutlet,i) routed runoff (j,i) routing (j,i) runoff volume (j,i) outflow volume (j,i) storage (j,i) variable parameterprocess calibrated parameter arc figure 6. routing model concept for hydrograph simulation to contextually apply the routing model concept, the algorithm was constructed and scripted using matlab programming codes. the model results constructed without looping as the original model were also presented for comparison. 2.4 model performance evaluation the proposed model algorithm was tested to simulate drhs of three continuous storm events. one event was treated as a calibration while the other two were selected for validation. the cn and n values were treated as parameter calibrations. furthermore, the calibration was performed manually based on the literature values of cn and n that might be appropriate for the study areas. the model performance was evaluated using statistical analysis criteria of the nashsutcliffe efficiency (nse), the relative error of peak flow (qpe), and the volume bias (vb) given by eqs. (22) to (24), respectively. 𝑁𝑆𝐸 = 1 − ∑ [(𝑄𝑠 )𝑖−(𝑄𝑜 )𝑖] 2𝑚 𝑖=1 ∑ [(𝑄𝑠 )𝑖−(�̅�𝑜)𝑖] 2𝑚 𝑖=1 (22) 𝑄𝑝 𝐸 = |𝑄𝑝𝑠 −𝑄𝑝𝑜 | 𝑄𝑝𝑜 𝑥100 (23) vb= 𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑥100 (24) where qs and qo are the simulated and observed flows, respectively, (m 3/s), qpo and qps are the observed and simulated flows, respectively, (m3/s), and vo and vs are the observed and 176 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 simulated runoff volume total at the outlet, respectively, (m3). the approximate values for the acceptance of the model performance are greater than 0.75 for nse and less than 25 % for both qpe and vb. 3. results and discussion 3.1 using model algorithm the model program was constructed using matlab software. the construction was based on the routing model concept (figure 6), cell water balance (eq. 1 and eq. 2), and all the involved water flow components (eq. 9 – eq. 21). the algorithm for scripting the program is depicted in figure 7. a new form of this model involves the application of loop or iteration statements, as enclosed by the red line in figure 7. at the first step, indexed by i = 1, the flow parameters are calculated to justify the travel time in a cell. when the travel time in the outlet cell is less than the time step δt, a looping process is started. the travel time is recalculated for each repetition. furthermore, the looping process is automatically terminated when the accumulative travel time in the outlet cell is equal to or greater than the time step. the next step, i = 2, to the last are then consecutively executed. each time the travel time in the outlet cell is less than the time step in each increment, the looping process is performed. by applying loop statements, the travel time is confined to the selected time step and acts as the basis for a simulated hydrograph. the next task involves justifying the discharge obtained at the given time step. since the iterations in a loop result in more than one calculated outflow in the outlet cell, a single discharge value is counted for each incremental time step. the condition for outflow in eq. (1) as shown in line 2 of eq. (2) prevents direct summation of the iterative discharges in each looping. although the numerator is δt, the denominator depends on each iteration's travel time in a looping. therefore, the final discharge of each looping is approximated by multiplying the average iterative discharges by time factor as follows: 𝑄𝑙 = ∑ 𝑄𝑚 𝑀 𝑚=1 𝑀 𝐹𝑇 (25) where ql is the discharge in each time step (m 3/s), qm is the iterative discharges in each looping (m3/s), m is the iteration index, m is the total iteration in each looping, and ft is the time factor calculated as the rainfall time fraction (seconds) divided by 60 seconds, or ft= δt/60. 177 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 r,c (no. of rows and colums of grid area) times (# of time steps) pe (r*c*times -matrix of excess hytograph) a (r*c -matrix of grid area) sg (r*c -matrix of slope grid) ∆t (time step) l (r*c -matrix of flow length) n (r*c -matrix of manning roughness coef.) flodir (r*c --matrix of flow direction) (xo,yo) (outlet coordinate) ft (rainfall time fraction) ksn = sg0.5/n; no = n(xo,yo) q1 = p1 /∆t (0.001*a) o1 = 0 s1 = q1 ∆t φ1 = s1 /(a*∆t) vl1= ksn0.6 (l*φ1)0.4 vr1= ksn0.6 (b*l*φ1)0.4 t1 = traveltime(vl,vr,l,n) to = t1(xo,yo); oo = o1(xo,yo) i=1 iter = 1 plot(times,discharges) i= i+1 qi = pi /∆t (0.001*a) oi = outflow(ti-1,si-1,∆t) ii = inflow(flodir,oi) si = qi*∆t + si-1 + ii*∆t oi*∆t φi = si /(a*∆t) vli= ksn0.6 (l*φi)0.4 vri= ksn0.6 (b*l*φi)0.4 ti = travel time(vl,vr,l,n) oo = oi(xo,yo) to = ti(xo,yo) iter = loop i≤ times? no start yes end to<∆t? loop = iter sloop = si tloop = to tcum = to ocum = oo tcum<∆t? loop = loop+1 oloop = outflow(tloop,sloop,∆t) iloop = inflow(flodir,oloop) sloop = sloop + iloop *∆t oloop∆t φloop = sloop/(a*∆t) vlloop = ksn0.6 (l*φloop)0.4 vrloop = ksn0.6 (b*l*φloop)0.4 tloop = traveltime(vlloop,vrloop,l,n) ocum = ocum+oloop(xo,yo) tloop = tloop(xo,yo) tcum = tcum+tloop discharge(i)=oo*ft /iter no iter = loop oi = oloop si = sloop ti = tloop oo = ocum no yes yes figure 7. algorithm of the proposed model. a block bounded by the red line is the looping mechanism. 178 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 3.2 model testing; calibration and validation three isolated storm events in each study area were selected to test the performance of the proposed routing model. the summary of measured rainfall and flow data for the events is shown in table 2. table 2. summary of the rainfall and flow data in the study areas study catchment storm event duration (min.) time step (δt) (min.) total rainfall depth gauge (mm) tot. 5 days antecedent rainfall depth (mm) peak flow (m3/s) time to peak (min.) code date start time sumur mbandung b1 1-mar-17 13:45 135 15 42.8 53.6 4.09 45 b2 3-feb-17 2:10 150 15 39.8 134.2 4.63 45 b3 15-jan-17 16:05 45 15 22.8 61.8 2.97 45 sempor s1 1-mar-17 16:50 165 15 115.2 188.8 4.17 60 s2 15-mar-17 15:25 45 15 24.4 78.8 0.76 30 s3 9-nov-16 14:15 300 15 147.2 7.8 1.20 150 the model was first tested for each study catchment using the b1 event for sumur mbandung and s1 for sempor. for this reason, the cn and n values have been selected as in columns test value of table 3 and table 4. the values are adjusted for lulc and hsg in sumur mbandung and sempor catchments, respectively. the tables also include the calibrated cn and n values. simulated hydrographs of the initial test are shown in figure 8, while their statistical evaluations are presented in table 5. table 3. curve number (cn) and manning coefficient (n) values for the study area in sumur mbandung catchment (initial test and calibration) lulc hsg curve number, cn manning coefficient, n range cn(2)* test value calibrated value range** test value calibrated value cn(2) cn(1) cn(3) scarcely forest c 79 86 86 79 61 90 0.035 0.160 0.035 0.195 seasonal agriculture c 77 84 84 83 67 92 0.030 0.500 0.030 0.205 residential lots c 82 82 83 67 92 0.011 0.035 0.110 0.095 grass c 80 89 89 80 63 90 0.030 0.500 0.030 0.175 non-irrigated paddy field c 90 95 95 91 81 96 0.030 0.500 0.030 0.095 open area c 90 95 95 95 89 98 0.025 0.033 0.025 0.075 water 100 100 98 98 98 0.025 0.033 0.025 0.040 *usda (2014b); ** kang & merwade (2011) 179 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 table 4. curve number (cn) and manning coefficient (n) values for the study area in sempor catchment (initial test and calibration) lulc hsg curve number, cn manning coefficient, n range cn(2)* test value calibrated value range** test value calibrated value cn(2) cn(1) cn(3) scarcely forest b 55 73 73 50 30 70 0.035 0.160 0.035 0.155 densely forest c 55 73 73 50 30 70 0.035 0.160 0.035 0.155 seasonal agriculture c 69 80 80 70 49 84 0.030 0.500 0.03 0.175 zalacca palm plantation c 69 80 80 70 49 84 0.030 0.500 0.03 0.175 residential lots c 74 74 74 54 87 0.011 0.035 0.011 0.075 irrigated paddy field c 90 95 95 47 27 67 0.030 0.500 0.030 0.055 water 100 100 98 98 98 0.025 – 0.033 0.025 0.030 *usda (2014b); ** kang & merwade (2011) figure 8. initial test of model results for event b1 and s1 table 5. results of initial test models for b1 and s1 events study area event vo vs qpo qps nse qpe vb tpo tps (m3) (m3) (m3/s) (m3/s) % % (min.) (min.) sumur mbandung b1 15,729 9,105 4.04 2.23 0.30 44.89 -42.11 45 45 sempor s1 22,335 20,543 4.166 3.71 0.95 10.96 -8.02 60 45 vo = observed runoff volume, vs = simulated runoff volume, qpo = observed peak flow, qps= simulated peak flow, nse = nash-sutcliffe coefficient, qpe = relative error of peak flow, vb = volume bias, tpo = observed time to peak and tps =simulated time to peak. as shown in figure 8, initially, the simulated drhs of the two events have similar trends. the statistical evaluations of the model performances were critical in this regard. in the sumur mbandung catchment, the nse is less than 0.75, while the total runoff volume that reaches the outlet is underestimated by 42%. similarly, the peak flow is underestimated by sumur mbandung sempor 180 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 45%. in the sempor catchment, the nse is greater than 0.75, while the total runoff volume is underestimated by 8%. additionally, the peak flow is underestimated by 11%. based on the initial test results, the proposed algorithm performs well in simulating drhs. the calibration on the two events is then performed manually with cn and n as the parameters. the study area at sumur mbandung catchment has a latosol classified into the hydrological soil group c. furthermore, the regosol in sempor catchment is categorized in hydrological soil group b. both events have a total of 5 days of antecedent rainfall depths greater than 53.34 mm. therefore, they are classified as arc iii, and the cn(3) values of all land characteristics in the study areas were used to calculate the runoff yield. the values of cn and n for any combination of lulc and soil types after calibration in sumur mbandung and sempor are presented in table 3 and table 4, respectively. the calibrated and the validated model drhs for all events in both study areas are shown in figure 9. the statistical evaluations of the model performances are presented in table 6. calibrated model drhs (b1 and s1 events) and validated models (b2, b3, s2, and s3 events) sumur mbandung sempor figure 9. 181 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 table 6. statistical evaluation results after calibration and validation for all selected events in the study areas study area event vo vs qpo qps nse qpe vb tpo tps (m3) (m3) (m3/s) (m3/s) % % (min.) (min.) sumur mbandung b1 15,729 16,348 4.04 4.17 0.97 3.06 3.94 45 45 b2 20,812 18,384 4.63 4.40 0.89 4.91 -11.67 45 45 b3 5,490 4,912 3.14 2.97 0.96 5.62 -10.53 45 45 sempor s1 22,335 22,075 4.16 4.20 0.98 0.86 -1.16 60 45 s2 935 1,103 0.68 0.74 0.99 4.59 -17.95 30 30 s3 11,435 11,394 1.26 1.20 0.88 4.61 -0.36 150 150 vo = observed runoff volume, vs = simulated runoff volume, qpo = observed peak flow, qps= simulated peak flow, nse = nash-sutcliffe coefficient, qpe = relative error of peak flow, vb = volume bias, tpo = observed time to peak and tps =simulated time to peak. after calibrations using cn(3) and n values, the shape of the simulated drhs for both b1 and s1 are closer to the observed ones than initial test results. the model performance measures give excellent results. precisely, the nse is 0.97 for the b1 event and 0.98 for s1. the qpe is overestimated by 3% for b1 and 1% for s1. the vb is underestimated by 4% for b1 and is overestimated by 1% for s1. although the time to peak in the simulated drh for s1 is one step before its observed value, the routing model might produce the best fit of calibrated hydrographs. model validations for the other four events, two in each study area, also produce comparable results. for instance, b2 and b3 in the sumur mbandung study area, both events have a total 5-day rainfall depth of greater than 53.34 mm. therefore, cn(3) values were used for running the model, keeping the calibrated n values as they are. the validated model results for both events had good nse, specifically, 0.89 for b2 and 0.96 for b3. other model performance measures are also within the range of acceptance. in the sempor catchment, validation for s2 was also performed using cn(3). the validated model result shows the best fit drh compared to the observed one with the nse is 0.99, the qpe is overestimated by 5%, and the vb is underestimated by 18%. the time to peak is also the same as the time to peak of the observed drh, which is 30 minutes. s3 lasts in the longest duration of 300 minutes with the highest total rainfall depth gauge (147.2 mm) of all selected events in the sempor area. however, it produced lesser runoff volume at the outlet compared with s1(vo in table 6). this is attributed to the hydrological condition before the event. as shown in table (2), the total 5-day rainfall depth 182 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 before the s3 event is 7.8 mm. at low antecedent rainfall conditions, vegetation covers potentially retain a large amount of rainwater for the next event, especially in the early stage. the soil is in quite dry conditions and therefore, infiltration reduces runoff production. in applying the model for validation for s3, the cn(1) values were used as arc laid on class i. the validated result shows that the simulated drh for s3 is relatively similar to the observed one and its model performance measures are within the range of acceptance (table 6). 3.3 comparison with original model the original model, which does not involve looping and iteration mechanisms in the routing algorithm, was also tested using the calibrated cn and n values for all the selected events in the study areas. the results of the simulated drhs of the model are shown in figure 10. original model results for the selected storm events in the study areas figure 10 shows that the first model results of all simulated drhs end up with much longer estimated runoff time than the observed ones. also, all the peaks are consistently figure 10. 183 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 underestimated. the results are principally consistent with kang & merwade (2011), which established that when the cell size is small and the time step, δt, is long enough to produce travel time shorter than the time step, the model hydrograph always has a long basis time with low peak. to overcome this issue, the critical cell travel time (cct) was used to select a time step for the corresponding grid cell size to ensure the flow travel time is greater than the selected step. additionally, the proposed routing model with looping adjusts the cell travel time to the time step. 4. conclusion this paper discussed hydrograph simulations constructed from a runoff routing model based on the cell water balance. the study used travel time as a conditional preference. the original model's simulation results showed consistently long runoff times and low peaks compared to the observed hydrographs. to overcome this problem, a new algorithm was developed using a looping mechanism. the routine guarantees that cell travel time is always greater than the selected time step. the simulation results of the new algorithm showed resemblance in shapes to observed hydrographs. the model performed well with excellent measures. moreover, all simulated direct runoff hydrographs had a nash-sutcliffe coefficient of greater than 0.75, the volume bias, and peak discharge error of less than 25%. although the results of applying the proposed model algorithm are promising, this paper only presents an initial effort. therefore, future studies should focus on promoting the model validity. these can be achieved by testing the model for other catchments with different hydrological conditions. also, the model can be tested in terms of grid cell size and time step variations. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgments this research was financially supported by the directorate general of higher education, the ministry of education and cultural republic of indonesia. the authors express gratitude to the faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, for facilitating the research. the authors also thank mrs. nurhaida, a postgraduate student at the faculty of 184 baina afkril et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 160-185 basic 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(2015). simulation of runoff hydrograph on soil surfaces with different microtopography using a travel time method at the plot scale. plos one, 10(6), 1– 14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130794. 1. introduction 2. methods 2.1 area of study 2.2 data resources 2.3 model construction 2.3.1 water balance concept 2.3.2 flow direction 2.3.3 runoff calculation 2.3.4 travel time calculation 2.3.5 routing model concept 2.4 model performance evaluation 3. results and discussion 3.1 using model algorithm 3.2 model testing; calibration and validation 3.3 comparison with original model 4. conclusion acknowledgments references geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021 available online since 17 august 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021 available online since 17 august 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia published by: department of geography education university of jember e-issn 2614-8528 p-issn 2598-9723 geos. ind. vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021 available online since 17 august 2021 at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geosfera indonesia, vol. 6 no. 2 (2021) accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020 . editorial team editor in chief fahmi arif kurnianto (scopus id: 57208473928) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia advisory international editorial boards mihai ciprian margarint (scopus id : 36698019400) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania fahrudi ahwan ikhsan (scopus id : 57208469257) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia mustafa ustuner (scopus id : 56246446800) department of geomatics engineering, yildiz technical university, turkey bashkim idrizi (scopus id : 55937683800) department of geodesy, university "mother teresa" -skopje, macedonia guillermo hector re (scopus id : 7102894803) department of geology, universidad de buenos aires, buenos aires, argentina laras tursilowati (scopus id : 55317967300) indonesian national institute of aeronautics and space (lapan), indonesia m. asyroful mujib (scopus id : 57217104177) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia lyubka pashova (scopus id : 6506546577) national institute of geophysics, geodesy and geography, bulgarian academy of sciencesdisabled, sofia, bulgaria mohmadisa hashim (scopus id : 55214571400) department of geography & environment, universiti pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia layout editors yucha risdarani (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) m. mitasari (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) giofani ginolla ardiyanto (department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia) copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember focus and scope geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, naturesociety and gis) to resolve human-environment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction publication information geosfera indonesia (geos. ind.) : | issn: 2598-9723 (print)| issn: 2614-8528 (online) is an international open access and peer-reviewed journal, published by department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia. its published three times a year in april, august, and december. geosfera indonesia is accredited (sinta 2) by the ministry of research and technology of the republic of indonesia (ristekbrin), no. 200/m/kpt/2020. this journal has been covered by following indexing and abstracting services: (1) cabi : cab abstracts ; (2) directory of open access journal (doaj); (3) ebsco; (4) google scholar (5) one search (national library of republic of indonesia), (6) web of science. secretariat of geosfera indonesia department of geography education, university of jember, fkip building, jl. kalimantan 37, jember, east java, 68121, indonesia. telp. (0331) 334988 / 330738 email : geografi.fkip@unej.ac.id website : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember table of contents flash flood susceptibility mapping at andungbiru watershed, east java using ahp-information weighted method 127-142 devi ratna handini, entin hidayah, gusfan halik seasonal variability of waterlogging in rangpur city corporation using gis and remote sensing techniques 143-156 md. naimur rahman, sajjad hossain shozib potential utilization analysis of river waste in jakarta, indonesia 157-172 rahajeng hasna safira, mega mutiara sari, suprihanto notodarmojo, takanobu inoue, regil kentaurus harryes mapping of soil quality index (sqi) for paddy fields using sentinel-2 imagery, laboratory analysis, and principal component analysis 173-188 putri tunjung sari, indarto indarto, marga mandala, bowo eko cahyono spatial database designing for environmental monitoring and decision making in mitrovica region, the republic of kosovo 189-204 bashkim idrizi, edon maliqi, lyubka pashova 205-221 analysis on factors influencing geography teachers’ ability in constructing high-order thinking skills (hots) assessment instrument suhendro suhendro, dede sugandi, mamat ruhimat the influence of soil conditioning on soil infiltration rate in urban facilities searphin nugroho, wahyono hadi 222-240 copyright (c) 2021 geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember cover geosfera 62.pdf (p.1) editor.pdf (p.2) focus and scope agusutus1.pdf (p.3-4) acknowledgement the editorial board would like to thank and express appreciation to all peer reviewers who have reviewed the manuscripts for publication of geosfera indonesia. marinela istrate (scopus id : 56672996500) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania lucian rosu (scopus id : 56958158800) department of geography, universitatea alexandru ioan cuza, iasi, romania mihai niculita (scopus id : 55022909500) department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university of iasi, romania tin lukic (scopus id : 54795557700) department of geography, university of novi sad, serbia fatih adiguzel (scopus id : 57204062132) , department of geography, nevşehir haci bektaş veli üniversitesi, nevsehir, turkey elan artono nurdin (scopus id : 57192649049) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia bejo apriyanto (scopus id : 57208468203) department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia prima widayani (scopus id : 57188879871) faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia ivan taslim (scopus id : 57203022349) department of geography, universitas muhammadiyah gorontalo, indonesia efdal kaya (scopus id : 57202135756) department of architecture and urban planning, iskenderun technical university, iskenderun, turkey batuhan kilic (scopus id : 57204675825) geomatic engineering department, yildiz technical university, istanbul, turkey nailul insani (scopus id : 57208471498) department of geography, universitas negeri malang, indonesia rendra zainal maliki department of geography education, universitas tadulako, indonesia faisal arif setiawan department of geography education, universitas lambung mangkurat, indonesia aulia ulfa farahdiba (scopus id : 57208130620) , department of environmental engineering, universitas pembangunan nasional "veteran" jawa timur, indonesia guruh samodra (scopus id : 55053491600) faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia andri estining sejati (scopus id : 57211280452) geography education study program, universitas sembilanbelas november, kolaka, indonesia wahid akhsin budi nur sidiq (scopus id : 57201676728), department of geography, universitas negeri semarang, semarang indonesia pertiwi andarani (scopus id : 55959123900), department of environmental engineering, universitas diponegoro, semarang, indonesia prama ardha aryaguna (scopus id : 56236908900), department of survey and mapping, faculty of engineering, universitas esa unggul, jakarta, indonesia ionuț minea (scopus id : 56951000900), faculty of geography and geology, department of geography, alexandru ioan cuza university, 20 a, carol i bd., 700505 iasi, romania rosmadi fauzi (scopus id : 6508044388), department of geography, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia pramaditya wicaksono (scopus id : 54279699900), faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia mahendra andiek maulana (scopus id : 57189494749), faculty of civil engineering planning and earth science, institut teknologi sepuluh nopember, surabaya, indonesia very dermawan (scopus id : 57190389285), water resources engineering department, universitas brawijaya, malang, indonesia geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve human-environment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve human-environment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : geos geosfera indonesia geosfera indonesia is a journal publishes original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) which utilizes geographic and environment approaches (human, physical landscape, nature-society and gis) to resolve human-environment interaction problems that have a spatial dimension. moreover, geosfera indonesia also committed to enhance and share original research, review, and short communication (written by researchers, academicians, professional, and practitioners from all over the world) on geography education and environmental education. our journal's scope includes : 1. geography education 2. physical geography 3. human geography 4. geographic information system (gis) 5. remote sensing 6. environmental science 7. environmental education 8. disaster risk reduction indexed by : research article seasonal variability of waterlogging in rangpur city corporation using gis and remote sensing techniques md. naimur rahman1,*, sajjad hossain shozib2 1department of geography and environmental science, begum rokeya university, rangpur, park mor, modern, rangpur, 5404, bangladesh 2department of environmental engineering, nanjing forestry university, no.159 longpan road, nanjing, 210037, china received 28 november 2020/revised 17 july 2021/accepted 28 july 2021/published 17 august 2021 abstract waterlogging hazard is a significant environmental issue closely linked to land use for sustainable urbanization. ndwi is widely and effectively used in identifying and visualizing surface water distribution based on satellite imagery. landsat 7 etm+ and landsat 8 oli tirs images of pre and post-monsoon (2002, 2019) have been used. the main objective of this study is to detect the seasonal variation of waterlogging in rangpur city corporation (rpcc) in 2002 and 2019. in the present study, we used an integrated procedure by using arcgis raster analysis. for pre and post-monsoon, almost 93% accuracy was obtained from image analysis. results show that in 2002 during the pre and post-monsoon period, waterlogged areas were about 159.58 km2 and 32.32 km2, respectively, wherein in 2019, the changes in waterlogged areas are reversed than 2002. in 2019, during pre-monsoon, waterlogged area areas were 122.79 km2, and during post-monsoon, it increased to 127.05 km2. the research also depicts that the trend of the waterlogging situation largely depends on seasonal rainfall and a flawed drainage system. keywords : seasonal variation; waterlogging; remote sensing; gis; rangpur city corporation 1. introduction waterlogging is considered a global concern, affecting 10-15 million hectares of wheat land annually and causes 20% 50% of total global yield loss. loss of grain crops such as field peas, canola, barley, lentils, lupins, and chickpeas also get affected due to severe waterlogging worldwide. in the usa, 16% of soil, in russia 10% of agricultural croplands and irrigated crop production in bangladesh, india, china, and pakistan get harmed just because of waterlogging (bakker et al., 2007; hossain & uddin, 2011; romina et al., 2018; solaiman et al., 2007; yaduvanshi et al., 2012). *corresponding author. email address : naimurbrur@gmail.com (md. naimur rahman) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 143-156 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2.21006 143 *corresponding author. email address : naimurbrur@gmail.com (md. naimur rahman) mailto:01naimur@gmail.com mailto:01naimur@gmail.com 144 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 water does not usually penetrate deep into the flat terrain, which increases the depth of groundwater since the subsurface land is filled. it is indeed a significant environmental hazard and is found worldwide (bowonder et al., 1986), such as in bangladesh (minar et al., 2013), india (choubey, 1998; chowdary et al., 2008; sahu, 2014), china (quan et al., 2010), pakistan (qureshi et al., 2008) and others. northern bangladesh is exceptionally susceptible to environmental and quasi-natural potential hazards, such as waterlogging. siltation has become one of the key reasons for waterlogging that blocks the river water flow and causes congestion by the upstream drainage. in southern bangladesh, thousands of speople have lost their ability to make a proper living just because of waterlogging, particularly poor and landless farmers, share-holders, daily wage laborers, small traders, and others (shaibur et al., 2019). various previous studies have shown that gis and rs techniques are useful for detecting and mapping waterlogged areas for different study areas (guha et al., 2020; hassan & mahmud-ul-islam, 2014; khine et al., 2018; mahmud et al., 2017; sar et al., 2015). few authors mentioned adaptation strategies of waterlogging in some districts of southern bangladesh which have been described in the following literature (islam et al., 2020; shaibur et al., 2019). the causes and consequences of waterlogging have been shown in (awal & islam, 2020) after analyzing using gis and rs image analysis. visualization of waterlogged areas was carried out using traditional methods, as well as the land survey. still, these methods are time-consuming for regional studies and not even economically feasible. the combination of gis with rs is an incredible alternative to the conventional method and assessment strategies in the degree of spatiotemporal differences in waterlogged regions (chowdary et al., 2008). a very few research papers have been found about the detection of waterlogging areas in different areas of bangladesh, especially focusing on seasonal variation of waterlogging. most importantly, found researches were focusing on some southern districts of bangladesh. to date, no researches have been found which is focusing on any part of northern bangladesh. this paper is could be the pioneer of its category of novelty for evaluating the seasonal variation of waterlogging area detection for northern bangladesh using gis and rs, especially for emerging cities like rangpur city corporation (rpcc). in a new city like rpcc, waterlogging is one of the most severe problems because of improper drainage systems and narrow drains in the city area. this research is unique in a way that will help respective authorities and planners to realize the actual situation and develop a proper and planned drainage system to avoid waterlogging. ndwi application has significant importance in classifying waterlogged areas and determining waterlogged risk 145 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 assessment and hazard mapping quickly, efficiently, and accurately. therefore, the main objective of this study is to assess waterlogged areas in rpcc for both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons in 2002 and 2019 where a reasonable attempt using gis and rs has been undertaken. 2. methods rangpur is one of the new city corporations in bangladesh, with an area of 203 km2. rangpur city corporation is located on the banks of the river ghaghat. this river serves as the natural drainage of the city. the human-made shyamasundari canal is the leading wastewater channel in the city. rpcc is located at the coordinate of 25°37ʹ to 25°54ʹ north latitude and 89°09ʹ to 89°21ʹ east latitude. rangpur is classified as a high-temperature climatic zone because of its tropical wet and dry climatic phenomena (islam & sarker, 2016). in the rpcc, permanent water sources such as rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs cover 2235 ha, while seasonal water sources such as floods, swamps, and marshy areas cover 2032 ha. furthermore, in the research area, planted trees, cultivated land, uncultivated soil, and built up area each contributed 1016, 4267, 3251, and 7518 ha, respectively (islam & sarker, 2016). figure 1. study area with physical features (rangpur city corporation). source: adopted, modified and regenerated from islam & sarker (2016) 146 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 the research was carried out with satellite multitemporal landsat 7 and landsat8 images collected from the us geological survey (https:/earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). however, the path and row were selected 138 and 042 for image acquisition (table 1) for 2002 and 2019. depending on the april and november months of the valued year, the collected satellite images representing the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. the cloud-free environment for preparing the ndwi classification was ensured by obtained images (chen & zhu, 2020). ndwi mapping, image classification, image processing, and change detection were performed through arcmap10.6. to show a comparison of the average rainfall of bangladesh and rpcc and more rainfall in april 2002 (figure 4) data has been collected from bangladesh meteorological department (2019) and origin pro 8.5 has been used to prepare the figure. figure 2. methodological flow chart of waterlogging in rpcc 147 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 table 1. landsat images season satellite image date of acquisition sensor path/ row spectral resolution projection pre-monsoon landsat 7 april 13, 2002 etm+ 138/42 landsat 8 april 20, 2019 oli tirs post-monsoon landsat 7 november 7, 2002 etm+ 138/42 landsat 8 november 30, 2019 oli tirs 3.2 classification and accuracy assessment of normalize difference water index (ndwi) normalize difference water index(ndwi) was developed to detect water bodies' changes (mcfeeters, 1996). in this study, ndwi is used (mahmud et al., 2017) to analyze the seasonal waterlogged area in rpcc. the index can be seen in eq.1 : ndwi = pg pnir/pg + pnir (1) where spectral reflectance is pg in the green band, and spectral reflectance in nir is indicating pnir. the classified method could be more specified for landsat 7 and landsat 8 derivation method, can be seen in eq.2 : ndwi for landsat 7: band 2 (green) – band 4 (nir)/ band 2 (green) + band 4 (nir) (2) ndwi for landsat 8 can be seen in eq.3 : band 3 (green) – band 5 (nir)/ band 3 (green) + band 5 (nir) (3) in these methods’ positive high reflectance of ni rand green band is the indication of water bodies. furthermore, positive and negative ndwi value demonstrates water and vegetation range from -1 to +1 value (özelkan, 2020). later, accuracy evaluation was applied to obtain the ndwi 's transparent pixel value. in addition, validation of the kappa coefficient, overall precision, and accuracy was carried out (guha et al., 2020; khine et al., 2018). following the google earth photos, 350 points were randomly selected for the application of precision assessment. study region means rainfall data were compared to country mean rainfall data to provide a clear overview between rainfall and waterlogging based on the month from 2002 to 2019. furthermore, rainfall data were collected from bangladesh meteorological department (2019). 138/42 138/42 30 m 30 m utm/wgs 84 utm/wgs 84 148 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 4. results and discussion table 2 illustrates the overall accuracy and kappa coefficient. the demonstration also shows overall accuracy is higher than 89% in each period of 2002 and 2019. in addition, we observed the kappa coefficient more than 0.83 in all images. a measurement of comparison was taken between sampling points (350 points) and google earth images for the same period to validate ndwi classifications. besides, more than 90% validation values are counted for each period. author opinions here as good accuracy was identified for kappa statistics, overall accuracy, and validation. table 2. accuracy assessment user accuracy producer accuracy classification accuracy kappa statistics period vegetation and builtup area waterlogged area vegetation and builtup area waterlogged area premonsoon 2002 85 100 75.84 100 91.00% 0.899 postmonsoon 2002 96 89 90 100 89.57% 0.835 premonsoon 2019 100 90 100 95 93.95% 0.900 postmonsoon 2019 90 100 83.33 100 96.88% 0.937 in the years 2002 and 2019, waterlogged areas during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods in the study site were defined by gis and rs techniques. the areas where waterlogged condition remains all-around year are perpetual waterlogged areas. satellite images of april have been considered for pre-monsoon (most dry season) after excerpting areas under small lakes and ponds. in opposite, throughout the monsoon period, excessive rainfall causes seasonal inundation. therefore, satellite images of water bodies for november have been considered (after the monsoon period) to detect the change of waterlogged areas (seasonal). for the year 2002, figure 3(a) shows that mostly the northwestern part is waterlogged during pre-monsoon (early monsoon), but those areas are not permanently waterlogged. because figure 3(b) shows only a very few areas across rpcc are waterlogged, which is noticeable. however for the year 2019, in figure 4(a) it is found that the north-west central part of rpcc is mostly waterlogged, not other parts, north-east central and southcentral part of rpcc is less waterlogged during pre-monsoon. after the monsoon, figure 149 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 4(b) defines more areas than pre-monsoon area waterlogged, which means that estimated waterlogged areas increased. figure 3. (a) map showing waterlogged areas in rpcc during pre-monsoon in 2002 (left), (b) map showing waterlogged areas in rpcc during post-monsoon in 2002 (right). monsoon in 2002 was early (figure 5a), especially in april rainfall was third highest of 2002 (in mm). therefore, during the pre-monsoon period in 2002 waterlogging areas in rpcc was more than comparatively in 2019 pre-monsoon (figure 4a). 150 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 figure 4. (a) map showing waterlogged areas in rpcc during pre-monsoon in 2019 (left), (b) map showing waterlogged areas in rpcc during post-monsoon in 2019 (right). figure 5. (a) showing average rainfall of the year 2002. where in april rpcc containing heavy average rainfall. (b) comparison of average rainfall in bangladesh and rpcc (bangladesh meteorological department, 2019) 151 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 based on image analysis of the gis environment, in rpcc, waterlogged areas changes have been considered (table 3). it is found that in 2002 during the pre and postmonsoon period, waterlogged areas were about 159.58 km2 and 32.32 km2, respectively, which is 49.35% and 9.99% of the total area of rpcc. the result clearly shows decreased waterlogged area during post-monsoon than pre-monsoon 127.26 km2 by area (39.36%). for the year 2019, the changes in waterlogged areas are reversed than in 2002. in 2019, during pre-monsoon, waterlogged area areas were 122.79 km2 (37.98%), and during post-monsoon, it increased to 127.05 km2, where the increase rate is 1.31%. table 3. waterlogged areas variation during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods in 2002 and 2019 in rpcc year pre-monsoon post-monsoon seasonal variation km2 % km2 % km2 % 2002 159.58 49.35 32.32 9.99 127.26 39.36 2019 122.79 37.98 127.05 39.29 4.25 1.31 lack of a proper drainage system and heavy rainfall in the monsoon period causes waterlogging in rpcc. figure 5 is showing, at some points, rainfall in the rpcc area is more than the average rainfall of bangladesh. the study revealed high accuracy and validated data, which indicates transparent and essential observation. an analyzed value of more than 89% for overall accuracy, kappa > 0.83 and validation value > 90 was observed where various investigations found kappa > 0.75 is very good for measuring accuracy (abbas et al., 2020; foody, 2020; morales-barquero et al., 2019). hazard and risk for waterlogging issue is a global problem that causes any country's impact economy (sar et al., 2015). in recent times it is reported that the study area is vulnerable to waterlogging due to heavy rainfall (the daily star, 2021). after analyzing landsat images, the waterlogging problem is found in the current study area during both the pre and post-monsoon periods. unpsredictable monsoon rainfall has been found from this study in both 2002 and 2019, wherein in the year 2002 there had been early monsoon, and in 2019 it was regular monsoon rainfall. however, waterlogging, floods, drought, and massive life losses could be determined through rainfall variability (rahman & islam, 2019; ullah et al., 2018). the present study reveals the net change of waterlogged area for pre-monsoon is reduced from 49.35% to 37.98% where the post-monsoon inundated area is increased largely which is 9.99% to 39.29%. thus, meteorological observation in figure 5 and table 3 demonstrates an increase of waterlogged area in 2002 for the pre-monsoon season which corresponds to 2019. hence, in the pre-monsoon season of 2002 high land, orographic 152 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 rainfall, deep and low depressional behavior caused heavy rainfall as well as waterlogged area in the present area of study (mannan & karmakar, 2008). additionally, we detected heavy rainfall in the post-monsoon season for the year 2019 compared with 2002. in recent times the geographical condition of the northern part of bangladesh as it is situation closely assam and meghalaya hill and complex climate change pattern is the responsible factor for higher rainfall intensity during the post-monsoon season in rpcc (montes et al., 2021; islam et al., 2020). furthermore, islam et al. (2020) found an upward trend of rainfall, leading to an increased amount of waterlogged areas in the study area. the present study also demonstrates the compared rainfall data of the study area and the entire country, which indicates the measurement of higher rainfall trend during monsoon season except for the pre-monsoon period of 2002, which indicates increased rainfall during the mentioned pre-monsoon period. however, seasonal flooding also causes waterlogged areas (huda et al., 2019; shaibur et al., 2019). when analyzing our data, we found that the study area is vulnerable to seasonal flooding (talukdar et al., 2020). about flooding study area getting higher waterlogged areas, which varies seasonally. besides, rising monsoon rainfall, upstream river flow by human intervention, unplanned aquaculture, and infrastructure can be explained as causes of waterlogging in the study area (awal & islam, 2020; ayyam et al., 2019; islam et al., 2020). 4. conclusion waterlogging hazard, risk, and vulnerability in rpcc combined with raster modeling by using integrated gis and rs techniques can be useful for developing the drainage system of the city and sustainable management of water resources. the current study's outcome can be used by city planners, engineers, local people, and policymakers to identify and locally develop the most waterlogged areas. thus an advanced drainage pattern could be developed based on the identified location of the findings. however, this research can be done using substantially more data for a long period to derive a trend in progress and seasonal fluctuations in waterlogging. enormous statistical analysis can enhance the subtraction of ndwi for a more accurate depiction. the construction, upgrading of the necessary infrastructure of local weld, and excavation of silted ghaghat river beside rpcc and shyamasundari canal in rpcc can also be as useful to mitigate the waterlogging problem in the rpcc area. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. 153 md. naimur rahman & sajjad hossain shozib / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 143-156 acknowledgements authors would like to acknowledge ruhul amin for his for his valuable comments on this study, md. morshadul islam for his suggestions to improve language of this manuscript. references abbas, z., & jaber, h. s. 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(2012). influence of waterlogging on yield of wheat (triticum aestivum), redox potentials, and concentrations of microelements in different soils in india and australia. soil research, 50(6), 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1071/sr11266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-020-03244-x https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.04.007 https://doi.org/10.1071/sr11266 77 research article development of web-based gis alert system for informing environmental risk of dengue infections in major cities of pakistan naureen zainab 1, aqil tariq 2,* , saima siddiqui 3 1department of computer software engineering, military college of signals, national university of science and technology (nust), islamabad, 44000, pakistan 2state key laboratory of information engineering in surveying mapping and remote sensing (liesmars), wuhan university, wuhan, 430079, china 3department of geography, university of punjab, lahore, 54590, pakistan received 23 november 2020/revised 10 march 2021/accepted 19 march 2021/published 25 april 2021 abstract dengue is one of the emerging major public health problems, and its incidence varies with climate conditions. it affects millions of people's lives owing to unusual socioeconomic conditions and epidemiological factors. this study was designed to build a web-based gis alert system for dengue data management and analysis which would centralize information and make it accessible to all relevant stakeholders before, during, and after crises. three geographical regions were selected in this study. the user interface of the dengue alert system was developed based upon mapguide. results indicate that risk level was mainly associated with breteau index. karachi and lahore were at their highest risk, i.e., level 4. islamabad and chakwal were also at the highest risk, i.e., level 4. attock had high risk, i.e., level 3 followed by haripur with minimal level 1. the high breteau index showed a direct relationship to high potential transmission of dengue outbreaks, a more significant peak of dengue was the result of monsoons, while smaller peaks were observed due to domestic water storage. hence, it was concluded that monsoon is the best suitable season for the development of dengue. web-based gis alert system for dengue data management and analysis was developed, centralizing information and making it accessible to all relevant stakeholders before, during & after a crisis. this program creation will provide a more analytical forum for advising multiple levels of risk and an experimental method for measuring the effect of different factors on risk level distribution by adjusting the component's weighting. keywords : dengue; gis analysis; gui; alert system; breteau index; weighted overlay 1. introduction dengue is a mosquito-borne virus whose prevalence differs with temperature and weather (chang et al., 2009; gubler, 2006). dengue is rising as one of pakistan's most significant public health problems (asif et al., 2013). in october 2005, after ten years, dengue affected karachi again, and 21 deaths were reported out of 103 confirmed cases (mukhtar et al., 2011). geosfera indonesia *corresponding author. email address : aqiltariq@whu.edu.cn (aqil tariq) vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021, 77-95 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i1.20792 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1196-1248 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3020-0233 mailto:aqiltariq@whu.edu.cn 78 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 the year 2011 was pakistan's worst year for dengue. in 2013 the most affected area was the dengue fever (df) outbreak in pakistan. aedes-aegypti and aedes-albopictus is considered to be the main dengue vectors in south asia, including pakistan. the identification of disease outbreaks is very significant (sirisena et al., 2017). epidemics are silent in contrast to explosions. outbreaks kill or cause sickness before detection (kahn et al., 1975). disease outbreaks can easily cause such hurt, and they can spsread rapidly, too. in the worst scenario, the window of opportunity to minimize this harm could be limited to a few days (thompson et al., 2016). the united states of america spends billions of dollars a year on different forms of safety surveillance. the essential expenses include patient infection control, public health surveillance (phs), air and water inspection, preparation, improved public health, and science services in information technology (kahn et al., 1975). proper and prompt treatment of incidents of sickness can save many meaningful humans lives. the breteau index calculates the number of positive containers per hundred surveyed homes, which in turn represents the distribution of aedine mosquitoes, the dengue vector ( udayanga et al., 2018). an alert system was established in pakistan from a synthesis of geospatial data on the breteau map. the interrelationship was rendered between the breteau index and the temperature. it forms the basis for creating weighted overlays to determine risk levels (attaway et al., 2016). dengue alert system generally predicts four different risk levels for the risk of dengue infections, i.e., highest, high, medium, and minimal ( olubadewo-joshua & ugom, 2019; tran et al., 2020). hence, a web-based application was created from a synthesis of geospatial data related to breteau index and temperature effect in pakistan's major cities. using various weighting factors on the previous history, appropriate weighting factor was evaluated and used to generate the alert for informing environmental risk of dengue infection in major cities of pakistan. it forms the basis for creating weighted overlays to determine levels of risk. the weighting can be adjusted to adjust alarm device sensitivity (bowman et al., 2014). every year pakistan experiences a lot of rain during the mild summer (monsoon) season. the daytime temperature is greater than the night temperature. its good climatic conditions for the growth of dengue mosquitos. in this study, we target six major cities of pakistan because pakistan faces a lot of problems in these regions every year. in this study, we clearly describe the spatio-temporal distributions of dengue cases. the study is novel because its first time correlates the local predominant conditions with dengue prevalence and builds a web-based gis alert system. therefore, this study was designed to build a web-based gis alert system for dengue data management and analysis which would centralize 79 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 information and make it accessible to all relevant stakeholders before, during, and after crises. 2. methods 2.1. study area the study area includes rawalpindi, haripur, attock, chakwal, lahore, and karachi (figure 1). all metropolitan regions are located in different latitudes and longitude in pakistan. these cities' climate is characterized by four seasons: dry, wet, hot, and cold (abbas, 2013). rawalpindi and lahore experience a monsoonal environment with rainy, hot summers and cool dry winters (wet and dry season); rainfall is typical of pakistan's semi-arid region. karachi also receives monsoon rainfall, but the landscape is different compared to rawalpindi and pakistan (burney et al., 2018). karachi harbor is a secure and majestic natural harbor on the shores of which the town is located. a low-lying coastal area stretches along the harbor's edge. the malir river, a seasonal current, flows through the eastern part of the city, and the seasonal layari river runs through the northern section that is most densely populated. several ridges and small hills occur; the maximum elevation, mango pir, is 585 feet high. figure 1. study area of dengue epidemic-prone districts in pakistan 80 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 2.2. system design, development, and assumption the alert system had been developed to forecast the risk of infection with dengue. it was presumed that the two variables that were used in the method, namely temperature and breteau scale, were strongly associated with dengue fever infection sensitivity and are of significant geographical significance (kaya et al., 2019). 2.3 data source data on breteau index and affected people from 2006 to 2013 were collected from the national institute of health and governments health departments. the monthly temperature data from 2006 to 2013 was acquired from the pakistan meteorological department of islamabad. 2.4 weighted overlay a web-based application was developed from a synthesis of geospatial data related to the breteau index and temperature (cetin et al., 2019).using various weighting factors on the previous history, appropriate weighting factor was evaluated and was used to generate the alert for informing environmental risk of dengue infection in major cities of pakistan. the breteau index was calculated according to eq. (1) as described by gubler et al. ( 2014), while the risk level was calculated based on the formula generated as eq. (2). breteau index (bi) = number of positive containers houses inspected × 100 (1) risk level = bi (60 + temperature) 40 (2) when the breteau index value is zero, the risk level will be zero too, even in the case of high temperature. for instance, in similar temperatures in two different cities, two different risk levels can be observed due to different breteau indexes. 2.5 risk levels dengue risk levels were classified (table 1) into four different groups based on the developed formula of the risk level. the breteau index against these four risk levels is also analyzed. it was assumed that if breteau index is high, then the risk level is also high as breteau index and risk levels are directly proportional to each other (table 2). 81 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 table 1. risk levels (gubler et al., 2014) classification risk level level 1 0<risk level<=300 level 2 301<=risk level<=600 level 3 600<=risk level<=1200 level 4 risk level>1200 table 2. breteau index according to risk levels (gubler et al., 2014) classification risk level breteau index level 1 0<risk level<=300 0< bi<=4 level 2 301<=risk level<=600 5<= bi <=9 level 3 600<=risk level<=1200 10<= bi <=19 level 4 risk level>1200 bi >=20 2.6 prevention or management of dengue borne vector for confined risk level the adoption of integrated pest management did the management of dengue vectors at confined four risk levels. integrated pest management is the pest population's level to check the pest below the economic injury level using all possible control measures (novotny et al., 2007). recommendations regarding each risk level were given on the basis of ipsm strategies. there are specific preventive and control measures recommended for each alert level shown in table 3. table 3. preventive measures against each risk level (novotny et al., 2007) classification breteau index risk level actions level 1 0< bi<=4 0<risk level<=300 intimately monitor the sanitary condition to prevent and manage the various breeding places. weekly inspection of breeding places and likely to eradicate immediately. try to eliminate the fresh and stagnant water pounds. level 2 5<= bi <=9 301<=risk level<=600 the public is advised to monitor the breeding places efficiently within 3-4 days and eliminate their possible infesting or breeding heaven within their premises. level 3 10<= bi <=19 600<=risk level<=1200 along with regular monitoring, eliminate all possible breeding potential through conducting special operations on a regular basis. launch task-oriented forces to create awareness among people regarding dengue elimination programmed. level 4 bi >=20 risk level>1200 launch a task-oriented force to create awareness among people regarding dengue elimination programmed and give them responsibilities to restrain the potential breeding places by allotting them specific territories. private competitive pest control and management contractor must be employed to control and eradicate the arising potential mosquito problem. 82 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 2.7 conceptual design the present study's concept was to build a web-based gis alert system both online and offline for dengue data management and analysis, centralizing the information and making it accessible to all relevant stakeholders before, during, and after a crisis. the system aimed to ensure timely availability of information on health care services. the project data were mapped accurately and with geographic features displayed. maps were drawn according to pre-set parameters in the present framework, and then the web browser showed the map in a .jpeg format. the users can create and display a new map by adjusting the parameters. on the server-side, this sort creates a heavy load. the server-side had regional info, gis tools, and a system with hundreds of complex reports on the interface (cetin, 2015). the systematic conceptual diagram of the web-based gis alert system is shown in figure 2. figure 2. conceptual design of web-based gis alert system. 2.8 user interface (ui) mapguide maestro is a mapguide open-source map authoring tool. mapguide maestro strives to support the capabilities of the open-source application mapguide. both spatial and non-spatial details have been contained in sql server express, which is a free database service that fits well with any web application platform (zavlavsky, 2000). the graphical user interphase (mapguide) was systematically developed, as shown in figure 3. 83 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 figure 3. graphical user interphase (mapguide) 2.9 component of web-based gis alert system three components of the web-based gis alert system (figure 4) were used as: (1) dengue information databases (2) gis layers and maps (3) queries and reports figure 4. components of web-based gis alert system overall, the system describes the risk levels of dengue infection in major cities of pakistan, classifying them into three geographical regions. a web-based application was created from a synthesis of geospatial data related to the breteau index and temperature effect in pakistan's major cities. currently, statistics on the breteau index and temperature are 84 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 displayed in a table format that is difficult for interpretation by general users. this project allows the visualization of the breteau index and temperature information in a spatial pattern and association with four risk levels, which enhances public awareness. dengue alert system describes the risk level of dengue infections from 2006 to 2013 in major cities of pakistan. it can also predict the current risk level of dengue in any district of pakistan. it can predict four different risk levels for the risk of dengue infections, i.e., highest, high, medium, and minimal. 3. results and discussion 3.1 temporal changes in temperature and breteaux index a good association between the two variables has been identified from the temporal change in temperature and the breteau scale (bozdogan et al., 2021). higher breteau index focused primarily in the summer and autumn when higher temperatures prevailed. results shown in figure 5a indicate the temporal changes in breteau index in september 2010 in selected study sites. the breteau index of lahore and islamabad represented by green color was high. the breteau index of karachi denoted by blue color was medium. the breteau index of chakwal and haripur represented by yellow color was minimal, and the breteau index of attock represented by gray showed no risk. similarly, the temporal changes in temperature in major cities of pakistan figure 5b indicate that karachi had high temperature while the remaining cities showed low temperature. the high temperature was represented by dark gray color, and low temperature was represented by light gray. the effect of temperature on the weighted overlay product can be calculated when the temperature and the breteaux index are overlaid. the temperature was not considered to be the main factor deciding the level of risk according to the given weighting, and when the breteau scale equals zero, the risk level was also zero, irrespective of the temperature increase. the cities with a high breteau index are at a higher risk level. lahore and islamabad's temperature was low compared to karachi, but they had a high-risk level due to the high breteau index. breteau index of attock was zero, so there was no risk; however, the attock temperature was 28oc, similar to chakwal 27.6oc. 85 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 figure 5a. breteau index of september 2010 in major cities of pakistan, figure 4b. temperature of september 2010 in major cities of pakistan, figure 4c. breteau index of september 2011 in major cities of pakistan, figure 4d. temperature of september 2011 in major cities of pakistan. figure 5c and figure 5d show the breteau index and temperature of september 2011 in selected study sites. attock and haripur very high followed the breteau index of karachi, lahore, islamabad, rawalpindi, and chakwal. the temperature of karachi and lahore was high as compared to other cities. figure 5d represents that karachi and lahore were at their highest risk and the temperature of these two cities was also high. rawalpindi, islamabad, and chakwal were also at the highest risk, but they had a low temperature as compared to karachi and lahore. attock had high risk, and the temperature was low. haripur showed minimal risk and had a low temperature. rawalpindi and attock's temperature showed a similar trend but had different risk levels due to different breteau index. web-based generated map of the risk levels of dengueshows that risk level was high in those cities which had high breteau index. results indicate that karachi and lahore were at their highest risk, i.e., level 4. islamabad and chakwal were also at the highest risk, 86 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 i.e., level 4. attock had high risk, i.e., level 3 followed by haripur with minimal level 1. hence, it is concluded that risk level was mainly associated with breteau index, if breteau index was high, then the risk level was also high, so this is the main reason for which the highest weightage is assigned to the breteau index (gungor et al., 2020). temperature also plays a significant role because the risk level was high in mostly the summer months, which had a high temperature. if the temperature was high, mosquito's growth rates were also high because high temperature helps in breeding aedes aegypti and aedes albopictus mosquitoes. 3.2 peaks of dengue based on the analysis of risk levels from 20062013 in major cities of pakistan results from the analysis of dengue risk levels from 2006 to 2013 in major cities of pakistan indicated that the high risk of dengue from 2006 to 2013 was mostly observed in the month of september, october, and november (table 4). the dengue-related deaths were reported between the months from september to november. dengue case-load registered during these months, and the reports declined rapidly during and after december. the high breteau index showed a major direct relationship to the high potential transmission of dengue outbreaks in the study sites. two peaks of dengue were shown in the form of risk levels. the formation of a more significant peak of dengue resulted from monsoon rains in which water was filled at the low-lying places. smaller peaks of dengue were formed in the dry season due to domestic storage of water. it was seen that transmission of dengue during the monsoon and after monsoon was maximum than that of the dry season. finally, it was concluded that monsoon is the best suitable season for the reproduction, fecundity, survival, growth, and development of dengue. dengue fever is estimated to affect 50 to 100 million people with 1/2 million lifethreatening infections globally in a year as of 2010. it has risen 30-fold significantly in frequency between 1960 and 2010. in pakistan in the year 2010, there were more than 7000 positive confirmed cases of dengue.with rising epidemics, dengue fever has become a significant disease in pakistan. given pakistan's government's efforts, especially in punjab, the high treatment cost has hindered pakistan's ability to control epidemics. dengue-fever mortality in pakistan in the summer of 2011 was over 300 people, and epidemic incidence was over 14,000 infections. the outbreaks mainly occurred in the region of lahore, punjab, pakistan. 87 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 table 4. results from the analysis of dengue risk levels from 2006 to 2013 in major cities of pakistan city dengue risk 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 k a r a c h i duration jan apr jul aug jan, sep to dec aug to dec jan apr aug to dec jan apr to dec jan to dec all over the year minimum jan apr jul aug jul dec jan jan aug sep dec jan apr aug dec jan apr to jul jan to sep jan to aug dec moderate sep sep sep dec sep aug nov dec dec sep highest oct nov oct nov oct nov oct nov oct nov sep oct oct nov oct nov l a h o r e duration jan aug to dec sep dec jul dec apr dec apr aug to dec mar to dec minimum jul aug sep dec dec jan, aug dec dec jul aug dec apr jul apr aug dec mar to july sep moderate oct sep oct sep sep oct sep aug nov dec sep aug dec highest nov nov oct nov nov oct nov sep oct oct nov oct nov a tt o c k duration oct to dec oct to dec oct nov july sep to dec minimum sep sep dec dec jul dec nov moderate oct nov oct nov oct oct oct sep nov highest nov nov nov oct continued 88 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 city dengue risk 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 r a w a lp in d i duration sep to dec sep to dec sep dec jun to dec jun to dec minimum jul aug aug dec dec sep dec jun jul aug jul aug dec moderate oct sep oct sep sep oct nov dec sep highest nov nov oct nov nov oct nov sep oct oct nov is la m a b a d duration aug to dec sep to dec sep to nov sep to dec jun to dec aug to dec minimum dec sep dec jun jul aug dec aug to nov aug sep dec moderate sep oct oct sep sep oct nov oct highest nov nov oct nov oct nov nov sep oct nov h a r ip u r duration sep to nov oct nov sep to nov apr jul to dec minimum dec dec dec sep apr jul aug sep dec sep oct sep oct nov moderate oct sep oct oct highest nov oct, nov nov oct nov nov c h a k w a l duration no case jan nov sep to nov sep to nov minimum oct, nov sep sep nov moderate oct, nov jan oct oct nov highest nov nov sep note : = no case 89 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 3.3 application web-based gis alert system for web-based gis alert system application, a user can select url localhost/dengue. the dengue support system will display. for login purposes, the user can click on the login option. before getting detailed information, the customer will be asked to enter the id and password. if the user identification and password are wrongly entered, an error message will pop up, "your attempt to login is not successful. please try again," and the user will be asked to register until the correct information is typed in. this system would help to protect data security under study. the existing database had included eight years' data. the application was developed monthly, so a first select year and then the month, and then click/check the risk levels. database contents and collections could be expanded in the future. after selecting the month and the year, the selected year's risk level will be displayed. users can also zoom the areas concerned by clicking on the option zoom rectangle. this feature provides the consumer a general understanding of the environment impacted and theoretically affected. one of the most important functions of this system was to find the current risk level of any district based upon the breteau index and temperature. by entering the breteau index and temperature, the system can find the current risk level of dengue of any pakistan district by selecting the district in the drop-down list. results shows that the user selected district faisalabad entered breteau index 7.53 and temperature 21.4 and then clicked on select, the risk level of faisalabad was displayed. the blue color represents that it was at level 2. the dengue alert system was capable of generating the reports of risk levels of each month. the reports of the risk level of dengue in september 2011 along with "actions to be taken" at each level. the system was also capable of generating the graphical representation of the risk level of each month (figure 6). figure 6. graphical representation of risk level of september 2011 1741.9 254.15 2044.5 1456.18 1457.7 1342.7 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 chakwal haripur islamabad karachi lahore rawalpindi series1risk level 90 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 it has been seen from the data and observed that high dengue indicators are in august, september, october, and november, i.e., after july, which have a high temperature in pakistan. if the breteau scale is 0, the risk level will also be zero, regardless of how high the temperature is. it is concluded that risk level is mainly associated with breteau index, if breteau index is high, then risk level is also high, so this is the main reason due to which highest weightage is assigned to breteau index, but temperature also plays a significant role because risk level is high in mostly the months which have a high temperature. if the temperature is high, mosquito growth chances are also high because high temperature helps in the breeding of aedine mosquitoes. there is no chance even if the temperature is very high without the existence of aedine mosquitoes. for instance, if the temperature is similar for two cities, they have very different risk levels. the device may be combined with other potential factors. human population growth is a significant dengue consideration because the desert region containing many mosquitoes is not dangerous. if the weather around the house is suitable for dengue, then dengue infections will be high. the moisture and containers may be important influences. eventually, mosquito species often play a part. the system is not without limitations. it is a web-based application, and for this application, internet connectivity must require. if the internet speed is slow, this application will not work properly because it requires high bandwidth. according to dengue outbreaks, the likelihood of dengue is caused by many variables in real life including the virus and the climate. the application of temperature and breteau index offers one element of risk assessment, concentrating on exposure impact calculation alone. certain considerations might be applied to the system's robustness. similar results/an online alert system (gis) were developed. the interrelationship between various indices and temperature was measured by wong et al., (2007), who observed that the inference forms the rationale for the generation of weighted overlays to define risk levels. weighting can be adjusted to set the sensitivity of the alert system. they concluded that the alert system offers one objective means to defining the risk of dengue in a society, which would not be affected by the incidence of the infection itself similarly, shen et al. (2015) conducted a study to explore the associations between the monthly number of dengue fever (df) cases and possible risk factors in guangzhou, a subtropical city of china. in their study, a total of 39,697 df cases were detected in guangzhou. dengue fever incidence showed an obvious seasonal pattern, with most cases occurring from june to november. they observed that the current month's breteau index, average temperature, previous month's minimum temperature, and tave were positively 91 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 associated with dengue fever incidence. they also concluded that the mosquito density, tave, and tmin play a critical role in dengue fever transmission in guangzhou. in another study, liyanage et al., (2019) used an interrupted time-series design with a non-linear extension, and evaluated the impact of vector control interventions from june 22, 2014, to dec 29, 2016, in panadura, a high-risk moh division in western province, sri lanka. they used dengue notification and larval survey data to estimate the reduction in breteau index and dengue incidence before and after the intervention using two separate models, adjusting for time-varying confounding variables (i.e., rainfall, temperature, and the oceanic niño index). they found that breteau index is an essential index for controlling and measuring the extent of vector control in dengue transmission. bajwala et al (2020) conducted a study using mean temperature (°c), relative humidity (%), and precipitation (rainfall in mm) as climatic parameters affecting vector ecology. they recorded the peak number of cases was recorded in the post-monsoon period. they proposed that presence of some serologically positive cases even during dry months in this study could probably be reflective of the year-round activity of the dengue vector. moreover, some advanced techniques, i.e., artificial intelligence-based mathematical model and fuzzy logic, could be a suitable option to implement control measures in dengueprone areas. adak & jana (2021) developed an artificial intelligence-based mathematical model taking the three stegomyia indices, namely house index, breteau index, and container index. the project's concept was to build a web-based gis alert system for dengue data management and analysis, centralizing information and making it accessible to all relevant stakeholders before, during & after a crisis situation. the system aims to ensure timely availability of information on health care services and project data, mapped accurately and with geographic features displayed, designed an alert system for users to visualize the spatial distribution of the risk of exposure to aedine mosquito in the local setting. the system complements information on the incidence of infection and is a more objective way of defining risk levels. overall, the system describes the risk levels of dengue infection in major cities of pakistan, classifying them into three geographical regions, and can predict all districts of pakistan's risk levels. a web-based application was created from a synthesis of geospatial data related to breteau index and temperature effect in pakistan's major cities. future alignment of this program with practices of prevention and control of dengue fever will be important. this pilot project may be associated with the various government departments involved. similar systems could be built and adapted to estimate exposure to other diseases, such as bird flu, for which environmental factors are critical for propagation. 92 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 the program could become a tool for local, regional, and even national health authorities and other stakeholders in the long run. 4. conclusion the user interface of the dengue alert system was developed based upon mapguide. the inter-relationship between breteau index and the temperature was developed using a web-based gis application. four different patterns mapping were developed for the risk of dengue, i.e., highest, high, medium, and minimal. maps were created using pre-set criteria, and the map was shown as an image by the web browser.a high risk of dengue was found in august, september, october, and november, i.e., after july, in which had high temperature was noted. risk level was found mainly associated with breteau index; if breteau index was high, then risk level was also high. when the breteau index equals zero, the risk level was zero, irrespective of the temperature rise. temperature also played a significant role because the risk level was high, mainly in the months with high temperatures. there was no risk without aedine mosquitoes' presence even if the temperature was very high. for instance, if the temperature was similar for two cities, they depicted very different risk levels. this study's significance is introducing a new method for expressing the alert system on a spatial scale. the web-based alert system should no longer be expressed in statistical and textual formats, but that spatial graphics could be incorporated. in addition, the weighted overlay allows the users to weigh the contribution of factors affecting the exposure risk to dengue. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. acknowledgments authors gratefully acknowledge the support received from dr. mukhtar senior scientific officer (entomology), ex. head of department of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases and thanks to dr jan muhammad director pakistan meteorological department for monthly mean temperature data. we are thankful to dr. m. farrukh sultan, dpc, edoh, lahore. the authors would also like to express their appreciation to rana naveed mustafa (narc), naveed yaqoob, department of mathematics, qau islamabad and azmat ali sr. project manager erp (it/mis) at agribusiness support fund for their kind cooperation. this research was supported by the national natural science foundation of china (no. 41871345). 93 naureen zainab et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 77-95 references abbas, f. 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(2000). a new technology for interactive online mapping with vector markup and xml. cartographic perspectives, 0(37), 65-77–77. https://doi.org/10.14714/cp37.810. 205 research article analysis on factors influencing geography teachers’ ability in constructing high-order thinking skills (hots) assessment instrument suhendro suhendro *, dede sugandi, mamat ruhimat department of geography education, school of postgraduate studies, universitas pendidikan indonesia, jl. dr. setiabudhi no. 229, bandung, 40154, indonesia received 17 december 2020/revised 19 july 2021/accepted 4 august 2021/published 28 august 2021 abstract the teacher's ability to construct assessment instruments is a focus that needs to be considered. furthermore, the demand of the 21st century directs teachers to set questions that are oriented to train students' abilities in higher-order thinking. however, several factors affect the ability to construct hots-oriented assessment instruments. this study aims to investigate what factors influence geography teachers’ ability to develop higher -order thinking skills (hots) instruments to measure learning outcomes. this study used a survey method with a quantitative approach. the data collection technique was field observation, and multiple linear regression was used for analysis. the results showed the linearity of teacher education regarding the length of teaching geography was 0.904, the tertiary institution was 0.009, and the background of education was 0.019. also, teachers' certification was 0.007, their training was 0.032, and their experience in making hots questions was 0.047. the coefficient value of determination r, namely 0.635 means the relationship between teaching length, the linearity of their education in tertiary institutions, background, certification, training, and experience regarding the ability to develop hotsoriented assessment instruments is 63.5%. this means the relationship is strong, and 36.5% is another factor. this study concludes that the factors that significantly affect the ability of geography teachers in developing hots-oriented assessment instruments are the linearity factor of teacher education in universities, education background, certification, teacher training and experience in making hots questions. keywords: teacher ability factors; assessment; higher-order thinking skills 1. introduction countries are investing in education with the hope of developing their economy and long-term well-being. the dilemma at present is that although the imperatives in the field of employment have shifted, and education has not changed (chalkiadaki, 2018). furthermore, the accelerated evolution of time and globalization needs an enhancement in the standard of education. adjustments for change and improved results also need to be made in the education sector (sugandi & somantri, 2018). *corresponding author: email address : suhendrogeografi11@gmail.com (suhendro suhendro) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 205-221 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2.21428 mailto:suhendrogeografi11@gmail.com 206 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 the trend of education in the 21st century commonly referred to as the era of knowledge has objectives, namely (1) preparing people in a dynamic and unpredictable world, (2) promoting creative behavior, (3) providing independence for unique individual intelligence, and (4) making innovators. in addition, the direction of sustainable development in indonesia is the improvement of human resources by improving the quality of education (astuti et al., 2019). fundamentally, effective learning can contribute to good quality learning, which can be seen from the assessment outcomes. a fair assessment will enable educators to recognize good instructional methods and inspire learners to learn more. therefore, teachers need the ability and skills to carry out assessments following the predetermined standards (ati et al., 2019). assessment in the 21st century is a form of implementing the changing times to achieve the goals of learning. humans are required to print the quantity and quality of human resources that have superior competitiveness. in this case, the teacher’s role is essential to produce excellent human resources through the teaching and learning process. therefore, to realize educational goals, the process of learning assessment needs to be appropriately designed. one of the realizations of educational goals is how the educator execute the assessment process, be it planning, designing, and development (suhendro et al., 2020). in accordance with 21st century learning instruction and the era of industrial revolution 4.0, it is expected that in learning, the teacher will familiarize students with critical thinking, one of which is through the higher order thinking skills (hots) questions. this will enable the students to be creative, innovative, and compete globally (jannah & ernawati, 2020). in this case, the teacher's role is very important to produce superior human resources through the teaching and learning process (suhendro et al., 2020). today, high-order thinking skills are important in the educational system in indonesia to increase quality.the programme for international student assessment (oecd, 2019), ranked indonesia in 74th place, which is sixth from the bottom. in the science category, indonesia received a score of 396, far below the oecd average score of 489. meanwhile, in mathematics, indonesia is ranked 7th from the bottom with a score of 379 (oecd average 489). also, the lowest score was in the reading category, which was 371 (oecd average 489). based on the survey results, indonesia’s pisa scores can be improved through highlevel oriented learning and assessment activities. in line with the 2013 curriculum implementation, the ministry of education and culture has improved content and assessment standards, focusing on higher level thinking skills (hots) (kurniawan & lestari, 2019). basically, hots are abilities that prepare students and enable them think critically and creatively when they face unknown problems, 207 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 or dilemmas to answer questions. in this situation, they are not only expected to memorize answers but also to solve the problems (king et al., 2011). in line with the statement above, hots is needed not only in handling the revised 2013 curriculum but also in 21st century learning. by the development and hots application in teaching and learning activities, students will have deeper and more critical thinking (budiastini et al., 2020). moreover, hots-based assessment can (1) increase motivation to learn, and (2) improve learning outcomes (brookhart, 2010). meanwhile, in the preparation of hots questions, a stimulus is generally used. in this context, the stimulus it presents is contextual and interesting (fanani, 2018). related to higher-order thinking assessments, mohamed & lebar (2017) designed an integrated structure regarding the item elements in an assessment to measure hots. this can be seen in figure 1 as follows: figure 1. the elements of the assessment items for measuring hots (mohamed & lebar, 2017) in measuring hots assessments, students need to form and train their thinking to analyze, evaluate, and create in line with the three hots-oriented learning model designs described in the previous sub-section. the hots questions are those requiring higher -order thinking skills. hence, shaping better student quality, questions like this need to be developed and applied in the class. the higher-order thinking skills are divided into four groups, namely problem solving, decision making, as well as critical and creative thinking (nitko & brookhart, 2011). hots is actually introduced to students from an early age, by being accustomed to working on problems that require thinking. the children will get used to solvi ng fairly difficult problems (utaminingtyas, 2020). also, the ability to think critically cannot be leveled and forced. the teacher needs to get around this effectively and stimulate the 208 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 reasoning and thinking of students (budiastini et al., 2020). heong et al., (2011) showed students use broad thinking to discover new challenges. also, higher order thinking requires applying further knowledge and information that has been acquired, and manipulating the information to get potential answers in new situations. nowadays, an interesting issue to be studied in-depth is related to the ability of teachers to implement hots in class, which has become an issue in indonesian education. conceptually, the skill or knowledge of teachers is an example of what instructors can do with their works. this is in the form of teaching and learning, habits, and outcomes (munandar et al., 2020; suyanto & jihad, 2013). one of the factors that influence education success is the ability to conduct and take advantage of assessments, process evaluation, and learning outcomes (noprinda & soleh, 2019). teachers as professional staff significantly influence learning activities. therefore, they have a duty and role in helping students develop their potential (ayuni, 2016). the existence of teachers as professionals in the field of education has an important role in guiding students to achieve learning goals. one of their main duties is to evaluate learning outcomes (afrian et al., 2018). nevertheless, teachers' ability to construct measurement tools and assess learning outcomes still needs to be studied because measurement and evaluation are inseparable parts of the learning process. how could reliable data on students’ real abilities or competencies be produced when the measuring instruments used are not reliable (ruhimat, 2018).this is in line with wahid’s statement which claimedthe teachers stated that they understood hots but still experienced difficulties in its implementation (wangid et al., 2020). therefore, human resources are the goals of every nation, which can be achieved through education (nugroho & hastuti, 2019). the current dynamics developing are professional teacher competencies that have an impact in the classroom. because basically teachers are not only responsible for the transfer of knowledge, but the task of educating students is the most important thing. hence, the more the teachers' abilities, the more they will produce quality generations for the future (ikhsan et al., 2017). furthermore, the learning outcomes are expected to assist students to develop hots because it stimulates broad and deep thinking related to the concept (hong & salika, 2011). based on the obtained field data regarding the geography teachers’ ability to make questions in lampung province, it was shown that mots still dominated the teacher’s ability to make questions with the number of 1976 items out of 3710. when the percentage reached 53.26%, the dominance can be seen in the questions made by the teacher who is oriented to lots with a total of 1431 items from 3710 at 38.57%. meanwhile, the ability to make hots 209 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 oriented questions was still trapped in a figure of less than 10%, namely only 8.167%, with a total of 303 items from the 3710 analyzed (field observation, 2020). based on the explanation in the background, it can be concluded that the analysis of teacher’s ability to construct questions for classroom learning evaluation shows it is still dominated by mots level. a previous study also showed (1) 70% of the participating teachers comprehensively understand the concept of knowledge concept and dimensions, (2) 60% have good understanding about higher order thinking, (3) 60% have a good understanding of hots preparation techniques, (4) the number of 50% of participating teachers is skilled in preparing questions, implementing, and following up on evaluation results (wantoro et al., 2019). these statements are supported by ruhimat (2018) which showed only a small proportion of teacher respondents make questions by referring to the blue-print. meanwhile, there are even those who do not make blueprints. also, the test measuring instruments made did not go through the validity and reliability test stages. teacher respondents have not shown an increase in quality in the development of measuring tools for student learning outcomes (artvinli, 2017; suherman, 2019). furthermore, reports showed geography teachers in the world still have difficulties in various things from how to manage classes to making tools in measuring success in learning. the measuring tools as an instrument in evaluating learning activities are important. the various studies on creating measuring instruments in the world are not different from those in indonesia, and there are still many teachers who still do not understand how to make good and correct instruments. several studies have been reported to describe the teacher’s ability to construct hots questions. therefore, this study aims to deeply examine the analysis of the factors that affect the ability of geography teachers to construct questions oriented at the hots level. furthermore, this study aims to identify and analyze the factors of geography teachers that affect their ability to develop learning-oriented outcomes instruments. the higher-order thinking skills (hots) include the length of teaching (x1), teacher education linearity in tertiary institutions (x2), education background (x3), certification (x4), training (x5), and experience in making hots questions (x6). 2. methods 2.1 research design this is a survey study with an emphasis on a quantitative approach. this is because it aims to find data on the characteristics of geography teachers that affect their ability to develop higher-order thinking skills (hots)-oriented assessment instruments. 210 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 2.2 sampling technique the sampling method was the overall technique of teachers who are in lampung province, with a total of 30 at the high school (sma/ma) level . the reasons for the overall sampling technique in the area include affordable accessibility, a high level of representation, and not too many participants. 2.3 data collection technique the data collection techniques used questionnaires and tests. the questionnaires were used to ascertain the teacher’s background and experience in developing hots -oriented learning outcomes instruments. these include teaching length, education linearity in universities, educational background, certification, training, and experience in making hots questions. meanwhile, the instrument to measure the ability is to use a test with an analysis of the teacher’s ability to write hots-oriented questions. 2.4 instrument development the development of instruments to determine the ability to make hots questions uses several measurement indicators in table 1. table 1. indicators of teacher ability in making hots questions measured variables indicators level of c4 the operational verb used is to distinguish the operational verb used is to organize the operational verb used is to attribute level of c5 the operational verb used is to check the operational verb used is to criticize level of c6 the operational verb used is to formulate the operational verb used is to plan the operational verb used is to produce source: (anderson & krathwohl, 2010) based on the indicator, the teacher was asked to make an assessment instrument of 10 items which were subsequently assessed through scoring criteria 1 -5. these were juxtaposed with the hots-oriented question criteria based on operational verbs at levels of c4 (analysis), c5 (evaluation), and c6 (creating). 211 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 2.5 analysis technique the multiple linear regression was used to examine the factors that affect the ability to develop hots-oriented questions. this includes several tests, including the t -test (partial), the f test, and the determination test coefficient. also, several tests were conducted using criteria according to riduwan (2012) describing the following: very good (score 5), good (score 4), enough (score 3), poor (score 2), and very poor (score 1). the results were then processed with the tabulation of the characteristics of geography teachers with the following indicators, namely (1) age of respondents (2) teaching background, (3) linearity of educational background, (4) educational background, (5) training experiences, and (6) experiences in making hots questions. the next step is data processing using spps statistic 22 by conducting several tests such as t-test (partial), f-test, and coefficient of determination. 3. results and discussion in analyzing the characteristic factors that affect the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments, there are several factors tested, including teaching length (x1), linearity of education in tertiary institutions (x2), background (x3), certification (x4), training (x5), and experience in making hots questions (x6). the following is testing through multiple linear regression: 2.1 statistical testing of t-test (partial) statistical testing of t-test (partial) in 6 independent variables on 1 dependent is based on decision-making criteria. when the significant value of t > 0.05, then there is no major influence of independent on the dependent variable. this means accepting h0 and refusing h1. also, when significant t<0.05, the dependent variable has a significant impact between the independent. this means denying h0 and accepting h1. the processing results using the spps application are obtained in table 2. table 2. statistical testing of t-test partial multiple linear regression model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) -11.371 10.581 -1.075 0.294 x1 -0.703 5.762 -0.016 -0.122 0.904 x2 2.342 0.822 0.179 2.849 0.009 x3 6.545 2.605 0.253 2.512 0.019 x4 2.054 0.699 0.158 2.938 0.007 x5 2.864 1.254 0.267 2.284 0.032 x6 5.468 2.610 0.305 2.095 0.047 212 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 the conducted tests can be interpreted for each variable as follows: a) teaching length of geography teachers (x1) in the teaching length variable (x1), it can be identified that the significant value of 0.904 is greater than the 0.05 probability. therefore, it can be said that ho is accepted, and ha is rejected. also, there is no positive and insignificant impact on the length of teaching (x1) on the ability to construct hots-oriented assessment instruments. b) linearity of teacher education in tertiary institutions (x2) in this variable (x2), it can be seen that 0.009 is smaller than the probability of 0.05. therefore, it can be inferred that ho is rejected, and ha is accepted. this means the linearity of teacher education in tertiary institutions (x2) has a positive and important impact on the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments. c) background of teacher education (x3) regarding the education background variable (x3), it can be seen that the significant value 0.019 is smaller than the 0.05 probability. therefore, it can be concluded that ho is rejected and ha is accepted. this means there is a positive and significant influence of the background variable (x3) on the ability to develop hotsoriented assessment instruments. d) teacher certification (x4) in the certification variable (x4), it can be seen that the significant value 0.007 is smaller than the 0.05 probability. therefore, it can be concluded that ho is rejected and ha is accepted. this means there is a positive and significant influence of the certification variable (x4) on the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments. e) teacher training (x5) in this variable, it can be seen that the significant value 0.032 is smaller than the probability of 0.05. therefore, it can be concluded that ho is rejected and ha is accepted. this means there is a positive and significant effect of the teacher training variable (x5) on the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments. f) teacher’s experience in making hots questions (x6) in this variable, it can be seen that the significant value 0.047 is smaller than the 0.05 probability. therefore, it can be concluded that ho is rejected and ha is accepted. this means there is a positive and significant influence of experience (x6) on the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments. 2.2. statistical testing of test f the results of the f test presented in table 3 can be interpreted to indicate that the calculated f value is 2.593, with a significance of 0.046. meanwhile, the f table value at the 213 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 95% confidence level (α = 0.05) is 3.59. therefore, fcount< ftable (2.593 < 3.59) and the significance level is 0.046 <0.05. this showed there was a linearity influence of teacher education in tertiary institutions (x2), background (x3), certification (x4), training (x5), and experience (x6) on the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments. at the same time, the length of teaching (x1) has no effect on the ability to develop the assessment instruments. table 3. multiple linear regression f test analysis testing model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 134870.073 6 22478.345 2.593 0.046b residual 199402.594 23 8669.678 total 334272.667 29 note : b = predictors: (constant), x6, x3, x4, x2, x5, x1 results of the coefficient of determination (r-square) on the length of teaching (x1), the linearity of education in tertiary institutions (x2), background (x3), certification (x4), training (x5), and experience (x6) on the ability to develop hots-oriented assessment instruments (y) is explained in table 4. the coefficient of determination value r = 0.635 means the relationship between teaching length, the linearity of education, background, certification, training, and experience is 63.5%. this means the relationship is strong, and 36.5% is another factor. table 4. determination coefficient test (r-square) model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.635a 0.403 0.248 93.11111 note : a = predictors: (constant), x6, x3, x4, x2, x5, x1 the ability of teachers is one of the factors that influence the accomplishment of learning and educational goals in schools. however, a teacher's competence does not stand alone but is influenced by other factors, including classroom assessments. the implementation of this assessment needs more knowledge to be effectively implemented. eyal (2012) stated that (1) the need for teachers to evaluate literacy based on such quantitative data measures is disappearing, partially because it is based on conventional evaluation methods and because current disappearing, partially because it is teacher work, (2) teachers should have evaluation literacy, however for a variety of assessment forms. 214 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 stiggins (2002) defined “teacher assessment literacy,” as a person who knows what methods are used to gather information about student achievement, conduct dialogue about effective assessment results, use rating scores, reports, and portfolios, and understands how to use assessment to improve student performance, motivate and involve them in t he learning process. this is stated in the same line with undang-undang nomor 14 (2005) that “teachers are professional educators with the main task of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, assessing, and evaluating students through formal, basic, and secondary education”. there are three simple reasons why assessment literacy is critical. first ly, assessment is standard (as long as its not inherent) in most school systems. the teachers are estimated to spend 10%-50% of their working hours in assessment-related activities in some universities, and part of the budget is used for formal study (macbeath et al., 2004). with much time and money spent on assessment, it is important to understand how evaluation decisions are made. the second reason why assessment literacy is important is that much literature needs to be studied. the last reason why assessment literacy is required is that it helps the teachers share class consequences with others. this study focuses on the abilities of geography teachers in making hots-based assessment instruments in high school (sma/ma). in line with ahmad (2014), there are two opinions of teachers regarding education transition, namely positive and negative perceptions. the positive expectations promote a drive for improvement and creativity, while thenegative perceptions reflect the unpreparedness of teachers to make adjustments. the urgency of hots is connected to both teachers and students. lately, educational changes in many countries have shown a change from stressing low-level thinking skills (lots) to highlighting high-level thinking skills (hots) (barak & dori, 2009). in indonesia, more than a quarter of geography teachers outside java are taught by non-geographic backgrounds teachers, leading to incorrect skills and knowledge (gerber & chuan, 2000). this greatly influences the use of hots-oriented assessment instruments in class. in addition to the linearity of education in tertiary institutions, this study also examines several factors that affect the ability to develop hots-oriented instruments that were carried out during research in sma / ma with 30 subjects. several factors that affect the ability to develop hots-oriented questions include the linearity of teacher education in tertiary institutions (x2). the results showed there are teachers whose education is not linear at pt with subjects that are taught in class. infact, some still finds it difficult and lack understanding related to complex geography material, hence, the presentation of learning material in class is classified as general. this has an impact on the ability to develop hots-oriented questions. this is also supported by prayitno 215 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 (2019) which showed the level of education has a significant positive value on the professional competence of a teacher. the second factor, namely the background of teacher education (x3) affects the ability to develop hots-oriented questions. the field results showed there are teachers with linear education, especially in geography subjects, both undergraduate and graduate, which greatly affect the ability to develop hots questions. this is in line with fadiarman (2018) which stated that the results of correlational analysis showed educational background and attitudes towards the teaching profession had a positive relationship with the pedagogic competence of social studies learning for junior high school teachers. furthermore, the third factor is related to the teacher certification factor (x4).this factor may have a slight effect, but the existence of certification i ncreases teacher motivation to become professionals, especially in the teaching, learning, and evaluation process in class. therefore, when evaluating teacher in making questions, it needs to be in accordance with the demands of the national education system, which leads to training students in higher-order thinking. research by anggela (2015) showed high teacher motivation has a tendency to improve student learning outcomes. also, the teachers with good motivation will always try to work as much as possible. this will encourage the achievement of optimal learning. the fourth factor is the teacher training factor (x5).this factor has a large contribution in influencing the ability to make hots questions. this is because based on observations in the field, some teachers who often attend training have good competence in planning and evaluating classroom learning. according to widana (2020), a person will be motivated to work creatively as long as there is a good understanding of the concept. therefore, understanding the assessment concept influences one’s creativity in composing hots questions. this is supported by rakib et al. (2016) which showed that training partially has a positive and significant effect on teacher professionalism. research by rahmawati (2015) also showed training is an activity that can have a positive and significant impact on professionalism at smk negeri 3 palu. this is in line with research by helmi (2018), which reported that teacher's training is to improve their professional competence. essentially, a ‘teacher’ is a person who provides educational programs, assesses student participation, and/or administers, provides consistency, and substantial leadership for educational programs. the standard of teachers has been said to be the number one effect on student success related to education. although studies on what qualified teachers mean is often the topic of discussion, and there are certain quality results that are seldom debated (barathimalar, 2014). avargil et al. (2012) found that professional development teachers are assisted by students. this is seen from one teacher's answer that hots is important "because 216 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 we face several problems that require knowledge, skills, and analysis so tha t we can overcome the problems of our daily life" the teacher used the term "we" not "students" or "them" in answer. this implies that not only students but even their teachers need hots. also, teachers face very tough periods in the learning phase of adopting hots when it is not followed by daily socialization and government training (retnawati et al., 2018). the training carried out should be directly related to solving real problems and conditions in the classroom, as stated by lang (1999). also, martinet (2001) stated that today, there is no finalized blueprint to explain the intentional growth of professional practice, but rather a collection of questions regarding the necessary expertise and skills accessible through training. the socialization and training quality is important to better understand the abilities and skills of hots through this activity (lang, 1999; martinet, 2001; retnawati et al., 2018). the fifth factor, namely the teacher’s experience in making questions at the city/regency, provincial, and national levels. it is one of the factors that affect the ability to make hots questions. this is because from experience, the teacher can always learn to compile the questions in accordance with demands of the national education system which leads to higher order thinking skills. the results showed some teachers who had frequently made questions had skills both during the mid-semester assessment (pts), final semester assessment (pas), school examination (us), tryout at the city level / district, and at the provincial level. this is in line with (iswandi & richardo, 2017) which showed there is a positive and significant influence of teaching experience on the variable of teacher professional ability in senior high school kartika xiv 1 banda aceh. the five factors that make up this study variable are supported by the theory of uno (2011) which showed teacher competence does not stand alone but is affected by educational context influences, teaching experience, and length variables. this is in line with research by sahari (2018) which showed the independent variables including education, training and teaching experience have a significant influence on teacher professionalism. furthermore, ayuni (2016) reported that the excellent understanding and response were influenced by several factors, namely education level, scientific background, teaching length and load, participation in training, mastery of methods and media, reading intensity, as well as teacher work ethic. in line with research by widana (2020), getting an understanding of hots assessment can be done in various ways, including discussions in mgmp (geography teacher working group) forums, looking for reading material on internet media, or electronic books about hots assessment. meanwhile, direct activities such as workshops, 217 suhendro suhendro et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 205-221 training, iht (in house training), or other forms can minimize challenges in competence development. regarding this issue, the research team tries to respond and synchronize with situations in the field. therefore, the factors influencing geography teachers in developing hots questions include a lack of training, especially for senior high school (sma/ma) teachers in lampung province, indonesia. 4. conclusion the factors that influence the ability of geography teachers in developing hots oriented assessment instruments in this study indicate that the linearity of teacher education in universities, teacher education background, teacher certification, teacher training, and teacher experience in making hots questions on the ability of geography teachers in developing the hots-oriented learning outcome assessment instrument as evidenced by the t-test (partial) statistic shows that the length of teaching for geography teachers is (0.904), the linearity of teacher education in universities is (0.009), teacher education background is (0.019), teacher certification is (0.007), teacher training (0.032), and teacher experience in making hots questions (0.047). things that need to be done for further research ideas are not only for research purposes, there needs to be a treatment for geography teachers to improve their ability to develop hots-oriented questions such as holding training or workshops. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict interest. references afrian, r., islami, z. r., & mustika, f. 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(2020). pengaruh pemahaman konsep asemen hots terhadap kemampuan guru matematika sma/smk menyusun soal hots. jurnal emasains: jurnal edukasi matematika dan sains, 9(1), 66–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.30659/pendas.7.2.84-98 https://ojs.mahadewa.ac.id/index.php/emasains/article/view/618 https://ojs.mahadewa.ac.id/index.php/emasains/article/view/618 abstract figure 1. the elements of the assessment items for measuring hots (mohamed & lebar, 2017) references 127 research article flash flood susceptibility mapping at andungbiru watershed, east java using ahp-information weighted method devi ratna handini, entin hidayah* , gusfan halik master program in civil engineering, department of civil engineering, faculty of engineering, university of jember, jl. kalimantan no. 37 jember, 68121, indonesia abstract flash floods are among the most frequent natural disasters caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, which leads to social and economic losses in infrastructure and agriculture. therefore, this research aims to map flash flood potential susceptibility (ffps) in the pekalen watershed, using geographic information system (gis) technology and statistical analysis to reduce the risk of flooding. the opinion and experience of an expert on the weight assessment method were carried out using the analytical hierarchy process (ahp). furthermore, the probability statistical methods and gis were used in flash flood areas in the pekalen watershed in andungbiru, probolinggo village. this study was carried out using geomorphological factors, namely elevation, slope, stream power index, and topographic wetness index, with a resolution of 30 m. thematic map scale of the land use, river density, distance to the river, rainfall, and geology is in the ratio of is in a ratio of 1:25,000. imagery processing was carried out using landsat 8 30 m x 30 m resolution imagery, such as the normalized difference vegetation index. the result showed that the model map of ffps obtained low 8%, low 23%, moderate 27%, moderate to high 26%, high 13%, and very high 2% index values. the next stage of modeling analysis led to validation using statistic receiver operating characteristic curve (roc) of area under curve (auc) with a value of 90.15. in conclusion, the factors that significantly trigger flash floods are distance to the river, land use, and slope. keywords: ahp-weighted; information content; ffsp; gis; geomorphology 1. introduction flash floods are one of the natural disasters affecting human life, leading to death and natural and artificial environmental damage (guzzetti et al., 2005; penning-rowsell et al., 2005; salvati et al., 2010). according to du et al. (2013), the process of measuring runoff areas and damage caused by flash floods is challenging. this is because flash flood disasters generally have varying intervals and durations (tehrany et al., 2015). *corresponding author. email address : entin.teknik@unej.ac.id (entin hidayah) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 127-142 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2. 24173 received 4 may 2021/ revised 1 june 2021/ accepted 15 june 2021/ published 17 august 2021 mailto:entin.teknik@unej.ac.id https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1233-6850 128 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 several research methods use ahp as a disaster modeling map extension. ahp is also used to calculate weight assessment based on the opinion and experience of experts (bui et al., 2019; elkhrachy, 2015; he et al., 2019). the research on potential mapping disasters using opinions and combination statistics produced good validation values, namely ahpweighted information content auc 0.893, ahp method 0.821, and information content 0.842 (he et al., 2019). this study used the ahp-weighted information content method, which combines the expert experience method and frequency distribution statistics. the model results are validated using statistics, while the area below the curve (auc) is used to calculate the accuracy of the flash flood model. mapping potential flash flood-prone areas using the ahp-weighted information content method is essential for sustainable planning (costache et al., 2020), protecting life, and maintaining a river condition environment (zhang et al., 2015). ahp is a method used for various kinds of disasters, such as landslides, flash floods, etc. this is an interesting research due to its complex nature, making it possible to carry out a spatial approach during the flash flood modeling process (he et al., 2019). there has never been a mapping of the potential for flash floods in the pekalen watershed, therefore, it is imperative to use the ahp method combined with information content weights to determine the factors that influence the accuracy of the modeling results. vulnerability is needed to determine the appropriate methods and analysis needed to map a potential flash flood (cloke & pappenberger, 2009). flash flood modeling utilizes gis mapping and remote sensing methods (pradhan & shafie, 2009). the purpose of this study is to apply the ahp-weighted information content method at in the pekalen watershed using a geographic information system (gis). this method was used to determine the distribution of potential flash flood events based on factors that have been calculated from their various weights using expert knowledge and mathematical analysis. 2. methods 2.1 study area this research was carried out in pekalen watershed, probolinggo, east java, with coordinates 1130.23 e-1130.35 e and 70.55'0 80.2'3. figure 1 shows the flash flood event area is in the village, with the area of the upper pekalen watershed covering 8,530 hectares. the flash flood event occurred at an elevation of 608 meters above sea level. 129 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 figure 1. the study area 2.2 research design the predetermined parameters used to determine flash floods are elevation, slope, spi, twi, land use, river density, distance to river, ndvi, short-term heavy rain, and geology. these parameters are essential because each region has different regional morphological characteristics (elkhrachy, 2015). data were collected from the inventory of flash flood events obtained from the survey at the site. the results consist of 70% training data (63 ha) and 30% validation (27 ha) (kia et al., 2012). the selection of factors mapping the potential of flash floods is essential in creating an insecurity map to determine the elevation, slope, twi (costache et al., 2020), spi, river density, rainfall, ndvi (bui et al., 2019), land use (costache et al., 2020), geology (cao et al., 2016), and distance from the river (popa et al., 2019). table 1 is a general description of data source and resolution information. table 1. factors used in flash flood mapping modeling flash flood factor source resolution elevation www.usgs.gov (usgs, 2020) 30 x 30 m slope derivated from srtm (nasa, 2020) 30 x 30 m spi derivated from srtm (nasa, 2020) 30 x 30 m twi derivated from srtm (nasa, 2020) 30 x 30 m land use tanahair.indonesia.go.id (big, 1999) 1 : 25,000 river density derivated from layer of river 30 x 30 m distance to river derivated from layer of river 30 x 30 m ndvi landsat 8 (usgs, 2020) 30 x 30 m rainfall derivated from layer of rainfall 30 x 30 m geology tanahair.indonesia.go.id (big, 1999) 1:25,000 http://www.usgs.gov/ 130 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 furthermore, this study comprises geomorphological and hydrological factors, with figures 2-11 showing the classification of each factor. the spatial data types are grid and vector layers. figure 2. slope map figure 3. elevation map figure 4. stream power index map figure 5. topographic wetness index map figure 6. river density map figure 7. distance to river map 131 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 figure 8. ndvi map figure 9. rainfall map figure 10. geology map figure 11. land use map a. the slope (degree) (figure 2) factor is derivated from the elevation data and marbles, which significantly influence the process of flow (khosravi et al., 2016). b. elevation (meter) (figure 3) data is obtained from nasa imagery with srtm radar resolution of 30 x 30 (m). in general, flash floods usually occur in areas with plateaus. c. topographic wetness index (twi) and stream power index (spi) imagery (figures 4 and 5) are derived from dem factors considered as variables that describe the hydrological arrangement of an area. in general, a high twi value indicates the presence of prone areas with wet topography and potential to surface runoff. similarly, spi is a topographic prediction used to model the strength of a water flow. the topographic wetness index (twi) is a spatial concept that models the accumulation of flow from each basin and the ability of water to move due to its slope and gravity. spi and twi modeling is derived from dem and processed using tools in saga gis, along with similarities from twi (eq.1) and spi (eq. 2) modeling (moore et al., 1991). 132 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 twi= 𝐿𝑛 ( 𝐴𝑠 𝛽 ) = 𝐿𝑛 ( 𝐴𝑠 𝛽 ) ......................................................................................... (1) spi= 𝐴𝑠𝑥 tan 𝛽 = 𝐴𝑠𝑥 tan 𝛽 ................................................................................... (2) where the as and β denote specific water catchment areas (m2/m) and slope angles in degrees. twi shows the amount of flow accumulated at any point in the catchment area and the tendency of water to descend to the slope using gravitational force (moore et al., 1991). d. an ndvi (ratio) is a measure that describes the vegetation characteristics of an area, factors that affect the surface flow, and the infiltration capabilities of a site (figure 8). according to tehrany et al. (2013), areas with less dense vegetation are considered more prone to flooding. e. distance to the river (meter) is a factor that is lower from the thematic map layer of the river (figure 7). this is a factor that shows the distribution of flash flood events to the position of the river (popa et al., 2019). f. the river density (km/m) that flows in watersheds influences the level and intensity of flash floods (figure 6). the river network and the surrounding areas are highly vulnerable to the manifestation of flash flood events (fernández & lutz, 2010). g. the geology map (figure 10) obtained from rupa bumi indonesia (rbi) is one of the factors contributing to the response to water flow when there is high rain (cao et al., 2016). h. rainfall (mm) is also considered an essential variable in the assessment of flash flood vulnerability (figure 9). therefore, precipitation is used to produce a map of rainfall distribution using the inverse distance weighted (idw) method (bartier & keller, 1996). figure 12. flow chart of the methodology 133 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 2.3 ahp-weighted information content method ahp-weighted information content method is a technique that combines expert monitoring and statistical calculation. the calculated value is entered into the class of each factor, while the weight is obtained from used distribution frequency formulas implemented into gis. eq. 3 is a formula for determining each class. 𝐼(𝑋𝑖, 𝐻) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝑖 /𝑁 𝑆𝑖 /𝑆 𝐼(𝑋𝑖 , 𝐻) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝑖 /𝑁 𝑆𝑖 /𝑆 ..................................................................................(3) where s is the area of study, n is the total area of flash floods, si is the number of disaster-causing factors, and ni is the number of flash floods distributed in the causative factors of the disaster. ahp weight assessment is calculated based on the opinion of experts, while the probability statistic model is used to determine the weight of each factor class. ffsp is calculated using the eq. 4 (he et al., 2019). 𝐹𝐹 = 𝛽1𝐺1 + 𝛽2𝐺2 + 𝛽3𝐺3 + 𝛽4𝐺4 + 𝛽5𝐺5 + 𝛽6𝐺6 + 𝛽7𝐺7 + 𝛽8𝐺8 + 𝛽9𝐺9 + 𝛽10𝐺10𝐹𝐹 = 𝛽1𝐺1 + 𝛽2𝐺2 + 𝛽3𝐺3 + 𝛽4𝐺4 + 𝛽5𝐺5 + 𝛽6𝐺6 + 𝛽7𝐺7 + 𝛽8𝐺8 + 𝛽9𝐺9 + 𝛽10𝐺10 .................................................................................................................(4) eq. 2 is the sum of the weight of each class for each factor. this summation produces a flash flood potential layer next in the process of re-class in gis to determine the index of potential flash floods (he et al., 2019). ahp-weighted information content method is used to develop the ahp method by combining it with the statistic probability of frequency distribution. the assessment process provides constant value on each factor and frequency distribution assessment to give weight to each class. furthermore, the calculated value is converted into a gis layer, then to t he numeric form and spatial data. after each factor is converted, their sum is weighed to create a potential flash flood map before proceeding to the reclassification stage to create an index class. according to khosravi et al. (2016), the selection of index class for the map of ffsp used the trusted natural breaks method because it is most suitable for the classification process of index map insecurity. validation is a critical stage in creating and identifying maps of areas vulnerable to flash floods and determining the model's quality. therefore, the modeling results are unusable, assuming they do not have validation values (biswajeet pradhan & lee, 2010). roc is a method widely used to evaluate the accuracy level of model results. tehrany et al. (2013) stated that using this method is better because the results are generally complete with good visuals. many studies use this method as an option for their validation process (5). 134 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 furthermore, in the potential mapping of flash flood disasters, the prediction model results need to be evaluated in the modeling process. this study uses the statistical analysis method to quantitatively calculate the relationship between flash floods and causal factors based on a spatial modeling approach. it also focuses on the probability of frequency distribution with the approach of geodynamic environmental data. the method combines probability data with the opinions of experts that need to be verified. 3. results and discussion calculating ahp results using weighted information content determined the weight value of each class factor. ahp is a method that uses expert opinion, such as individuals that are professionals in the field of disaster and gis, to determine the input from the weight of each factor. the opinions of these experts include the national disaster relief agency, national disaster management authority, hydrologists, gis experts, and the development planning agency at sub-national level. figure 13 is the result of an ahp weighted information content calculation. figure 13. ahp-weighted information content calculation results in figure 13, the weight calculation shows that the factor with the most significant negative value is the distance to river factor, which is in the second class with a weight value of -5.42. this is followed by the land-use and marble factors with negative values -3.22 and 2.70. the ahp-weighted information content calculation results consist of positive and negative values. the positive values indicate that the probability of events is more significant in each class than in the factor class. 135 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 algorithm natural (ln) formula produces both negative and positive values. the negative value indicates that the probability of events is less than the value of a factor class. the factor with the highest positive value, namely the land-use in the rice field feature, has a value of 3.69, followed by the rainfall factor in the sixth grade worth 2.73 and the fifth rate at 1.49. in the class of marbles, the positive score is first class with a value of 1.30, which ranges from zero to seven degrees. the case at the research site based on the probability of events and factors used in this study stated that flash floods occurred at a reasonably high elevation of 475-621 m, at a slope of 0-7 and 17-21 degrees. the incident occurred in rice fields using settlements and fields with river runoff up to 177 m during the 15 mm continuous rainfall. the gis software is used to determine the overlay of each factor. the natural interval statistical method is used to determine the classification results, consisting of six classes, namely low, low, medium, medium to high, high, and very high. the following figures (figure 14 figure 23) illustrate the weighting in each class. figure 14. elevation (m) figure 15. slope (degree) in the elevation factor (figure 14), the probability value of events in the first class with a value of one ranges from 475 – 621 m. meanwhile, in the slope factor (figure 15), the probability of the highest occurrence in the first, second, third, and fourth classes are 1.30, 0.36,-0.1 and -2.70. 136 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 figure 16. stream power index figure 17. topographic wetness index in the spi factor (figure 16), the probability value of events in class one has a value of 0.01 with a range of spi 0-324 and -0.37 in class two. in the twi factor (figure 17), the probability value of its appearance in classes one, two, three, four, five, and six are -1.31, 0.87, -0.01, 0.56, 0.80, and 1.38. figure 18. land use figure 19. river density (km/m) on the land use factor (figure 18), the value of the probability of forest occurrence is 0.00 for plantations at 1.44. the highest negative value for land use is -3.22 and -199 for settlements, while the highest for rice fields is 3.69 and -1.90 for shrubs. for the river density factor (figure 19), the value of the probability of occurrence in classes one, two, three, four, five, and six are 0, -1.38, 1.10, -0.87, 0.07, and -0.75. 137 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 figure 20. distance to the river (m) figure 21. ndvi (ratio) the distance factor to the river (figure 20) and the probability value in class one and are 0.95 and -5.42. meanwhile, in classes three, four, five, and six, it is 0.00. in the ndvi factor (figure 21), the probability event value in classes one, two, three, four, five and six are 1.27, 0.74, 0.74, -0.23, -0.58, and -0.78. figure 22. rainfall (mm) figure 23. geology in the rainfall factor (figure 22), the probability event value in grades one, two, three, and four have a score of 0.00. meanwhile, in the fifth and sixth grades, the scores are 1.49 and 2.73, respectively. in the geology factor (figure 23), the probability event value in argopuro volcanic and lamong volcanic rock are 0.23 and 0.00. the class weight value of each layer factor needs to be converted into data with a grid resolution of 30 m x 30 m using the gis. the results of the map of potential flash floods are shown in figure 24. 138 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 figure 24. map of potential flash floods table 3. table of percentage and broad proportional values on models in each class class count area (m 2 ) percentage (%) very low 7748 697.32 8 low 21577 1941.93 23 moderate 25545 2299.05 27 moderate to high 24574 2211.66 26 high 11729 1055.61 13 very high 2268 204.12 2 the calculation obtained a map of the spread of flash flood insecurity with each index class, as shown in figure 24. the study area in table 3 shows that the highest percentage value is moderate 27%, followed by moderate to high 26%, low 23%, high 13%, very low 8%, and very high with only 2%. the spatial distribution shows that the research area is fairly vulnerable because moderate to high values dominate 27% and 26%, respectively. the results of the flash flood encoding using the ahp method can carry out the validation process using the graph below the auc curve, as shown in figure 25. 139 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 figure 25. receiver operating characteristic (roc)-based analysis of the area under the curve (auc) data graph the advantage of this research is to test the performance model that uses a combination of statistics and expert statements, with the results of a map and the distr ibution of potential flood events. this research utilized factors that have been used in previous studies related to flash flood disasters in the pekalen watershed, such as elevation (bui et al., 2019; costache et al., 2020), slope (khosravi et al., 2016), twi (bui et al., 2019), spi (bui et al., 2019), land use (costache et al., 2020), distance to the river (popa et al., 2019), river density (bui et al., 2019), ndvi (bui et al., 2019), rainfall (bui et al., 2019), geology (cao et al., 2016). previous studies used various approaches to determine geomorphologica l factors; therefore, the most frequently used factors for modeling were implemented in this study. the statistic method for the validation process used the analysis method under the curve (auc) to obtain an event model value of 90.15%, as shown in figure 25. this value indicates that the modeling made based on the probability of frequency distribution has proximity between flash flood events models. in addition, the increase in performance (auc value) is supported by a selection factor that is adjusted to the type of flash flood events from similar studies, which have an auc value above 80%. the resulting flood hazard map is 30 m x 30 m resolution at a scale of 1:25,000. this map can be used as a reference in making flood risk models and regional spatial alignment, therefore, they are able to offer risk. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 t r u e p o si ti v e r a te ( se n si ti v ty ) auc ahp weighted information content 140 devi ratna handini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 127-142 4. conclusion in conclusion, the flash flood potential vulnerability map using the ahp-weighted information content method gives a significant result. furthermore, adjusting the resulting map of each layer produced a resolution of 30 m x 30 m on a scale of 1:25,000. of the ten factors analyzed using ahp-weighted information content, those that significantly trigger flash floods are distance to the river, land use, and slope with a weight value of four. this shows the area with a high probability of occurring in the rice field features. meanwhile, factors that have weak influence are twi, spi, and land-use factors. in this study, land use has a high value because it is a factor that affects runoff on the surface. the flash flood susceptibility potential map can be used as a reference in flood mitigation, with a resolution scale of 30 m x 30 m. furthermore, research on modeling, it required information on the previous occurrence to determine the temporal phenomena that occur. the group number of each factor needs to be varied to test the dominance of the triggering factors for a flash flood. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references bartier, p. m., & keller, c. p. 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(2015). flash flood hazard mapping: a pilot case study in xiapu river basin, china. water science and engineering, 8(3), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2015.05.002. https://www.usgs.gov/ 268 building density level of urban slum area in jakarta tenty melvianti legarias1 *, renny nurhasana1, edy irwansyah2 1 urban studies program, school of strategic and global studies, universitas indonesia, jakarta, 10430, indonesia 2 school of computer sciences, bina nusantara university, jakarta, 11480, indonesia *corresponding author: melvi.legarias@gmail.com received 10 july 2020/ revised 6 august 2020 / accepted 11 august 2020/ available online 15 august 2020 abstract currently, the number of urban residents is increasing and some of the urban population live in slum areas. therefore, identifying the characteristics of slum areas has become crucial. this study aimed to identify more specific slum locations in jakarta through the pattern of building densities analysis between case studies of neighborhoods association (rt) in 15 hamlets (rw) that classified as heavy slums category. this study also attempted to determine the relation between building density levels in the slum area and jakarta spatial detail planning. this study engaged the cluster and outlier analysis (anselin local moran's i) method. this study also observed socio-economic factors of citizen census data based the dasawisma census of family welfare empowerment in 2019. the result shows that slum locations that had direct neighbors towards areas which was designated at spatial detail planning as industrial zones and ware housing areas as well as office, trade and service zones, obtained a higher level of building density compared to slum locations that secured neighbors to areas that were designated as housing zones. high economic opportunities provided attraction and affected the growth of slum locations. the results also reveal that slum areas were not a concentrated population with low income and/or low education. applying cluster and outlier modeling of building density levels of urban slums in jakarta based on rt cluster level could reveal more specific slum locations and could identify factors that influence the differences of building density levels. keywords: slums; spatial detail planning; cluster and outlier analysis; geographic information system 1. introduction by 2030, the cities population are projected to be increased up to 60 percent with 1 of 4 city residents living in slums (united nations, 2019). the phenomenon of rapid urbanization affects escalation of slums, increasing the number of infrastructure and inadequate services (such as sewage treatment facilities, availability of clean water and sanitation, roads, and transportation), as well as escalation of air pollution and also influences cities expansion that are unplanned. some people settled and struggled in slums, sometimes those were only a few meters away from the upper community and commercial areas. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 2 (2020), 268-287, august, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i2.18547 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view 269 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 there are several definitions and conditions to define slums. the most convenient of 'slum' term is a dense urban area that does not meet the standard housing conditions and indicates poverty area (un habitat, 2004). this explanation contributes to the main characteristics of slums which are performing high density and low housing standards (structure and services), and poverty. in indonesia, slum is defined as inappropriate settlement to live, due to erratically building, the presence of high density, low-quality buildings, facilities and amenities shortages, and low affordability of infrastructure(ministry of public works and indonesian public housingpupr, 2016). there are several methods could be utilized to identify slums in a city or region and to determine whether the certain area could affect slums escalation. each slum performs different conditions, slums may develop or new slums may emerge, both could be enhanced through high rural-urban migration rates or location circum stance that usually being indicated as inappropriate for housing (river banks, steep slopes, landfills, uninhabitated land, railroad lines, adjacency towards industrial areas or markets and all over river banks) (roy et al., 2014). in lagos, nigeria, a study of slums characteristics was performed through a census using respondents from 120 slums as samples, and the results showed that 7.7% of respondents received incomes above us $ 352.94, 13.8% were graduated of formal education and 67% were non-native, also, 5.6% of buildings were built with wood, while 91.5% of buildings were more 10 years (adedayo & malik, 2015). research relating slum was also performed engaging questionnaires towards respondents, revealed that the major factors affecting slums were affordability, cultural, kinship and markets adjacency, and then followed by other factors (badmos et al., 2020). friesen et al. (2018) also utilized population data of slum area to indicate that slum development was strongly related to demographic development of a country. some studies utilizing building maps and spatial methods to identify urban areas based on building density levels. buildings data could be used to describe community residence or to describe a business district within down town compared to population data (de bellefon et al., 2020). high density is also one of the physical characteristics that is frequently used to describe slums. furthermore, in term of physical characteristics, there are also the small roof size and irregular patterns (kuffer et al., 2016). spatial statistical method also measures spatial concentration including high-density buildings. arribas-bel et al. (2019) also engaged building density measurements based on machine learning algorithms, proposed to obtain the distribution of building groups with significant values that could reach the minimum building density limit. de bellefon et al. (2020) compared building density with engaging building data in france. hence, the definition of urban area is characterized by high building density. few researchers combined some methods to draw slum characteristics. the object-based slum detections research in jakarta by pratomo et al. (2017) conducted object-based image 270 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 analysis (obia) with distance variable upon the river or railroad, building size, building density, roofing materials, and illegal land expansion. all of these variables were taken from expert agreements. similar research employed remote sensing to identify slum areas was conducted in bandung (leonita et al., 2018) performed a method which combining remote sensing imagery with machine learning by gathering all the input from the experts based on slum indicators. wijaya et al. (2019) conducted a field study of a slum located in kelurahan manggarai, south jakarta, to calculate the usage intensity of communal space occupied by slum residents. the results showed the communal space usage not only in public locations that already remained in spatial planning, but also communal space utilization also occupied a huge of space for roads. in the same location, wati (2018) revealed that due to improper housing space conditions, the private space engagement spread out and utilized public space. slum issues and spatial detail planning are closely interrelated. this is comformable to the new urban agenda which is committed to promote the planning and replenishment of city expansion, includes a commitment to recover slums. slums in jakarta were classified using rw (rukun warga/hamlet) administrative boundaries and there was still limited information regarding slums in the smaller areas or certain slum locations and limited information to determine the effect of spatial detail planning factors on these locations. the previous studies concerned in identifying the characteristics of slums based on the population census, field study and remote sensing methods. there have been limited studies focused on slum areas interrelated to spatial detail planning in jakarta using building density. therefore, this study aimed to identify more specific slum locations in jakarta through the pattern of building density analysis between case studies neighborhoods association (rt) in 15 hamlets (rw) that classified as heavy slums category. this study committed to investigate the affiliation between building density level in slum area and jakarta spatial detail planning. the current research also observed socio-economic factors based on population census data reported by the dasawisma census of family welfare empowerment in 2019. 2. methods 2.1 study area the study area employed in this study was jakarta municipality. jakarta municipality was the capital city which was divided into five regions (kota administrasi) composed of 42 sub-district (kecamatan) that consisted of 262 urban villages (kelurahan) and divided into 2,718 citizen associations (rw). each rw was divided into 10-20 neighborhoods (rt). jakarta is the capital and largest city of indonesia that covers 662,33 square kilometers. 271 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 jakarta provincial government had classified 445 rw as slums according to dki jakarta provincial governor regulation number 90/2018 related to improvement of quality of settlements in the context of integrated housing area regulations, which are categorized as heavy, medium, light and very light priority. however, 15 rw of 445 rw were categorized as heavy slum were selected for this study namely: west jakarta with seven locations consisted of jati pulo urban village rw 006, rw 008, rw 009, kapuk urban village rw 012, rw 016, jembatan besi urban village rw 003, keagungan urban village rw 003, north jakarta with four locations consisted of kalibaru urban village rw 004, rw 007, penjaringan urban village rw 008, rw 017, east jakarta with two locations consisted of kampung melayu urban village rw 007, rw 008, south jakarta with one location namely manggarai urban village rw 004 and central jakarta with one location namely tanah tinggi urban village rw 012. these 15 locations were considered as heavy slums category were taken as samples, since those were assumed to be locations with the highest slum level compared to others. it was necessary to analyze these fifteen (15) locations as priority locations to improve slums and the analysis results could be utilized as references for other categories. the distribution of fifteen rw locations is presented in figure 1 with heavy slum legend. figure 1. jakarta slum maps 272 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 2.2 data resources spatial data sources were building map, administrative boundary map, and the spatial detail planning map provided by human settlement, spatial planning and land authority department of jakarta provincial government, and citizen census data reported by the dasawisma census of family welfare empowerment in 2019. jakarta buildings map dataset in gis format which mapped in national geospatial standard precision for the year 2019 was taken from aerial photography in 2014. the building map was engaged to generate building density levels by overlaying it along with administrative boundary map of rw. all maps were officially published online at https://jakartasatu.jakarta.go.id. jakarta administrative boundary maps composed of areas boundaries (kota administrasi), sub-district (kecamatan), urban villages (kelurahan), hamlets (rw), and neighborhoods association (rt). this research employed rw and rt administrative boundary maps. a smaller scale of analysis unit of rw was required to determine the focus of slum locations within rw area, thus this research utilized rt map scale. the current study also utilized jakarta spatial detail planning map, a map with detailed plans on district-level spatial planning which was equipped with zoning regulations that were translations for 2011-2030 regional spatial plan with a map scale of 1: 5,000 (jakarta regional regulation, 2014). zoning is the regions division into zones based on original functions and characteristics or directed to the development of other functions. other data resources were data sets reported by the dasawisma census of family welfare empowerment in 2019. this data was generated from census results by jakarta provincial family welfare empowerment conducted from january to may 2019. collection data method used by dasawisma was over direct interviews by dasawisma officers towards each family member then conducted input data online through both mobile applications and web applications. data analysis employed dependent and independent variables. the dependent variable was building density level which was one of the physical indicators of slums (ministry of public works and indonesian public housing-pupr, 2016). a high level of building density that located within metropolitan cities and large cities is > 250 units/ha, this parameter is engaged for jakarta. the parameter value was 5 if the building density was in the range of 76% 100% of the indicator, the value 3 was if the building density was in the range of 51% 75% of the indicator, and the value was 1 if the building density was in the range of 25% 50 of the indicator, a value of 5 was categorized a high score, a value of 3 was categorized a medium score and a value of 1 is categorized a low score. 273 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 the independent variables employed for this study were taken from two sources. the first source was acquired based geographical factors, namely the spatial detail planning map and the second source was socio-economic factor,which was according to dasawisma data composed of education, level of family activity in the settlement, and income which was represented by the head of the family. 2.3 analysis method the research methods used were descriptive analysis and spatial analysis to accomplish the research objectives that related to spatial/regional aspects. overlay analysis is an operation of gis to superimpose several layers of a dataset which representing different themes together to analyze or identify the relationships of each layer. overlay analysis represents a composite map with a combination of various attributes and the geometry of a data set or entity. an overlay is an operation of comparing variables among several scopes. during analysis process with applying overlay method, a new map could be generated which wasa combination two or more layers of input maps results. this current study, overlay analysis was performed between building maps, administrative boundary maps, and the spatial detail planning map. in addition, local moran's i index (lmi) was applied to detect the clusters and outliers based on dependent variables building density level in neighborhoods (rt) administrative boundary maps. this spatial analysis namely cluster and outlier analysis. the analysis was needed to be completed in order to identify the geographical distribution of slum phenomenon and to determine the factors statistically whether result in dependence phenomenon on other regions or it was an independent phenomenon. in order to formulate statistical calculations into clusters and outliers, lmi calculated the moran i value, z-score, p-value, co-type. z-score is the standard deviation, and the p-value is the opportunity value of mistrust that spatial patterns are random. the local moran’s i statistic of spatial association (anselin, 1995) is presented below: 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖−�̅� 𝑆𝑖 2 ∑ 𝑊𝑖 ,𝑗 (𝑥𝑖 − �̅�) 𝑛 𝑗=1,𝑗≠𝑖 (1) where 𝑥𝑖 is attribute for feature i, 𝑋 is the mean of the corresponding attribute, 𝑤𝑖,𝑗 is the spatial weight between feature i and j, and: 𝑆𝑖 2 = ∑ (𝑥𝑖−�̅�)2𝑛𝑗=1,𝑗≠𝑖 𝑛−1 (2) with n equating to the total numbers of features. the 𝑍𝐼𝑖 score for the statistics are computed as: 274 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 𝑍𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 −𝐸[𝐼𝑖 ] √𝑉[𝐼𝑖 ] (3) where: 𝐸[𝐼𝑖 ] = − ∑ 𝑤𝑖𝑗 𝑛 𝑗=1,𝑗≠𝑖 𝑛−1 (4) 𝑉[𝐼𝑖 ] = 𝐸[𝐼𝑖 2] − 𝐸[𝐼𝑖 ] 2 (5) the result i value reveals the positive or negative value of the feature. if the value of i was positive, it meant that the feature was part of a cluster with neighboring features that were equally high or low value, whereas if the value of i was negative then the feature was an outlier where the feature had a different value than its neighbors. in both conditions, the p-value must be of very small value, thus it could be considered a significant value. in the sense of this statistic, a maximum p-value of 0.05, could be categorized as significant was set at a 95% confidence level. co-type on statistical results was an attribute that distinguished whether a high-value significant cluster (hh), or a low-value significant cluster (ll), and for the outlier category would distinguish whether a feature was surrounded by high-value features (lh) or whether a feature was surrounded by low value features (hl). the co-type statistical results of rt area conducted in this study is presented on figure 2. figure 2. cluster type for each significant feature statistically source: author's illustration. 275 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 3. results and discussion 3.1 distribution of 15 rw’s building density level of heavy slums the initial stage was observing the distribution of the building density level of 15 rw’s in heavy slum which limited the scope of this study to identify the characteristics of each rw. spatial overlay analysis was performed between the administrative boundary map of 15 rw and the building map to calculate the level of building density. the results can be seen on table 1. table 1. distribution of 15 rw’s building density level of heavy slums location number of buildings rw area (hectare) building density level (units/ha) score of building density jati pulo rw 009 849 5.79 146.62 medium jati pulo rw 008 606 4.28 141.60 medium jati pulo rw 006 600 4.40 136.44 medium kapuk rw 016 4645 42.17 110.13 low kalibaru rw 004 1273 11.63 109.42 low tanah tinggi rw 012 204 2.09 97.79 low kampung melayu rw 008 415 4.28 97.00 low kampung melayu rw 007 321 3.32 96.76 low kalibaru rw 007 1523 17.38 87.64 low kapuk rw 012 3475 41.13 84.48 low jembatan besi rw 003 677 10.14 66.76 low keagungan rw 003 185 4.11 45.10 low manggarai rw 004 305 11.21 27.20 low penjaringan rw 017 4607 181.97 25.32 low penjaringan rw 008 1904 103.25 18.44 low the building density score of rw could not yet indicate that the rw location was a heavy slum area, the scores were in between low and medium, referring to the indicator of the building density level with the highest level was 146.62 units/ha. considering these results, it was necessary to perform deeper observations upon smaller units of analysis to focus on certain areas within the rw boundaries which were considered slum based on building density and whether the neighborhood factors within the rw boundaries affect the location or not, which in the current study were applied using rt boundary maps which were fractions of rw boundary maps. the analysis was completed using cluster and outlier analysis. 3.2 cluster and outlier analysis during this analysis phase, six samples were taken of 15 rw’s in heavy slum which gained a total of more than 1,000 buildings. the six locations were kapuk rw 016 with 4,645 276 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 buildings, penjaringan rw 017 with 4,607 buildings, kapuk rw 012 with 3,475 buildings, penjaringan rw 008 with 1,904 buildings, kalibaru rw 007 with 1,523 buildings and kalibaru rw 004 with total 1,273 buildings. these six locations were also the largest rw area out of 15 rw’s within heavy slum areas. in addition, based on rt boundary maps analysis, the exact rw location was also presented with a spatial detail planning map that would be applied for further observation. 3.2.1 kapuk rw 016 in kapuk rw 16 area, 69.78% of the area was planned as a residential zone, 28.24% as a green open space or blue open space zone, and 1.98% as a social and government zone. the results of the analysis identified hh clusters from four rt areas with an average level of building density was 173.83 units/ha, which was identified into medium category, and this cluster occupied a residential zone and then grew in the green open space zone. ll cluster was also identified as a residential zone, but it had more old buildings. lh cluster was an area that covered the social and government zone and also green open space/blue open space zone near kali apuran bawah river. cluster and outlier analysis formulated map and spatial detail planning map for kapuk rw 16 that could be observed on figure 3. the cluster and outlier analysis result is presented on table 2. figure 3. (a) cluster and outlier analysis results map, (b) spatial detail planning map 277 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 table 2. cluster and outlier analysis results of kapuk rw 016 rt number area (ha) building density level lmi index z-score p-value co type neigh bors spatial lag 001 0.78890752 131.827873 0.001508562 0.387145471 0.364 2 -0.004701344 002 2.14651369 140.6932558 5.4235e-05 1.214925052 0.108 3 -0.018824558 003 1.00498735 172.14147 0.033296671 1.825571949 0.052 4 0.029592984 004 1.46244218 148.3819347 0.0123515 2.991055859 0.006 hh 2 0.045258697 005 2.46784838 103.7340875 0.02905614 1.566515726 0.038 ll 2 -0.021869871 006 2.14748691 114.5525026 0.030704491 2.340752554 0.004 ll 2 -0.032645604 007 3.00384643 90.88347439 0.015047986 1.104568131 0.178 1 -0.008408863 008 1.80339314 149.7177701 0.000924891 0.147887924 0.422 3 0.002882855 009 0.9364856 134.5455812 -0.0014358 -0.455550344 0.322 2 0.006427158 010 3.26639455 111.7440022 -0.007981297 -0.557024516 0.29 2 0.007664893 011 1.46873319 169.5338549 0.007327559 0.688213256 0.228 2 0.007102963 012 2.37001674 157.8047922 0.006688868 1.075411377 0.212 1 0.010949147 013 2.08209823 142.6445668 0.000792132 0.831162656 0.208 3 0.011803195 014 1.13174822 153.7444433 0.005909034 0.857355567 0.204 3 0.012700498 015 1.3356222 136.266079 -0.004879763 -1.900817882 0.036 lh 4 0.0301812 016 1.09323106 178.370343 0.043264785 2.293780083 0.016 hh 3 0.032081698 017 1.00928455 135.7397179 -0.000103513 -0.020345199 0.428 1 0.000573283 018 0.67348341 212.3289118 0.078562803 2.109136513 0.018 hh 5 0.030608937 019 3.03095282 116.7949555 0.004076958 0.672323026 0.28 1 -0.004740077 020 1.2031728 156.2535327 0.0244037 2.514767948 0.012 hh 4 0.043950037 021 1.2412121 123.2666035 0.00242926 0.42138908 0.36 3 -0.003868443 022 1.52970121 122.8998175 -0.003649544 -0.394841901 0.322 3 0.005692408 023 0.93869414 173.6454862 -0.003607513 -0.100977414 0.492 3 -0.003059541 024 2.377284 127.8770227 0.000913782 0.204525798 0.454 1 -0.001975342 025 1.64110897 113.947339 0.013429807 1.086381045 0.134 2 -0.013956718 3.2.2 penjaringan rw 017 in penjaringan rw 17 area, 43.74% of the area was designed as an industrial and trade zone, 32.28% as a commercial zone, 18.89% as green open space or blue open space zone, only 4.38% as a residential zone, and 0.71% as a social and government zone. hh cluster was an rt area with 100% in green open space or blue open space zone. this area had the densest population in jakarta. hl cluster was also location extension occupied by residents who arrived into risky zone location (green open space or blue open space zone). the lh and ll locations were industrial zones which the edges were occupied as residences by dwellers. cluster and outlier analysis results map and spatial detail planning map for penjaringan rw 17 are presented on figure 4. the map shows the impact of industrial zones and commercial zones towards slum areas. the cluster and outlier analysis results are shown on table 3. 278 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 figure 4. (a) cluster and outlier analysis results map, (b) spatial detail planning map table 3. cluster and outlier analysis results of penjaringan rw 017 rt number area (ha) building density level lmi index z-score p-value co type neigh bors spatial lag 001 24.6804102 39.78864177 -0.002616779 -1.670152585 0.064 9 0.010441781 002 4.824186568 33.99536848 -0.007855146 -2.531712022 0.01 lh 12 0.024575347 003 2.085333118 32.60869902 -0.011999175 -2.346268865 0.028 lh 16 0.035695071 004 2.049918123 9.756487235 -0.038284232 -3.577396182 0.004 lh 14 0.062921035 005 0.139748327 329.1631544 0.15481202 3.271550776 0.004 hh 17 0.048418412 006 2.118680853 34.45540177 -0.010985832 -2.55834858 0.012 lh 16 0.034969605 007 2.618886236 45.82100525 0.000703032 0.492226613 0.308 23 -0.003933508 008 3.253114738 49.18363258 -0.003363218 -1.995818093 0.04 lh 13 0.024254728 009 2.755275956 29.03520419 -0.019206518 -3.225429746 0.002 lh 13 0.050712012 010 2.875708737 30.25341157 -0.011723986 -2.070478514 0.034 lh 15 0.032189144 011 0.32690227 281.429676 0.053681346 1.780152457 0.052 13 0.020421872 012 0.220512094 276.628818 0.137826164 3.296947998 0.01 hh 17 0.053599316 013 5.350504813 27.47404313 -0.013279142 -2.509172762 0.01 lh 18 0.033420202 014 9.009023645 31.85694824 -0.005614526 -1.576171251 0.068 18 0.016268559 015 8.638203131 11.11342238 -0.003542517 -0.845140368 0.204 11 0.005981147 016 9.159645356 112.558943 0.007461217 1.86864637 0.044 hh 11 0.012103057 017 2.433667166 111.3545861 -0.004304425 -0.634164665 0.278 24 -0.007148742 018 1.288795694 119.4913986 -0.011370445 -1.033328876 0.128 22 -0.016264959 019 5.772279279 93.5505671 -0.011904918 -1.805523987 0.02 hl 15 -0.030526746 020 77.01502484 4.310847146 -2.69606e-05 -0.028552754 0.228 1 4.00404e-05 021 5.827540297 39.46776655 0.007115157 1.770287707 0.02 ll 14 -0.027965099 022 4.836226834 83.74297027 0.00018264 0.205037776 0.26 2 0.00066871 023 0.415659292 14.43489923 0.020400431 1.416291322 0.036 ll 15 -0.036910218 024 0.321622248 18.65542585 0.025864 1.876704738 0.012 ll 15 -0.051479327 025 0.201663089 4.958765662 0.035010541 1.442291566 0.024 ll 15 -0.052598772 026 0.233895101 38.47878805 0.015023239 1.734740977 0.014 ll 15 -0.056432968 027 0.524453793 22.88094807 0.019272681 1.230817008 0.068 15 -0.042632365 028 0.478334564 62.71760871 -0.00111759 -1.541090036 0.008 hl 16 -0.04945287 030 0.561350404 1.781418509 0.037086594 1.825113834 0.01 ll 15 -0.052719193 031 0.252174583 3.965506699 0.037865571 1.756201831 0.008 ll 16 -0.055894254 032 0.580194553 8.617798926 0.027070382 1.549926773 0.028 ll 16 -0.043520348 033 0.522154356 1.915142503 0.020374635 1.757167935 0.024 ll 18 -0.029028623 034 0.608065523 1.644559611 0.009971823 1.031768244 0.124 20 -0.014142324 279 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 3.2.3 kapuk rw 012 in kapuk rw 012 area, 58.81% of the area was planned as green open space or blue open space zone, 29.43% as a residential zone, and 11.77% as a commercial zone. the average level of building density in the hh cluster was 179.39 units/ha, which categorized into medium category, and this cluster occupied a residential zone and then grew into the green open space zone. for ll clusters, based on the results during observing aerial photo maps and building information maps, these locations were worked for commercial zones and burial grounds. cluster and outlier analysis results map and spatial detail planning map for kapuk rw 12 can be seen on figure 5. the cluster and outlier analysis results could be seen on table 4. figure 5. (a) cluster and outlier analysis results map, (b) spatial detail planning map table 4. cluster and outlier analysis results of kapuk rw 012 rt number area (ha) building density level lmi index z-score p-value co type neigh bors spatial lag 001 3.050279876 63.27288244 0.013005688 1.383595715 0.066 1 -0.01011694 002 1.602879138 68.62650926 0.020564999 1.855241209 0.036 ll 2 -0.017500441 003 3.423131314 79.4594116 0.001705587 0.20036579 0.428 2 -0.001792192 004 1.071603848 165.1729791 0.022594483 1.599814094 0.07 5 0.027681558 005 1.01385894 215.02005 0.091155771 2.95665696 0.002 hh 5 0.049424034 006 1.28523603 184.4019265 0.054167684 2.500547328 0.002 hh 3 0.044661859 007 1.605481942 176.8939236 0.047054637 2.996412639 0.002 hh 4 0.044475847 008 1.537244856 113.8400297 0.002126715 0.903418694 0.282 1 -0.00876811 009 1.589758677 164.8048875 0.017564833 1.522328007 0.078 3 0.021721542 010 1.328513767 188.932931 0.022516053 1.470343221 0.084 5 0.017236573 011 3.339938804 49.10269607 -0.009542732 -0.506884261 0.318 2 0.006048102 012 1.23188494 141.2469577 0.010045428 2.041435921 0.016 hh 4 0.031125746 013 2.237282831 120.2351336 -0.001570291 -0.799388461 0.21 3 0.01419185 014 1.932980531 68.80565937 -0.004851992 -0.415373767 0.394 1 0.004141982 015 2.334479253 87.81401667 0.010465548 1.213058723 0.132 2 -0.013428443 016 2.381764559 141.9115919 0.000943805 0.31907043 0.376 3 0.002805225 017 3.58094228 91.87525916 0.003578863 0.797924913 0.35 1 -0.00514507 018 1.573707442 156.9542047 0.012007035 1.57992754 0.082 3 0.018566322 019 1.682986199 84.96801702 0.007066262 0.670539879 0.282 3 -0.008431714 020 0.873744495 151.0739132 0.005892325 0.880595533 0.23 2 0.011214395 021 0.841537554 147.3493362 -0.005376213 -0.792084643 0.242 2 -0.011984346 022 1.528143157 101.4302877 0.006741018 1.591998624 0.052 1 -0.013522301 280 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 3.2.4 penjaringan rw 008 in penjaringan rw 08 area, 46.96% of the area was planned as a commercial zone, 28.99% as industrial and trade zone, only 11.16% as a residential zone, 8.06% as a social and government zone and 4.83% as green open space or blue open space zone. the average level of building density in the hh cluster was 241.88 units/ha, which categorized into high category. the area of hh cluster was an average of 81% in the residential zone, all rt’s outside this cluster were located within commercial zones and industrial zones. the lh cluster and ll cluster were put in locations that designated as industrial and trade zones, despite people settled in the area. cluster and outlier analysis results map and spatial detail planning map for penjaringan rw 008 is presented on figure 6. the map reveals the impact of industrial zones and commercial zones towards slum areas. the cluster and outlier analysis results can be seen on table 5. figure 6. (a) cluster and outlier analysis results map, (b) spatial detail planning map table 5. cluster and outlier analysis results penjaringan rw 008 rt number area (ha) building density level lmi index z-score p-value co type neigh bors spatial lag 001 0.495802821 244.0486317 0.035181464 1.977457897 0.026 hh 18 0.035410012 002 0.452813873 147.9636645 0.00340027 1.85192352 0.03 hh 18 0.030411088 003 1.487034681 70.61032358 -0.012887621 -1.426214046 0.082 19 0.021550046 004 0.739700924 178.4505004 0.024978276 2.593193752 0.008 hh 18 0.063789024 005 0.709476909 207.1949038 0.04808212 3.239845847 0.002 hh 19 0.073368285 006 2.299074609 80.90211568 -0.012279053 -1.774914495 0.028 lh 20 0.024383117 007 0.271360063 361.1437843 0.140781393 3.33463788 0.002 hh 21 0.068073355 008 0.539745467 155.6289123 0.012273384 3.848469814 0.002 hh 21 0.067380165 009 1.217307666 76.39810595 -0.007389487 -0.797000292 0.198 21 0.013560685 010 0.309755994 229.2126752 0.060621196 3.725490858 0.002 hh 20 0.070703378 011 0.354582012 304.5839785 0.024249285 1.997014978 0.024 hh 21 0.015654237 012 1.854919545 79.78782714 0.003178869 0.481377685 0.356 21 -0.006186812 013 1.367295966 62.1664966 -0.008427159 -0.380773793 0.382 21 0.012475107 014 1.498585816 31.36290194 0.010542954 0.963948072 0.18 21 -0.011002978 015 4.008211452 10.22900126 0.010665893 1.157341626 0.15 21 -0.009257553 016 3.667775876 30.26357219 0.01191103 1.775755486 0.04 ll 14 -0.012301236 017 0.713209099 210.3170026 0.043696009 3.241898475 0.002 hh 21 0.063882751 018 0.437556513 196.5460404 0.0181026 2.454770154 0.008 hh 21 0.032463326 019 1.109129785 102.7832825 -0.009126339 -1.847478581 0.032 lh 19 0.030140513 020 0.374971588 306.689903 0.127608409 3.619860606 0.002 hh 21 0.081363146 021 20.2275822 5.635868828 0.005646748 1.414963492 0.078 18 -0.004728168 022 55.5765592 7.233265352 0.002338318 1.161014202 0.132 1 -0.001982265 023 3.533284563 23.77391306 0.009257242 1.434316635 0.072 15 -0.009006569 281 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 3.2.5 kalibaru rw 007 in kalibaru rw 007 area, 89.25% of the area was plotted as an industrial and trade zone and 10.75% as green open space or blue open space zone. the average level of building density in the hh cluster was153.05 units/ha, which categorized into medium category. within this rw, there was no area had spatial detail planning for residential zones. the hh cluster was100% in the industrial zone.cluster and outlier analysis results map and spatial detail planning map for kalibaru rw 007is presented on figure 7. this map reveals the impact of industrial upon slum areas. the cluster and outlier analysis results is shown on table 6. figure 7. (a) cluster and outlier analysis results map, (b) spatial detail planning map table 6. cluster and outlier analysis results kalibaru rw 007 rt number area (ha) building density level lmi index z-score p-value co type neigh bors spatial lag 001 1.737144174 99.58874027 0.00458499 0.509644235 0.284 1 -0.005055485 002 1.055307687 124.1344127 -0.002695798 -0.291010523 0.404 3 0.005994252 003 0.84579522 169.0716579 -0.005497731 -0.688305876 0.246 4 -0.014195057 004 0.576624363 201.1708272 0.01444728 0.940784057 0.18 5 0.014664336 005 1.211330157 152.7246712 0.002984804 1.931780157 0.022 hh 3 0.036044119 006 0.549578745 151.0247634 0.003037311 2.086063318 0.006 hh 4 0.059384902 007 0.585524499 239.1018655 0.014094885 0.76339319 0.254 5 0.00833166 008 0.672974678 130.7627208 -0.00464367 -0.651168343 0.27 3 0.014232711 009 0.46403552 185.3306404 0.01278412 1.010676774 0.152 4 0.018523708 010 1.875343705 75.71945323 0.009775126 1.00673682 0.196 1 -0.007232595 011 2.86229691 106.2084087 -0.01056085 -0.666811523 0.292 3 0.013476807 012 0.559880211 155.3903823 0.005647758 1.991396856 0.03 hh 6 0.042636513 013 0.934507631 168.0029084 -0.001303836 -0.067590477 0.474 2 -0.003548897 014 0.761461633 215.3752638 0.017805913 0.983593321 0.18 3 0.014247248 015 2.708752569 50.57678637 -0.00776916 -0.32882532 0.296 1 0.004269095 282 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 3.2.6 kalibaru rw 004 in kalibaru rw 04 area, 72.25% of the area was expected to be green open space or blue open space zone and 27.75% as industrial and trade zone. the average level of building density in the hh cluster was 299.13 units/ha, that turned to be high category. furthermore, the highest indicator was 250 units/ha. within this rw, there was noarea had spatial detail planningfor residential zones. the hh cluster was 100% of the industrial zone. ll cluster was performed for fish auction, thusthe building was better organized and less dense compared to residential area, although this area was expected as a blue open space zone. cluster and outlier analysis results map and spatial detail planning map for kalibaru rw 004 is presented on figure 8. this map illustrates the impact of industrial towards slum areas. the cluster and outlier analysis resultscould be observed on table 7. figure 8. (a) cluster and outlier analysis results map, (b) spatial detail planning map table 7. cluster and outlier analysis results of kalibaru rw 004 rt number area (ha) building density level lmi index z-score p-value co type neigh bors spatial lag 001 0.436869348 235.7684293 0.024902118 2.239643163 0.01 hh 3 0.094305378 002 0.456607682 310.9890737 0.116878753 2.089503004 0.022 hh 4 0.101034507 003 0.350335746 353.946183 0.137817159 2.206303646 0.018 hh 6 0.082690636 004 0.283954308 295.8222424 0.085300183 2.104603301 0.026 hh 6 0.087325124 005 1.054127606 126.170683 -0.023863091 -1.126039608 0.166 3 0.02301808 006 0.723276474 193.5636027 -0.005356458 -0.867204751 0.194 5 0.022615129 007 0.839642029 152.445918 -0.02602809 -0.640549153 0.284 3 0.03590769 008 0.351977421 230.1283976 -0.000381847 -0.014604488 0.486 4 -0.001937138 009 0.388837959 329.1859679 -0.031896561 -0.417994391 0.388 4 -0.023234821 010 1.170541928 175.9868613 -0.007655461 -0.677320645 0.26 4 0.017185376 011 0.896925791 177.2721909 -0.01288667 -1.556943245 0.068 6 0.029954463 012 2.353795432 124.9046523 0.003343953 0.548240084 0.464 1 -0.003179458 013 0.986840146 179.3603561 0.009617887 1.843403771 0.01 ll 2 -0.023722966 014 1.339964566 103.7340864 0.006273934 0.562931197 0.466 1 -0.004814987 283 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 3.3 socio-economic condition observation a brief observation of the socio-economic factors was conducted and decided that 6 rw locations were selected based on the dasawisma census of family welfare empowerment 2019 results. the observation was comparing the categories of analysis clusters and outliers which are presented on table 8. considering the socio-economic conditions observation of six rw’s based on analysis results of clustering and outlier, education and income factors did not significantly affect the building density in the area. however, for family factors that were active in community environmental activities, two regions have hh were categorized with percentages much lower than other categories (ll, lh, and hl) namely kapuk rw 016 and kalibaru rw 004. table 8. socio-economic conditions for 6 (six) slum areas location/ cluster outlier % of average education is % of average families active % of average revenue category elementary school in the community 0-5 million/month kapuk rw 016 hh 0.243635 0.532892 0.967116 lh 0.229358 0.908257 0.844037 ll 0.182019 0.730123 0.938806 not significant 0.225758 0.659241 0.940755 penjaringan rw 017 hh 0.547804 0.976744 0.281654 hl 0.134615 0.990385 0.298077 lh 0.476021 0.919210 0.249729 ll 0.121622 1.000000 0.216216 not significant 0.222666 0.412545 0.959620 kapuk rw 012 hh 0.166345 0.305419 0.982918 ll not significant 0.163368 0.391151 0.926129 penjaringan rw 008 hh 0.181128 0.416882 0.938323 lh 0.150148 0.476811 0.987539 ll not significant 0.135797 0.215532 1.000000 kalibaru rw 007 hh 0.300550 0.331892 0.912108 not significant 0.385699 0.234935 0.986591 kalibaru rw 004 hh 0.314215 0.277953 0.966667 ll 0.426230 0.721311 0.967213 not significant 0.302216 0.428198 0.964598 source: dasawisma census 2019 dataset, jakarta family welfare empowerment team the current study discussed the analysis results of the 6 rw’s heavy slum category with two rws located exactly alongside the coastal. the analysis was performed to reveal the fact 284 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 that slums did not cover the entire rw area by analyzing patterns of distribution of building densities to smaller areas, that were areas based on rt administrative boundaries. the results show that slum locations had direct neighbors to areas were designated as industrial zones and warehousing areas as well as office, trade and service zones, obtained a higher level of building density compared to slum locations that had neighbors to areas that were designated as housing zones according to jakarta spatial detail planning. these results are in accordance with (roy & lees, 2020) which revealed attractive economic opportunities would likely attract residents of slums. in addition, (takyi et al., 2020) stated where all slum areas in their analysis were located around the central business district. the result is also in line with (badmos et al., 2020) that discovered a factor influenced the choice of residence for slum was markets adjacency. zain et al., (2018) in his research indicated that engaging space for the development of the trade and services area had an impact on the growth of slums. the expansion of an area or space interm of developing trade and services is proportional to the growth of slums which could also escalate regional microeconomic growth, where slum dwellers operate small-scale businesses (zain et al., 2018). slums are growing near strategic areas including business centers, trade, markets, or industries (badmos et al., 2020; prianto & amalia, 2019; zain et al., 2018). slums also contribute to the development of a nearby business district, since this sector could provide man power to support the operations of the business district (ray, 2017), and most of the dwellers make living close the slum (saika & matsuyuki, 2017). this condition could be observed clearly, where within slums there is a great human potential to support a region's sustainable development policy by involving local communities and civil society (elrayies, 2016). the results also show that slum areas are not a concentrated population with low income and/or low education. these results are supported by (roy et al., 2018) and (uddin, 2018) where income levels vary among residents in slums. there are land owners and land tenants upon socio-economic system that have been established for a long time in slums, and the arrival of poor individuals who stepped in into this circle has no impact towards overall environment (duah & bugri, 2016; nakamura, 2016). the impression of poverty attached to slums is a result of building density, while slums located in the downtown perform good economic opportunities (bird et al., 2017). this study is considered essential to investigate the priority location of slum improvement management, hence it was right on target. studies based on spatial analysis of physical indicators of building density would complement previous studies conducted based on population censuses, as those studies were able to reduce bias data, where population data were not equivalent to location of residence. 285 tenty melvianti legarias et al / geosi vol 5 no 2 (2020) 268-287 4. conclusion applying cluster and outlier modeling of building density levels of urban slums in jakarta based on rt boundary level revealed more specific slum locations and identified factors that influencing differences of building density levels. slum locations that had direct neighbors to areas designated at jakarta spatial detail planning as industrial zones and warehousing areas as well as office, trade and service zones, possed a higher level of building density compared to slum locations that had neighbors to areas that were designated as housing zones. this current study showed the level of income and education in each rt area did not significantly providing influence upon slum area. further studies could be applied by analyzing the level of building density in all areas of jakarta combined with other variables to obtain more specific slum distribution clusters. this study suggests that dki jakarta provincial government could determine the more appropriate solution based on the characteristics of each slum area in dealing with slum improvement in jakarta. conflict of interests the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgment authors would like to appreciate dki jakarta provincial government for their data support and maps during the study. references adedayo, a., & malik, n. 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(2018). model of slum area management based on socio spatial approach. the case of baubau city, indonesia. journal of settlements and spatial planning, 9(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.24193/jssp.2018.2.03. 157 research article potential utilization analysis of river waste in jakarta, indonesia rahajeng hasna safira1, mega mutiara sari1,* , suprihanto notodarmojo 1, takanobu inoue2, regil kentaurus harryes3 1department of environmental engineering, universitas pertamina, jakarta, 12220, indonesia 2department of architecture and civil engineering, toyohashi university of technology,toyohashi, 441-8580, japan 3 department of aquatic product technology, faculty of vocational, universitas pertahanan indonesia, bogor, 16810, indonesia received 16 february 2021/revised 12 july 2021/accepted 25 july 2021/published 17 august 2021 abstract there are still many people in jakarta who throw their garbage into the river, resulting jakarta city never being absent from the problems of river water pollution and flooding. pesanggrahan river and grogol river are some of the big river surrounded by high popullation area. all waste originating from the pesanggrahan river and the grogol river is dumped into the bantar gebang landfill. this study aimed to reduce waste entering landfills are by making use of waste that still has economic value.the method used in decision making from various alternatives of the river waste utilization are utility theory and compromise programming. it takes planning to find out the composition and generation of solid waste from those rivers and to determine the potential use of river waste and the action to minimize and handle the river waste. utilization of river waste that can be applied based on the composition of most waste is open windrow composting and plastic shredding. it is important to concern about river waste since indonesia has various polluted river, especially by solid waste. by implementing a good river waste utilization, the waste that enters the landfill will be reduced and in line with reduced pollution to the aquatic environment. keywords: solid waste; water; generation; composition; utilization 1. introduction as the human population increases, the amount of solid waste produced will also increase. the population density on the riverbanks will indirectly increase the generation of waste disposed into the river and the load of river pollutants (arsyandi, 2019). many people have an understanding that throwing solid waste into the river can solve their waste problem because the water flow will take their waste away (yusfi & damanhuri, 2012). the discharge of solid waste can be transported through various pathways, including dumpsites, lack of goodwaste management, stream flow, tourist littering behavior, and marine activities such as fishing, aquaculture, shipping and dumping (gesamp, 2016). *corresponding author. email address : mega.tiarasari1986@gmail.com (mega mutiara sari) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 157-172 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2.23297 *corresponding author. email address : mega.tiarasari1986@gmail.com (mega mutiara sari) mailto:mega.tiarasari1986@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1736-687x mailto:mega.tiarasari1986@gmail.com 158 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 the jakarta environmental office noted that there were around 150-250 kg/day waste generationfor one river under normal conditions (upk badan air, 2019). meanwhile, jakarta itself is passed by approximately 19 large rivers that flow from downstream to the coast of jakarta.almost all the solid waste from jakarta rivers disposed of at the bantar gebang landfill along with the land waste. river waste contributed 1232.02 m3 (upk badan air, 2019) out of a total of 7702.07 tons of waste that goes to bantar gebang landfill every day (dlh dki jakarta, 2020). as a result, the waste from the river will increase the amount of waste generated in the bantar gebang landfill. this should be our concern because the service life of bantar gebang landfill is no more than 5 years left. if the waste in the river is left without proper management, it will flow into the estuary and can be carried to the sea. this can lead to a bigger problem namely marine pollution. lack of good waste management in coastal countries has contributed 1.7% 4.6% of plastic waste to the sea (jambeck, 2015). the presence of marine debris not only affects the aesthetic value of the environment, but also has the potential to disrupt maritime activities such as aquaculture and fisheries (unep, 2014) and posing a threat to marine wildlife and human health (purba et al., 2019). in addition, waste disposal along water bodies can inhibits river flow which can result in flooding (karuniastuti, 2014). waste management law (2008) prioritize waste minimization from the source, utilization of waste that is still useful, and minimizing waste entering the landfill. this has prompted the need for further waste management regarding the waste generation generated in the areas along the pesanggrahan river and the grogol river from various activities along the river flow. the pesanggrahan river and the grogol river are rivers that pass through the west jakarta area. west jakarta itself is the area with the highest population density in dki jakarta province with a total of 18,996 people / km2 in 2015 and has a population projection for 2019 of 2,482,800 people (bps, 2015). one of the causes of the high level of pollution in the pesanggrahan river is the result of the decomposition of solid waste entering the river (noerfitriyani, 2018). in addition, the grogol river is one of the rivers that is of concern to the world bank group in its study because the grogol river is one of the rivers that contributes quite a lot of garbage to the sea (world bank group, 2018). in carrying out the river waste utilization, facilities and operational techniques for river waste management are needed that can support the utilization process properly. there is previous research that discusses the design of waste container for riverbanks as an effort to reduce waste dumped into the river. some researchers focused on domestic waste from household that has a high probability of dumping its garbage into the river. there are some studies that are limited by the location of waste sampling and only use waste characteristic https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2019.00208/full#b27 159 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 data as the basis for selecting the processing methods. therefore, this research intends to carry out direct measurements of the waste in the river and to assess objectively and subjectively in the choice of waste processing methods.from this planning, it is hoped that it can reduce waste entering the bantar gebang landfill and reduce the negative impact by handling waste from its source on a community-based basis around the river. 2. methods the method used in measuring waste generation and density was direct measurement which refers to sni 19-3694-1994 on the method of collecting and measuring samples of municipal solid waste generation and composition and was equipped with load count analysis. measurement of generation using the load count analysis method is to measure the amount (weight or volume) of waste entering the transfer station (damanhuri & padmi, 2016). determination of alternative solutions is done by using the multi-objective decision making (modm) method with utility theory and compromise programming.utility theory and compromise programming function to determine parameters based on the best and worst values. the best result is the alternative which has the best parameter with the highest value. in determining the best processing alternative, an assessment is carried out based on parameters that affect the processing process in terms of labor, finance, and the quality of the processing results. each alternative will have different preferences and ratings for each parameter. the assessment for each parameter was obtained from the calculation results and also from literature studies. verbal assessment in this method needs to transform the objective function value into a degree of non-dimensional objective performance on a scale (eg, 0-1). the weighting of this method is made according to the relative importance of the objectives. after doing it non-dimensionally, the next step is to calculate the total utility value. the highest utility value is the best result (fishburn, 1970). river debris or riverwastecould be a strong material that is troublesome to break down, manufactured, or handled which is dumped, arranged of, or cleared out within the marine and coastal environment. riverwaste consists of things made or utilized by people and intentionally dumped into the ocean or waterways, or cleared out lying on the shoreline or coast; washed by implication to the ocean by waterways, channels, runoff or wind; or incidentally misplaced, counting things misplaced at ocean (world bank group, 2018). primary data collection in the form of waste generation and waste composition was carried out in november 2019 in the pesanggrahan river and december 2019 in the grogol river. based on data from the indonesian meteorological and climatological agency, the 160 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 beginning of the rainy season in western indonesia occurs around october to december and peaks in january and february. waste samples taken are garbage collected in floating cube for 24 hours and are taken in the morning in the range of 08.00-10.00 am before the waste transported to a special transfer station for river waste. sampling of river waste was carried out once for each location of the floating cube which refers to the world bank group study about indonesia's marine garbage hot spot. floating cube is a device used to hold waste carried away by rivers. hence, there will be a lot of solid waste trapped on the floating cube. there are 5 sampling locations on the pesanggrahan river and 1 sampling location on the grogol river were carried out on the part of the river that has a floa ting cube as shown in figures 1 and 2. source: (esri, 2016; google, 2020) figure 1. sampling point for grogol river waste source: (esri, 2016; google, 2020) figure 2. sampling point for pesanggrahan river waste sampling location: 1. jl. anggrek neli xi, kemanggisan,palmerah sampling location: 1. jl. cempakapondok pinang, kebayoran lama 2. jl. deplu raya, pondok pinang, kebayoran lama 3. tanah kusir veteran cemetery 4. jl. inspeksi, pesanggrahan 5. jl. persatuan, grogol selatan 161 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 3. results and discussion 3.1 waste generation river waste generation data were collected at locations in the pesanggrahan river and one location at the grogol river. the location division is based on the location of the insulating cube or floating cube that has been used by the upk badan air to filter waste in the river. upk badan air is the party responsible for cleaning up the aquatic environment in the jakarta area. the results of the measurement of waste generation in both rivers are shown in units of weight and volume. the average of waste generation from 5 locations on the pesanggrahan river was 50.77 kg/day with a maximum waste generation of 271.40 kg/day, while the average of waste generation at the study location on the grogol river was 34.64 kg/day with the maximum generation can reach 188.82 kg/day. the largest volume of waste generation occurred in the pesanggrahan river is 12 m3/day. whereas the smallest volume occurs in the grogol river at 0.1 m3/day. both rivers have an average generation volume of 2.45 m3/day. an increase in the volume of waste in rivers can be caused by increasing river water levels due to rain or flooding. in addition, the high volume of waste can be caused by the presence of garbage with a very large size so that the size of the waste volume will also increasing. from the measurement results of waste generation and analysis of secondary data on waste generation for one month, the highest waste generation always occurs on saturdays and sundays, while the lowest for waste generation occurs on wednesdays. this is because many people spend their time at home on weekend so that activities in the house will increase as well as the amount of waste generated. figure 3 and figure 4 show the lowest, average, and highest waste generation from each location during the study period. figure 3. waste generation in kg/day 71 113 44 67 28 35 42 20 11 10 8 4 122 271 140 230 63 189 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 sepolwan deplu blok khusus makam utama cidodol grogol k g /d a y location 162 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 figure 4. waste generation in m3/day 3.2 waste composition the categories of waste in this study are divided into food, wood, twig, and garden waste, paper and cardboard, textiles, rubber and leather, plastic, metal, glass, and others or inert. the waste categories with the highest percentage in the pesanggrahan and grogol rivers are plastic and wood or twig waste. this is because there are still many people who still use single-use plastic as their own trash wrapper. in addition, around pesanggrahan and grogol rivers, there are a lot of slums area less than 50 meters from the riverbank. the large amount of plastic waste found in rivers proves that indonesia is the country with the second highest plastic use in the world (jambeck, 2015). plastics that are often found are categorized into various types such as plastic bags, pet bottles, straws, plastic product packaging, and various other types of plastic. the second highest composition of waste is wood and garden waste. there are still many riverbanks in jakarta that have not been founded properly so the water bodies directly intersect with the land along the river flow. this made it easier for many plants on the riverbank to fall and eventually get carried away by the river currents until they got stuck in the floating cube. table 1 shows the average percentage composition of river waste in pesanggrahan river and grogol river. understanding the role of the source and composition of the waste will be important for designing an effective mitigation strategy (purba et al., 2019). 3 2 4 2 2 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 5 9 12 8 5 9 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 sepolwan deplu blok khusus makam utama cidodol grogol m 3 /d a y location 163 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 table 1. the average percentage composition of river waste waste category percentage (%) plastic 43.54 food waste 1.00 wood, twig, garden waste 43.90 paper 1.45 metal 1.19 cloth and textiles 2.91 rubber and leather 2.93 glass 1.28 others 1.81 total 100 the high category of wood and twig waste or biodegradable waste of 43.90% could be a potential for waste processing through household scale composting activities. another dominant waste category is plastic at 43.54%. the large amount of plastic waste found in rivers proves that indonesia is a country with the second highest plastic use in the world (jambeck, 2015). research by purba et al. (2019) on several beaches and bays in indonesia showing that the type of waste that is most commonly found is plastic from micro to macro sizes. table 2 shows the comparison of the composition of marine waste or waste generating from river in other countries. the percentage composition of plastic waste and organic waste in indonesian waters is higher than malaysia and india. however, in 2019 indonesia showed an effort to understand more aspects of the problem of marine plastic waste compared to other southeast asian countries (lyons, su, & neo, 2019). table 2. comparison of the composition of marine waste or waste generating from river in other countries waste category indonesia (%) malaysia (%) india (%) plastic 44 43 41 food waste 1 1 0 wood, twig, garden waste 44 0 8 paper 1 48 0 metal 1 1 10 cloth and textiles 3 0 18 rubber and leather 3 0 9 glass 1 0 8 others 2 7 7 total 100 100 100 source: (khairunnisa et al., 2012) & (selvam et al., 2020). 164 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 processing plastic waste can be done by recycling or reusing waste with the 3r concept such as a waste bank. with the management and processing of waste in the community, it is hoped that it can reduce the amount of waste generation that enters the river and bantar gebang landfill. in addition, waste management and processing in the community can also increase the income of the people around the riverbank. 3.3 waste utilization the purpose of waste utilization is to reduce the volume of waste and the pollutant power of waste in the environment. the application of waste utilization activities can bring benefits that are both direct (tangible) and indirect (intangible). tangible benefits can be in the form of income from recycled materials or the sale of compost products and the use of compost liquid residues from processing as fertilizer. meanwhile, benefits that cannot be valued by money (intangible) include reducing the degree of pollution and preserving water resources as well as social benefits in the form of decreasing the degree of conflict caused by waste pollution. by carrying out waste utilization, one of the targets of the 17 sustainable development goals can be realized, i.e. substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse (united nation escap, 2015).the process of utilizing waste generally requires engineering in forms such as grouping, purification, mixing, and processing to be able to obtain materials that are suitable for the function of these recycled materials (tchobanoglous & kreith, 2002). based on the measurement results of the composition of the waste that trapped in floating cube, it was found that the largest composition was wood and twig waste or biodegradable waste by 43.90% and plastic waste by 43.54%. therefore, processing for river waste will be focused on processing organic waste in the form of wood, twigs, and garden waste as well as inorganic waste in the form of plastic waste. one of the things that distinguishes river waste from land waste is the parameter of water content. the water content of river waste is in the range of 85%-95% for organic waste and 50% -70% for inorganic waste (yusfi & damanhuri, 2012). the highwater content in river waste is caused by wet environmental conditions. this condition will make it difficult for further processing, both composting and material recycling. therefore, a drying or heating process is needed before the waste is processed. 3.3.1 composting the purpose of composting is to convert biodegradable organic material into biologically stable material, thereby reducing its volume or mass. this natural process breaks down organic matter into humus and mineral matter. the composting process itself can be 165 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 done through an aerobic or anaerobic process. there are various methods that can be used to process organic waste in the form of wood, twigs, and garden waste. organic waste originating from rivers will have a high moisture content, so it is necessary to have a drying process prior to composting. the quality of the biodegradable waste and certain biological and physical parameters has a major influence on the quality of the compost and on the occurrence of operational problems with the composting facilit y.it is important to understand the physical, biological and chemical processes involved in the decomposition of biodegradable waste (united nation escap, 2012). although river organic waste has more diverse content and tends to be mixed, the end result of the composting process without proper sorting is not significantly different from the composting process with initial sorting and has good quality (sahwan, 2010).to determine what method is best applied for river waste processing, a decision is made using utility theory and compromise programing methods based on the feasibility category of a waste treatment. the assessment is carried out based on several criteria that are important to be achieved in composting activities. the components for each category of each alternative are obtained from the results of calculations and literature studies.following are the results of an assessment of 4 composting methods. table 3 shows the qualitative and quantitative assessment for each criteria. table 3. preference and assessment of composting methods for river organic waste criteria bricks stack open windrow drum composter takakura stack aesthetics organized unorganized quite organized quite organized land requirements 333 m2 91.3 m2 544.32 m2 1763.42 m2 ease of operation moderate easy hard hard ease of development hard moderate easy easy investment & operational prices (wahyono & sahwan, 2010) idr 75,386,421 idr 65,786,421 idr 667,265,921 idr 416,657,921 water content (ratna, 2017) 58.30% 35.24% 34.28% 60% c organic 12.33 11.15% 4.04% 29.29% n total 1.50% 0.55% 0.27% 1.92% c/n (ayumi, lutfi & nugroho, 2017) 15.33 20 15 15.22 phosphor 0.34% 0.22% 0.25% 0.12% potassium 1.93% 0.51% 0.06% 1.43% ph 6.9 7.4 7.4 7.4 166 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 table 4 shows the qualitative and quantitative assessment components converted to a number scale (1-3) with the largest number being the best and the smallest number being the worst. table 4. transforming verbal assessments into numbers and determining the best and worst scores for each preference criteria bricks stack open windrow drum composter takakura stack best worst aesthetics 3 1 2 2 3 1 land requirements 2 3 1 1 3 1 ease of operation 2 3 1 1 3 1 ease of development 1 2 3 2 3 1 investment & operational prices 3 3 1 2 3 1 water content 1 3 3 1 3 1 c organic 3 3 1 2 3 1 n total 3 2 1 3 3 1 c/n 3 1 2 3 3 1 phosphor 3 2 2 1 3 1 potassium 3 2 1 2 3 1 ph 2 3 3 3 3 2 table 5 shows the conversion of ratings on a 0-1 scale, the determination of the weighting, and the calculation of the weighting standard. in table 5 also shows the results of the calculation of utility theory for each alternative where the alternative with the highest utility theory value is the best to be chosen. table 5. conversion of ratings on a scale of 0-1 and utility theory ratings criteria bricks stack open windrow drum composter takakura stack weight weighting standards aesthetics 1 0 0.5 0.5 1 0.03 land requirements 0.5 1 0 0 3 0.10 ease of operation 0.5 1 0 0 2 0.06 ease of development 0 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.03 investment & operational prices 1 1 0 0.5 3 0.10 water content 0 1 1 0 3 0.10 c organic 1 1 0 0.5 3 0.10 n total 1 0.5 0 1 3 0.10 c/n 1 0 0.5 1 3 0.10 phosphor 1 0.5 0.5 0 3 0.10 potassium 1 0.5 0 0.5 3 0.10 ph 0 1 1 1 3 0.10 total 31 1 utility value 0.69 0.71 0.34 0.47 ranking 2 1 4 3 167 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 after obtaining the best alternative through the calculation of utility theory, then table 6 shows the calculation of the value of compromise programming by considering the compromise factor where the alternative with the highest value indicator is the best to be chosen. table 6. the assessment uses compromise programming theory compromise program c = 2 distance 0.27 0.21 0.60 0.44 indicator value 0.73 0.79 0.40 3.00 ranking 2 1 4 3 from the results of the assessment and weighting using the utility theory and compromise programming methods, it was found that the alternative with the highest ranking was the open windrow by using bamboo aerators. this indicates that bamboo aerators are a better alternative for processing river organic waste. by analyzing the economic benefits for bamboo aerators, it is found that the annual operational costs are idr 34,492,624 and annual sales of idr 42,705,000. from the estimation of these two costs, an estimate of the economic benefit that can be valued by money (tangible) from the bamboo aerator is idr 8,212,375. meanwhile, the indirect (intangible) benefits that can be obtained are increased soil fertility, increased soil nutrients, reduced soil contamination by garbage, and other benefits. 3.3.2 plastic recycling in this study, it was found that the type of inorganic waste that is mostly found in rivers is plastic waste. conventional plastics are not biodegradable and can survive in the environment for hundreds of years, but due to hydrodynamics and exposure to light, plastics can fragment into tiny particles that are harmful to aquatic organisms as well as humans (galgani et al., 2019).as a consequence of the accumulation and fragmentation of plastic in the oceans, there will be an increased ecotoxicological risk (hermabessiere et al., 2017).that is why plastic waste utilization is needed to prevent plastic fragmentation from occurring in the water environment. plastic recycling is a series of processes carried out to make plastic waste into secondary materials to be used as raw materials for new products (tarverdi, 2010).the processing of plastic waste itself can be done by chopping the plastic to a small size and then packing and selling it to collectors or industry. besides that, you can also melt the plastic waste and print it in the form of plastic pellets / pellets as the base material for new products. the plastic collected can be in the form of plastic household utensils, product packaging, plastic bags, and various other types of plastic. plastic waste originating from rivers will tend to be dirtier due to silt and plastic in wet conditions, so it is necessary to consider drying and cleaning efforts before plastic waste can be processed.to determine what 168 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 method is best applied for river waste processing, a decision is made using utility theory and compromise programing methods based on the feasibility category of a waste treatment. the assessment is carried out based on several criteria that are important to be achieved in plastic recycling activities. the components for each category of each alternative are obtained from the results of calculations and literature studies.following are the results of the assessment of 2 methods of plastic recycling. table 7 shows the qualitative and quantitative assessment for each criteria. table 7. preference and assessment of river plastic waste processing criteria plastic shredding melting and forming of plastic pellets workload low moderate investment & operational prices idr 83,022,857 idr 260,484,668 ease of operation easy hard ability to reduce waste 100% 74.72% sales per year idr 79,068,246 idr 84,339,616 table 8 shows the qualitative and quantitative assessment components converted to a number scale (1-3) with the largest number being the best and the smallest number being the worst. table 8. transforming verbal assessments into numbers and determining the best and worst scores for each preference criteria plastic shredding melting and forming of plastic pellets best worst workload 2 3 3 2 investment & operational prices idr 83,022,857.85 idr 260,484,668.33 idr 83,022,857.85 idr 260,484,668.33 ease of operation 3 1 3 1 ability to reduce waste 100% 74.72% 100% 74.72% sales per year idr 79,068,246.00 idr 84,339,616.00 idr 79,068,246.00 idr 84,339,616.00 table 9 shows the conversion of ratings on a 0-1 scale, the determination of the weighting, and the calculation of the weighting standard. in table 5 also shows the results of the calculation of utility theory for each alternative where the alternative with the highest utility theory value is the best to be chosen. 169 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 table 9. conversion of ratings on a scale of 0-1 and utility theory ratings criteria plastic shredding melting and forming of plastic pellets weight weighting standards workload 0 1 2 0.15 investment & operational prices 1 0 3 0.23 ease of operation 1 0 3 0.23 ability to reduce waste 1 0 2 0.15 sales per year 0 1 3 0.23 total 13 1 utility value 0.615 0.385 ranking 1 2 after obtaining the best alternative through the calculation of utility theory, then table 10 shows the calculation of the value of compromise programming by considering the compromise factor where the alternative with the highest value indicator is the best to be chosen. table 10. the assessment uses compromise programming theory compromise program c = 2 distance 0.385 0.615 indicator value 0.615 0.385 ranking 1 2 from the results of the assessment and weighting using the utility theory and compromise programming methods, it is found that the alternative with the highest ranking is plastic shredding. this indicates that shredding is a better alternative to be applied to river plastic waste processing. by analyzing the economic benefits for shredding, it is found that the annual operational costs are idr 41,311,830 and annual sales of idr 79,068,246. from the estimation of the two costs, the estimated tangible economic benefit from shredding is idr 37,756,415. meanwhile, the benefits that cannot be valued by money (intangible) include reducing the degree of pollution, preserving water resources from plastic waste, and reducing plastic waste entering the sea. the social benefits that can be obtained are as a reference for the community in forming a habit of processing plastic waste. waste processing by composting and plastic shredding will be carried out in the vicinity of the waste source, which in this case is a floating cube. another alternative that can be used is to utilize public open spaces where partners between the local government and the community occur. one of the public open spaces that is widely available around the study site 170 rahajeng hasna safira et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 157-172 and which can be utilized is the child friendly open public space. by processing waste in public open spaces, educational efforts regarding waste management both materially and practically can be conveyed properly to the public. 4. conclusion all the garbage originating from the pesanggrahan river and grogrol river has entered the bantar gebang landfill. whereas, there are several types of river waste that still have economic value. by making waste utilization efforts, pollution in the aquatic environment can be reduced, especially microplastic pollution. river waste utilization can be a unique thing where so far, most of the waste utilization activities use waste from household or land. in addition, this effort can also be a good example for the public and can help maintain the sustainability of the circular economy.the next idea of the study required studies on the community to determine the level of knowledge and willingness of the community in utilizing river waste and further study by carrying out projections of river solid waste data to determine the service period. the future work that needs to be done is to improve river waste management by working with waste banks as a place to sort and process waste originating from rivers. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank the japan society for the promotion science and indonesia directorate general of research, technology and higher education (jsps/dgrsthe), a bilateral joint research projects 2019-2022 between universitas pertamina and toyohashi university of technology which has become a forum and facilitator in the implementation of this research. special thanks also extended to upk badan air who has given the permission to take samples in their working area. references arsyandi, m. y. 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discussion 3.1 waste generation 3.2 waste composition 3.3 waste utilization 3.3.1 composting 3.3.2 plastic recycling 4. conclusion research article rethinking urbanization: a transit-information-communication –technology-oriented development path for the developing countries and post-industrial towns schuman lam*, heng li , ann t.w. yu department of building and real estate, the hong kong polytechnic university, block z, hung hom, kowloon, hong kong received 24 november 2020/revised 21 march 2021/accepted 28 march 2021/published 25 april 2021 abstract this study explores a new path of urbanization to enhance the conventional economy-led urban development practice by conducting an urban quality of life (uqol) survey. it analyzes the uqol evaluation gap caused by demographic attributes between developing countries, developed countries, and post-industrial town. we adopted a mixed-methods research design, including a literature review and an uqol survey, to suggest the transit-oriented-development (tod) and information-communication-technology (ict) based urban-rural development concept. the finding indicates a disparity of uqol mean score rankings among the developing countries, developed countries, and the marginalized post-industrial town. it highlights the health, transportation, socio-economic, and technological development in the developing countries strongly desired. furthermore, kruskal-wallis h-test and mann-whitney u-test results show significant differences in economy, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle within education, profession, age, and country groups. it clarifies that the well-being gap is shaped by demography and exhibited geographically, which implies tod-ict advancement can break down geographical barriers for achieving sustainable growth in remote areas. supported by the planetary urbanization theory, the human-technology-driven urban development process would facilitate the maturity and implementation of the proposed todict-based urban-ruralism (uxr) concept for enhancing the future global urbanization process. keywords : human and social geography; information-communication-technology; urban policymaking; transit-oriented-development; urban quality of life 1. introduction nowadays, pressing global urban issues caused by overdevelopment appeals to practical solutions. unsustainable urban development policy driven by industrialization and adopted by the developed countries has been proved to be the due cause (club of rome, 2018). economy-led industrialization and urbanization have been reshaping our urban landscape in both the developed and the developing countries of the world (unicef, 2020) geosfera indonesia *corresponding author. email address : 14900559r@connect.polyu.hk (schuman lam) 1 vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021, 1-19 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i1.20810 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3187-9041 mailto:14900559r@connect.polyu.hk 2 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 with an impressive record of economic growth while causing damage to other aspects of urban quality of life (uqol) and the ecological environment (dong et al., 2016). regarding the urban problems left from industrialization we are all facing, world leaders and policymakers must rethink their urban development roadmap to improve their citizens' livelihoods while preserving enough resources to accommodate the next generations' needs. in developing countries, where most of their bare landscapes are yet for development, the kind of sustainable development path adopted by the developing countries in asia and africa is extremely critical to the fight against climate change and degradation of living quality. thus, the ways of life preferences of people from these regions become the primary study for policymakers and this study's vital task. climate change and a series of urban problems are the adversaries and predicament affecting people's well-being. for a long time, every government has tried to tackle the problems by designing and implementing the needed urban policies. unfortunately, their effort has not been paid off because the rhetoric approach lacks flexibility and operability. although the general definition of uqol would be pure rhetoric to understand, its implication on government policies considering individual needs must be evaluated and communicated among the stakeholders effectively because the uqol evaluation result can inform policymakers and planners the essential information to build and manage the city in a sustainable manner (marans, 2015). the relationship between quality of life evaluation, industrialization-urbanization, and sustainable urban development (sud) determines uqol survey location: developing countries, developed countries, and developed post-industrial mirafiori town. quality of life (qol) is a critical topic in urban development due to its function in monitoring public policies as a useful tool (rezvani et al., 2013). however, its multi-faceted and quite inter-disciplinary subjective nature makes it challenging to understand and evaluate the real meaning comprehensively and precisely for mutual communication and cooperation among the stakeholders. the study of qol started in the usa in the 30s. in the social indicator movement period, chicago school began to study qol by mixing social science and geography (mikkelsen & di nucci, 2015).then the realization of objective indicators as the measurement of qol was in its maturity in the 60s, which was expanded to include the disciplines of politics, economics, geography, planning, architecture, environmental studies, psychology, medicine, education, and others (mikkelsen & di nucci, 2015), but not much in the field of sustainable urban development (sud). in this period, a top-down policy-driven approach for studying and evaluating qol centered around economic development was adopted: objective indicators like gdp, employment data, mortality and morbidity rate, and 3 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 crime rates have been used to evaluate qol because living conditions and standard of living to the implementation of economic and social policies were the new approaches to study qol (land et al., 2012). between the 1970s and 1980s, qol became a multi-dimensional concept, including other dimensions of human life (rodriguez, 2015). in the past 20 years, a resurgence of the qol study movement was driven by the research community (academic and private), city government, and world institutions (marans & stimson, 2011), especially by public policy, urban governance, planning, and management, and sustainable development for enhancing uqol (mccrea et al., 2006). many of the studies were nation or city ranking reports mainly driven by economic growth to serve the capital-led development trajectory. in the 1990s-2010s, there was the advocacy of establishing a more comprehensive mechanism (top-down policy-driven and bottom-up subjective-well-beingsurvey swbs) for studying qol by (diener, 1995; marans & kweon, 2011). still, the research market on the direct link of qol and sud is missing. more research on (qol + sud = uqol) in both qualitative and quantitative studies should be encouraged, while sud has been well advocated by the world institutions such as united nations (un) and world commission on environment and development (wced, 1987) because sud aims for uplifting qol. until the 2010s onward, there were different types of qol ranking reports attending to evaluate people's well-being and livelihoods in the context of mobility, sustainability, happiness, social progress, and technology. the uqol evaluation criteria refer to them as the base to develop the 11 uqol indicators (health, environment, mobility, governance, human capital, social, economy, technology-ict, culture, smart living, and lifestyle) to examine the uqol evaluation gap shaped by demographic and geographical attributes. as per the world health organization (dan bar-on, 1995), quality of life (qol) is individual perceptions related to their position based on the character of cultural background and values in life and life goals. their value systems have been influenced by the demographic and geographical background of the urban environment they lived in (campbell, 1976; marans & stimson, 2011; potter et al., 2012; murgaš & klobučník, 2018). wilson & jonas (2018) described that urbanization is the interface to glue the multi-layers of ways of life, from the internal thoughts to the external political, social, economic, and physical morphologies. this notion expresses that urbanization is not a form and can be interpreted as a human development process or movement, interpreted by human geography. thus, the debating planetary urbanization theory was adopted as the theoretical base to start the exploratory study. in such a notion, we argued that there are evaluation gaps between the developing countries, developed countries, and developed post-industrial towns; thus, the conventional economy-led urbanization 4 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 roadmap needs to be updated for securing the sustainable growth of our planet (the sustainability development goals aim to fight poverty and hunger, confront the climate crisis, achieve gender equality, and much more). the study was motivated by the sustainable development goals (united nations, 2020) advocated by the united nations. the 2-degree celsius threshold line set by the previous paris agreement (unfccc, 2016) in fighting climate change has not been materialized to deepen the fault further, rapid industrialization and urbanization in asia and africa where the developing countries are playing catch up in economic development. the performance of environmental sustainability depends on the people's engagement, particularly at the local level; mutual understanding and cooperation are needed to achieve the climate change goal set by the paris agreement. as problems accumulate faster than the solution, the evolutionary transition to a new urban development paradigm becomes necessary. we believed that a new study approach, systems, and tools enabling the transformation from a synergistic one should be explored. urbanization is a dynamic-adaptive-complex system bred in constant mutation with unique local characteristics, not a simple generic organism. since the industrial period, urbanism is being reproduced and remade worldwide according to which trajectory has been laid by capitalism (brenner & schmid, 2015). in the digital period, should we keep on walking along the same development path adopted by the developed countries? to locate a new future sustainable urban development path, we need to understand the composition of perceived uqol subject to the roles of demographic and geographical groups and then envisage the feasible route to reach the sustainable development goals. given the previous literature review regarding sustainable urban development, quality of life, and planetary urbanization, the mismatch of the human condition (value/demand) and the offering/supply of global urbanism require local investigation to redefine and refine the claim by brenner & schmid (2015), which the evaluation of uqol can contribute to the task. thus, we conducted an uqol survey to analyze and interrogate the hypothesis of the "urban quality of life (uqol) evaluation gap is caused by subjective demographic and geographical attributes in shaping the urban landscape." based on the debatable planetary urbanization theory. for a long time, gdp has been the de facto quality of life indicator for evaluating uqol in terms of economic growth alone due to market need. however, a few researches focused on studying the interrelationship of sud and qol and their undeniable role in urban policymaking. the gap between the subjective well-being and sustainable requests must be compromised through implementing a different urban development path addressing uqol beyond economic growth. this research intends to explore a new human-oriented 5 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 development concept to merge the well-being gaps between the developed and developing countries for reaching global sustainability. the objectives of this research are: (1) to present and discuss the uqol evaluation gap between the concerned geographical domains; (2) to locate the independent groups contributing to the uqol evaluation by examining the relationship of demographic attributes to geographical domains in ranking the well-being indicators; (3) to predict future sustainable urban development needs by analyzing the uqol mean score significant differences among the different categories of education, profession, age, developing countries, and developed countries. by comparing and discussing the relationship of urban development and various aspects of urban life requests at the community and country levels, the study provides the rationale to develop a novel tod-ict-based urban-ruralism (uxr) development concept for merging the well-being gap between the urban and rural areas and the developing and developed countries. 2. methods 2.1 research design a mixed-methods research design started with a literature review to state the motivation, evaluation gap, the theory-based argument, and the objectives for fulfilling the overall aim, validated by the data collected from an uqol survey. convenient sampling was conducted via online and offline channels for six months in 2018-19. ibm spss statistics 20 english version software was hired to run the raw data collected from the survey. the mean score (ms) test and the non-parametric kruskal-wallis h-test and mann-whitney u test produced the quantitative results. we conducted descriptive statistics, cronbach’s alpha reliability test, normality test, non-parametric ms tests to generate the scientific results. first, the cronbach’s alpha reliability test (likert scale bigger than 0.7) justified that the chosen scale was suitable, the data collection instrument was strongly reliable, and the responses were consistent with the survey to reduce the bias of results (shen et al., 2012; sullivan & artino, 2013; gokdemir & dumludag, 2011). the scientific results will then be presented with a mean score test and non-parametric kruskal-wallis h-test, and mannwhitney u test in the results and discussion section. the techniques for running the data have been practiced and illustrated (kingsford & chan, 2019). 2.2 demographic and geographical profile the sample total is 358 (64% developed countries and 36% developing countries) from 47 countries (figure 1). we analyzed data from the two geographical domains because they represent different urban development stages; the ‘developed countries’ were developed 6 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 with the economy-led development policies. the ‘developing countries’ are ready for progressive development whose future development path is critical for tackling climate change issues. female respondents (56%) are more than male respondents (44%). age 2635 occupies the highest portion (38%) of the sample, followed by age 16-25 (20%), 36-45 (17%), 46-55 (14%), and 56+ (11%).43% are postgraduate, 29% are undergraduate, and 28% below undergraduate. in the professional group, 36% are students, 49% are employed, and 15% are either retired or unemployed. the sample profile reflects a young diversified, and well-educated group of representation, which would serve as the applicable sample to advise the future sustainable urban development requests. figure 1. sample demographic profile female 56% male 44% percentage frequency female male 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 16-25 (20%) 26-35 (38%) 36-45 (17%) 46-55 (14%) 56+ (11%) age percentage frequency (age) 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% below undergraduate (28%) undergraduate (29%) postgraduate (43%) percentage frequency (education) 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% student (36%) retired/unemployed (15%) percentage frequency (profession) employed (49%) 7 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 3. results and discussion we discuss the results in three parts. several critical issues are highlighted by comparing and analyzing the mean score (ms) ranking results of developing countries, developed countries, and developed mirafiroi community (a post-industrial town in italy was chosen to represent the historical drawback left by industrialization) and significant differences in age, education, profession, and country groups. this section illustrates the perceived well-being evaluation gap between developed countries, developing countries (a proxy of urban and rural well-being representation). it reveals a critical point of demographic groups shaping the loading pattern of geographical representation and restating the relationship of the independent demography to the dependent geography. the finding allows the further exploration of the hybrid urban-ruralism development concept. 3.1 macro: comparing uqol mean rankings by geographical domains the composition of 11 uqol dimensions was extracted from the relevant world quality of life indices (cimi, 2018; gpci, 2018; sci, 2018; scmi, 2017; mqcr, 2018; spi, 2018) guided by the global concept of sustainability development. the 11 identified uqol criteria had been discussed and tested by a professional panel composed of professors / scholars and ph.d. students are the experts in sustainable urban planning, sociology, environmental, architecture, and design engineering from the interuniversity department of regional and urban studies and planning in the politecnico di torino, italy twice. it was then verified by a mean score test at the threshold of µ≥1.5 with a respondent rate over 90% and p-value: 0.000<0.005. the respondents were asked to rank the 11 uqol indicators in a 3point likert scale set. table 1. comparing mean ranking of the 11 uqol indicators dimensions mirafiori2 developed countries3 developing countries4 rm mean sd rank r1 mean sd rank r2 mean sd rank health 98.0 2.91 .353 1 98.7 2.77 .543 1 98.5 2.76 .558 1 environment 96.0 2.65 .578 2 97.4 2.57 .632 2 96.9 2.56 .614 6 mobility 97.0 2.65 .520 2 98.2 2.50 .591 4 96.9 2.62 .578 2 governance 95.0 2.53 .664 4 96.1 2.52 .652 3 95.4 2.57 .587 5 continued 8 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 dimensions mirafiori2 developed countries3 developing countries4 rm mean sd rank r1 mean sd rank r2 mean sd rank human capital 93.1 2.52 .668 5 96.1 2.50 .666 4 94.6 2.59 .572 4 social 97.0 2.47 .692 6 99.1 2.46 .687 6 93.1 2.60 .598 3 economy 95.0 2.04 .807 10 96.5 2.19 .740 8 95.4 2.56 .629 6 technology ict 96.0 2.12 .832 8 95.6 2.13 .722 9 93.1 2.45 .658 8 culture 98.0 2.23 .750 7 96.9 2.21 .710 7 93.1 2.17 .691 10 smart living 93.1 2.05 .821 9 94.7 1.99 .759 10 93.8 2.22 .662 9 lifestyle 93.1 1.89 .782 11 95.2 1.96 .763 11 93.8 2.17 .712 10 note : rm = respondent rate from mirafiori; sample size of rm = 101; r1 = respondent rate from the developed countries; sample size of r1 = 228; r2 = respondent rate from the developing countries; sample size of r2 = 130. total sample size: r1 + r2 = 358; reliability test of the 11 dimensions: cronbach’s alpha (all countries = .845) (developed countries = .848) (developing countries = .825). statistical significance: 0.05; mean score ranking test: µ≥1.5 p-value: 0.000<0.05 for total sample size. 2 = mirafiori is a periphery post-industrial town situated in the capital city of piedmont, turin. turin is italy’s third-largest economic centre after milan and rome and situated in the southern part of the city is a typical marginal motor workers town awaiting revitalization. 3=developed countries: australia, austria, belgium, bulgaria, canada, croatia, czechia, finland, france, germany, greece, ireland, italy, japan, latvia, netherlands, poland, republic of korea, romania, spain, sweden, uk, usa. 4developing countries: argentina, azerbaijan, bangladeshi, benin, brazil, china, colombia, egypt, ethiopia, ghana, india, indonesia, iran, kazakhstan, lebanon, malaysia, mexico, morocco, nigeria, pakistan, philippines, russia, south africa, sri lanka. as expected from table 1, the developed mirafiori community has a similar ranking result as the developed countries, except for mobility and economy, a reflection of well-being gap can exist in the multi-scalar urban system (nation-city-town-village). overall ms scores are 2.48, 2.35, and 2.37 out of 3 for the developing countries, developed countries, and the developed mirafiori community, which can be interpreted as people from the ‘developing countries’ is more driven than from the ‘developed countries’ because the former lives less off than the latter. although the relevantly higher ms score garnered by the developing countries over the other two domains might signal that the macro uqol evaluation is geographically divided into the developed and developing regions, the below combo chart reiterates the well-being gap between the three geographical groups while showing disparities and similarities in the groups. the findings will be examined with a micro illustration. 9 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 figure 2. combo chart of the mean score and ranking lines of the three geographical domains (developing countries, developed countries, and developed mirafiori community) figure 2 is a visual presentation of (table 1) for easy understanding. the top-ranking of health unanimously signifies that urban development should be human-oriented, focusing on healthy social-economic-environmental development as per the need-based survey. we analyzed and discussed the results from three perspectives: (1) developing countries vs. developed countries, (2) developing countries vs. developed mirafiori community, and (3) ms ranking comparison of the three geographical domains. first, a greater uqol ms ranking division exists between the developing and developed countries. the lower the ranking number shows the stronger the well-being criteria demanded by the respondents. the developing countries perceived the environment, governance, and culture(6th, 5th and 10th) as less critical than developed countries (2nd, 3rd and 7th). the developing countries ranked mobility, social and economy criteria (2nd, 3rd and 6th) relatively stronger than the developed countries (4th, 6th and 8th). it indicates that developing countries valued mobility, economic and social development over the developed countries (ali & al nsairat, 2009). worth noting that developing countries have a similar ms of environment (2.56) as the developing countries (2.57), possibly because it has been recognized that environmental quality affects personal health. second, the developing countries and the developed mirafiori community ranked mobility at 2nd place deviated from the developed countries 4th place. it shows that transportation is lacking in the developing and the developed post-industrial town; therefore, the urban development stage might not be the factor for causing the well-being gap when we factor in geographical scale and time would 1 2 6 4 3 5 6 8 10 9 10 1 4 2 4 6 3 8 9 7 10 11 1 2 2 5 6 4 10 8 7 9 11 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 r a n k in g m e a n s c o re developing countries developed countries mirafiori-community developing countries developed countries mirafiori-community 10 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 neutralize specific well-being gaps between the two groups. the implication will be investigated in future research because it is not the primary concern of this paper. third, the similar ranking section comprises human capital, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle, proving that human-technological-driven as the conventional well-being needs in the digital age. noticeably, the uqol evaluation gap exists between the developing countries and developed countries. the developing countries value socio-economic development relevantly stronger than the developed regions. inside the country group, there are overlapping wellbeing needs by the developing countries and the developed post-industrial town. residents from the once-prosperous motor-town mirafiori want good health and a transport-led habitat where nature, culture, and social activities can flourish with a well-balanced urbanized style. its ms ranking result demonstrates a unique socio-spatial developed post-industrial town. characterized by the local context, constraints, and demands, which originated and built along with the economic-driven agenda, it has since evolved into its color and form to differentiate itself from developed countries. the economy's ranking is surprisingly low (10th place out of 11 indicators) from the post-industrial community; 8th place in the developed countries and 6th place in the developing countries. it demonstrates that gdp as the sole indicator to evaluate people’s well-being needs is not realistic. the economy-led development path needs a facelift to meet the market needs while securing a sustainable future. 3.2 micro: comparing mean score by demographic groups this section illustrates the pattern loading of mean score (ms) disparities by gender, education, profession, and age groups, which provides an in-depth analysis of the macro ms ranking results by geographical domains. we utilized the ms ranking report of sample demography (table 2) to examine the relationship of demographical attributes to the geographical groups while removing the systematic and random errors principally. table 2. mean score reports of sample demography 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 gender: female 2.76 2.56 2.53 2.60 2.52 2.51 2.34 2.21 2.13 2.03 2.05 male 2.84 2.61 2.63 2.50 2.60 2.57 2.39 2.32 2.28 2.14 2.01 education: 1 2.87 2.69 2.58 2.62 2.58 2.45 2.06 2.07 2.24 1.98 1.81 2 2.76 2.48 2.49 2.58 2.47 2.51 2.45 2.26 2.22 2.17 2.13 3 2.77 2.58 2.61 2.50 2.59 2.60 2.49 2.37 2.14 2.08 2.11 continued 11 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 profession: 1 2.86 2.63 2.65 2.55 2.60 2.63 2.50 2.45 2.24 2.18 2.19 2 2.71 2.53 2.50 2.55 2.54 2.48 2.37 2.26 2.21 2.10 2.03 3 2.93 2.64 2.62 2.56 2.51 2.47 1.96 1.78 2.02 1.73 1.67 age: 16-25 2.89 2.64 2.57 2.66 2.62 2.61 2.38 2.30 2.21 2.07 2.16 26-35 2.77 2.55 2.63 2.51 2.52 2.55 2.43 2.41 2.23 2.17 2.12 36-45 2.81 2.63 2.48 2.59 2.59 2.54 2.46 2.26 2.24 2.11 2.09 46-55 2.67 2.58 2.47 2.56 2.58 2.58 2.51 2.29 2.31 2.16 1.98 56+ 2.87 2.55 2.65 2.45 2.45 2.26 1.65 1.52 1.74 1.55 1.45 note : uqol dimensions: 1=health; 2=environment; 3=mobility; 4=governance; 5=human capital; 6=social; 7=economy; 8=technology-ict; 9=culture; 10=smart living; 11=lifestyle education: 1=below undergraduate; 2=undergraduate; 3=postgraduate profession: 1=student; 2=employed; 3=retired / unemployed by referring to the ms results listed in table 1 and table 2, we generated an array of radar diagrams (figure 3) to illustrate the loading pattern of uqol evaluation for discussion. in general, all groups perceived health, environment, mobility, governance, and human capital with similar ms. however, a greater disparity in the economy, technology-ict, culture, smart living, and lifestyle was indicated. the ‘below undergraduate’ perceived the importance of the economy, technology-ict, and lifestyle relatively less significant than the ‘above undergraduate’ in the education group, which needs further investigation to locate the underlying factors. in the professional group, the ‘retired-unemployed’ perceived the value of the social, economy, technology-ict, culture, smart living, and lifestyle relatively less significant than the ‘students’ and the ‘employed’. age 56+ perceived social, economy, technology-ict, culture, smart living, and lifestyle are less critical than the younger groups in the age group.it is mainly due to retired aging respondents being less active in engaging in socio-economic activities and technology-driven lifestyles. 0 1 2 3 health environment mobility governance human capital socialeconomy technology (ict) culture smart living lifestyle education below undergraduate undergraduate postgraduate 0 1 2 3 health environment mobility governance human capital socialeconomy technology… culture smart living lifestyle profession student employed retired/unemployed 12 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 figure 3. mean score disparities of different demographic and geographical groups in figure 3, the micro demographic groups' loading pattern is consistent with the macro country groups, which might state that the independent demographic variables affect the dependent geographical variables. based on this analysis, we revise the original hypothesis ‘urban quality of life (uqol) evaluation gap is caused by demographic and geographical attributes in shaping the urban landscape’ into ‘uqol evaluation gap is caused by demographic and exhibited geographically for shaping the urban landscape. ’by studying demographic uqol evaluation, we can locate the evaluation gap factors for informing future urban development. however, to predict the future urban development beyond the sample representation, we need to conduct the kruskal wallis h-test and mann-whitney u test to identify the statistically significant differences of uqol demands to estimate the urban supply for reaching the equilibrium state of development. 3.3 determining uqol significant differences demographically and geographically table 3 shows basically no perceived value of significant differences in the health, environment, mobility, governance, human capital, and culture criteria meaning that the governments need to distribute resources to accommodate the five well-being requests in their urban policies. kruskal-wallis h-test displays a significant variation in the social, economy, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle among the demographic groups. mannwhitney u test highlights significant differences between developing and developed countries in the economy, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle. the significant differences criteria inform policymakers to conduct an empirical study to investigate the latent reasons. 0 1 2 3 health environment mobility governance human capital socialeconomy technology (ict) culture smart living lifestyle age age: 16-25 age: 26-35 age: 36-45 age: 46-55 age: 56+ 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 health mobility environment human capital social governanceeconomy technology (ict) culture smart living lifestyle country developing countries developed countries 13 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 table 3. kruskal wallis h-test and mann-whitney u test of demographic groups and geographical domains kruskal-wallis h-test mann-whitney u-test dimensions age profession education gender country health 0.754 0.012 a 0.163 0.137 0.872 environment 0.940 0.388 0.201 0.623 0.677 mobility 0.327 0.217 0.511 0.114 0.051 governance 0.472 0.975 0.081 0.174 0.622 human capital 0.653 0.399 0.303 0.241 0.358 social 0.004 a 0.023 a 0.093 0.983 0.080 economy 0.000 a 0.000 a 0.000 a 0.434 0.000 a technology-ict 0.000 a 0.000 a 0.018 a 0.076 0.000 a culture 0.037 a 0.195 0.610 0.148 0.583 smart living 0.002 a 0.005 a 0.147 0.087 0.007 a lifestyle 0.000 a 0.001 a 0.002 a 0.605 0.015 a note : p-valuea < 0.05 shows a statistically significant difference in those dimensions. country: developing countries and developed countries although non-parametric tests were applied to run the datasets, the disproportional number of respondents between groups would inflate the respondents' rate of the bigger group causing a skewed result. the uneven distribution of sample size found among the categories is unavoidable due to conventional sampling. reservation of the findings must be noticed and resolved in the application. therefore, the theory-based scientific study still needs to perform pilot tests locally and consistently in future development. people's minds are often complicated and evolved along the line of demographic and geographical narrative; therefore, different cause-effect of urbanization engendered by people's underlying motives can be realized by studying the concept of planetary urbanization to the uqol evaluation reports. the hypothesis is verified with the three objectives fulfilled: first, the uqol evaluation results indicate the well-being gaps of mobility, economic-socialenvironmental development between the developing and developed countries (rural vs. urban). second, demographic attributes are illustrated as the independent variables to the dependent geographical factors impacting the evaluation gaps. third, the demographic groups display significant differences in the social, economy, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle within age, profession, and education categories contributing to most part of the significant differences in the economy, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle between developing and developed countries. 14 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 after comparing and discussing the uqol evaluation results and the significant differences, the implication to planetary urbanization theory and contribution of the study is presented for exploring the path to bridge the well-being gap identified between the urban (developed countries) and rural areas (developing countries) for revitalizing the postindustrial town and building the resilient sustainable urban-rural society in developing countries. for a long time, qol is a subjective term without an agreeable definition among people. whereas, uqol evaluation is a specific reflection of the urban condition and can inform future urban development. the study proves that the essence of well-being is health to affirm the human-oriented urban development. the uqol evaluation results by geography and demography indicate that material well-being based on aspects of gdp per person is not related to the quality of life in a country (economist intelligence unit, 2005; european commission, 2009; stiglitz, 2009; pintér et al., 2012). it implies that the current economicdriven urban development planning strategy needs to address local conditions and demands (dna), which planetary urbanization advocates, instead of just considering the overgeneralized city-centered and economy-led urbanization strategies. indeed, urbanization is a socio-economic-spatial process driven by demographic characteristics that directly affect people’s ways of life and urban landscape. it precisely suggests that geography is not the determinator of well-being requests but demography. it is slightly different from the hypothesis stated in section 1: introduction. it means that any living location can fulfill the 11 well-being needs (table 1), people will live there, disregarding urban or rural areas. in the 21st century, technological advancement facilitates transportation and catalyzes inter-connectivity and inter-exchangeability of people, commodities, information, culture, and political ideology. it formulates the new mix of social and cultural patterns, imposing a new challenge for governance. often, cultural gaps and conflicts can disturb any establishment and deteriorate the living environment and quality of life. future urban development needs to address the significant impact triggered by the ict advancement and its means-end relationship of smart living capable of integrating the urban and remote areas in a holistic system. therefore, a drastic urban model shift is expected and should be on the way (raworth, 2018; d’acci, 2019). the concept of planetary urbanization proposed by neil and schmid initiates a new approach to study urbanization apart from the inherited city-centric sprawling outwards extensively to form the capital-led global urban phenomenon. planetary urbanization recognized that urbanism is a process driven by human geography, not a form of one location (arboleda, 2016; goonewardena, 2018; schmid, 2018; wilson et al., 2019). 15 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 urbanization as a collective endeavor with the multifaceted, politicized, and open platform would be modified according to the constitutively hierarchical multi-dimensional urbanization processes; and the specificity of urbanization as one among a multitude of socio-spatial processes which structure the planetary ways of life today (brenner, 2018). thus, understanding the contextual urban problems and neutralizing the rural-urban opposition is necessary for bridging the theoretical and empirical gap (angelo & goh, 2020). the uqol evaluation results of the demographic and geographical groups conclude that geographical constraints are no longer viewed as significant impediments for future development. informed by the significant differences of economy, technology-ict, smart living, and lifestyle. at the same time, the complementary drivers of transit-orienteddevelopment (tod) and ict can foster economic growth for merging the well-being gaps between developed countries and developed countries. furthermore, büchs& koch's (2019) 's elsevier atlas award paper supports degrowth in developed nations is needed to preserve the well-being of future generations as an implication of creating a blend of rural and urban lifestyles. rem koolhass' "countryside the future" exhibition in the guggenheim museum of nyc predicts that the future urban development embraces ruralism. given this, a tod-ict-based urban-ruralism (uxr) concept would contribute to healthy living by releasing the economic-social-environmental pressure from the over urbanized city to the rural region, which could be furnished by the high-speed railway network, sharing economy, and ict advancement. 4. conclusion the three completed objectives conclude that the hypothesis as 'uqol evaluation gap is caused by demographic and exhibited geographically for shaping the urban landscape' by recognizing geography's dependent role on the independent demography. when demographic attributes can define urbanization in the digital period, the tod-ict-based uxr development path for the developing countries and the developed periphery towns will contribute to the future global urbanization process significantly. the study also reminds us that future urban development must focus not only on economic or materialistic requests but also on the health-mobility-social-environmental-cultural-technological strata. the different urban realities from the developing countries to the developed countries and communities appeal to a transitional human-urban-rural development pathway. on the one side, it can guide the developed countries in revitalizing their outdated urban condition to the ‘after a developed period’. on the other side, the tod-ict sustainable strategy can enrich and enhance the urban-rural landscape (human, economy, and society) virtually and physically. 16 schuman lam et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 1-19 conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. acknowledgments thank you to the politecnico di torino: professor patrizia lombardi, dr. francesca abastante, dr. angioletta voghera, dr. isabella lami, dr. sara torabi, and mr. osman and their ph.d students for pilot testing the survey forms before bulk distribution. also, miss sara cravero has been amazingly helpful and generous in translating the english survey into the italian version. special thanks go to mrs. tecla zaia (president) and mr. sanjay sankar (manager) from the alloggi ami -ngo to distribute and collect the mirafiori survey forms. references ali, h. h., & al nsairat, s. f. 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(2019). 2. public housing, heroin addiction, and america’s industrial suburbs: a planetary urbanist perspective. in k. guney, r. keil & m. ucoglu (ed.), massive suburbanization (pp. 56-78). toronto: university of toronto press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487531867-005. wilson, d., & jonas, a. e. g. (2018). planetary urbanization: new perspectives on the debate. urban geography, 39 (10), 1576–1580. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2018.1481603. https://www.ft.com/content/95b492a8-a095-11de-b9ef-00144feabdc0 https://doi.org/10.4300/jgme-5-4-18 https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sdg-moment/ https://www.unicef.org/sowc2012/urbanmap/ https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487531867-005 abstract 1. introduction 2.2 demographic and geographical profile 3. results and discussion 3.1 macro: comparing uqol mean rankings by geographical domains 3.2 micro: comparing mean score by demographic groups 3.3 determining uqol significant differences demographically and geographically 4. conclusion references 301 research article land cover changes based on cellular automata for land surface temperature in semarang regency fahrudin hanafi1,* , dinda putri rahmadewi1, fajar setiawan2 1department of geography, faculty of social sciences, state university of semarang, sekaran gunungpati, semarang, 50229, indonesia 2limnology research center, indonesian institute of sciences (lipi), bogor, 16911, indonesia received 7 march 2021/revised 17 november 2021/accepted 8 december 2021/published 20 december 2021 abstract land cover changes based on cellular automata for surface temperature in semarang regency has increased significantly due to the continuous rise in its population. therefore, this study aims to identify, analyze and predict multitemporal land cover changes and surface temperature distribution in 2028. data on the land cover map were obtained from landsat 7 and 8 based on supervised classification, while land surface temperature (lst) was calculated from its thermal bands. the collected data were analyzed for accuracy through observation, while cellular automata markov chain was used to predict the associated changes in 2028. the result showed that there are 4 land cover maps with 5-year intervals from 2003 to 2018 at an accuracy of more than 85%. furthermore, the existing land covers were dominated by forest with decreasing trend, while the built-up area continuously increased. the existing land surface temperature range from 20.6°c to 36.6°c, at an average of 28.2°c and a yearly increase of 0.07°c. the temperature changes are positively correlated with the occurrence of land conversion. land cover predictions for 2028 show similar forest dominance, with a 23,4% built-up area at a surface temperature of 28.9°c. keywords: land cover change; cellular automata-markov chain; land surface temperature 1. introduction according to the united nations (2018), population increase is a global problem experienced in every country, with 55% of humans presently living in urban or regional areas, likely increasing by 68% in 2050. these changes tend to affect both local and global climate components, such as the land surface temperature (lst). for example, in nigeria, there was an increase of 19,166.13 ha in urban built areas from 2002 to 2013, with a rise in lst by 6 °c (igun & williams., 2018). geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 301-318 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.23471 *corresponding author. email address : fahrudin.hanafi@mail.unnes.ac.id (fahrudin hanafi) mailto:fahrudin.hanafi@mail.unnes.ac.id 303 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 khandelwal et al. (2018) stated that an increase in lst tends to disrupt the climateenergy balance, such as the heat wave phenomenon experienced in 7 major european countries, namely the united kingdom (38.1 °c), germany (41.7 °c), belgium (41.8 °c), france (42.6°c), luxembourg (40.8 °c), scotland (31.6 °c), and the netherlands (40.7 °c) recorded in july 2019. in southeast asia, several major cities also experienced similar conditions. an increase in hotspots was 20% greater than the average lst in hanoi (tran et al., 2017) and at a temperature of 2.9 ° c in jakarta which is higher than in bangkok (estoque et al., 2017). land cover changes also occurred in central java province. moreover, 128 ha of rice fields were converted to settlements or used for other purposes from 2009 to 2010 (bps, 2015). on the contrary, the average air temperature in central java province from 2032 to 2040 was predicted to increase within the range of 0.81 to 0.85 ° c (bmkg, 2019). semarang regency, central java province, indonesia, had a high population growth rate (8.74%) from 2010 to 2016 (bps, 2017a). based on statistical data, in 2016, 1.014 million people with a density of 1.081 people/km2, was recorded. this figure is higher compared to the national average population density of 127 people/km2. however, from 2011 to 2016, agricultural areas were reduced by 0.94% from 60,439.96 to 59,872.49 ha, while land used for other purposes was increased by 1.64%, which is equivalent to 35,148.18 ha (bps, 2017b). this indicates that semarang regency is also susceptible to land and climate changes problems, specifically areas adjacent to the city, which has experienced rapid development and recorded an lst average of 1.32 ° c (nugraha et al., 2016). analysis carried out using past and present spatial data is considered one of the requirements for geographic studies (dadras et al., 2015). cellular automata are the commonly used spatial model of land cover change. it is dynamic and composed of interrelated cells with discrete units (wang et al., 2012). cellular automata are used mainly to generate and predict potential changes (tran et al., 2017). fu & weng (2016) stated that temporal disparities of thermal characteristics due to land cover changes and responses need to be carried out comprehensively. one of the environmental parameters analyzed in this study is lst, estimated from the single thermal channel or split window algorithm method, dependent on the number of bands used (pu et al., 2006). both have a weakness in respect to the atmospheric profile uncertainty, which strongly affects the accuracy of the result (li et al., 2013). however, this is anticipated by inputting the atmospheric profile data into the thermal band spectral radian correction made by the usgs (united states of geological surveys) (coll et al., 2010). 304 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 study carried out on the land cover change in semarang regency is common for land suitability, flood (susanti et al., 2012), landslide, sedimentation (apriliyana, 2015), carbon stock, and spatial planning review (pangi et al., 2017). these studies were specifically related to land and averaged surface temperatures (kalinda & bandi, 2018). therefore, this study aims to model land cover changes based on raster data using cellular automata related to its surface temperatures in the future. in addition, it also intends to (1) analyze the surface temperature distribution and land cover changes of semarang regency in 2003, 2008, 2013, and 2018, (2) evaluate the relationship between land cover changes and lst, and (3) investigate the distribution of land cover for the following 10 years. 2. methods this field survey was conducted in semarang regency, central java province, from april to june 2019. the area was considered due to the record time of the imagery data input. furthermore, simulation data input only requires 2 land cover imageries, the initial and step year. however, for the sake of detailed information, this study used those acquired in 2003 (initial), 2008 (step 1), 2013 (step 2) and 2018 (step 3), which was compared using population growth and space needed, such as the assumption based on consistent population per built area on initial, and each step. the satellite image data used are (1) landsat 7 path/row 120/65 imagery recorded on may 20, 2003; (2) landsat 7 path/row 120/65 imagery recorded on june 18, 2008; (3) landsat 8 path/row 120/65 imagery recorded on june 24, 2013; (4) landsat 8 path/row 120/65 imagery recorded on august 25, 2018. unfortunately, landsat 7 (2008) had some bad qualities due to the sensor stripping. however, usgs provided corrections using past imagery with a similar location. secondary data used to support the population growth analysis were obtained from the (1) population growth and built area of semarang regency from 2008 to 2018, then (2) slope from astergdem radar image data (usgs). road networks, activity centers, and river patterns were obtained from big and spatial planning of semarang regency data and used as constraint input on land cover simulation. sampling calculation refers to the technical guidelines for collecting and processing spatial data from the geospatial information agency (big). meanwhile, the number of sample points for each land cover type is determined using the proportional stratified sampling method, as shown in figure 1. field surveys are carried out to measure the temperature of the land surface and cover the ground check. this analysis was carried out from april to june 2019, synchronized with 305 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 the imagery record period. it was assumed that the weather condition, sun duration, and intensity are similar to the imagery and survey data. also, the duration (on distribution sample) is customized from 08.00 to 11.00 am to adjust the recorded time of the imagery. figure 1. location and research sample in semarang regency, central java land cover is classified (maximum likelihood) using envi 5.1 and differentiated according to the method proposed by danoedoro (2006) concerning water, forest, shrub, agricultural, open, and built areas. the classification accuracy threshold used is 85%, thereby determining its mapping by comparing the 2018 image with field observations. data from the previous year's image is compared with the temporal interpretation of google earth. accuracy is determined using a confusion matrix involving the consideration of omission and commission. overall, it indicates the probability that a pixel belongs to a certain class and its representation in the field (lillesand et al., 2004). land cover prediction in 2028 was made with selva's version of idrisi software in accordance with the markov chain method based on cellular automata. meanwhile, markov chain is used to analyze 2 land cover data realized in different years, namely past (2008) and 306 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 actual information (2019). the transition matrix is focused on the change of any land cover to build area using a 3x3 matrix. built area conditions control this change from the forest, agriculture, or open field, asides the opposite. agriculture is changed from the forest, or open field, besides the opposite including build area, etc. lst is estimated by transforming pixel into spectral radian values using usgs equations to correct surface reflection errors and earth curvature. meanwhile, errors due to atmospheric disturbances, specifically in terms of processing images of land surface temperatures, are determined with the equation proposed by coll et al. (2010). it contains parameters that tend to affect lst, including emissivity, transmission, upwelling and downwelling (kalinda & bandi, 2018). the profile is obtained from the atmospheric correction parameter calculator, modeled according to data input's date, time, and location (tran et al., 2017). the corrected spectral radian values are converted to brightness temperatures using the usgs formula for landsat imagery. this is estimated as lst using the equation proposed by artist & carnahan (1982) and amiri et al. (2009). it is also used to determine an accurate brightness temperature of 8-14 чm wave (artis & carnahan, 1982), while this study utilized bands 6 (10.4 to 12.5 чm) and 10 (10.60 to11.19 чm). the analysis technique is used to determine the effect of each land cover type on lst changes by comparing the t-count with the t-table. the t-test is carried out using a simple linear regression equation while the t-table size is calculated with the formula t (a/2, n-2) = t (0.05/2, 116-2) = t (0.025, 114) = 1.98099, based on the following criteria: (1) assuming the significance value is <0.05 and t-count> t-table, it means that there is an impact, and (2) assuming the significance value is > 0.05 and t-count <t-table, meaning there is no impact. 3. results and discussion 3.1 land cover changes image classification performed with the supervised method produces land cover maps for 2003, 2008, 2013 and 2018. confusion matrix analysis on table 1 shows an accuracy of 91.38%, 92.24%, 88.79% and 86.21 %. according to fariz (2016), misclassification is not only influenced by differences in recorded time as well as the misidentification of objects from residential land to the forest because tall trees cover their appearance. the accuracy test results obtained annually exceed 85%, therefore, the data is feasible and needs to be used for further analysis (susanti et al., 2012). 307 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 table 1. producer and overall accuracies of land cover matrix confusion land cover producer accuracy 2003 2008 2013 2018 water body 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% forest 98.31% 98.11% 100.00% 93.33% agriculture 61.90% 60.00% 56.25% 80.95% shrubs 100.00% 88.89% 66.67% 66,67% open field 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 77.78% built area 91.67% 100.00% 95.45% 92.00% over all accuracy 91.38% 92.24% 88.79% 86.21% the results show that the dominated land covers are forest and agricultural areas because the semarang regency is near mountains and fertile, as shown in figure 2. table 2 shows the increased number of forests recorded in 2013, possible because “sengon" and teak plantations starts with land clearing and an approximately 5 years harvest period (nuroniah & putri, 2013) and 15 to 20 years for teak (pudjiono, 2014). this result also corresponds with the semarang regency data by bps (2017), which reported a critical land decrease of 26.2% in 2013 from the previous year a program on forestry services was held to boost its increase. agricultural areas experienced a significant increase of 75.50% from 2013 to 2018. this pattern is common in rural areas, specifically in reduced forest and open fields, thereby boosting agriculture. the reverse is the case in urban areas such as agricultural lands in the nanjing region. china was converted to developed or built areas with 2.6% in 2009 (wang et al., 2016). table 2. land cover changes in semarang regency in 2003, 2008, 2013 and 2018 land cover years 2003 2008 2013 2018 (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) forest 52,696 51.7 45,742 44.9 49,183 48.3 39,452 38.7 built area 9,903 9.7 18,293 18.0 18,642 18.3 20,012 19.7 shrubs 19,188 18.8 16,413 16.1 12,469 12.2 15,522 15.2 agricultural 11,415 11.2 9,007 8.8 8,303 8.2 14,572 14.3 waters body 967 0.9 676 0.7 996 1.0 767 0.8 open field 7,665 7.5 11,703 11.5 12,240 12.0 11,509 11.3 amount 101,834 100 101,834 100 101,834 100 101,834 100 308 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 3.2 land cover simulation 2028 land cover simulation processed with markov chain on cellular automata with population growth as a control. furthermore, increase in population and built areas are linearly correlated to each step year to average growth. therefore, the acquired data serves as an area of increased control when cellular automata are executed. the cell movement is constrained by slope, existent built area, road and river networks. land cover changes are influenced by several attributes, from macro (policy) to micro (regional complex) factors (figure 2). in the regional complex, semarang regency develops and changes the influence of roads, slopes, demographics, and land availability. figure 2. land cover changes in 2003-2018 the road as a driving force for mobility affects the pattern of land development, which extends along with the northern and southern parts of ungaran and tengaran districts, respectively. residents tend to build new settlements at a distance of <250 m from the main road.theslope affects development in the highlands, leading to the clustering of existing built areas. 309 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 population affects human space requirements. the population density in semarang regency was 889 people per km2 in 2003. however, it increased to 1,081 people per km2 in 2017. this is presumed to influence the changing of forests and agricultural lands into built areas. land availability along with its clearing increased from 2003 to 2013. this condition is also accompanied by a decrease in forests, shrubs and agricultural areas because the emergence of open land availability also promotes increased social facilities. on the land cover simulation proposed by 2028, a decline in forests, shrubs and agricultural fields was recorded in the previous 10 years, except water bodies and built -up areas, as shown in table 3. the spatial distribution shows that the developmental pattern of regions built in 2018 is clustered at the regional and economic centers. this includes east, and west ungaran, bergas, ambarawa, bawen, tengaran, suruh, and kaliwungu districts, as indicated in figure 3. however, a difference of only 284.56 ha was realized in accordance with the conditions of built area development in the same location from 1991 to 2001 (pangi et al., 2017). table 3. land cover changes in semarang regency, 2018 2028 land cover years percent changes 2003 2028 (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (%) forest 39,452 38.7 37,010 36.5 -5.68 built area 20,012 19.7 23,727 23.4 18.78 shrubs 15,522 15.2 14,295 14.1 -7.24 agricultural 14,572 14.3 14,096 13.9 -2.80 waters body 767 0.8 773 0.8 0.00 open field 11,509 11.3 11,498 11.3 0.00 amount 101,834 100 101,834 100 land cover simulation results in 2028 show an increase in built areas, a decrease in forest (6.19%), shrubs (7.90%), agricultural (3.27%), and open fields (0.09%). waters bodies such as the rawa pening lake increased by 0.88% in 2018 due to the influence of agricultural areas and shrubs. similar conditions also occurred from 2001 to 2011 when an increase in agricultural lands (2,905.79 ha)was recorded (apriliyana, 2015). the population and built areain the semarang regency linearly correlate with the equation y = 0.02x + 32.06, where y is the built area and x is the total population, as shown in figure 4. this is also used to determine an estimate of 23,770.62 ha in 2028. moreover, when compared with the predicted area determined by the cellular automata method, the 2 estimations are 43.59 ha or 0.18% deviation. this shows that the results of the cellular automata simulation of land cover and population linear regression do not contradict each other. 310 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 figure 3. land cover in 2018 and 2028 (modeling using the cellular automata) 2018 existing 2018 simulation 311 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 figure 4. linear equations for population and built-up area (prediction of built-in area in 2028) 3.3 imagery surface temperature vs survey the field survey led to the fluctuation of lst data every hour from 09:00 to 15:00 for different land covers, as shown in figure 5. this is used to ascertain the response of each land cover type to solar radiation. besides, each has a different response rate, although they generally tend to reach the peak temperature at 13:00. it is clear that the built area has the highest lst, reaching 3.6 ° c, and decreases gradually after 13:00. apart from land cover information, satellite imagery is also used to extract lst. this study produced 4 lst distributive maps in 2003, 2008, 2013 and 2018 (figure 6). meanwhile, when compared with the estimated results of the image from the closest year, a positive relationship was determined with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.637, coefficient of determination (r2) is 0.45 with a degree of significance <0.005 (significant). according to the r-value, the relationship between lst imagery and field survey is positively correlated (fu & weng, 2016). figure 6 shows the image temperature is high, as well as the field, however, the coefficient is different due to dissimilarities in weather conditions. y = 0.02x + 32.06 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 thousands people t h o u sa n d (a re a ) 311 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 figure 5. changes in surface temperature on each land cover per hour figure 6. linear graph of lst vs land cover changes 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 09.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 l a n d s u rf a c e t e m p e ra tu re s ° c agriculture shrub built area water body open field forest 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 l s t o f s u r v e y ( ° c ) lst of imagery (° c) time 312 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 3.4 surface temperature changes the results of the lst obtained using satellite imagery shows that the maximum and minimum temperatures reached were 37.6 ° c, and 20.6 ° c, respectively. the average lst and standard deviation values are 28.2 ° c and 3.39 ° c. interestingly, the lst temperature from 2003 to 2018 tended to increase, while a decrease was detected in the data acquired in 2008. the decline in land surface temperature is influenced by low solar radiation of approximately 425.55 watts/m2, accumulated over the years. this is caused by the position of the earth's aphelion to the sun, which usually occurs in june. the australian cold munson phenomenon also affects the deviation, which blows cold and dry air from the indonesian coast. it also causes upwelling followed by a decrease of not less than 3° c in the south java sea, besides this usually occurs from july to august (sukresno et al., 2018). the high-temperature area is regularly experienced in regional centers, as shown in figure 6. this shows that lst is concentrated due to the urbanization influence caused by land cover changes (peng fu, 2016). however, it is different from the phenomenon that occurred in 2008 due to the concentration of newly built areas in bancak district which has varying temperatures, depending on the various types (pal & ziaul, 2017). 3.5 surface temperature vs land cover changes to compare continuous data from lst and land cover changes (ordinal), this study collected whole coverage and point samples using grid size as the location. the lst was generated as positive or negative changes compared to the land cover, which was converted to non-changes data. the results of correlation analysis (figure 7) carried out on the land cover and lst from 2003 to 2018 was used to determine the strong relationship between the coefficient of determination (r2: 0.430) and the correlation coefficient (r: 0.s655) (sarwono, 2006). meanwhile, from the t-test on each land cover, it is evident that agricultural areas, forests, and shrubs have a dominant influence (table 4). 313 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 figure 7. linear graph lst vs land cover changes data land cover is associated with temperature changes, it is evident that the dominant one is the conversion of forests to agricultural areas with a temperature (averaged area) increase of 0.31 ° c/ha, as shown in figure 8 and table 5. this led to an increase in the number of farmers from 144,369 (2013) to 167,044 (2018) in semarang regency (yuliati, 2018). in addition, this condition was also experienced at the national level from 2000 to 2005, where plantations and agricultural areas were the dominant land cover types that replaced 44% of forests. the increase in average surface temperature of regional lst at the study site was raised to relatively 1.06 ° c with an average increase per decade of 0.7 ° c. lin & yu (2005) classified the lst increase in average surface temperature as being greater than the value obtained in beijing and approximately within a range of 0.25 to 0.31 ° c. based on this approach, it was estimated that the average lst in 2028 is expected to reach 28,9 ° c. figure 8. land surface temperature changes in 2003, 2008, 2013, and 2018 2003 2008 2013 2018 314 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 table 4. regression of land cover with land surface temperature land cover r 2 t-calculated significance forest 0.511 7.912 0.000 agriculture 0.566 3.021 0.019 open field 0.331 2.537 0.025 shrub 0.433 4.095 0.000 water body 0.078 -0.921 0.379 built area 0.285 2.360 0.033 table 5. land cover area and average area lst land cover area (ha) % area changes (°c) averaged area changes 2003 2018 forest forest 5,825.07 61.41% -0.09 -0.05 agriculture 734.58 7.74% 4.05 0.31 built area 97.83 1.03% 2.78 0.03 open field 123.84 1.31% 2.99 0.04 shrub 279.72 2.95% 2.70 0.08 agriculture agriculture 1.53 0.02% 1.22 0.00 built area 649.08 6.84% 2.62 0.18 open field 26.01 0.27% 1.61 0.00 shrub 754.11 7.95% 1.34 0.11 shrub forest 0.54 0.01% -0.31 0.00 agriculture 137.38 1.45% 2.98 0.04 built area 648.18 6.83% 3.90 0.27 open field 2.97 0.03% 2.86 0.00 shrub 204.89 2.16% 2.53 0.05 amount 9,485.73 100% 1.06 the differences in lst are not only influenced by the land cover type. the results obtained from this study differs from other studies due to regional complexes. this bias is caused by several factors such as solar radiation, topography, soil and vegetative types. the linear regressionshows that the solar radiation value has a positive effect on lst. every 1 watt/m2triggers the average lst area by 0.1 ° c from 2003 to 2018. the topography’s response was slightly different from that of the lst. in addition, its sample distribution shows an inverse comparison. the regression equation is y = -0.001x + 23.77 with r2 of 0.411. the minus sign (-) in the equation shows a negative relationship, therefore, an increase in height causes a decrease in the lst and vice versa. based on the map, the western and southern parts of the study location comprised mostly of andosols associated with brown and dark red mediterranean lithosol, regosol, and brown latosol. furthermore, soil type, texture and color affects the lst distribution. one of 315 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 the main ingredients of andosol soil, which is usually in the form of sand,is its ability to absorb high heat as well as to withstand low soil moisture within the range of 4 to 70% (bavel et al., 1972). meanwhile, hydromorphous alluvial soil types dominate the center, with clay as the parent material. it is also able to properly absorb a heat capacity of 0.279 calg-1 °c-1, although it is lower compared to sand (lal & shukla, 2004). vegetation is also considered to influence lst variation due to height, canopy character, and location of growth tendency. in accordance with the bps data, cloves, rubber, coffee, sengon, teak, and mostly rice fields and shrubs are cultivated in the eastern part of semarang regency. meanwhile, pine trees, fruits, bamboo, rubber, rice fields, and shrubs are cultivated in this regency at dense temperature fluctuations with high humidity and wind speed of 0.6 m/s.conversely, the cone canopy has a speed of 0.4 m/s and a higher temperature (fadlurrahman, 2018). 4. conclusion the dominant land cover in semarang regency from 2003 to 2018 was a forest with the tendency to be converted into agricultural areas. land cover predictions for 2028 also show a similar change pattern. furthermore, these changes had a positive relationship with lst and a significant effect with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.655 (strong). forest, agricultural areas, open fields, shrubs and built-up areas affect 51.1%, 56.6%, 33.1%, 43.3%, and 28.5% on lst. land cover simulation shows that the built area is bound to increase by 18.56%, indicating dense growth in tengaran, east ungaran, bank, and kaliwungu district s. based on calculations, this caused an average increase of 28.9 ° c at a rate of 0.07 ° c/year. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this study. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to the department of geography, faculty of social sciences, state university of semarang for their support in conducting this study and also to all those who provided and processed data. 316 fahrudin hanafi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 301-318 references amiri, r., weng, q., 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spatial database; open source software; qgis; kosovo 1. introduction geospatial information has become an indispensable element in several studies related to monitoring, analysis, modelling, visualization, and mapping environmental parameters. thirty years ago, terms such as ‘environmental monitoring’, ‘risk assessment’, ‘contamination management’ and ‘risk management’ were not commonly used (maliqi, 2020). in recent decades, significant progress has been made in management approaches and tools used to promote sustainable environmental management and protection in the context of global change, natural and human-made hazards. *corresponding author. email address : edon.maliqi@ubt-uni.net (edon maliqi) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 189-204 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2.23934 189 *corresponding author. email address : edon.maliqi@ubt-uni.net (edon maliqi) mailto:edon.maliqi@ubt-uni.net mailto:edon.maliqi@ubt-uni.net 189 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 most environmental data would be almost valueless without their spatial reference component (esri, 2010; sanka, 2015). according to ilyushchenko & kamberov (2004), public officials and environmental managers need suitable tools for the visualization, manipulation, and analysis of ecological data. effective monitoring and improved understanding of the state of the environment require the collection of essential information (esri, 2010; shrestha et al., 2016). geographic information system (gis) is a technology that provides an opportunity for ecological scanning and analysis of the environment and creating models for assessment and forecasting for its future state. according to several studies, the gis database has many advantages for environmental management. modern gis supports automated processing, increases productivity with streamlined workflows in compliance with regulatory requirements, and improves management decision-making. it deals with collecting, storage, retrieval, manipulation, updating, analysis, display, and disseminating spatially referenced data and information. gis systems are vital tools for managing an ecological database at all scales, ranging from local to global and mapping the environment (lein, 2006; esri, 2010; thakur et al., 2011; hendricks, 2014; maliqi, 2020). the list of needed source data depends on the environmental characteristics, planned calculations, and existing data. collecting spatial data, preparing the data for gis use, and documenting those are usually the most expensive and time-consuming aspects of any gis project (lo et al., 2001). more specifically, many modern satellite missions are solely focused on collecting datasets using instrumentation on board. in contrast, the relevant satellite platforms can provide accurate remotely sensed data and products covering more expansive areas that it is impossible to continuously monitor using other instrumentation or technologies (kolios et al., 2017). the growing concern about sustainable mining practices, environmental monitoring in and around industrial areas is a critical process that can be successfully supported through advanced geospatial monitoring practices. nowadays, geospatial technologies have been applied for the preparation of environmental impact assessments for different mining areas. roumenina et al. (2007) represent a geodatabase organization model for large-scale mapping of geoecological aspects of land use conflicts at the level of settlement land mapping. the developed geodatabase eliminates sources of conflicts in land use or mitigates their impact in areas where metallurgical, mining and chemical production are concentrated. similarly, in other countries with developed mining and subsequent environmental problems, such as nigeria (ochelebe et al., 2020), morocco (khalil et al., 2014), china (qi et al.,2017), indonesia (maryati et al., 2012), soth africa (orimoloye & ololade, 2020) sierra leone 190 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 (kamara, 2020), the use of gis with combination with modern remote sensing technologies and tools is becoming routine. mining companies are mandatory to perform ecological management efforts to minimize the negative impact on the environment. there is no previous study for the republic of kosovo, which attempts to analyze some of the leading environmental concerns using geospatial technologies. until now, independent researchers did not answer the spatial and temporal environmental questions. as a result, there is a significant gap in the spatial and temporal distributions of the ecological phenomena. furthermore, the environmental data for a specific purpose were not found for the mitrovica region, located in northern kosovo. there are many problems in finding and obtaining environmental data to solve any environmental issue. this study focuses on establishing a geospatial database for monitoring the mining environment, including groundwater, surface water, vegetation and erosion in the area of mitrovica, the republic of kosovo. the region has a long history of lead and zinc metallurgy productions, where, unfortunately, these mining operations have resulted in adverse environmental impacts (dekonta, 2009). the natural environment in and around the industrial area is affected widely by heavy metals such as arsenic (as), chromium (cr), copper (cu), nickel (ni), lead (pb), zinc (zn) and cadmium (cd). after a brief description of the research area, the rest of the article is organized as follows. in section 2, the primary sources of geographic and specialized data were collected from governmental authorities and departments, private sector and companies, technical reports, literature review and conducted campaign measurements in three months continuously. three field works were carried out during three monitoring months may, june and july 2018. these input data are used for establishing a database qgis environment. the conceptual, logical and physical design of the spatial database for environmental analyses in the study area is also outlined. section 3 presents the main results and their discussion. in the last section 4, some general conclusions for maintaining, updating and improving the created information database are outlined. 2. methods 2.1 study area the study area covers part of the mitrovica region in the northern part of the republic of kosovo (maliqi, 2020), with about 41 km2 (maliqi & singh, 2019). it is defined based on the environmental influence of two tailings nearby the town of mitrovica and kelmend village population centers, the sitnicariver and the trepca mine complex (figure 1). the study region is located within 42°57'n and 42°52'n and 20°55'e and s20°54'e and has an 191 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 altitude between 500 and 950 m. the area is situated in the vardar zone of the dinaride alpine belt (maliqi, 2020), consisting of palaeozoic basement rocks, jurassic-cretaceous sediments and rocks of ophiolitic affinities foliated during the early tertiary (heinrich & neubauer, 2002). the weather in this region is continental, with warm summers and cold, snowy winters. figure 1. study area in mitrovica region, north kosovo the town of mitrovica has a long history of lead and zinc metallurgy productions (dekonta, 2009). cities like mitrovica with an industrial pollution legacy face many complex challenges. this region has provided economic opportunities and many jobs, but this is at the expense of high costs for environmental protection and human health. the primary sources for soil degradation and environmental pollution are the trepça mines, which is a large industrial complex in kosovo and the largest lead, zinc and silver mining mine in europe. pollution in this region comes from various sources but is mainly due to the industrial legacies, the influence of winds and water movement. 192 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 2.2 source data and methodological approach having the source data's technological and institutional challenges can affect serious environmental monitoring commitment in the studied area. therefore, for this study, three sources of environmental data are used to perform environmental analyses: (1) authoritative information developed by experts/governmental institutions without accessibility possibilities by the public; (2) information developed by specialists and scientists with options for open use by the public; (3) information is developed by involving the public as a participatory contribution, e.g. volunteered geographic information (sadeghi-niaraki et al., 2020). a systematic approach was followed to obtain the source data, including (1) identifying the data needed in terms of environmental monitoring, (2) identifying the openaccess geoportal and organizations of data collection, (3) searching the open-access geospatial databases and visiting the local organizations/institutions, (4) downloading and gathering available geospatial data (maliqi, 2020). priority was given to environmental data available in the republic of kosovo. geosensors are defined as devices for receiving and measuring environmental parameters that can be georeferenced (retscher & kabashi, 2014). the lack of open geospatial data in the ecological context, the difficulties to have ecological data in digital formats, lack of systematized data in local/central institutions or agencies, lack of vision for such data from environmental monitoring institutions made to have difficulties in ensuring a large amount of needed ecological datasets. therefore, it was impossible to collect datasets required to be migrated in the spatial database. primary data for the performed research have been obtained by direct field measurements of some ecological parameters. in contrast, additional data are extracted from different sources such as professional literature, open databases, and responsible institutions. as a set of primary data, surface and groundwater data were collected in three monitoring months in six monitoring stations by using gps equipment for defining geolocation and bottles for water sample collection. a list of spatial coordinates for six locations and eighteen water samples for surface and groundwater data has been composed. water samples have been used for analyzing the heavy metal pollution and metal index. surface water is one of the most vital earth resources changing in time and space due to land use/land cover changes, climate change, and other environmental factors (kaplan, 2020). for monitoring of vegetation and erosion, the landsat satellite images provided by the u.s. geological survey (usgs, 2020), the digital elevation model with 20 m spatial resolution provided by alos (japan aerospace exploration agency, 2020), land cover map provided by copernicus (2020) , the study area geological map, the corine land cover database, temperature data from world clime web database (world climate, 2021), soil 193 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 texture (food and agriculture organization, 2021), the mitrovica municipality boundary in shapefile from the kosovo cadastral agency (2020), the mining tailings boundaries from the ministry of environmental and spatial planning (2011) in kosovo, and the transportation and hydrology data (main roads, railway and rivers) from open street map (2021). 2.3 spatial data mathematical elements mathematical rules of the spatial database in qgis are defined according to the republic of kosovo's national legislation related to geospatial data (kosovo cadastral agency, 2020), technical requirements for environmental monitoring of area with about 41km2 and diversity of social and natural phenomena in the study area. they are as follows: (1) coordinate reference system: kosovoref01 with epsg code 9141 (idrizi, 2020); (2) the scale of vector data is 1:10.000; (3) the spatial resolution of raster data is 10m. 2.4 spatial data structure spatial data structures manipulate spatial data, that is, data with geometric coordinates (bowdoin, 2008). gis-based environmental applications became prominent with shifting from static paper maps to dynamic digital maps and geographic databases. gis became one of the most applied computer-based tools for storing and manipulating environmental data (sadeghi-niaraki et al., 2020). in the present study, the spatial database was designed and developed using qgis software ver 3.0 and its tools and visual paradigm such as unified modeling language (qgis, 2021). the datasets were generated to organize the monitored environmental data datasets, the type of representation and their relationship. the basic schema of spatial data content architecture for the mitrovica region is given in figure 2. this scheme includes basemap, hydrology, transportation, meaning features, groundwater quality, surface water quality, vegetation monitoring and erosion monitoring layers. basemap and erosion monitoring layers are stand-alone layers directly linked to a database, while the other six layers are grouped in two groups per three layers. the first group contains hydrology, transportation asnd mining features (left side of figure 2). in contrast, the second group has groundwater quality, surface water quality, and vegetation monitoring layers (right side of figure 2). based on requirements for performing environmental spatial analyses and available source spatial datasets, an appropriate data architecture was developed. 194 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 figure 2. scheme of the environmental database content the spatial database has been designed based on the arctur & zeiler (2004) approach, with three designing phases (i conceptual, ii logical, and iii physical), which contains ten steps (i 1. identify the information products produced with the gis system; 2. identify the key thematic layers; 3. specify the scale range and spatial representation for each thematic layer; 4. group representations into datasets; ii 1. define the tabular structure and behaviour of descriptive attributes, 2. define the spatial properties of the datasets, and 3. propose a spatial database design; iii 1. implement the design; 2. design workflow for building and maintaining each layer, and 3. design documentation). layers are followed by metadata based on iso 19115:2003 standard (iso, 2021), containing information on identification, categories, keywords, access, extent, contact, link, history and validation of the spatial data layers. 2.5 data harmonization input data obtained from several existing databases and field measurements have different structures and formats (idrizi et al., 2018). to have a homogenous spatial database for performing research, the input data from other datasets should fit geometry and semantics. the entire source data process was organized according to the five steps of the data harmonization framework, defined by janecka et al. (2013), as follow: (1) theory of spatial 195 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 data harmonization; (2) source data understanding; (3) target data understanding; (4) definition of necessary harmonization steps; (5) practical realization. all collected source data have been converted and transformed based on the predefined spatial data structure and spatial data mathematical elements (lubishtani & idrizi 2016) described in the text's upper points. harmonized data cannot integrate spatial data in one place, with the same data structure, in the same format, in the same coordinate system, in the same scale and with similar accuracy. the data harmonization process between 27 feature classes given in figure 3 ensured full interoperability between source data from different resources. it enabled performing complex spatial environmental analyses by common usage and data combination between 27 feature classes of 8 datasets. figure 3. structure of spatial datasets 196 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 3. results and discussion 3.1 environmental database for mitrovica region to address the challenges of managing multi-parameter and multi-time spatial data and information for environmental monitoring in the studied region, open-source qgis is an effective tool. creating an integrated unified database allows avoiding redundant data, reducing data volume, homogeneity data, easy finding and tracking of data, integrated spatial and attribute data, their use for gis spatial analysis for decision making and development strategies. a spatial database has been developed focusing on the environmental geospatial data in full accordance with standard procedures, including conceptual, logical and physical design phases (arctur & zeiler, 2004; sepehr, 2013) described above in the text. developing a spatial database involves defining the vital thematic layers regarding the usage, content, and representation of each thematic layer or defining how geographic features are represented (as points, lines, polygons or attribute and tabular data) (sepehr, 2013). arctur & zeiler (2004) pointed out that spatial database design specifies how data is organized into feature classes and attributes and specifies the gis behaviours by establishing the spatial relationships in datasets using rules. developed environmental spatial database for the mitrovica region of the republic of kosovo contains both the vector and raster layers, according to the spatial data structure. the extract of feature classes are given in table 1 and table 2. data feature classes based on the geometry of vector data classified in point, line and polygon categories are given in table 1, while raster feature classes grouped in five datasets are shown in table 2. table 1. vector data feature classes in ‘environmental spatial database’ point data line data polygon data trepca mine sitnica river republic of kosovo flotation roads south mitrovica groundwater monitoring stations railway the study area surface water monitoring stations tailings trepca mine sitnica river (50 m) table 2. raster data feature classes in ‘environmental spatial database’ base map groundwater quality surface water quality vegetation monitoring erosion monitoring dem (20 m) geology slope aspect heavy metal pollution index* metal index* heavy metal pollution index** metal index** heavy metal pollution index* metal index* heavy metal pollution index*** metal index*** ndvi (2000) ndvi (2010) ndvi (2018) erosion intensity (2000) soil loss (2000) erosion intensity (2018) soil loss (2018) note : * spline, ** inverse distance weighting (idw), *** kriging 197 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 the ‘environmental spatial database’ developed in this research consists of eight feature datasets, structured according to the conceptual and logical design phases, as an extendable database that can be upgraded with new thematic layers and data processing algorithms. using qgis as free and open-source software, the developing procedure has been performed, part of the osgeo family that contain all ogc standards and possibilities for integrating spatial data within the inspire directive specifications for establishing the spatial data infrastructure. vector and raster datasets are organized in one project (maliqi, 2020), containing project metadata information for performed research and specific settings for supporting spatial data. the datasets are grouped in separate thematic groups and subgroups in a hierarchical model. four theme models for automatic visualization change from one to other thematic parts (groundwater, surface water, vegetation and erosion).for each vector and raster layer, besides metadata information, qgis symbol styles in *.qml and *.sld were created, later exported as cartographic keys in *.xml format. vector layers are fully interoperable between them, as well strict rules for geometry, topology, joins and relationships were used for creating preconditions for performing spatial analyses. raster data have been aligned and then analyzed to avoid the no data and sieve raster cells. the final *.qgz project has all technical opportunities for lunching as a web service for public use by stakeholders. such solid rules for establishing the environmental spatial database were able to define and perform using qgis tools. the data (thematic layers) were loaded in terms of the entity types and their completeness in the loading data procedure, shown in figure 4. the hierarchical organization in the established environmental spatial database is given as an extract from qgis software, giving an overview of spatial data hierarchy and links between datasets and feature classes. this spatial database offers a wide range of environmental monitoring and decisionmaking applications and interdisciplinary analysis in the mitrovica region. available gis database allows to:  show the spatial-temporal distribution of environmental contamination and degradation; the numerous serial thematic maps were compiled through this spatial database.  having such spatial data and attribute data as one system helps show the spatial distribution and environmental pollution values and identify the most degraded areas. at the same time to identify areas potentially endangered by the natural and anthropogenic factors. 198 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204  easily to be compared the spatial and non-spatial data with national and international standards and directives.  use the current spatial database as base series for further environmental analysis and subsequent scientific studies to perform a trends analysis for this region. figure 4. feature datasets and classes in ‘environmental spatial database’ the developed spatial database has importance because all concerned parties can be involved; it becomes a new system for authorities in the mitrovica region and the republic of 199 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 kosovo. an important issue is knowing why the spatial database is being designed and how it can be used. if not, there is a risk that this environmental spatial database will not be utilized and developing in the future. there are a few attempts to develop spatial databases or geo databases by different researchers and authors in the past. hence, a comparison approach (previous studies) speaks that in the past, various researchers (kranjcic et al., 2020 ; roumenina et al., 2007) have done their analysis focusing on the environment but separately for each parameter such as waters, noise, air, erosion, vegetation. while, the present study encompasses a wide range of parameters, including groundwater, surface water, soil erosion and vegetation, even on different time series. as a common thing compared to previous studies, the source data were gathered mainly from the same open-access sources and used the same mathematical models to ensure the valid input data (water monitoring indices). the comparative analysis has shown that the developed spatial database is in full accordance with the theory of geoinformation science and systems with full support by qgis software. it is confirmed by other authors as well, for example, a previous study by plassin et al. (2019). therefore, the given results at the end of the present study remain within the theory limits and are comparable to other authors. however, they reflect the environmental specifics of our study area. on the other hand, the newly geospatial database in this study remains unique because we have a wide range of environmental aspects/parameters united into one database. the difference from previous studies is the number of environmental elements and parameters included in this spatial database. in this way, the present study reflects the current ecological conditions of the study area based on the last two decades monitoring. however, at the same time, it can be used for forecasting analysis for the future. environmental impact assessment and measures to decrease negative impacts on the environment (krasniqi et al., 2018), by using the established environmental spatial database for the mitrovica region in this research, will be a bridge between the current and future investigations (idrizi & zhaku, 2013) as well as a measure for environmental protection of studied area in next period. the developed database enables defining algorithms for performing spatial analysis for the study area and provided opportunities for periodic monitoring of groundwater quality, surface water quality, vegetation and erosion, with integrated multi-stage iterative processing of spatial and nonspatial data. for the mitrovitsa mining region, there was no available environmental spatial database. therefore, this is the first attempt to have a database in the ecological context, including groundwater, surface water, vegetation and erosion in different time series for the 200 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 last two decades. in addition, the spatial database included other environmental aspects to support the ecological monitoring in the studied region. the spatial database output can be visualized as time series thematic maps, graphs, reports, or three-dimensional views. the spatial database elaborated in this study has many advantages for environmental monitoring. it includes the integration of different essential thematic layers into a single database. the redundancy data is avoided, the volume of information is reduced, and the data are uniform. it can be served for environmental planning because all the environmental data can be overlaid with other data to view spatial relationships in the ecological context. to undertake “what if” scenarios, analyzing different environmental conditions can be used in this spatial database. it is not only for present environmental procedures but also for future ecological analysis and studies. furthermore, the ‘environmental spatial database’ will answer the many questions for environmental monitoring and assessment in the mitrovica region and its change ratio in the future. however, several conditions must be fulfilled to implement this spatial database by local or central institutions. first, the spatial database implementation as assistance for environmental monitoring should be articulated by the local or governmental institutions. second, it is essential to consider the datasets' potential with key thematic layers into the spatial database for decision and policy-making for this region. an important issue is administrative officers' ability to use and manipulate geospatial data to generate intelligent solutions. 4. conclusion in the present study, an overview, theoretical, and implemented spatial database design approach was given for particular ecological issues in the mitrovica region, kosovo. based on iso and ogc standards, the created ‘environmental spatial database’ integrates the different spatial and attribute/tabular environmental data types allowing their easy manipulation and performing complex geospatial analyses. during the conceptual, logical and physical design phases, the geodatabase structure was significantly improved. the environmental entities can be visualized as thematic tabular and cartographic results in qgis. its availability will benefit stakeholders involved in environmental monitoring and management. in addition, after updating in the future, the multi-functional database allows managing other aspects of the environment such as air, soil and noise with further time-series data. the compiled thematic maps can serve as a means of communication and comments on environmental issues to local and central institutions in kosovo, support management decisions, and implement environmentally responsible policies. the established spatial database is open and extendable, enabling improvement by involving new mathematical 201 bashkim idrizi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 189-204 models and spatial data to analyze the environmental and other related spatial phenomena by all interested experts and institutions/organizations without any limitation. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references 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(2020). reconstruction of cadastral information. retrieved from http://www.kca-ks.org. 55 research article assessment of water balance at mayang watershed, east java ariska mia christiwarda sihombing1 *, indarto indarto1 , sri wahyuningsih2 1department of natural resources and environmental management, university of jember, jl. kalimantan no. 37 jember, 68121, indonesia 2department of agricultural engineering, agricultural technology faculty, university of jember, jl. kalimantan no. 37 jember, 68121, indonesia received 11 february 2021/revised 5 april 2021/accepted 13 april 2021/published 25 april 2021 abstract mayang watersheds frequently hit by floods during the rainy season and drought during the dry season. this study aims to assess the water balance by calculating water resource availability and water demand in the mayang watershed. the water evaluation and planning (weap) model was used as the primary tool for the analysis. the supply of water comes only from precipitation. demand was calculated based on the water demand for irrigation, domestic, urban, industrial, and livestock uses. the unit of time to calculate the water balance is ten days. it means that each month is divided into three-time steps. analysis of the weap is based on the water demand from 2002 to 2019. the results showed that from 3rd december to 1st may, the mayang river and its tributaries could supply all demand sites up to 100%. however, unmet demand occurs from 2nd may to 2nd december. the highest first unmet demand occurred in october, with 0.67 million m3. the management of water resources, especially in terms of distribution during the rainy season and dry season, must be considered. keywords: water balance; water supply; water demand; mayang; watershed; weap 1. introduction water is an essential requirement for human survival; without water, there would be no life on earth. water demand is water that is used to fulfill daily activities. water sources for daily needs, in general, must meet the quantity and quality standards (kencanawati & mustakim, 2017). water resources on the watershed use to supply water demand for irrigation, domestic, urban, industrial, livestock, and other needs. water becomes a valuable resource, both in terms of quality and quantity (misra, 2014). a watershed is an ecosystem that has elements including natural and human resources. natural resources act as objects consisting of land, vegetation, and water, while the human element is the subject or actor of the utilization of the elements of natural resources (zuriyani, 2017). regional development will cause water demand to increase in line with population growth. fulfilling food needs and population activities is always closely related to water demand. thus, water resources geosfera indonesia *corresponding author. email address : 172520103007@students.unej.ac.id (ariska mia christiwarda sihombing) (ariska mia christiwarda sihombing) vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021, 55-76 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i1.23111 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6319-6731 mailto:172520103007@students.unej.ac.id 56 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 management becomes critical to determine how much water is available for supporting human use and economic activities. water resource policymakers use such a tool to calculate the balance between water supply and demand. the policymakers are also responsible for the protection of the environment. they should ensure the fair use of water resources, promote efficient water use, and determine shared water resource priorities. a tool, for example, water evaluation and planning (weap). weap operates on the water balance principle and can be applied to the agricultural system in a single watershed or watershed across regions (sieber & purkey, 2015). this model uses standard linear programming to solve the water resource allocation problem for every time step. an integrated water resource planning analysis can also be developed for various future scenarios using alternative assumptions about the impact of water requirements and supply policies (duque, 2017; george et al., 2018). water balance modeling using weap requires data on water availability, data collection on climate, hydrology, and water demand to map existing water resources and their use in river areas (dimova et al., 2013). understanding the water balance is very important to determine how much water is available in the area for consumptive needs over a certain period and how that water should be shared among users in the planning process. around 799,352 peoples are living in the mayang watershed (badan pusat statistik kabupaten jember, 2020). people depend on the mayang river and its main tributaries. they use the water for irrigation, domestic, urban, industrial, and livestock. precipitation is the amount of water that falls on a flat land surface during a certain period which is measured in units of a millimeter (mm) height above the horizontal surface (purba & ulama, 2016). precipitation is assumed to be the sole input in the watershed hydrological system, while river, spring, and groundwater are other forms of rainwater (munajad & suprayogi, 2015). although the catchment receives an average annual precipitation of 1,733 mm, it can be counted as an abundance of water resources. however, the watershed is still prone to hydrometeorological disasters. this watershed is subject to flood during the rainy season and risk of drought during the prolonged dry season. several hydro-meteorological disasters (such as floods, landslides, and drought) have occurred from 2007 to 2015. this will affect livelihoods and socio-economic activities in the future. weap can analyze the water balance of a watershed. weap can analyze the surplus and deficit of water resources in the watershed. the analysis results can be used as a basis for decision-making in watershed management for the future. planning, development, and proper water resources management are essential to meet current and future water demand (sivakumar, 2011). this study focuses on a water balance 57 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 that is modeled using the weap. several researchers have focused on the weap application. for example, weap calculates the water balance of the rawatamtu sub-watershed (setiawan et al., 2019). this research is limited to agricultural water balance. our study intends to calculate the overall water balance in the whole area of the mayang watershed. in this study, the water balance component consists of water demand from various fields, such as irrigation, domestic, urban, industrial, and livestock. therefore, this study calculates the water balance in more detail. this study aims to calculate the availability of water resources and water demand in the mayang watershed. 2. methods 2.1 study site and input data the mayang watershed (figure 1) has an area of 1,135 km2. the altitude on the watershed varies from 95 to 3,175 masl (meter above sea level). more than 95% of the watershed area is located at jember regency, while only a few areas are located at banyuwangi regency. figure 1. study site mayang watershed both hydrological data series and geo-spatial are used as input for modeling in the weap. the hydrological data series consists of precipitation and water demands data. precipitation data were selected from seven (7) measurement sites having the most extended recording periods (i.e., 2002-2019). figure 2 presents the location of the seven (7) precipitation stations on the watershed. data series related to irrigation water demand is 58 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 obtained from the local water agency. furthermore, water demands from other sectors, i.e., domestic, urban, industrial, and livestock, are calculated from existing statistical data. the geo-spatial data includes the digital elevation model (dem), land cover map, and soil type map. the dem is extracted from the demnas (badan informasi geospasial, 2019). the demnas is the digital elevation model data at the national level that can be freely downloaded from the national geospatial information agency (badan informasi geospatial or big) through their official website (badan informasi geospasial, 2019). the demnas is used to delineate the watershed boundary, determine the river network, and describe the water balance schematic (supply vs. demand) on the weap platform. figure 2. thiessen polygone of mayang watershed this map uses to describe the condition of the watershed for the periods from 2011 to 2020. finally, the soil type layer was obtained from the existing database (soil research institute, 1998) and represented the soil layer condition. 2.2 weap the weap model is integrated modeling software that simulates and calculates water supply, water demand, and environmental requirements and considers the impact of water quantity, water quality, and ecosystem policies. weap considers supply preferences and demand priorities to solve water allocation problems using a combination of linear and 59 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 heuristic programming (sieber & purkey, 2015). weap can be used as a tool to support decisions in water resource management (le page et al., 2012) 2.3 procedure 2.3.1 analysis of precipitation data the consistency test was calculated for each precipitation station (ilham et al., 2018). this process needs to be done because the rainfall required to prepare a water use design is the average rainfall in all areas concerned, not rainfall at a certain point (mangende et al., 2016). table 1 present the test result for the seven stations. it can be concluded that the seven stations are consistent, which means that the measured and calculated data are correlated. then, point precipitation measurement is then interpolated to areal precipitation by using the thiessen polygon interpolation method. the interpolation was prepared using the existing tutorial. table 1. consistency test of precipitation stations station name r² explanation dam talang 0.9898 consistent jatisari 0.9928 consistent jenggawah 0.9903 consistent karang kedawung 0.9953 consistent pakusari 0.9981 consistent seputih 0.9981 consistent sumberjati 0.9892 consistent 2.3.2 analysis of land cover change two types of land cover maps were used in this study. the first map was a clip from the "rupa bumi indonesia" (rbi) digital maps and downloaded from the big website (badan informasi geospasial, 2019). this map uses to represent the land cover of the watershed for the periods of 2000 to 2010. the second landcover maps were obtained from the classified landsat-8 image (hakim, 2019). the land cover data is used to simulate the hydrological and to calculate evapotranspiration. table 2 shows the land cover class distribution (in km2) and the change (in % of the total watershed area) from 2001 to 2015. 60 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 table 2. land cover (lc) at mayang watershed class 2001 2015 (km2) (%) (km2) (%) built-up area (1) 91.19 7.84 121.32 10.43 irrigated paddy (2) 198.89 17.10 321.12 27.6 non-irrigated land (3) 1.98 0.17 38.46 3.3 marginal land (4) 133.49 11.47 302.58 26.0 forest / plantation (5) 735.29 63.20 378.57 32.54 water body (6) 2.56 0.22 1.36 0.12 total 1163.41 100 1163.41 100 figure 3 shows the two land cover maps of the watershed. the forest-plantation area decreased significantly from 2001 to 2015 by 30.66%. changes in forest-plantation land cover have turned into agricultural land and build-up area. figure 3. land cover map in 2001 and 2015 2.3.3 water demand analysis a. irrigation water demand the crop data used to determine the palawija relative area (pra). pra is the ratio of water requirements between one crop type to another (haliem et al., 2013). then, the pra is used to calculate the irrigation water demand. furthermore, the coefficient for each crop type is determined by using table 3. 61 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 table 3.crop type coefficients (haliem et al., 2013) crop type crop coefficient palawija 1 irrigated-paddy a. nursery 20 b. land cultivation 6 c. growth 4 non-irrigated paddy a. nursery 20 b. land cultivation 6 c. growth 4 sugarcane a. planting 1.5 b. growth 1.5 c. harvest 0 tobacco or rosella 1 the pra value is determined based on eq. 1: 𝑃𝑅𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑥 𝐶 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 (1) where, pra: palawija relative area (ha.pol); 𝐴 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝: crop type area (ha); 𝐶 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝: coefficient of crop types. the palawija relative factor (prf) value is determined by considering each soil type map's value, as shown in figure 4. the soil type map clip from the soil layer database as published by (soil research institute, 1998). furthermore, the prf values for each type of soil class are presented in table 4. figure 4. soil type map of the watershed 62 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 table 4. fpr value based on soil type (haliem et al., 2013) soil type fpr (l/s/ha.pol) less water enough water more water alluvial 0.18 0.18-0.36 0.36 latosol 0.12 0.12-0.23 0.23 grumusol 0.06 0.06-0.12 0.12 source: finally, the demand for irrigation (qir) is obtained from the multiplication of the pra and prf which can be written on eq. 2 (dewi et al., 2014): 𝑄𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑅𝐴 𝑥 𝑃𝑅𝐹 (2) where, qir: irrigation water demand (l/s); pra: palawija relative area (ha.pol); prf: palawija relative factor (l/s/ha). b. domestic, urban, and industrial water demand first, the domestic water demand (dwd) is needed by households. the households usually withdrawal water directly by a sink or borehole from the unsaturated zone. otherwise, households obtained water from the municipal water supply system service (bsn, 2015). in this case, the dwd is calculated based on the number of residents in the area (mashuri et al., 2015). the main factor determining domestic water demand is population growth (afrianto et al., 2015). dwd depends on the city category based on the population in liters/person/day, as presented in table 5 (bsn, 2015). table 5. domestic water demand per city category urban category total population (person) water demand (l/person) semi-urban 3,000-20,000 60-90 small town 20,000-100,000 90-110 medium city 100,000-500,000 100-125 big city 500,000-1,000,000 120-150 metropolitan >1,000,000 150-200 the equation for calculating domestic water demand can be written in eq. (3): 𝐷𝑊𝐷 = ∑ 𝑃𝑜𝑝 𝑥 120𝑙 (3) second, the urban water demand (uwd) is defined as the water needed to support the social and commercial facilities, such as hospitals, hotels, schools, shops, and warehouses are assumed to be 15% -30% of the total dwd (bsn, 2015). the equation for calculating urban water demand can be written in eq. (4) : 𝑈𝑊𝐷 = 𝐷𝑊𝐷 𝑥 15% (4) 63 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 thirdly, industrial water demand (iwd) assumed tends to be constant with time. the more the industry increases, the more water demand increases (bsn, 2015). data of industrial water demand (iwd) is obtained from the local public water service at the regency level during the field survey. c. livestock the livestock water demand (lwd) is calculated based on the number and types of livestock in the watershed area (zulkipli et al., 2012). the lwd is determined by the number and growth rate of livestock (putri et al., 2016). for this reason, an analysis is needed to estimate the number of livestock in the next fews years. the amount of lwd is presented in table 6. table 6. water demand for livestock (bsn, 2015) types of livestock water demand (l/d) cow / buffalo / horse 40 goat/sheep 5 pig 6 poultry 0.6 the eq. (5) is used for calculating lwd : 𝐿𝑊𝐷 = ((𝑞1 𝑥 𝑃1) + (𝑞2 𝑥 𝑃2) + ( 𝑞3 𝑥 𝑃3) (5) where, lwd = livestock water demand ( l /day), q1 = water requirements for types of livestock and horses (l/day), q2 = water requirements for goats and sheep (l/day), q3 = water requirements for poultry (/day) p1 , p2, p3, = number of types of livestock. 2.3.4 preparing the weap scheme the boundary of the watershed was derived from the demnas using a hydrological function and weap tool. a blue line represents the river flow network. a point in red represents the location of the output points. a demand site relates to a set of water users in an area (sieber & purkey, 2015). the weap scheme model of the mayang watershed is shown in figure 5. 64 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 figure 5. weap scheme map 2.3.5 calibration and validation the data used in the calibration and validation process are 10-day period discharge data. the discharge from the 2003-2009 period was used as a calibration. in comparison, the discharge from the 2010 to 2019 period was used as validation. calibration and validation were performed by comparing the simulated vs. observed flows for the two recording periods. a simple statistical measure (i.e., the coefficient of determination or r2) is used to evaluate the calibration and validation performances. 3. results and discussion 3.1 calibration and validation the calibration processes produce a coefficient of determination (r2)= 0.78 (figure 6), while for validation result of r2 = 0.88 (figure 7). both r2 values relatively acceptable to measure the correlation between simulated and observed discharge. figure 6. the weap model calibration y = 1.427x 1.7484 r² = 0.78 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 s im u la te d d is c h a rg e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) observed discharge x 106 (m3) 65 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 figure 7. the weap model validation 3.2 inflow and outflow of watershed the average volume of inflow and outflow per 10-day period from 2002 to 2019 is presented in figure 8. the average volume of precipitation per period is 56.02 million m3. the average volume of evapotranspiration per 10-days period is 20.43 million m3. evapotranspiration is 36.5% of the total precipitation. the value of evapotranspiration is quite significant. the same result was also found by setiawan et al. (2019), where the amount of evapotranspiration of precipitation was 41.2%. the amount of water that comes out as a result of evapotranspiration is a combination of evaporation and transpiration of plants that live on the earth's surface. water evaporated by plants is released into the atmosphere. the average volume of surface runoff per period is 29.75 million m3. figure 8 shows that the dry season can start from 1st may to 1st november, followed by the rainy season (monsoon), starting from november to 2nd april. figure 9 also illustrates the typical properties of tropical climate regions, where the strong contrast condition exists between rainy and dry seasons. y = 1.2x 5.3794 r² = 0.88 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 s im u la te d d is c h a rg e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) observed discharge x 106 (m3) 66 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 figure 8. inflow and outflow per 10-day period surface runoff as the outflow is influenced by land cover. forest and plantation land cover are transformed into agricultural land and housing. forest and plantation land cover in 2015 decreased by 30.66% (table 2). this causes water that falls as precipitation less infiltrate to the soil layer. the storage in the soil layer (groundwater) decreases, and therefore more precipitation is converted directly to runoff. the amount of annual precipitation from 2002 to 2019 is illustrated in figure 12. the average annual precipitation is 1,733 mm. however, the maximum annual precipitation can reach 4,000 mm per year, while the minimum can go down to 632.23 mm. the average annual precipitation is 1,733 mm. the average annual evapotranspiration is 632.23 mm and for runoff is 920.61 million mm. the precipitation trend in the mayang watershed area from 2002-2019 has increased, although slightly. this increase was also found by setiawan & hariyanto (2017) in several regions in east java. -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 1 st j a n 3 rd j a n 2 n d f e b 1 st m a r 3 rd m a r 2 n d a p r 1 st m a y 3 rd m a y 2 n d j u n 1 st j u l 3 rd j u l 2 n d a u g 1 st s e p 3 rd s e p 2 n d o c t 1 st n o v 3 rd n o v 2 n d d e c v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) 10-day period base flow decrease in soil moisture evapotranspiration increase in soil moisture interflow precipitation surface runoff 67 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 figure 9. mayang watershed annual inflow and outflow it means that the amount of precipitation received is sufficiently available. however, the distribution of precipitation between rainy and dry seasons is significant. therefore, the leading water resources management problem is how to deal with the inequality of water distribution between dry and rainy seasons. in other words, the problem of water resources management is more accentuated by water balance. 3.3 water demand 3.3.1 irrigation water demand the average volume of irrigation demand per 10-day period from 2002 to 2019 is presented in figure 10. it is noted that per the 10-days, the irrigation water demand is about 1.48 million m3. -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 (m m ) year base flow decrease in soil moisture evapotranspiration increase in soil moisture interflow precipitation surface runoff 68 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 figure 10. irrigation water demand per 10-day period figure 11. annual irrigation water demand furthermore, figure 11 presents the volume of annual irrigation water demands. figure 11 shows that the annual water demand for irrigation is 53.43 million m3. the demand for irrigation in the mayang watershed tends to be constant every year. however, the annual irrigation water demand in the mayang watershed is relatively high. moreover, agarwal et al. (2018) also found a high water demand for irrigation. this is due to the wide agricultural area and cropping patterns in the study area that are not in accordance with climatic conditions. the cropping pattern applied in the mayang watershed is rice three times a year. this is incompatible with the climate of the mayang watershed. where according to schmidt ferguson, the climate classification of the watershed is type c. the climate with a q value of 50%. climate type c is not suitable for planting paddy three times a year. this 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1 st j a n 3 rd j a n 2 n d f e b 1 st m a r 3 rd m a r 2 n d a p r 1 st m a y 3 rd m a y 2 n d j u n 1 st j u l 3 rd j u l 2 n d a u g 1 st s e p 3 rd s e p 2 n d o c t 1 st n o v 3 rd n o v 2 n d d e c v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) 10-day period 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 v o lu m e 1 0 6 (m 3 ) year 69 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 statement was supported by putri et al. (2016), who stated that another aspect that affects the irrigation water demand is climate. 3.3.2 domestic, urban, and industry water demand the average water demand volume (per 10-day interval) for domestic, urban, and industrial from 2002 to 2019 is about 0.94 million m3 (figure 12). the average annual volume of domestic, urban, and industrial water demand is 33.97 million m3 (figure 13). figure 12. domestic, urban, and industrial water demand per 10-day period figure 13. annual domestic, urban, and industrial water demand furthermore, figure 13 visualize the increase of water demand as the increase of slope of figure 13. from 2002 to 2019, more water is needed to support industry 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1 st j a n 3 rd j a n 2 n d f e b 1 st m a r 3 rd m a r 2 n d a p r 1 st m a y 3 rd m a y 2 n d j u n 1 st j u l 3 rd j u l 2 n d a u g 1 st s e p 3 rd s e p 2 n d o c t 1 st n o v 3 rd n o v 2 n d d e c v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) 10-day period 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) year 70 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 development, population density, and the increase of public facilities. this was also found by afrianto et al. (2015), where the increase in population impacted increasing water demand. the phenomena may continue for the next years as the population always grows. 3.3.3 livestock the average water demand volume (per 10-day period) to support livestock production from 2002 to 2019 is 0.11 million m3 (figure 14). the annual water demand for livestock production from 2002 to 2019 varies from 3.7 to 4.8 million m3, while the average annual demand is 4.07 million m3 (figure 15). figure 14. livestock water demand per 10-day figure 15. annual livestock water demand the changes in the number of livestock are not the same every year, and each type of livestock has different water demand. therefore, the total annual water demand for livestock more fluctuates each year. the type of cows/horses/buffalo is the type of livestock with the 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 1 st j a n 3 rd j a n 2 n d f e b 1 st m a r 3 rd m a r 2 n d a p r 1 st m a y 3 rd m a y 2 n d j u n 1 st j u l 3 rd j u l 2 n d a u g 1 st s e p 3 rd s e p 2 n d o c t 1 st n o v 3 rd n o v 2 n d d e c v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) 10-day period 0 1 2 3 4 5 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) year 71 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 most significant water demand. water demand for cows/buffaloes is 40l / day. so the number of cows in the study site will determine the high demand for livestock water. this also happens in the krueng khe watershed, where the number of cows greatly affects the amount of water demand for livestock (putri et al., 2016). 3.3.4 coverage and unmet demand figure 16 illustrates the average coverage from 2002 to 2019 analyzed by swat. the coverage is the percentage of each site demand met, from 0% (no water) to 100% (sufficient water supply). coverage 100% means that the supply can cover all water demand. figure 16. coverage figure 16 shows that from 2nd may to 2nd december, the supply is insufficient to meet the demand. it is supposed that 1st may is the start of the dry season, and therefore the lack of water supply starts on 2nd may. this happens because of the low precipitation due to the dry season. apart from low precipitation, the need for water in 10 days is also high due to the three times rice planting pattern in a year in the study location. as a result, there is a severe shortage of water. on 1st october, the peak was only 74.92% of water demand can be covered by water supply. meanwhile, from 3rd december to 1st may, the watershed can supply all the water demand up to 100%. the volume of unmet demand per 10-day period and annually in the mayang watershed is shown in figure 17 and figure 18. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1 st j a n 3 rd j a n 2 n d f e b 1 st m a r 3 rd m a r 2 n d a p r 1 st m a y 3 rd m a y 2 n d j u n 1 st j u l 3 rd j u l 2 n d a u g 1 st s e p 3 rd s e p 2 n d o c t 1 st n o v 3 rd n o v 2 n d d e c c o v e ra g e p e rc e n ta g e ( % ) 10-day period 72 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 figure 17. unmet demand per 10-day period figure 18. annual unmet demand unmet demand is the amount of water needed but can not be supplied from the available water resources. it is essential to know the magnitude of the water shortage (sieber & purkey, 2015). the highest unmet demand occurred on october 1st period, where about 0.67 million m3 of demand can not be covered. the average volume of unmet demand is 0.15 million m3. figure 18 shows a lack of water occurrence for the dry season. for example, in 2019, the unmet demand is 15.95 million m3. if the unmet demand occurs continuously, it will propagate an impact on various aspects of life. it does not rule out hydrological disasters such as drought and floods. the management of water resources, especially in terms of distribution during the rainy season and dry season, must be considered. the average annual unmet demand is 5.33 million m3. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) 10-day period 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 v o lu m e x 1 0 6 (m 3 ) year 73 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 the water demand for each site tends to increase every year (i.e., domestic, urban, and industrial water demand sites). the increase of population on the watershed is expected to be quite large, considering an increase of 0.55% (badan pusat statistik kabupaten jember, 2020). the increase in population will undoubtedly increase domestic water demand. in addition to water demand for various sites, the demand for outflow components in this model is surface runoff and evapotranspiration. surface runoff and evapotranspiration are the most significant components of the outflow. the value depends on the percentage of vegetation land cover—the more the vegetation cover, the smaller the runoff. the simple things that can be done to increase water demand for domestic, urban, industrial, and livestock are savings or efficiency measures. the application of saving demand for irrigation water can be made by applying the sri method. the sri method can reduce irrigation water demand by 25% with the sri method (subari et al., 2012). however, to apply this method, a more in-depth study of the water demand for irrigation. the application of savings for irrigation water demand can also be made by changing cropping patterns. this is because the demand for irrigation water is the most significant demand than water demand in other sectors. this is supported by kumalajati et al.(2017) research which states that agriculture is the largest user of water. changes in paddy cropping three times a year can be replaced with palawija during the dry season. this can help reduce the water demand for irrigation, given that the water demand for palawija is much smaller than for rice. for groundwater preservation during the rainy season, a simple thing that can be done is to make infiltration wells in the house's yard. the same result was conveyed by kahirun & hasani (2017) regarding technical efforts in forest and land rehabilitation by applying soil and water conservation principles. this can help reduce surface runoff and prevent water from being discharged into water bodies. 4. conclusion the water balance of mayang watershed was observed for 18 years (2002 to 2019) using the weap model. the average annual precipitation that supplies the watershed is 1733.56 mm. the demand for water for each site tends to increase every year. the modeling results show that from 2002 to 2019, the water resources condition in the watershed can meet the demand from 3rd december to 1st may. the coverage value reaches 100%. however, from 2nd may to 2nd december, the demand for water from all demand sites was insufficient. the highest first unmet demand occurred in october, with 0.67 million m3. the management of water resources, especially in terms of distribution during the rainy season and dry season, 74 ariska mia christiwarda sihombing et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 55-76 must be considered. it is also noted that the weap can simulate the main component of water balance in the watershed. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. acknowledgments this study is sponsored by research grant (hibah pps ptm) from the ministry of research and higher education (ristek dikti) of indonesia for 2019, coordinated by sri wahyuningsih. references afrianto, l., rohmat, d., & jupri. 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(2017). dinamika kehidupan manusia dan kondisi sumberdaya alam daerah aliran sungai. jurnal spasial, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.22202/js.v3i2.1607. 2.1 study site and input data 2.2 weap the weap model is integrated modeling software that simulates and calculates water supply, water demand, and environmental requirements and considers the impact of water quantity, water quality, and ecosystem policies. weap considers supply preferen... 2.3 procedure the consistency test was calculated for each precipitation station (ilham et al., 2018). this process needs to be done because the rainfall required to prepare a water use design is the average rainfall in all areas concerned, not rainfall at a cer... 109 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.26400 research article local wisdom values of the pulo traditional village community in environmental management yani sri astuti, revi mainaki, anita eka putri* department of geography education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas siliwangi, jl. siliwangi no. 24, kota tasikmalaya, 46115, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : anita.eka@unsil.ac.id 1. introduction local wisdom in the pulo traditional village is part of the local culture as a result of all human activities. culture is generated based on human experience in the environment and related to creativity, taste and intention (ratih, 2019). the people in pulo traditional village adapt to environmental conditions to capture natural phenomena and respond to them, and the culture in the pulo traditional village was not found in other locations (indrawardana, 2013; dahliani, 2015; qodariah & armiyati, 2015). local wisdom in pulo traditional village could be interpreted as a socio-cultural order in the form of knowledge, regulations, norms, values, and skills of the community in an area to meet the life necessities without destroying the surrounding environmental conditions (hidayati, 2016). local wisdom is very important to be preserved in a society in order to maintain environmental balance and it could be encouraged to become a tourism destination (widodo., 2012; herman et al., 2021). setyaningrum & naomi (2018) stated that the loss of local wisdom values that exist in the community has caused several problems related to conservation and knowledge about the environment. gunawan abstract local wisdom is the lives values that enables people to live in harmony with other individual and their environment. an example of a place that still maintains this value is a traditional village. west java has eight traditional villages, one of which is the pulo, located in garut regency, where the environment is still very well preserved because the values of local wisdom are applied in environmental management. this study aims to analyzes the values of local wisdom related to environmental management in pulo traditional village community. data were collected through observation, interviews, literature studies and documentation, then were analyzed descriptively using a qualitative ethnomethodology approach. the results showed that the community retains the value of local wisdom in maintaining their relationship with the environment by 1) preserving the prohibitions in the form of pamali, 2) prohibiting livestock rearing that pollutes the environment, 3) using certain plants wisely, as well as limiting the number of buildings and their occupants,and 4) constructing buildings with eco-friendly architecture. therefore, these values need to be maintained to serve as a model or example for society in general. keywords : local wisdom values; environmental management article info article history received : 1 august 2021 revised : 12 april 2022 accepted : 22 april 2022 published : 30 april 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 109-118 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.26400 mailto:anita.eka@unsil.ac.id http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8305-989x https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 110 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 et al (2014) stated that humans have the ability to change the environment even under various conditions. therefore, local wisdom plays an important role in maintaining harmony between nature and humans. environmental damage is caused by the loss of the value of local wisdom and increasing economic needs (rahayu et al., 2014; hidayati., 2016). wyly (2021) found that changes in livelihoods and urban development cause people to change their lifestyle. the pulo tradtional village is able to survive the times and the increasing needs of the community (hidayati, 2016). suarsa & verawaty (2019) examined the pulo traditional village using a phenomenological approach, it was found that the pulo traditional village was unique compared to other traditional villages, for example the condition of the lake was still maintained. previous research related to local wisdom including the relationship between the environment and disaster through an ethnographic approach (dietrich, 2021; renfrew & pearson, 2021), environmental pollution (mascarenhas et al., 2021), and local wisdom of fishing communities (naing et al., 2009). local wisdom values of the pulo traditional village are also in accordance with forest conservation. griscom et al. (2020) stated that tropical countries have an important role related to forest conservation. local wisdom could be an alternative to solving global environmental problems that have been studied previously, therefore the study of local wisdom in pulo traditional village is interesting to study empirically as a solution. based on what has been described previously, this study analyzes the local wisdom values of the pulo traditional village community regarding environmental management. this research also complements previous studies on local wisdom in preserving the environment in pulo traditional village. 2. methods 2.1 research subject and data collection techniques this research was conducted using a qualitative approach based on research subjects, namely the values of local wisdom in the pulo traditional village. the instruments were developed according to the data, including a) observation instruments to directly observe the condition of the pulo traditional village and the values of local wisdom; b) an open interview instrument to conduct interviews with traditional elders and local communities using random sampling techniques to further explore the values of local wisdom in environmental conservation efforts; c) literacy study instruments to carry out theoretical data; and d) documentation study instruments to collect documentation data from relevant agencies that cannot be obtained through certain statistical equations, therefore there is no sample term in this study, however is referred to as the research subject in accordance with the part of qualitative research. this study emphasizes subject observation to obtain results, the qualitative approach used emphasizes an ethnomethodological approach that related to understanding about how people or society see, explain and describe the rules of the world based on the researcher's point of view objectively (rahmat et al., 2020). 2. 2 data analysis techniques the next step is to analyze the data descriptively, namely the research results are described comprehensively, so that the findings in the field become the main source of research. (prabowo et al., 2016). descriptive method as part of qualitative research aims to maintain the shape of human behavior and analyze quality, nor turn it into a quantitative entity (prasanti, 2018). the steps in the research are in accordance with the local wisdom values of pulo traditional village related to environmental preservation which consist of determining and formulating data collection techniques, developing research instruments and then conducting descriptive analysis (kamarusdiana, 2019). 111 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 3. results and discussion 3.1 about the traditional village of pulo generating local wisdom values based on the survey and census of the central statistics agency (2018) with a combination method, pulo village is located in cangkuang village, leles district, garut regency. astronomically, pulo traditional village is located on a small island that extends from west to east with an area of 16.5 hectares, approximately 2 km from leles sub-district and 17 km from garut city. administratively, cangkuang village in the north is bordered by negrlasari village, kadungora district; in the south it is bordered by margaluyu village and sukarame village, leles district; in the west it is bordered by talagasari village, kadungora district and leles village, leles district; and in the east bordering the village of karang anyar. furthermore, the central statistics agency (2018) with the same census method explained that the environmental conditions in the pulo traditional village area have very good environmental quality, are clean and well maintained (figure 1). figure 1. the general condition of the pulo traditional village this area is also an area that has a low noise level with a very limited population, which consists of only 6 families with a male population of 12 and 11 female residents. pulo traditional village residents are on average aged 6 to 90. years by adopting islam. the education level of the people of pulo traditional village is the people's school (sr) which is equivalent to elementary school (sd). as for their descendants, they already have a higher level of work at the high school level and some are up to university. their low level of education greatly affects their level of employment. the results of the literacy study from central statistics agency (2018) with the combined method show that almost the majority of their family heads make a living as farmers, there is also a status as a civil servant (pns) because he has a position as a representative of the kuncen who was officially appointed as an employee of the banten cultural heritage preservation center (bpcb) under the ministry of education and culture (kemdikbud), while the kuncen has the status as an honorary at the garut regency tourism office. education and work of the community in pulo traditional village affect land use conditions, the use of agricultural land belonging to the village government is planted with rice and gardens with secondary crops such as corn, cassava, long beans, tomatoes, vegetables and fruits such as papaya, banana and avocado. agricultural products from the land in pulo traditional village are used by the community for daily consumption, while commercial agricultural activities are carried out on arable land outside pulo traditional village. agricultural activities carried out by the people of pulo traditional village still use traditional tools in general. however, along with the development of agricultural knowledge and technology, some farmers in 112 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 pulo village are already using tractors. in this area, there are still many types of traditional plants for food, shelter, traditional ceremonies and for medicinal purposes. agricultural activities in the pulo traditional village are also based on local wisdom, as a control so that these activities do not have a negative impact on the environment. for example, agricultural activities without local wisdom, such as research by hannah et al. (2020) on climatedriven agricultural activities using crop suitability models, climate data, agricultural constraint ensembles, water quality impacts, soil organic carbon impacts and biodiversity impacts showed that uncontrolled agricultural activities can also have adverse environmental impacts, for example northward expansion of agriculture in temperate and boreal ecosystems. can make an additional 18.4 gtc vulnerable and irreversible, while pulo traditional village has local wisdom that controls humans in using land for agriculture, especially also for its forest area. other examples include: climate change risks to irreversible carbon may including warming temperatures increasing tree mortality (sullivan, 2020), hence an alternative approach to assessing risk of future land use conversion could include gradients of human modification (kennedy et al., 2019). figure 2. the livelihoods of pulo traditional village based on the results of the study, the people of pulo traditional village and their descendants who live outside the village, but are still in one area of cangkuang village are given the opportunity to have a livelihood from tourism activities in situ cangkuang and pulo traditional village (figure 2). they were given the opportunity to trade on booths built by the garut regency tourism office, as towing rafts to cross tourists from the entrance gate of the cangkuang cultural and natural tourist attraction area to pulo village. as for the agricultural activities of the pulo traditional village community, it is carried out on rice fields and garden land, both on village government land and own land, and arable land belonging to others with a rental system, as well as profit sharing called the local community with the term maparo or middle. the land area of pulo traditional village is about 5 hectares and belongs to the village government, which includes residential land, agricultural land, land containing the cangkuang temple building and the cangkuang site museum. 3.2 history of pulo traditional village regarding the emergence of local wisdom values based on the results of literacy studies and interviews, several historical facts about the pulo traditional village are obtained, it is known that historically pulo traditional village was a village founded by arif muhammad who was a soldier from the mataram kingdom who was assigned by sultan agung to attack. batavia in the xvii century is confirmed by the results of the research by suarsa & verawaty (2019) which examined the same thing with a qualitative approach and an interpretive paradigm as well as a phenomenological approach to reveal this, the same one. however because of his defeat, he was afraid to return to mataram and looked for a hiding place until one day 113 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 he found a lake that had land. arif muhammad took his wife with him and gave birth to 7 children, consisting of a son and 6 daughters. the number of descendants is symbolized by the number of buildings in pulo traditional village, namely one mosque which symbolizes 1 boy and 6 houses which symbolizes 6 girls. figure 3. historical site in pulo traditional village when arif muhammad came to cangkuang village, the local community had embraced hinduism, but with a cultural approach, arif muhammad then succeeded in spreading islam. patterns characterized by islam and hinduism can still be found in various activities carried out by the people of pulo traditional village. the evidence of hindu heritage can be seen from the existence of a temple located on pulo panjang land (figure 3). this hindu temple is thought to have been built in the 8th century. the stone ruins of the temple building were discovered by an archaeologist named uka tjandrasasmita on december 12, 1966. after being found, this temple was then excavated and studied in 1967 1968, then restored in the range 1974 1976. the discovery of the ruins of the temple building was also accompanied by the discovery of a statue of the gods shiva is one of the gods worshiped by hindus. the actual shape of the cangkuang temple building is unknown, while the cangkuang temple as seen today is actually the result of reconstruction engineering because the original heritage building only shows 40%. after undergoing the reconstruction of the temple building in 1976, situ cangkuang and pulo traditional village were inaugurated as tourist attractions and began to be visited by many since 1990 after promotional efforts from the local government. 3.3 the values of local wisdom of the pulo traditional village in environmental management local wisdom in pulo traditional village is defined as a written or unwritten custom that is still adhered to by the local community. local wisdom is believed to be closely related between residents and the natural environment, in line with results of research by roesmanto (2018), how local wisdom is more abstract and unwritten but is obeyed by the local community. the results of the study show that the form of local wisdom adopted by the indigenous people of pulo traditional village is to hold fast to islam as a belief to maintain their welfare. they have the hope that by always obeying islamic teachings, their life expectancy will be achieved and there will be harmony with social life and the natural environment in line with results of research by suarsa & verawaty (2019) which examined the same thing with a qualitative approach and interpretive paradigm and phenomenological approach methods revealing this. the results of interviews and observations show that local wisdom is a form of their love for the environment, they have a prohibition called pamali, which if one or several residents violate will 114 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 get sanctions. the sanctions given do not lead to formal sanctions but rather with customary sanctions that focus on social sanctions. people are taught to love the environment in which they live. they are not allowed to keep four-legged animals such as cows, goats or sheep, buffalo and others with the aim that the natural environment and the environment where they live are not polluted. in addition, it aims to maintain the aesthetics of their home. ramdianti et al. (2013) stated that in pulo traditional village with the method used are surveys and exploratory data collection, with interviews and direct observation with descriptive analysis, the results of the research show the diversity of plants, uses, parts used and how to use them. the traditional community of pulo traditional village. there are 93 species of plants belonging to 42 families used by the indigenous people of pulo traditional village. the diversity of plant species in pulo traditional village is still high because the environment is still beautiful and awake. for example, cocos nucifera is widely used because it has many benefits from the roots to the leaves. they believe that the relationship between nature and humans are equal as creatures of god almighty so that there will be benefits and balance for both of them to take care of each other. in the yard they are also required to plant plants so that the house looks beautiful and its aesthetic value is maintained, it is not allowed to keep 4-legged livestock such as goats, cows and buffalo. this is intended to maintain the cleanliness of the home page so that it remains beautiful and looks beautiful. then, apart from being beautiful, the noise level is relatively well maintained. in this regard, there is a prohibition against hitting a large gong, which is the same as when embahdalemarif muhammad's son was paraded by hitting a large gong, when a typhoon suddenly came, causing the child his son was injured and died. the results of research by ramdianti (2013) which examined ethnobotany with regard to environmental management in pulo traditional village are in line with this research, the study found that there are 42 types of cultivated plants that are used by the people of pulo traditional village as food ingredients, medicinal ingredients, cosmetic ingredients and certain rituals. figure 4. the shape of the building in pulo traditional village in addition, as a form of their love for the environment, they limit the number of buildings and residents in the pulo traditional village (sriwardani & savitri, 2019). the shape of the traditional houses of pulo traditional village is elongated and has similarities to each other, the only difference being the shape of their interior. in building houses, they already have knowledge about the strength of buildings that can with stand weather, time and even disasters such as floods and earthquakes. the main materials they use also come from nature, such as wood and bamboo (figure 4). aprita & anisa (2020) explained that the architectural pattern of buildings in community settlements in pulo traditional village is a form of tropical architecture in a spatial layout that is in accordance with 115 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 environmental conditions, also in accordance with the materials available in the location without excessive exploitation and destroying nature surrounding. research by lorne (2016) related to with physical and social interactions between humans and their environment in producing buildings (architects) by conducting interviews with 16 academic and practitioner architects, most of whom were interviewed related to the spatial planning agency book, by expanding the interviews using snowball sampling, interviews were conducted in a structured and loose manner, not only trained architects but also architects and two of them were students of geography. the results of the study showed that there was a relationship between geographical conditions and the resulting building. geographers also think about how the building should be made as part of spatial production, while the research of petersen (2018) used an empirical study in denmark with 2500 km2 of urban, suburban, suburban and rural land with almost 2 million inhabitants, this study shows how the influence of the landscape garden in their residence, essentially the interaction of the physical and social environment affects the garden or yard in their residence. in line with the conditions in pulo traditional village where the buildings and conditions of the landscape of the yard or park or open land there are also the effects of the interaction between the physical and social environmental conditions of the community and the various philosophies of local wisdom values contained therein. while the number of residents living in pulo traditional village cannot be more than 6 heads of families, consisting of 23 people and 6 houses. this means that in each house is only inhabited by 3-4 people so that making this area is very ideal and minimal will be the occurrence of environmental pollution, should not reduce or increase the number of houses and heads of families more than 6 households. after two weeks of marriage, the couple is required to leave pulo traditional village and settle in another area. they can return to pulo traditional village when their parents die or are referred to as ngaplus (replacing); women and children were given the right to inherit customary houses, while married boys had to leave the village. research on the quality of the physical environment and human social activities in sub-urban areas in australia with a study in australia with area-based qualitative analysis through observations and interviews showed the relationship between the quality of the physical environment and the social activities of its people, namely a sense of community among its people (farahani et al., 2022). this is related to the value of local wisdom of the togetherness of the pulo traditional village community with the value of community togetherness. each house is required to have good air circulation and between one resident's house and another is required to have a distance so as to allow each of their house buildings to have windows, one of which is because the shape of the roof, namely the building of their house must be elongated (jolopong), is not allowed to be prismatic because there relationship with embah dalem's son arif muhammad who was injured and died while being paraded using a prismatic stretcher, even though there are other values regarding relatively clean and good air circulation. the results of research by alamsyah (2011) who examined the structure of the building, the settlements of the pulo traditional village community explained that the structure of community buildings used certain materials, where settlements were also built with certain shapes and sizes which as a whole had techniques and values. the value of local construction that makes it harmonious and compatible with environmental conditions, this research emphasizes and clarifies how settlements adapt without damaging the surrounding environmental conditions. sriwardani & savitri (2019) explained that the settlement or house in pulo traditional village is a form of community housing today, because it has an elegant concept even though it is traditional, each room has a special function according to the needs of the community. nurhamzah et al. (2018) and ramdianti et al. (2013) explained that the values and norms that become character education, character education is carried out from parents to children. this 116 yani sri astuti et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 109-118 research complements that in character education there are environmental management values to maintain a beautiful and sustainable environment. 4. conclusion based on the results of research with the subject of the pulo indigenous village community, it can be concluded that the community still adheres to the values of local wisdom, especially with regard to environmental management, which has made the pulo traditional village have a harmonious relationship between the community and its environment. this is reflected in the environmental condition of the pulo traditional village which is relatively clean and beautiful, and its sustainability is still maintained. local wisdom values in environmental management includes several things, namely the prohibition of polluting and destroying the environment as stated in the word pamali, the prohibition if violated will provide customary sanctions, in the form of social sanctions to violators who make them ashamed and deterrent, so that people tend not to violate the prohibition. these values are essentially positive forms of culture that maintain human existence and maintain harmonious human-environment interactions. conflict of interest the author declares that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal or other relationship with any other person or organization related to the material discussed in the article. references alamsyah, s. 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(2021). conversational urbanism. urban geography journal, 42(10), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2021.1940712. bejo apriyanto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 29-34 application of discovery learning to increase activity and student learning results in understanding the life environment in smp negeri 2 sukodono bejo apriyanto1, elan artono nurdin1, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan1, fahmi arif kurnianto1 departement of geography education universit y of jember, indonesia e-mail: apriyanto.bejo@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6187 article info: received date 27 th november 2017, received in revised from date 4 th december 2017, accepted date 7 th december 2017, publish date 14 th december 2017 abstract the purpose of this study is to analyze the main problem in the classroom and improve student learning outcomes in environmental material in smp negeri 2 sukodono. this research is a classroom action research carried out in 2 action cycles. in this study the data obtained in the form of student learning activit ies, the value of the discussio n, and the value of student learning outcomes. the results showed that with the implementation of discovery learning could be improved the act ivit ies and learning outcomes of t he students in understanding the environmental proble ms material. its indicated by the increase of student learning activit ies fro m 65.07% (enough) in the first cycle increased to 76.67 % (good) in cycle ii. key words : discovery learning, learning activit y, learning outcomes. introduction learning is a process of changing one's behavior. changes in this case are interpreted as desired changes. the desired change is a behavior based on motivation and ability to learn from within that person. but in fact in the learning process that occurs we often find students who don't want to learn. as an example when in the classroom there are still many students who pay less attention to the lesson many factors that affect these things often occur. but one factors that often occur in school because these students feel lazy because they do not understand the true learning goals. so that students do not want to follow the learning process. one effort that can be used to foster student learning interest so students want to take lessons is to use a model discovery learning in environmental material. discovery learning has substance on freedom and independent formation of knowledge by students. so that it can increase student interest because learning is more fun. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 1 no. 1 (2017), page 29-34 , december, 2017 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi 29 mailto:apriyanto.bejo@unej.ac.id https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6187 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi bejo apriyanto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 29-34 the progress of the indonesian nat ion can only be achieved through good education arrangement. the effort to improve the qualit y of education is expected to increase the human dignit y of indonesia. to achieve this, education reform in indonesia needs to be continuously made to create a sensit ive educat ion world for the changing t imes. efforts to improve education are key focuses in educational development today. the effectiveness of learning by professio nal teachers is a major factor in improving the qualit y of educat ion. teachers as professio nal educators with the main task of educating, teaching, guiding, direct ing, training, assessing and evaluat ing learners need continuous professio nal improvement. in the era of the curriculum that always experience this shift / change, education providers and learners need teachers who also serve as researchers most power full, capable of execut ing tasks and adopting new strategies. based on the funct ion of national educat ion, the role of the teacher becomes the key to success in the missio n of education and learning in school in addit ion to responsible for organizing, directing, and create the at mosphere that encourages students to do learning in the classroom. educational issues are always emerging along with the growing and increasing abilit y of students, situations, condit ions of exist ing environment, the influence of informat ion and culture and the development of science. smp negeri 2 sukodono is an advanced school on technology, it can be seen on infrastructure that is quite complete in the school, which include physics laboratory, bio logy laboratory, computer laboratory, language laboratory, library, student organizat ion room intra school (osis), student cooperative room, school health unit room (uks), counseling guidance room (bk), electrical room, skill room, mosque and school cafeteria. based on observations made, it is known that geographic subject teachers deliver the subject matter using lecture, question and answer methods, assignments, and exercises. in addit ion, based on interviews conducted with students of class viii-b smp negeri 2 sukodono about their view of geography lessons most of the students said that geography subjects are boring, because many concepts should be memorized (many memorized). in addit ion, from 40 students, 75% of students do not understand the benefits of geography lesson for real life. this can be seen fro m the students' answers when they are asked questions that are related to the environmental problems that surround them. one o f the developed learning approaches is the learning approach that uses real-world problems as the context of students to learn about critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, and to acquire essent ial knowledge and concepts fro m learning materials. the problem-based learning approach aims to form a self-sufficient person, because in the learning process the student's participation is highly preferred and strongly highlighted. 30 bejo apriyanto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 29-34 in addit ion to active cognit ive, effect ive and psycho motor activit ies with full invo lvement in the learning process will manifest skill, social and physical skills useful later in real life. problem-based learning also educates students to issues or questions that are authent ic and demands collaboration in invest igat ion and produce work. methods this type of research is a classroom action research is research done by so meone who works on what he is doing without changing his system. the action given is to provide the task to formulate and solve problems and create reports and then provide a test of learning outcomes to determine the success of learning. the researcher's activit y is to conduct learning process by using problem-based learning for environmental damage material and handling it. implementation of the actions in this study will take place within a few cycles to achieve the stage of action success. in each cycle consists of 4 stages of activit y. these stages include: action planning, action execution, observation and reflect ion. this research was conducted in smp negeri 2 sukodono which is located at dieng road no 272 lumajang regency. the subject of this research is class viii. due to the large number of classes, as well as the lack of understanding of students in solving a problem then the researchers just take one class only. data collect ion in this research is done by using 3 ways in accordance with the needs of researchers, namely (1) observation or field notes; (2) documentation; and (3) tests. the collected data is then analyzed. data analysis aims to reveal what data still needs to be searched, what questions are still unanswered, what methods should be used to obtain new information, and what errors should be corrected immediately. data analysis is performed every t ime the giving of the action ends and after the data collect ion. results and discussion there is a stage of observation 1, at this stage, the activit ies undertaken are observing the process of student learning conducted by two colleagues of researchers and teachers of geography studies smpn 2 sukodono. based on the observat ions, there are some research findings after the implementation of the action in cycle 1, namely: there are still students who are confused with the model of learning-based problems seen fro m some students who often ask the teacher, not all students have a source book because the teacher does not encourage students to have a certain hand book. condit ions like this that cause many students who pass to borrow books to other friends who have the source book, there are still 4 members of passive learning group, joking alo ne, and do not want to discuss in doing the task of the teacher. 31 bejo apriyanto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 29-34 there are still 2 members of the group who do not pay attention to his friend when asking questions as well as answering quest ions as class discussio ns take place. the student presents the discus with hesitation and the teacher goes around fro m one group to another, to clarify to another group that is not clear about the assignment. it can be seen that the increase in the percentage of student learning activit ies in each of the observed student learning aspects. material mastery aspect increased from 61,66% in cycle i to 90% in cycle ii, material delivery aspect increased from 57,92% in cycle i to 82,91% in cycle ii, question aspect increased fro m 60,17% in cycle i become 69,83% on second cycle, comment aspect increased from 74,17% in cycle i to 80,83%, responding aspect increased from 49,17% in cycle i to 72,25% in cycle ii and other activit y aspect increased from 75,42 % in cycle i to 77.08% in cycle ii. the overall percentage of learning activit y and the success rate of action increased from 65.07% or had a sufficient level of success in the first cycle to be 76.67% or have a good success rate in cycle ii, and from the results obtained in cycle ii can be concluded that there is a significant increase on the percentage of success for student learning activit ies and this proves that applicat ion of problem-based learning. table 1. the cycle of research aspects cycle i (%) cycle ii (%) material mastery 61,66 90 material delivery 57,92 82,91 question 60,17 69,83 comment 74,17 80,83 responding 49,17 72,25 other activity overall 75,42 65,07 77,08 76,67 data processed (2017) the results of this study are in accordance with the opinion kurniasih & sani (2014: 64) discovery learning is defined as learning process that occurs when learning material is not presented in its final form, but students are expected to organize themselves. furthermore, sani (2014: 97) reveals that discovery is find concepts through a series of data or information obtained through observation or experiment. a further statement stated by hosnan (2014: 282) that discovery learning is a model for developing active learning by finding yourself, investigating yourself, then the results obtained will be faithful and durable in memory. through learning discovery, students can also learn analytical thinking and try solve the problem itself. 32 bejo apriyanto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 29-34 wilcox (in hosnan, 2014: 281) states that in learning with discovery, students are encouraged to learn mostly through active involvement themselves with concepts and principles and teachers encourage students to have experience and conduct experiments which allows them to find principles for themselves themselves. discovery model is learning that emphasizes direct experience and the importance of understanding structures or ideas important to a scientific discipline, through student involvement active in learning. teaching materials presented in the form questions or problems that must be resolved. become a student obtain knowledge that he did not know not through notification, but through self-discovery. the results of study also related several learning process. the learning process will goes well and creatively if the teacher gives an opportunity to students to find a concept, theory, rule, or understanding through the examples found in his life. use discovery learning, wants to change the learning conditions that are passive to become 15 active and creative. according to budiningsih (2005: 43), "the discovery learning model is a way learn to understand concepts, meanings, and relationships through an intuitive process for finally came to a conclusion ". discovery is a translation of discovery. according to sund "discovery is a mental process where students are able to assimilate a concept or principle". the mental process is to observe, digest, understand, classify, make guesses, explain, measure, make conclusion and so on (roestiyah, 2001: 20), whereas according to bruner, "discovery is a process, a way of approaching a problem not a product or item of knowledge. " thus in in bruner's view, learning with discovery is learning for find, where a student is faced with a problem or situation which seems odd so students can find ways to solve (markaban, 2006: 9). according to hamalik (2008) learning outcomes are as a change behavior in one self that can be observed and measured knowledge, attitude and skills. this change can be interpreted as an increase and development of a better previous one who did not know to know. according to mulyasa (2008) learning outcomes are student achievement as a whole which is an indicator of competence and degree of change the behavior in question. competencies that must be mastered by students need to be expressed in such a way that it can be assessed as a manifestation of student learning outcomes which refers to direct experience. sudjana (2009: 3) defines student learning outcomes in essence is a change in behavior as a result of learning in a deeper sense broad covers the fields of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. according to dimyati and mudjiono (2006: 3-4) mention learning outcomes is the result of an interaction between learning and teaching. from the side teacher, teaching action ends with a process of evaluating learning outcomes. 33 bejo apriyanto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 29-34 from the side students, learning outcomes are the end of teaching from the peak of the learning process. conclusion based on the results of research, data analysis and discussio n of research obtained conclusio n that geography learning by using discovery learning can increase students' understanding of environmental issues. learning method by using problem-based learning model can improve student learning outcomes. the teacher must be able to apply this strategy correctly if he wants to achieve the learning goals. references budiningsih, asri. 2005. belajar dan pembelajaran. jakarta: rineka cipta. dimyati dan mudjiono. 2006. belajar dan pembelajaran. jakarta: pt. rineka. cipta. hamalik, oemar. 2008. kurikulum dan pembelajaran. jakarta: sinar grafika. hosnan, m. 2014. pendekatan saintifik dan kontekstual dalam pembelajaran abad 21: ghalia indonesia kurniasih, imas & sani, berlin. 2014. implementasi kurikulum 2013 konsep & penerapan. surabaya: kata pena mulyasa. 2008. menjadi guru profesional menciptakan pembelajaran kreatif dan menyenangkan. bandung : pt. remaja rosdakarya. roestiyah .2001. strategi belajar mengajar. jakarta: rineka cipta. sudjana, nana. 2009. penilaian hasil proses belajar mengajar. bandung: pt. remaja rosdakarya. 34 173 research article mapping of soil quality index (sqi) for paddy fields using sentinel-2 imagery, laboratory analysis, and principal component analysis putri tunjung sari1,*, indarto indarto1, marga mandala1, bowo eko cahyono2 1department of natural resources and environmental management, university of jember, jl. kalimantan no. 37 jember, 68121, indonesia 2faculty of mathematics and natural sciences, university of jember, jl. kalimantan no. 37 jember, 68121, indonesia received 2 june 2021/revised 15 july 2021/accepted 26 july 2021/published 17 august 2021 abstract the use of intensive chemical inputs causes lower availability of nutrients, organic matter, cation exchange capacity, and soil degradation.therefore, this study aims to assess the soil quality index (sqi) for paddy fields in jember, east java, indonesia. input data for this study consist of land cover (interpreted from the sentinel-2 image), soil type, and slope maps. furthermore, the procedure to calculate soil quality index (sqi) include (1) spatial analysis to create the land unit, (2) preparation of soil sampling, (3) soil chemical analysis, (4) principal component analysis (pca), and (5) reclassifying soil quality index (sqi). the pca results showed that three variables i.e., % sand, totalp, and % silt were strongly correlated to sqi, while three classes namely very low, low, and medium of sqi were sufficiently used to describe the spatial variability of the paddy field. furthermore, approximately 41.14% of the paddy field area were classed as very low while 52.23%, and 6.63% were categorized as low and medium sqi respectively. based on the results, about 93.37% of paddy fields in jember regency still require improvement in soil quality via the addition of ameliorants such as organic fertilizers to increase quality and productivity. this application needs to focus on areas with very low-low quality hence, the quality increased to the medium category. keywords: mapping; soil quality index (sqi); pca; paddy field 1. introduction the increasing population and food demand have forced farmers to intensify and extend agricultural land to improve productivity (ren et al., 2020). agricultural intensification is an activity that aims to optimize agrarian land by providing additional inputs to increase productivity (xie et al., 2019). meanwhile, extensification involves expanding agricultural land and minimizing external inputs (van grinsven et al., 2015). the use of intensive chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides indicates agricultural intensification activities. however, most farmers do not understand the concept of sustainable agriculture (johannes et al., 2019;terano et al., 2015). *corresponding author. mmm email address: putritunjung36@gmail.com (putri tunjung sari) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 173-188 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2.24506 *corresponding author. mmm email address: putritunjung36@gmail.com (putri tunjung sari) mailto:putritunjung36@gmail.com mailto:putritunjung36@gmail.com 174 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 the continuous use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has negative impacts on the soil (li et al., 2018). a previous study stated that fertilizer and pesticide residues settle in the soil thereby increasing its acidity (asvini & jithesh, 2018). other impacts observed include lower availability of nutrients, organic matter, and cation exchange capacity (hung et al., 2019; maas et al., 2017). agricultural extensification is usually conducted by land conversion and forest clearing. mohawesh et al. (2015) stated that changes in land-use affect soil quality, while pierzynski et al. (2005) defined soil quality as multicriteria analysis results of chemical, physical and biological properties. furthermore, the characteristics of good soil usually comprise (1) good drainage, (2) good water holding capacity (whc), (3) less erosion, and (4) high nutrient content (seifu & elias, 2018). good quality soil supports optimal plant productivity. meanwhile, soil quality assessments are used to identify, evaluate and determine the appropriate technology for land management and sustainability (roy et al., 2015). rice is widely known as the principal food of the indonesians, therefore, the presence of paddy fields is essential to support agricultural land and fulfill food demand. generally, farmers overuse fertilizers and pesticides, which in turn decrease the land quality. moreover, the input cost of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is expensive compared to the benefit in the form of increase in production (xie et al., 2019). this condition has also been exacerbated by the increased price of chemical fertilizers in the market, hence, farmers spend much money for less productive results. the benefits of calculating sqi include (1) increase farmers' awareness of land mismanagement, (2) mapping complex land variability, and (3) as a guide for sustainable management plan (ren et al., 2020; lin & fukushima, 2016). previous studies only referred to one of the soil's chemical, physical or biological properties to determine sqi (supriyadi et al., 2019; supriyadi et al., 2018). however, this study combines the three parameters to categorize the soil quality (bahnemiri et al., 2019). soil quality analysis based on remote sensing is needed to assess land variability (reddy et al., 2020). meanwhile, remote sensing technology is commonly used to classify land, based on several criteria with high accuracy (hore et al., 2020). the combination of remote sensing and principal component analysis (pca) is effective in assessing soil quality. the pca method is used for data reduction and selection of the primary indicator that best represents the analysis and the results are presented in the form of a minimum data set (mds). furthermore, the mds component reduces the burden of indicators in the sqi calculation model and prevents data redundancies (mukherjee & lal, 2014). 175 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 sqi was more interpolated using the inverse distance weighting (idw) method which predicts value base on the distance between the data point and the expected location. the expected value is calculated as the number of measured data points located in a specific search environment on the predicted site (bofana & costa, 2017). abdel rahman et al. (2021) stated that the idw technique is the most commonly used method to predict soil properties. only a few studies focused on assessing soil quality based on one soil characteristic. also, there are limited studies on the physical, chemical, or biological properties only. therefore, this study aims to assess soil quality based on the physical, chemical, and biological properties by combining spatial analysis. 2. methods this study was conducted from december 2020 to april 2021, and the study area covers all paddy fields in jember regency, east java, indonesia (figure. 1). figure 1. study area and classified land cover map (2019) 176 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 2.1 input data and tool used the three maps (table 1) were used as input data for this study. table 1. research materials material sources land cover map sentinel 2a satellite image data processing (usgs, 2019) soil type map (balai penelitian tanah, 2015) slope map derived from demnas (big, 2019) the tools used in this study consist of soil sampling and laboratory analysis equipment, as well as software for processing. soil sampling equipment consists of a soil drill, shovel, tape measure, and plastic clips, while the laboratory equipment includes atomic absorption spectrophotometer (aas), ph meter, and oven (table 2). the data obtain were analyzed using multispect, gis software, and statistical tools. table 2. list of tools used tool specification and function soil drill to take soil samples shovel to take soil samples aas soil potassium analysis musltispec land cover analysis q-gis soil quality index (sqi) calculations source: (supriyadi et al., 2018) 2.2 research procedure the research procedure consists of (1) determination of land unit, (2) soil sampling, (3) laboratory analysis, (4) principal component analysis (pca), (5) scoring and classification, and (6) assessment of soil quality index (sqi). 2.2.1 land unit and soil sampling the number of the land unit was determined by overlaying and intersecting three input maps, i.e., land cover, soil type, and slope maps, as illustrated in figure 2. first, the land cover map was classified into two namely paddy fields and non-paddy fields, then, the paddy field was converted from raster to polygon vector layer. furthermore, the soil type and slope map were clipped with polygon paddy field maps. the two maps results are united to create a land unit map. 177 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 figure 2. procedure to determine the land unit and soil sampling the soil samples were collected from each land unit map, while four samples for each land unit were then compiled using the soil drill method. furthermore, each land unit was divided into four regions, and sampling was carried out in each area. table 3 shows the 24 samples locations,the samples for each class were then mixed and compiled. figure 3 shows the different soil color photographs taken from (9) nine locations. 178 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 table 3. description of sampling point no point location soil type (usda) slope 1 8° 9'35.03"s and113°52'15.78"e entisols >15% 2 8°28'32.64"s and 113°44'11.57"e entisols >15% 3 8°25'33.69"s and 113°33'22.83"e entisols >15% 4 8°12'36.80"s and 113°49'35.96"e entisols >15% 5 8° 4'5.05"s and 113°41'34.13"e inceptisols >15% 6 8° 3'32.04"s and 113°41'14.87"e andisols >15% 7 8°15'46.99"s and 113°26'39.22"e entisols >15% 8 8° 5'7.33"s and 113°55'41.86"e entisols >15% 9 8° 7'24.08"s and 113°32'10.28"e inceptisols >15% 10 8°22'33.31"s and 113°29'9.56"e entisols >15% 11 8° 3'47.32"s and 113°54'46.28"e entisols 0-15% 12 8° 9'52.26"s and 113°49'8.08"e entisols 0-15% 13 8°25'20.38"s and 113°38'26.77"e alfisols 0-15% 14 8°21'8.97"s and 113°43'32.91"e entisols 0-15% 15 8°23'18.30"s and 113°29'55.03"e alfisols 0-15% 16 8°22'29.71"s and 113°27'25.17"e entisols 0-15% 17 8°11'42.78"s and 113°48'39.85"e entisols 0-15% 18 8° 8'8.48"s and 113°43'37.86"e inceptisols 0-15% 19 8°19'13.73"s and 113°39'55.27"e alfisols 0-15% 20 8°13'53.39"s and 113°36'39.03"e entisols 0-15% 21 8°24'10.97"s and 113°35'25.46"e entisols 0-15% 22 8° 5'51.76"s and 113°55'0.90"e entisols 0-15% 23 8°10'43.78"s and 113°34'45.28"e inceptisols 0-15% 24 8°17'0.95"s and 113°21'10.73"e entisols 0-15% interpreted from: (usda soil survey staff, 2014). figure 3. soil sampling location 179 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 2.2.2 laboratory analysis laboratory analysis was used to measure the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil samples. the soil samples were initially dried and sieved. the physical properties were analyzed using a 2 mm sieve, while the chemical analysis used a 0.5 mm sieve. table 4 shows the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil samples used in this study. table 4. physical, chemical, and biological properties variable sample type method chemical properties ph disturbed soil the soil-water suspension (1:25) total phosphorus disturbed soil percolation with hcl 25% available potassium (k) disturbed soil neutral n nh4oac physical properties % sand disturbed soil pippet % silt disturbed soil pippet % clay disturbed soil pippet effective soil depth disturbed soil measurement biological properties c-organic disturbed soil curmis sources: (japan international cooperation agency (jica), 2014; panday et al., 2019) 2.2.3 principal component analysis (pca) the soil properties determined via laboratory analysis were then used as input for correlation and principal component analysis (pca). the data processed by pca include ph, total phosphorus (p), available potassium (k), % sand, % silt, % clay, effective soil depth, and c-organic. meanwhile, the procedure for this method includes (1) analyzing the correlation between factors, (2) conducting principal component analysis (pca), and (3) determining the minimum data set. 2.2.4 assessment of soil quality index (sqi) sqi was calculated and performed using gis software. first, the mds variable component was added to the sampling points,then, the indicator was interpolated using inverse distance weighted (idw). the results were then used to calculate sqi, using the formula in equation 1 (eq.1): sqi = (1) where, wi = weighting factor; and si = the indicator score for variable i. then, table 5 shows the score and class used to determine the sqi. 180 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 table 5. class of soil quality index score class of soil quality index 0.80 – 1.00 very good 0.60 – 0.79 good 0.40 – 0.59 medium 0.20 – 0.39 low 0.00 – 0.19 very low sources: (nusantara et al., 2018) 3. results and discussion 3.1 land unit map the number of land units were determined by overlaying and intersecting three input maps, i.e., land cover, soil type, and slope maps. the land cover map was interpreted from the sentinel-2 image of the area of interest (aoi) downloaded from the usgs website, which was then processed, and classified. after the pre-treatment task i.e., atmospheric correction, a mosaic of 4 scenes, composite, and image enhancement, the sentinel images were then classified using the supervised method and maximum likelihood algorithm following the standard image processing procedure of multispec tm. furthermore, the land cover classification accuracy reached 99%, while the thematic land cover obtained from the classification processes showed 5 primary classes, namely (1) annual vegetation which includes forested area and plantation, (2) settlement representing urban and pavement area, as well as other public facilities, (3) dryland or shrubland, (4) marginal land representing area occupied by heterogeneous agricultural land, cropland, and rural areas, (5) water body, and (6) paddy field, as shown in figure 1. soil type map was extracted from layer database and obtained from the soil research institute ( sri, 1966). the soil type map scale was 1:250.000, and the layer was then clipped with a regency boundary. furthermore, the slope map was derived from demnas (digital elevation model at the national level) downloaded from the official website of the national geospatial agency (big). the demnas had spatial pixel resolution relatively similar to sentinel image (± 10m). therefore, jember regency has six (6) land unit classes, representing paddy fields as shown in figure 4. 181 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 1 (inceptisols soil type and slope > 15%) 2 (entisols soil type and slope > 15%) 3 (andisols soil type and slope > 15%) 4 (entisols soil type and slope 0-15%) 5 (inceptisols soil type and slope 0-15%) 6 (alfisols soil type and slope 0-15%) figure 4. land unit map 3.2 soil properties of paddy fields table 6 contains the soil properties measured using laboratory analysis. soil properties were collect at 24 sampling points, meanwhile, the laboratory analysis results of the chemical, physical and biological properties varied. each parameter affects the availability of plant nutrients. table 6. soil properties variables mean se min max ph 7.01 0.45 6.04 7.8 total p (mg/100 g) 12.29 4.81 4.86 29.83 available k (me/100 g) 1.25 0.52 0.47 1.25 sand (%) 48.10 23.22 4.97 88.99 silt (%) 24.39 22.76 1.85 89.08 clay (%) 27.50 16.16 5.22 65.26 soil depth (cm) 36.36 10.25 25 70 c-organic (%) 2.42 0.44 1.28 3.27 note : se= standart error 182 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 the results show the variability in chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of soil samples with ph values ranging from 6.04 7.8, and an average of 7.01. this value is classified as slightly acidic to slightly alkaline (li et al., 2018).when the soil ph is too alkaline, nutrients become unavailable for plants, meanwhile, the optimal soil ph for plants is 6.5-7 (hanafiah, 2018). the total p-value between 4.86 29.83 mg /100g was categorized as the very low to intermediate class (eviati & sulaeman, 2009). p nutrients are essentially needed by plants, especially in the generative phase (yao et al., 2020). furthermore, plants absorb p elements in the form of primary and secondary orthophosphates ions (h2po4 and hpo4 2-). plants absorb p in the form of h2po4 when the ph is low and hpo42under high ph (hanafiah, 2018). table 6 shows a relatively neutral ph value, hence, plants absorb p in the form of hpo4 2-. the potassium (k) value ranged between 0.47 1.25 me / 100 g and is classed as the medium to high category. this nutrient is essentially needed by plants to fill rice grains (banerjee et al., 2018). potassium is a mobile element, hence leaching easily occurs. furthermore, the high amount of potassium needs to be balanced with high organic c which reduces the rate of erosion hence, the amount of leaching is reduced. table 6 shows that the c-organic value ranged between 1.28 3.27% ( from low to high). this content serves as an energy source for soil microorganisms, reduces erosion, improves soil texture and structure (arunrat et al., 2020). soil texture is the ratio between the fraction of sand, silt, and clay. meanwhile, clay fraction is very critical in providing soil nutrients. clay is a is negatively charged soil fraction that binds to cations needed by plants (arunrat et al., 2020). the texture analysis results of the 3 fractions (sand, silt, clay) also vary (table 6). soil dominated by clay fraction has more nutrients compared to sand fraction. sandy soils loss water rapidly and are unable to hold nutrients. the rice fields in jember regency also have varying soil depths. table 6 shows that the effective soil depth values ranged from 25 70 cm. it is defined as the depth of the soil that plant roots are able to penetrate. rice fields are managed intensively through a process of plowing, this condition causes silting of the soil adequate depth. 3.3 principal component analysis (pca) the principal component analysis consists of correlation analysis and determination of the minimum data set (mds). mds is a variable used in determining the soil quality index 183 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 (sqi), while correlation analysis is used to determine the relationship between the observed variables. table 7 shows the correlation analysis results. table 7. correlation analysis total p available k c-organic soil depth ph sand silt clay total p 1.000 available k 0.206 1.000 c-organic 0.222 0.262 1.000 soil depth -0.328 -0.243 -0.389 1.000 ph -0.062 0.036 0.018 0.113 1.000 sand 0.096 -0.138 -0.543* 0.264 -0.155 1.000 silt 0.118 0.048 0.125 -0.073 0.312 -0.213 1.000 clay -0.157 -0.017 0.443 -0.100 0.374 -0.836* 0.245 1.000 note: * significant table 7 shows the correlation analysis results for each soil variable. sand and clay fractions have the highest correlation compared to other variables, with a value of -0.836. a negative value indicates that the relationship between the two is reversing. when the sand fraction value is high, the clay fraction value tends to be low and vice versa. furthermore, the lowest correlation result was found between c-organic and ph variables with a value of 0.018, which is in the shallow category. fetene & amera (2018) stated that c-organic has more effect on soil porosity and volume weight. the next procedure was extraction via principal component analysis (pca). the extraction results were in the form of minimum data sets used in scoring and determining the soil quality index (sqi). table 8 shows the principal component extraction results. the p-total as well as silt,and clay fraction variables were used in the sqi assessment. the significance level of the three variables was determined by the eigen value (mukherjee & lal, 2014). to be used as an mds indicator, this value needs to be > 1 (romadhona & arifandi, 2020). the eigen values for the principal components (pc) 1, 2, and 3 were all greater than one, hence, the three are applicable as mds indicators. the eigenvectors > 90% of the maximum value in each pc were used as an mds indicator (supriyadi et al., 2018). table 8 shows the three indicators of mds, i.e., clay and silt fraction, as well as total p. the mds factor weight was obtained by dividing the variance (%) by the cumulative (%) on pc3 with values of 0.477, 0.309, and 0.214 respectively. this weight value was used in the calculation of the soil quality index (sqi). 184 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 table 8. pca results pcs pc1 pc2 pc3 eigenvalue 2.58 1.68 1.16 % of variance 32.28 20.96 14.45 cumulative % 32.28 53.24 67.68 eigenvectors p_total 0.117 0.696* 0.406 k_available 0.294 0.493 0.178 c_organic 0.743 0.312 -0.200 soil depth -0.445 -0.623 0.080 ph 0.341 -0.478 0.585 sand -0.874 0.184 0.295 silt 0.410 -0.150 0.677* clay 0.827* -0.423 -0.163 note: * mds variable 3.4 assessment of soil quality index (sqi) soil quality index assessment only used the pca result variable. three main factors were used to determine the soil quality index, i.e., the clay and silt fraction, as well as p-total. the results were categorized into three classes, i.e., very low, low, and medium (figure 5). furthermore, the map analysis results showed that 41.14% was in the very low category, 52.23% was in a low class, and 6.63% was in the medium category. figure 5. soil quality index (sqi) paddy fields in jember regency 185 putri tunjung sari et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 173-188 the low quality of paddy fields is due to intensive soil management and chemical inputs. in addition, majority of farmers use only chemical fertilizers without any organic supplement. meanwhile, organic fertilizers are released slowly, and the results are not visible (maas et al., 2017). the application of chemical fertilizers has a direct effect on plants (asvini & jithesh, 2018), therefore, most farmers do not use organic fertilizers. this condition shows that there is a need to improve the quality of the paddy soil to support sustainability. soil quality improvement needs to focus on improving soil fertility without damaging the environment. meanwhile, soil fertility is a determining factor in plant growth and development (karamanoli et al., 2017). organic fertilizers are applied to increase nutrient availability and soil physical properties (kidinda et al., 2015). 4. conclusion based on the results, three variables were found to strongly influence soil quality assessment namely total p, as well as clay and silt fraction. approximately 93.37% of the paddy field area was classed as very low-low quality due to the intensive use of chemical fertilizers without organic supplements. the addition of ameliorants such as organic fertilizer is needed to improve the soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties. this application is to be focused on areas with very low – low soil quality to increase the quality to medium. conflict of interest 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(2020). effects and mechanisms of phosphate activation in paddy soil by phosphorus activators. sustainability (switzerland), 12(9), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093917. http://agrojournal.org/24/05-07.html https://www.researchgate.net/profile/rika-terano-3/publication/282985792_farmers_sustainability_index_the_case_of_paddy_farmers_in_state_of_kelantan_malaysia/links/56751a7408aebcdda0e10f61/farmers-sustainability-index-the-case-of-paddy-farmers-in-state-ofhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/rika-terano-3/publication/282985792_farmers_sustainability_index_the_case_of_paddy_farmers_in_state_of_kelantan_malaysia/links/56751a7408aebcdda0e10f61/farmers-sustainability-index-the-case-of-paddy-farmers-in-state-of353 research article assessment of flood hazard mapping based on analytical hierarchy process (ahp) and gis: application in kencong district, jember regency, indonesia muhammad asyroful mujib* , bejo apriyanto, fahmi arif kurnianto , fahrudi ahwan ikhsan , elan artono nurdin , era iswara pangastuti, sri astutik department of geography education, universitas jember, jl. kalimantan 37 jember, east java, 68121, indonesia received 2 october 2021/revised 4 december 2021/accepted 14 december / published 22 december 2021 abstract flood is one of the most frequent hydrometeorological disasters which leads in economic losses. the first step in flood disaster mitigation efforts is mapping vulnerable areas. kencong district frequently affected by the annual flooding event. this study aims to assess flood hazard mapping by integrating the ahp method and geographic information system. this study used a descriptive quantitative approach through the correlation matrix of the ahp model for each physical environmental factor. these factors include slope, altitude, distance from the river, soil type, topographic wetness index (twi), and curvature. furthermore, with the geographic information system (gis), the weighted overlay stage was carried out to obtain the results of flood-prone areas. based on the ahp analysis, the most significant factors in determining flood-prone areas were the distance from rivers, slopes, and twi. the results of flood-prone areas mapping were divided into five classes: from deficient 0.02%, low 4.26%, medium 37.11%, high 51.89%, and very high 6.72%. validation of gis mapping results with data in the field has an auc value of 84%, which indicates that the prediction of the ahp-gis model is perfect in flood-prone areas mapping in the kencong district. the integration of ahp method and geographic information system in flood hazard assessment were able to produce a model to evaluate the spatial distribution of flood-prone areas. keywords : flood hazard mapping; multi-criteria decision analysis; ahp model; gis; jember 1. introduction flood is one of the natural disasters with a high frequency of occurrence that can cause damage to the natural environment, buildings, property, and even fatalities (kia et al., 2012; vorogushyn et al., 2012). it is estimated by feng & lu (2010) that of the total economic losses from all disasters, 40% are caused by floods. djalante & garschagen (2017) geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 353-376 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.21668 *corresponding author. email address :mujib@unej.ac.id (muhammad asyroful mujib) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5061-9640 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3916-8930 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9169-632x https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8001-168x 354 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 describe that in indonesia during the period 1900-2015, floods and earthquakes were the most frequent hydrometeorological disasters compared to other disasters. urban areas have a high disasters susceptibility based on their size and population density (zheng et al., 2013). dynamic changes such as changes in land use, land cover, urbanization activities, and increased household density in flood-prone areas will increase the potential for flood damage (pelling, 2003; tehrany et al., 2015). flood is also directly caused by high rainfall, which affects the volume of runoff, filling, and even exceeding the drainage channel network, resulting in very high discharge downstream and at the outlet of the watershed (youssef et al., 2009) jember regency has a high frequency of flood events. jember regency and 17 other districts in east java in 2020 had a high-risk index for floods with a score of 36.00 (bnpb, 2021). in 2019, bnpb also published sub-districts or villages prone to flooding throughout indonesia. based on this data, there are 216 villages in 31 sub-districts in jember regency, identified as “medium” flood hazard class (bnpb, 2019). one of the 31 flood-prone subdistricts in jember regency, which is almost every year affected by floods including kencong district. kencong district is included in the downstream tanggul watershed area, a watershed in jember regency that often overflows during the rainy season (ainunnisa et al., 2020). villages in the kencong district that are included in the tanggul watershed area and are often affected by floods are kencong, kraton, and paseban villages (haq et al., 2020). also added by haq et al., (2020) sourced from the report of the public works department of highways and natural resources of jember regency natural resources coordinator area of kencong and gumukmas districts (2018) that from 1994 to 2018 in the last 25 years, there have been 27 flood events, river discharge during flood events ranges from 461-814 m3/s with an average rainfall of 76-138 mm. flood history is also emphasized by the public works department of highways and natural resources of jember regency natural resources coordinator area of kencong and gumukmas districts (2021), which stated 100 mm/day rainfall in every time the tanggul watershed, the tanggul river discharge would rise and fall. water carries mud sedimentation from upstream, which can gradually cause the river body to become narrower; even when the peak discharge conditions are flooded, it will break the river embankment, and so far, nine times the river embankment has collapsed due to overflowing river discharge. mapping of flood-prone areas and historical records of events have a relevant role in identifying flood-prone areas, the intensity of events, the depth of flooding, and the damage 355 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 that will be caused. there are three main approaches to mapping flood-prone areas: a physical-based approach, an empirical approach, and physical modeling (mudashiru et al., 2021; teng et al., 2017; bellos, 2012). physical modeling requires experiments to validate the model's predictive performance (mudashiru et al., 2021). it can then be simulated in 1, 2, and 3-dimensional forms using a numeric model to determine the process of flooding (carmo, 2020; balica et al., 2013), such as numerical models using delft3d in the tanggul watershed (haq et al., 2020), the use of hec-ras in the singojuruh sub-district and the upstream citarum watershed (bachri et al., 2021; siregar & indrawan, 2017). the physicalbased approach is exact for flood prediction but requires many input data such as hydrological, topographic, morphological, and remote sensing data processed in gis (ji et al., 2012). the empirical approach is categorized into three models, namely (1) multi-criteria analysis (handini et al., 2021;ajjur & mogheir, 2020; chakraborty & mukhopadhyay, 2019; dahri & abida, 2017;danumah et al., 2016; kazakis et al., 2015); (2) statistical methods including bivariate and multivariate models (costache, 2019; ahmed m. youssef et al., 2016); (3) machine learning and artificial intelligence models (costache et al., 2021; eini et al., 2020; shafizadeh-moghadam et al., 2018). from 2000-2021, the most widely used approach among the three approaches is the empirical approach with about 46.2%, the physical modeling approach of 43.8%, and the physical-based approach of 10% (mudashiru et al., 2021). the multi-criteria analysis model using the analytic hierarchy process (ahp) method as an empirical approach is the most widely used method (mahmoud & gan, 2018). the ahp method is a weighted evaluation process based on pairwise comparisons of each parameter which is then ranked and evaluated to choose the best solution for a problem (saaty, 1990, 2004; mudashiru et al., 2021). multi-criteria analysis for flood analysis and mapping of flood-prone areas has been successfully applied with the help of gis and remote sensing (rahmati et al., 2016; das, 2018, 2020). it was further explained that combining the ahp method with gis could be a reliable, efficient, accurate method and could be easily applied in other regions of the world (danumah et al., 2016; das, 2018; chakraborty & mukhopadhyay, 2019). on the other hand, the drawback of this ahp method is the selection of indicator weight values with based on expert opinion. the assessment has subjectivity and cognitive limitations (pourghasemi et al., 2014; papaioannou et al., 2015). however, this weakness is reduced by assessing the consistency of the ratio, satty (1980) determined that the threshold for the consistency of the ratio should be less than 10% to obtain a coherent value between the weighted variables. 356 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 flood-prone areas mapping in various studies require various topographic parameters, hydrology, geomorphology, and climatology. topography parameters were extracted from digital elevation (dem), hydrology such as rainfall and river discharge, and geomorphology such as river flow networks, landforms, and land use. this data was obtained using remote sensing and processed in gis (wang et al., 2019; arseni et al., 2020; das, 2018, 2020). the parameters used in this study were slope, elevation, distance from the river, soil type, topographic wetness index (twi), and curvature. this study aims to assess flood hazard mapping by integrating the ahp method and geographic information system in kencong district, jember regency, which is included in the downstream tanggul watershed area. 2. study area this research was carried out in the downstream tanggul watershed, which is included in the administrative area of kencong district. this area is located between coordinates 76147.105-757826.029 ms and 9081002.236-9085265.055 mt with an area of 59.64km2. the western part of jember regency and directly adjacent to lumajang regency. kencong district consists of five village: kencong village, wonorejo village, kraton village, cakru village, and paseban village (figure 1). this area is downstream of the tanggul watershed whose river empties into the indian ocean so that the altitude in the research area is between 0 to 31 meters. geologically, suwarti & suharsono (1993) explained that most of the research area is included in the argopuro tuff formation in the form of interval tuff, tuff breccia, and tuffaceous sandstone. argopuro tuff formed in the pleistocene period, while in the southern part, it is included in the alluvium formation in the form of clay, mud, sand, gravel, gravel, and boulders. the southern part, which is close to the beach, is a coastal deposit formation in loose sand containing magnetite and formed in the holocene period as surface deposits. climatically, based on observations of rainfall for ten years (2009-2019) from three observation stations, namely pondok waluh, padingan, and kencong rain stations, the rainfall in the study area ranged from 1663-1947 mm/year. the intensity of monthly rainfall increases from december to february. if the rainfall in the tanggul watershed area reaches 100 mm/day, the rivers passing through paseban village, kraton village, and kencong village will overflow and cause flooding (haq et al., 2020). land use in the research area is dominated by agricultural land in rice fields (48.46%) and plantations/gardens by 33.67%, while settlements are 8.82%. 357 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 figure 1. the study area 3. methods the application of geographic information systems and ahp for flood-prone areas mapping in the research area includes four stages: (1) collection of the flood inventory mapping; (2) determine the flood conditioning factors; (3) analyzing flood-prone maps using the ahp method; and (4) validation of results from flood-prone areas mapping. 3.1. collection of the flood inventory mapping the inventory of flood locations in the research area comes from the national disaster management agency (bnpb, 2019) regarding flood event records and field surveys. the limited data from bnpb related to the location of the incident includes the name of the village, needs to be reviewed by researchers utilizing field surveys and conducting interviews with the community due to the inventory map is an essential factor to see the opportunities and possible occurrences of disasters in the future (tien bui et al., 2012). the results from the inventory of flood locations will be used as validation of flood mapping results using ahp. 358 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 3.2. determine the flood conditioning factors the thematic variables used for mapping flood-prone areas in this study were extracted from satellite imagery data, indonesian topographical maps, and secondary data from government web sources and government agencies. the shuttle radar topographic mission (srtm) digital elevation model (dem) with a resolution of 30 m was downloaded from the usgs website (earthexplorer.usgs.gov). the dem data is processed in arcgis 10.8 software to determine slope maps, elevation maps, topographic wetness index (twi) maps, and curvature maps. the indonesian topographical map is used to determine the administrative boundaries of the research area and river maps. web sources are used to determine the type of soil that affects the drainage process. slope: the slope has a dominant role in influencing water velocity, flood strength, and infiltration (das, 2020). the slope is displayed in degrees and is classified into five categories: <2 degrees; 2-4 degrees; 4-6 degrees; 6-8 degrees; and >8 degrees. the smaller the degree of slope, the more vulnerable it is to flood disasters, so the value of the most significant weight is given. elevation: elevation affects the direction of flow and movement and the flood's inundation depth. the elevation is a factor that significantly influences the classification of potential flooding and is the highest compared to slope and land use (kia et al., 2012; ho & umitsu, 2011). furthermore, ho & umitsu (2011) stated that in areas with the same elevation and landform, flooding does not always coincide due to the slope of the terrain and the water level flood. the altitude of the place is divided into five classes: <10 m; 10-15 meters; 15-20 m; 20-25m; and >25 m. curvature: this parameter results from surface deviation from a flat plane. the method used in determining curvature is to apply a quadratic polynomial function to dem data (zhu, 2016). the curvature parameter is divided into concave, flat, and convex categories. the most influential factor prone to flooding is flat, followed by concave and convex. topographic wetness index (twi):this parameter is very suitable for predicting the level of surface soil saturation due to in water-saturated soil, the soil has the potential to create overland flow (youssef & hegab, 2019). soulsby et al., (2010) also stated that twi is a physical parameter of an area highly susceptible to flood inundation. the higher the twi value, the more vulnerable it is to flooding, while the lower the twi value, the lower the vulnerability (das, 2018). twi is processed directly from the srtm dem using arcgis 359 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 10.8. twi parameters are categorized into three classes: twi values >14; 9-14; and <9. twi is calculated by eq. 1. 𝑇𝑊𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 (1) where twi is the topographic wetness index, a is the contribution of the upstream area (m2), and β is the slope angle the distance from the river: there is no agreement about how many critical distances have high flood hazards. the distance is different from one river to another. small rivers can cause up to several meters from the riverbank, up to several kilometers in large rivers (das, 2020). das (2018, 2019) stated that the distance of 500 meters was the most vulnerable to flooding, while samanta et al. (2016); rahmati et al., (2016); and ajjur & mogheir, (2020) mention 100 meters as the most vulnerable distance. the distance from the river in this study was analyzed by the euclidian distance method and categorized into five classes with 300meter intervals: <300 meters, 300-600 meters, 600-900 meters, 900-1200 meters, >1200 meters. soil type: soil type maps are used to characterize permeability conditions and soil capacity to store and carry water (hammami et al., 2019). the type of soil in the research location is divided into three categories: good drainage, medium drainage, and poor or impermeable drainage. 3.3. analytical hierarchy process (ahp) model after all thematic maps were prepared and classified, the analytical hierarchy process (ahp) model was applied to assign different weights to each parameter. ahp was developed by saaty (1977). ahp is a structured model and can solve multi-factor problems, provide a numerical process for the consistency of the preferences, and evaluate ranking inconsistencies based on pairs (satty, 1980; fernández & lutz, 2010). the application of the ahp method in this study consisted of two stages. the first stage is the primary classification for all parameters according to how vital each parameter is to the other parameters to calculate the weights. the second stage is to classify each parameter into subcategories. in two-stage processing, each factor will be assigned an arithmetic value between 1 9, depending on the significance of that factor to the other factors paired. satty (1980) conveyed the arithmetical value of the importance of the scale, which contains different criteria and values (1. equal importance; 3. moderate importance; 5. strongly importance; 7. very strongly importance; 9. extremely importance; 2, 4, 6, and 8 360 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 are intermediate values). an arithmetic value of 1 indicates that both factors are equally important. in contrast, an arithmetic value of 9 indicates that the factors in the row are very significant compared to the factors in the columns (satty, 1980) the first stage of the ahp method in this study used pairwise comparison with a 6 x 6 matrix (table 1). after that, the value of pairwise comparison will be normalized to obtain a value used in the weighting of each parameter (table 2). consistency ratio (cr) is used to evaluate pairwise ranking inconsistencies. cr compares consistency index and random consistency index (ri) (eq. 2). subjective assessment is acceptable if the cr value is below or the same 0.10, but if the cr is higher than 0.10, the subjective assessment is inconsistent and needs to be reassessed to ensure realistic results (saaty, 1990). 𝐶𝑅 = 𝐶𝐼 𝑅𝐼 (2) 𝐶𝐼 = 𝜆 max − 𝑛 𝑛−1 (3) where cr is consistency ratio, ci is consistency index (eq. 3), ri is random index, max represents the principal eigenvalue of the matrix, and n is the number of variables in the matrix. the calculation of the ri value is based on a paper from saaty (1980). the value of ri depends on the number of factors; when the number of factors is six, then the value of ri is 1.24 based on (satty, 1980). the second stage is to classify each parameter into subcategories and assign a weight to each class. the maximum and minimum values for each class vary from 1 to 5. furthermore, from each class, the normalization is calculated to determine the weight of each class. the weight of each class is related to the impact of each class on the flood hazard. the slope, elevation, and distance factors from the river are divided into five classes, while the soil, twi, and curvature factors are divided into three classes. furthermore, the weight values of all classes in each parameter are combined with the weight values of all factors to calculate the flood hazard index (eq. 4). the overall weight value for each factor is calculated by multiplying each factor's weight by each class of the same factor. 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = ∑ 𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑛𝑗−1 × 𝑌𝑗 (4) where xij is the weight of class i on variable j, yj is the weight of variable j, and n is the number of variables. 361 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 3.4. validation validation and accuracy assessment of the analysis results of the multi-criteria analysis approach model, especially ahp, is one of the essential parts. applying the area under curve (auc) based on flood event data in the field and historical records is a wellestablished tool for validating the ahp model due to its simplified nature, completeness, and proper fit with predictions (tehrany et al., 2013). a value of 1 for auc indicates the maximum value accuracy without bias effect, whereas in general, an auc value of more than 0.8 is considered a very accurate and acceptable model. this study divided the flood susceptibility map using the ahp method into five classes. flood inventory points resulting from observations and interviews are mapped in the form of x and y axes, and the identification of the number of flood events for each class is compared to the flood-prone output map. the percentage of total flood events and the percentage of pixels for each class is determined based on these data. based on the data, the area under the curve is identified numerically by the eq. 5. 𝐴𝑈𝐶 = ∑ (𝑋1+𝑋2) 2(𝑌2−𝑌1) 𝑛=100 𝑓=1 (5) where auc indicates the area under the curve, x indicates the cumulative percentage of the area (from high to low vulnerability), y indicates the cumulative percentage of flood events, 1 and 2 indicate two consecutive data points, and n is the number of flood classes. 4. results and discussion 4.1. factors that influence flood hazard mapping floods occur due to several topographic and climatic factors in an area. the influence of each factors is undoubtedly different and will produce an overview of locations prone to various levels of flooding. in this study, six variables influence the occurrence of flooding, which will then be modeled using the analytical hierarchy process (ahp). each of these variables will be discussed in detail below: slope a slope is a field angle or gradient measured from the level of elevation change at a location (zhu, 2016). according to chakraborty & mukhopadhyay (2019), slope and elevation are considered disaster-forming factors because they have an essential role in turning flood hazards into disasters. both are essential topographical factors (das, 2018). 362 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 slope in an area will affect flow velocity, runoff rate, and infiltration, so that it can have an impact on flooding (rahmati et al., 2016; zhu, 2016; das, 2018). in areas with high slope gradients, the water flow will also move quickly so that the infiltration process is reduced. on the other hand, it will increase surface runoff; as a result, when the water flow is on a low or flat slope gradient, water will accumulate and stagnate. slope variation in kencong district is between 0° to 12°. the slope class with the most significant weight value in this study is 0°-2° which is prone to flooding. this class range is about 78.6% of the research area (figure 2a). elevation elevation has a significant impact on the spread of floods, especially on the direction of flood movement and inundation depth (rahmati et al., 2016; hammami et al., 2019). the principle of water movement is from a high location to a lower location so that lower locations with flat slopes will have a greater level of flood vulnerability (das & pardeshi, 2018). elevation variations in kencong district are between 0 to 31 meters. the elevation class with the most significant weight value in this study is <10 m with an area of about 74%, which is very prone to flooding (figure 2b). distance from the river when the river overflows, the area closest to the river is the area most affected by flooding (fernández & lutz, 2010). the river is the lowest point of an area. when the distance from the river is further away, the slope and elevation will also increase, and as a result, areas far from the river will have a low vulnerability to flooding events (das, 2018). the distance from the river in several previous studies is the most significant variable in flood mapping, so it has the highest score weight compared to other variables (rahmati et al., 2016; bathrellos et al., 2017; ahmed m. youssef & hegab, 2019; ajjur & mogheir, 2020;olii et al., 2021; handini et al., 2021). the results of the euclidean distance with an interval of 300 meters at the research site are shown in figure 2c. the distance of 300 meters from a river in the study is most prone to flooding, and the area is about 24% of the total area. soil type the type of soil in this study is to see the characteristics of saturation or soil saturation. soil types at the research site were udipsamments, fluvaquentic endoaquepts, endoaquepts, and epiaquepts. these four soil types have different saturation levels, impacting 363 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 water drainage through the soil horizon layer. based on the description from usda (1999) soil type: a. udipsamments have soil characteristics that are not saturated with water in a layer up to a distance of 100 cm from the soil surface, even for 20-30 days in a row, because the size of the soil fraction is 0.02-2 mm. udipsamments formed from the sand result from marine deposition processes, so this type of soil has good drainage. b. fluvaquentic endoaquepts, the difference with other endoaquepts is that there is organic content at a depth of 125 cm. with aquic conditions only in the regular year, this type of soil has moderate drainage. c. epiaquepts is a type of soil that has episaturation, in the sense that there are one or more layers that are saturated with water to a depth of 200 cm. the groundwater also fluctuates to that depth so that this soil type has moderate drainage. d. endoaquepts are aquepts that have endosaturation, or saturated soil in all layers. groundwater fluctuations from near the surface to a depth of 50 cm does not have a soil horizon to a depth of 100 cm, as a result of the shallow groundwater table, so that when saturated with the flat surface land will cause flooding more quickly, so this type of soil has poor drainage. therefore, the drainage conditions at the research site were divided into three categories: good drainage for udipsamment soil types, moderate drainage for fluvaquentic endoaquepts and epiaquepts soil types, and poor drainage for endoaquepts soil types. the highest weighting for flood susceptibility was endoaquepts which covered almost the entire study area, about 93.8% (figure 2d). topographic wetness index (twi) twi can describe the spatial distribution and areas with relatively wet and relatively dry proportions (zhu, 2016). twi also indicates the influence of flow direction and flow accumulation at a location in the watershed (das, 2018). based on the value criteria, the area with a high twi value will be very prone to flooding. the twi value is very prone to flooding, according to das (2018, 2020), with a twi value of >16, and ahmed m. youssef & hegab (2019)with a twi value of >14. the variation of the twi value in this study is between 5 and 18. the twi values that are very prone to flooding in this study are >14, spread out only about 2% of the research area. the low twi value (<9) has the widest distribution, which is about 64% of the entire study area (figure 2e). 364 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 a b c d e f figure 2. factors for flood hazard mapping: a. slope; b. elevation; c. distance from the river; d. soil type; e. topographic wetness index (twi); f. curvature 365 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 curvature curvature has a minor influence on flood events, although it cannot be ruled out (das, 2018). a positive curvature value indicates a convex surface (such as hills and ridges), a negative curvature value indicates a concave surface (such as depression and valley), and a value close to zero indicates flatness (das, 2018; zhu, 2016). the flat curvature is an area that is very prone to flooding, having the most expansive area, which is around 64.6% of the entire research area. the concave area is around 17.4%, and the convex area is around 17.6% of the research area (figure 2f). 4.2. comparison and weighting of each factor this study used the ahp excel template and the ahp extension in arcgis software to compare and calculate the weights of each variable and the consistency ratio (cr). the results of the first stage of ahp calculations assess all factors' weights and comparisons using a 6 x 6 matrix, with diagonal elements equal to 1 (table 1). furthermore, the pairwise comparison value is normalized to obtain a weighted value (table 2). the factors in the row matrix are compared to other factors in the column matrix. floods in kencong district occurred because many were caused by overflowing river water and broken river embankments so that most areas close to rivers were often affected by floods. therefore, the distance from the river is the most influential factor compared to other factors. the distance from the river weighs 0.33 or 33%, with the most flood-prone class being the area within 300 meters of the river. the distance factor from the river as the most influential factor compared to other factors is also similar to previous studies, namely olii et al. (2021) with a weight of 0.35; ajjur & mogheir (2020) with a weight of 0.38; ahmed m. youssef & hegab (2019) with a weight of 0.335; bathrellos et al. (2017) with a weight of 0.30; and rahmati et al. (2016) with a weight of 0.546. they all concluded that the areas most affected by flooding were areas close to rivers. table 1. comparison matrix and the relative score of all flood-related factors factors slope elevation distance from river soil type twi curvature slope 1 4 1/2 3 2 3 elevation 1/4 1 1/4 1/2 1/3 1/2 distance from river 2 4 1 4 3 2 soil type 1/3 2 1/4 1 1/3 1/2 twi 1/2 3 1/3 3 1 3 curvature 1/3 2 1/2 2 1/3 1 366 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 table 2. normalized and the weight values in the comparison matrix factors slope elevation distance from river soil type twi curvature weights (wi) weights (%) slope 0.226 0.250 0.176 0.222 0.286 0.300 0.243 24.3 elevation 0.057 0.063 0.088 0.037 0.048 0.050 0.057 5.7 distance from river 0.453 0.250 0.353 0.296 0.429 0.200 0.330 33.0 soil type 0.075 0.125 0.088 0.074 0.048 0.050 0.077 7.7 twi 0.113 0.188 0.118 0.222 0.143 0.300 0.181 18.1 curvature 0.075 0.125 0.176 0.148 0.048 0.100 0.112 11.2 the second factor that influences the occurrence of flooding is the slope with a weight of 0.24 or 24%, more significant than the weight of twi, curvature, soil type, and elevation. the slope is a physical factor that forms a disaster whose influence is still below the main factor. most of the slopes in the study area are between 2° to 4°, which are divided into two sub-categories of slope classes. compared to other studies, slopes <6° are still the class most prone to flooding (olii et al.2021; das, 2018; bathrellos et al.2017; rahmati et al.2016). the result of the consistency ratio (cr) calculation is 0.047. cr value is still below the value of 0.10; the weighting is accepted and can be analyzed further for the subcategories of each factor. the contribution of each class in determining the flood hazard area is described in table 3. the factors of slope, elevation and distance from the river are divided into five classes, while soil type, twi, and curvature are divided into three classes. class 1 is the class that has the minor effect on flooding, and class 5 is the class that has the most influence on flood events. based on the results of the weighting in this study, the elevation factor is the factor that has the most negligible effect on flooding due to the elevation in the study area is almost at an altitude below 20 m because it is in the downstream area and covers one sub-district. in contrast, in other studies covering areas ranging from upstream to downstream and regional scale (watershed), the elevation factor is considered to be very influential. other studies categorize elevations <20 m as being in the most flood-prone area because of the regional scale of the research area (hammami et al., 2019; ajjur & mogheir, 2020; olii et al.2021). 367 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 table 3. classes of the factors and according weights factors class rate comparison matrix class weight factor weight area (km2) area (%) 1 2 3 4 5 slope (°) <2° 5 1 0.416 0.243 46.87 78.65 2 – 4° 4 1/2 1 0.262 10.46 17.56 4 – 6° 3 1/3 1/2 1 0.161 1.83 3.07 6 – 8° 2 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 0.099 0.36 0.62 >8° 1 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 0.062 0.05 0.09 elevation <10 5 1 0.416 0.057 28.11 47.15 (m) 10-15 4 1/2 1 0.262 16.45 27.59 15-20 3 1/3 1/2 1 0.161 13.59 22.81 20-25 2 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 0.099 1.41 2.36 >25 1 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 0.062 0.03 0.06 distance <300 m 5 1 0.443 0.330 28.40 16.91 from river 300-600 m 4 1/3 1 0.240 20.69 12.32 (m) 600-900 m 3 1/3 1/2 1 0.159 17.16 10.22 900-1200 m 2 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 0.097 13.98 8.33 >1200 m 1 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 0.061 19.74 11.75 soil type poor drain 3 1 0.633 0.077 56.01 93.85 semi drain 2 1/3 1 0.260 1.42 2.37 well drain 1 1/5 1/3 1 0.106 2.26 3.78 twi >14 3 1 0.633 0.181 1.,21 2.07 9-14 2 1/3 1 0.260 19.43 33.30 <9 1 1/5 1/3 1 0.106 37.70 64.63 curvature flat 3 1 0.599 0.112 38.56 64.69 concave 2 1/3 1 0.269 10.43 17.49 convex 1 1/4 1/3 1 0.131 10.62 17.81 4.3. flood susceptibility analysis results the value of the weight of each class and weight variables from the ahp model is then included in the weighted overlay analysis in arcgis according to the classes described in table 3. the flood hazard map resulting from the weighting of the six variables is shown in figure 3. flood hazard is divided into five levels: deficient, low, medium, high, and very high with an area of 0.02% each; 4.26%; 37.11%; 51.89%, and 6.72%. the location of the occurrence of flooding observations based on incident records and interviews was found as many as 121 locations, of which there were 14 observation sites in moderately vulnerable areas, 81 observation locations in high-prone areas, and 26 observation locations in very high flood-prone areas (table 4). most flood locations are found in high flood-prone areas because they cover an area of 30.19 km2 or equivalent to 50.89% of the total research area. in areas with a very high level of flood susceptibility, 26 locations were also found, although the area 368 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 was only 3.91 km2 or 6.72%. in contrast, in areas with a deficient and low level of flood susceptibility with an area of 4.28%, there were no locations where there had been a flood. table 4. areas according to the level of flood susceptibility and flood observation locations flood hazard classes area (km2) area (%) inventory flood mapping very low 0.013 0.02 low 2.477 4.26 medium 21.598 37.11 14 high 30.196 51.89 81 very high 3.911 6.72 26 total 58.195 100.00 121 areas with a very high level of flood vulnerability are in the middle part of kraton village (2.45%) and the southern part of kencong village (2.37%). these two villages have experienced seven broken embankments since 1994. the river embankment that broke on december 22, 2018, was the left-hand defence of the tanggul river which then resulted in flooding in the southern part of kencong village and kraton village. very high vulnerability areas are close to rivers, flat slopes <2°, low elevation, poor soil drainage, and the density of drainage between the kedongpawon river, tanggul river, and meneng river at this location is very tight. the density of dense river drainage is one factor that encourages flood inundation (danumah et al., 2016; dahri & abida, 2017; seejata et al., 2018). in addition, regarding the broken embankment, a very high flood-prone area is also located at the confluence of the paseban river and the kedungpowon river. chakraborty & mukhopadhyay (2019) stated that the proximity of an area to the confluence of two rivers and a broken embankment significantly influences flood vulnerability. according to the flood susceptibility class, the area of the village is described in table 5. table 5. the area of the village, according to the level of flood susceptibility village hazard classes total (km2) very low low medium high very high km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % cakru 0.51 0.87 3.57 6.14 3.67 6.31 0.38 0.66 22.11 kencong 0.48 0.83 5.70 9.80 9.91 17.02 1.38 2.37 45.11 kraton 0.04 0.07 1.03 1.77 5.55 9.54 1.42 2.45 19.44 paseban 0.013 0.02 0.86 1.48 5.05 8.68 4.98 8.56 0.31 0.53 29.96 wonorejo 0.58 1.00 6.24 10.72 6.08 10.45 0.42 0.72 35.50 total 0.013 2.48 21.60 30.20 3.91 58.20 areas with high flood susceptibility have 51.89% of the research area. high flood levels were spread across all villages, such as in kencong village (17.02%), wonorejo village (10.45%), and kraton village (9.54%). the dominant high flood-prone class is within 300-500 meters of the river, namely the tanggul river, malang river, meneng river, 369 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 kedungpowon river, and bondoyudo river. the flood caused by the embankment breaks, all areas categorized as high flood-prone will also be inundated. the slopes in kencong district are dominantly in the flat category with slopes of 0°-4°, low elevation, and poor drainage, which makes some areas fall into the category of high-level flooding. areas that have a moderate level of flood vulnerability are wonorejo village (10.72%), kencong village (9.80%), and paseban village (8.68%). the condition of the area included in the moderate flood area is usually caused by the movement of water through the basin and basin to lead to a flat place even though it is far from the river. they are randomly distributed in the lowand very-low class flood areas. the area is far from rivers, has good soil drainage, and has curvature in hills or dunes. the distribution of all flood-prone classes is shown in figure 3. figure 3. flood susceptibility map 370 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 4.4. model validation the accuracy of the flood vulnerability modeling results can be validated quantitatively using the receiver operating characteristic (roc) curve to compare the accuracy of the vulnerability map with data on the location of flood events in the field (youssef & hegab, 2019; shafizadeh-moghadam et al., 2018; tien bui et al., 2012). in general, the prediction level shows the model's predictive ability in a particular area by measuring the area under the prediction level curve (area under curve) called the auc value (pourghasemi et al., 2012). in this study, the validation of the flood-prone map was carried out through field observations at locations that had been flooded and found 121 locations of flood events in the kencong district area. the auc value shows a value of 0.838 which means that about 84% of the area is below the prediction according to the ahp flood mapping method results (figure 4). the range of values to indicate the predicted result class is 90-100% (special); 8090% (very good); 70-80% (good); 60-70% (enough); and 50-60% (low) (james et al., 2013; zumel & mount, 2014). the auc value shows that the ahp method has excellent predictive ability (84%) in mapping flood-prone areas in kencong district. figure 4. area under curve (auc) for flood susceptibility map 5. conclusion the ahp method, integrated with the geographic information system, can produce a model to evaluate the spatial distribution of flood-prone areas in the kencong district, jember regency. spatial distribution using weighting on the variables of a slope, elevation, 371 muhammad asyroful mujib et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 353-376 soil type, distance from the river, topographic wetness index (twi), and curvature have been divided into five levels: deficient, low, medium, high, and very high with an area of 0.02% each; 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(2014). practical data science with r. new york: simon and schuster. https://doi.org/10.2741/4268. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9780429445552-38/soil-taxonomy-mark-stolt https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0022169412001928?via%3dihub https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/11/1/62 https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/9/751/2009/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780128152263000107?via%3dihub https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780128152263000107?via%3dihub https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs12665-015-4830-8 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs12665-015-4830-8 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11069-012-0397-9 https://fbscience.com/landmark/articles/10.2741/4268 ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 364 a review paper on monitoring environmental consequences of land cover dynamics with the help of geo-informatics technologies ziyad ahmad abdo1,* and satya prakash2 1department of public relation and communication, ethiopian ministry of health, addis ababa, ethiopia 2 department of civil engineering, sharda university , greater noida, uttar pradesh, 201310, india *corresponding author : ziyadahm1982@gmail.com received 22 june 2020/ revised 12 october 2020 / accepted 21 october 2020/ published 30 december 2020 abstract land cover dynamics is a challenging and vigorous process that associates natural and human systems that have undeviating effects on atmosphere, water and soil which lead to many environmental problems worldwide. urbanization is one of a major land cover change that is highly correlated with many environmental problems that need emphasis. this paper aimed to review and present level and effect of land use land cover changes, urbanization, factors affecting land cover change and application of geographic information system & remote sensing in monitoring land cover changes. over the past 300 years, about 1.2 million kilometer square of forests and 5.6 million kilometer square of pasture and rangeland were replaced by other uses worldwide, while cultivated land increased by 12 million km2. inm1950,monlym30 percent of themworldmpopulationmlivedminmurban settings, themfraction raised tom55%mbym2018. this led to about roughly 60% of the ecosystem services are being destroyed or used in unsustainable ways worldwide. population expansion, change of technology, high land value, corruption, lack of awareness, migration of people and political pressure are among major driving force of land cover changes. geo-informatics technology specially gis and remote sensing is found to be an excellent tool for study of land cover change that enables observation across large area of earth’s surface with low cost, better efficient and high accuracy. therefore monitoring, analyzing and evaluation of land cover dynamics with the help of geo-informatics is decisive for improved management & characterizing land cover alteration processes, and determining its environmental consequences. keywords : land use; land cover change; urbanization; gis & remote sensing; environment 1. introduction land cover shows the physical coverage of surface of land by water, vegetation, bare soil or non-natural structures (verburg et al., 2009; wossenu, 2016). natural science experts explain land use based on forms of human activities such as planting, agriculture and buildings that modify surface processes, including geological activities, biodiversity and geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 364-389, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v5i3. 18284 accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol.5 no. 3 (2020), 301-317, december, 2020 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : accredited by the ministry of research , technology , and higher education of the republic of indonesia, no. 30/e/kpt/2019. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rsnvas6cuhowhl5bj87cl2l6k5dqz7s6/view ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 365 hydrology (popović, 2017). land administrators describe land use more widely to comprise social and economic activities and system in which land is managed, for example the existence of marketable agriculture, rented houses, and private land (erle, 2007). land cover dynamics are the changes in physical and biological features of land that can be attributed to management, including the alteration of pastures and forest area into agricultural lands, urban settlements, contamination and degradation of the soil, vegetation removal and transition to non-agricultural uses (jokar, 2011; tesfa et al., 2016). different experts explain land use land cover change (lulcc) as the modification of surface of the earth by human beings. these changes assimilate the extreme environmental suffering of today's human populations that include climate change, the loss of biodiversity and contamination of water, soil and atmosphere (erle, 2007). changes in land cover can vary from a change in the character of the landscape without affecting existing global classifications to the extreme case in which one type of land cover completely replaces another (gregorio, 2002; molders, 2012). land cover modification refers to human activities like deforestation for agricultural and urban expansion or that naturally caused by floods, forest fires, diseases epidemics and other natural disasters (molders, 2012; pielke et al., 2011). the place, time and spatial measures of several land cover changes (lccs) differ from each other due to their causes (molders, 2012). the extent of this alteration can be slow or immediate. for example, a forest fire causes sudden change, while the accumulation of biomass or the migration of ecosystems occurs gradually (terefe, 2017). the change of lulc is a most important problem with respect to the changing comprehensive environment (jing, 2007) as it is never static and is constantly evolving in reply to the forceful interaction of drivers and the responses of changes in land use (mercy & matheaus, 2016; terefe, 2017). thus environmental systems are difficult to adapts as they arises from the connections among the various components of the system, which in turn influence the successive growth and its collaboration (lepers, 2014). the changes in land use are the global concern of the 21st century, with an intense participation for human existence and they play a vital role in the study of main ecological change (jing, 2007). changes in lulc caused by both human and/or anthropogenic activities have fundamentally led to several environmental complications such as deforestation, biodiversity damage, increase in global temperature, increased flooding, etc. these ecological problems are often correlated with immense urbanization, agricultural and demographic pressure (stéphenne & lambin, 2001) leading to a reduction of ecosystem services. ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 366 ecosystems provide many services to the living being (grafius et al., 2016; karen et al., 2017; terefe, 2017). some of these services include providing basic needs like food, water, fuel, and fibers. these ecological services support the nutrient cycle, soil formation, microclimate and macroclimate regulation, flood regulation, disease prevention, water purification, and other services supporting living things (walter et al., 2005). negative consequences of lulcc can result in a huge ecosystem service burden. analyzing lulcc detection is very important to understand global environmental transformation processes (prashant & dawei 2012). hence, consideration of the impacts of lulcc is becoming progressively more important. the need to acclimatize to climate change and continuous ecological inconsistency become important issues internationally, in addition to raising consciousness of the significance of environmental change regulation (pielke et al., 2011). therefore, analyzing, monitoring and evaluation of lulc, urbanization and their environmental consequence are very crucial for the land planner, manager, governmental and other ngo. besides scientific community, to realize policies and strategies, improves the use of natural resources and minimizes the impact on the environment. taking the above truth into consideration, it is critical to review and provide additional information to those in need. therefore, in this paper, the authors have reviewed lulcc and its environmental impact, and the application of geo-informatics technologies such as, gis and remote sensing for lulcc studies. 2. land use land cover change (lulcc) the lulcc is an endless process that has taken place on the surface of the earth since ancient time (gebrekidan, 2014; shiferaw, 2011). for many years, human societies have been living together modifying and changing the natural environment (andreas et al., 2013).over the past 300 years, about 1.2 million kilometer square of forests and 5.6 million kilometer square of pasture and rangeland were replaced by other uses worldwide, while cultivated land increased by 12 million km2 (chetan et al., 2002). after 1990, humans converted the environment faster and more widely than throughout any equivalent time period in human history, principally to fulfill the increasing demand for food stuff, water, wood, fibers and fuels. this has caused in a considerable and mostly irreparable damage of the variety of life on earth (pielke et al., 2011; walter et al., 2005). for example, since 1950 about 30% of forest area changed to crop land. roughly 60% of the ecosystem services are being destroyed or used in un sustainable ways worldwide (walter et al., 2005). ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 367 a study (pielke et al., 2011) shows that, globally total cultivated area has increased considerably, from 12 million hectares in 1871 to almost 70 million hectares at the end of the twentieth century. most of studies reviewed in this paper and related with lulcc show that, evergreen forests, grasslands and bare lands decreased extensively, while agricultural land and built-up has increased (abebe & megento, 2016; halefom & teshome, 2018; mercy &, matheaus, 2016). for instance, it indicates that evergreen forests decline from 39% in 2000 to 17% in 2016 (mercy & matheaus, 2016). similarly, another study demonstrated that the reduction of green spaces plantations, forest, grass and cultivated land at yearly rates of 5.9%, 3.3%, 5.4% and 3.7 % respectively during 1986 to 2015, while built-uncover increased at annual rate of 5.7% (abebe & megento, 2016). lulcc has impact on water basins. hydrological practices of watersheds are affected by different causes such as, lulcc, climate, earth physicochemical properties, geology of the place, landscape, and spatial & temporal connections between these factors (charles, 2016; roland, 2000). soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, and environmental damage (mikias, 2015; tadesse, 2014; tesfa et al., 2016) are some of the major consequences of lulcc worldwide. on the positive side, some changes in lulc have paid a substantial profit in terms of human welfare and economic growth. however, these advances were experienced at a high loss in the form of distraction of uncountable ecosystem services, amplified jeopardies of nonlinear changes and the escalation of poverty for some groups of people (summers & linthurst, 2012).to determine the values of ecosystem services analyzing the lulc and a global database is important. for example, a study by terefe (2017) showed that, due to forest cover reduction by 54.2% in four decades led to nearly us $ 3.69 million intimated ecosystem services were lost. lulcc is intricate and interconnected such that the enlargement of one kind take place at the expense of other classes (molders, 2012; pielke et al., 2011). detection, analysis and modeling of changes in lulc and driving forces are important to establish the cause and effects detected in the past, as well as to predict future changes in lulc (hassan et al., 2016; tesfa et al., 2016), are also tremendously important systems for land managers and decision makers (crews-meyer, 2002). 2.1. urban land cover dynamics and urbanization urbanization is one of the further most dominant & observable social activities on earth (dawson, 2009). urban development and lcc are the two most correlated issues ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 368 studied in different scientific papers. it is one of anthropogenic results that shows a global trend and reflects the growth of the world's population. hence, the growth of population can result in expansion and modification of urban land. this led humans to undergoing a radical change in urban life (grimm et al., 2008; montgomery, 2008). it is obvious that cities intrude towards peripheries at the expense of farm lands, forest and other natural resources (tawhida et al., 2015). the aesthetic benefits from open spaces, the livelihood of farming communities at the pre urban area are being increasingly changed by urban settlements (mengistu, 2016; yared & heyaw, 2019). understanding urban lcc is crucial for improved understanding of their fundamental characteristics and processes, and the impact of lcc on environment (bagan & yamagata, 2014). at the beginning of 20th century, almost merely 10% of the world's population was living in urban areas (grimm et al., 2008). today, the world has been urbanizing more rapidly. inm1950, onlym30 percent ofmthemworld'smpopulationmlivedminmurban setting, this number increase to 55 percent in 2018 (united nation, 2018b). the population changes and the expansion of megacities are leading to the transformation of forests and agricultural areas into urban agglomerations (kumar et al., 2018; liu et al., 2014). the estimates of the global urban area varies from 1 to 3% of the land surface (liu et al., 2014; united nation, 2018a). this difference of coverage is because different studies define urban land in different way (example; “cities area”, “urban administrative area”, area conquered by built-up areas”, “built up area”, “impervious surface” etc.) (liu et al., 2014). worldwide, the number of large metropolitan is anticipated to increase from 33 in 2018 to 43 in 2030 (nation, 2018). 2.2. consequences of urbanization and other land cover change even though the urbanization process has important implications for economic development (chen et al., 2014; henderson, 2003; mcgranahan, 2013), unplanned, nonsystematic and rapid urban growth have intense impacts on several ecological constituents, particularly land, water and air (bisrat et al., 2018; cui & shi, 2012; patra et al., 2018; seto, et al., 2012). this is especially true since many of the urban areas of the world have experienced significant lcc for many years. hence, those urban areas use the greatest amount of world's energy (cui & shi, 2012; liu, 2009) and result in severe ecological complications (cui & shi, 2012; popović, 2017) like deprivation of air and water quality, and exacerbation of land degradation (battista & de lieto vollaro, 2017; patra et al., 2018; yan, et al., 2016). urbanization has also resulted in an enormously serious public health issues (gebrekidan, 2014; popović, 2017; walter et al., 2005). ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 369 the interchange of energy, water, and exchanges between land cover and the atmosphere is highly affected by the physical features of land cover (cui & shi, 2012). in the growth of urban land, forests, vegetation cover, other natural and man-made plants are mostly changed to paved surfaces. this can significantly affect natural processes and ecosystem services. for example the urbanization process affects precipitation patterns, this in turn affect ground water levels (patra et al., 2018). increased urban land cover has substantial effects on local environment and weather, and also interferes with many natural processes (cui & shi, 2012), like inconsistency of rainfall, relative humidity and surface water quality (cui & shi, 2012; tolera, 2018). the urban heat island (uhi) is increased by the expansion of the urban landscape, in contrast to rural areas (wossenu, 2016). wind speed and direction are also affected by urban land expansion (mohan & kandya, 2015; yan et al., 2016; bisrat et al., 2018; srivastava & satyaprakash, 2020). this all can affect air quality and result in public health problems (tawhida et al., 2015). for instance, studies in some portions of the northern hemisphere show that, on average urban areas get 12% less solar radiation, 14% additional precipitation, 8% more clouds, 10% more snowfall, and 15% more storms, in addition the concentration of pollutants is10 times greater and the areas are 2oc more warmer when compared to their rural counterparts (taha, 2008). lulcc also takes a main role in climate change from global to local scales (erle, 2007; zhang et al., 2015). as land cover changes, degradation of the forest and different plants reduce the potential for carbon storage and sequestration (reda, 2017). dynamics of land cover change the terrestrial carbon balance (zhang et al., 2015). in history large amount of carbon dioxide were released into the environment because of lulcc. this had extraordinary impact on local to global atmospheric amount of carbon dioxide and the earth energy balance (pielke et al., 2011). therefore, a detailed understanding and monitoring of the change of lulc and urban growth, and their possible consequences is necessary to manage environmental problems and facilitate sustainable development. 2.3. factors affecting landiuse and landicoverichange knowledge of driversmofmlulcc is usedmto mark the beginning of the cause-effect relationship seen in the previous story. it is also very useful for land managers and policy makers to help forecast the future lulcc and its effect (erle, 2007). while much effort has been devoted to identifies the factors, many test results show that lulcc drivers continue to change from time to time depending on specific problems. the drivers of change in the ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 370 ecosystem have global, regional and local contacts (molders, 2012; walter et al., 2005). the instantaneous evolution and enlargement of urban centers, the pressurized population growth, immigration to cities, the shortage of land, the need for increased production, and technological changes are among the many driving forces for lulcc in today's world (song, 2011; cui & shi, 2012; kindu et. al., 2015; mikias, 2015; tolera, 2018). additionally a study in shanghai, china show that beside population growth, policy reform and economic development are among the drivers of lulcc (cui & shi, 2012). a study done in khartoum, sudan shows that natural conditions, the countries government policy, interaction among people and industrial growth were the main drivers of the lulcc experienced (galal, 2015). furthermore a study of sabata, ethiopia showed that factors for urban green space reduction are the extension of the built up land and transport area, population growth, high land value, weakness of planning& regulations, corruption, absence of coordination between concerned organizations, and limited awareness of the importance of green spaces (yared & heyaw, 2019). large scale lands that lack suitable environmental impact assessments and unplanned community relocation systemwere among the specified cause of massive lulcc (azeb et al., 2018). land covers change and different driving forces are related in different ways. rapid expansion in urban areas due to population and economic growth increases the ultimatum for natural resources and causes change in land use, especial ly in urban centers (halefom & teshome, 2018). the interactions between the different socio-economic conditions, population pressure, physiographic characteristics and the type of land use have led to a change in the land use (azeb et al., 2018; tesfa et al., 2016; walter et al., 2005). as migration to cities is one of the lulcc drivers it is caused by lack of employment, insecurity, reduction of agricultural productivity, lack of human life facilities, poverty, drought and natural disasters (tawhida et al., 2015). therefore understanding thedrivers of changes in lulc is critical for modeling future land dynamics and development of management strategies to prevent further decline of natural resources and prevention environmental problems (song, 2011). 3. the role of remote sensing and gis in land use/land cover analysis strong, accurate, consistent and updated information systems on lulcc and urbanization trends are needed for possibilities of choice, planning, forecasting and execution of land use arrangements to encounter the growing burdens for rudimentary human requirements, welfare and sustainable lulc development (stéphenne & lambin, 2001; ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 371 zhang et al., 2018).with the passage of time, different technologies gets developed making asimpler and more efficient. geo-informatics technologies, which mainly include satellite remote sensing (rs) and geographic information system (gis), are widely implemented for assessing and characterizing lulcc (hassan et al., 2016). remote sensing has recognized to be a wonderful tool for monitoring the earth's surface to improve perception of our environment, leading to unprecedented advancements in sensor and information technology (al-wassai & kalyankar, 2013; weng, 2016).the earth observation satellites offer a wide variety of image data with different characteristics in terms of spatial, spectral, radiometric, temporal resolutions and data volume (al-wassai & kalyankar, 2013). the introduction of the earth resource technology satellite (erts) 1, later called landsat 1 in july 1972, has contributed significantly to the development of remote sensing applications such as land cover classification (phiri & morgenroth, 2017). specially space based systems are very important instruments of land change study because they enables visualizing wider area of earth’s surface compared to ground based methods (mubea & menz, 2012). in rs the ground surface is identified based on color provided for each land cover type which is emanate from the different reflected energy from ground surface features. rs provides outstanding databases from which well-organized information on lulcc can be generated, analyzed and modeled (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; barani & seelam, 2018; mubea & menz, 2012) in minimum time with very low cost and better accuracy (halefom & teshome, 2018; kumar et al., 2015). this method empowers researchers/academicians/students to examine and model lcc efficiently and effectively. similarly, gis is used to store and handle large data sets about the images and all related information to enable analysis, interpretation and finally application according to choice of interest (sadoun & al rawashdeh, 2009). historical qualitative and manual measuring systems are currently unable to satisfy the expanded need for scientific studies of land change management, the development of satellite rs starting from the early 1970s delivering data for the active follow up and measurable analysis of lulcc (yue et al., 2018). as rs has a high value for self-determining and as an objective source of information for lulcc (ali khawaldah, 2016; halefom & teshome, 2018), many researchers have shown evidence of the effectiveness of rs technology for lulc study (awoke, 2010; barani & seelam, 2018). specially integrating rs and gis can provide a tremendous method for ideal lulc planning and management (rozenstein & karnieli, 2011; sadoun & al ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 372 rawashdeh, 2009; weng, 2016). most of the important processes in lulc assessment using rs and gis may be listed as follow. 3.1. selection of remotely sensed data rs data are a practical source of data that land use maps can be created from and managed efficiently (rozenstein & karnieli, 2011). the selection of suitable sensor data is the most significant step for an effective image classification. rs data vary in spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal resolutions (phinn, 1998). additionally, criteria such as image acquisition time, cloud cover, atmospheric condition, data formats, data charges and other are considered to select suitable image (thomas & ralph, 2015; weng & lu, 2007). currently, in addition to the above platforms, landsat operational land imager (oli 8) and sentinel 2 msi (multispectral instrument) are widely used. in general landsat satellites are a main data source for global to regional lulc analysis (prashant & dawei, 2012), because of the easy and free availability of the data. apart from the above, there are many other satellite platforms such as ikonos, geoeye, lidar, etc., which are also used for lulcc studies. however, before using the satellite image, prioritization of different types of sensor and other gis data is critical for the selection of appropriate data for intended purpose (padmanaban et al., 2017; phinn, 1998). 3.2. image pre processing the raw satellite image may not be directly used for intended applications and needs some modifications and correction. there are some pre-processes that must be done on the raw image before it can be used for further refinement, interpretation, or analysis. some of these processes are designed to correct errors that could lead to data being secretly collected, while others make the data more sensitive for further processing (thomas & ralph, 2015). pre-treatment activities include noise and haze removal, radiation correction, geometry correction, sub image preparation, mosaic, and stacking are among pre-processing activities (obodai et al., 2019; padmanaban et al., 2017; weng & lu, 2007). a first step in preprocessing is for individual bands of each scene need to be stacked to create a multispectral image for each scene. the second step of image preprocessing is image extraction/sub setting of an area of interest (aoi). subtracting the aoi from the entire part of the image is important to reduce the bulkiness of the image file. this is not only removes unnecessary data in the image, but also it increase processing speed because of the reduced extent of data to work on (prashant & dawei, 2012). ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 373 subsequently geometric, radiometric corrections and image enhancement are conducted. geometric correction involves removing orientation distortion and it also involves changing of data to ground coordinates (herold et al., 2002; otukei & blaschke, 2010). the sources of these distortions may be the speed of the sensor platform, difference in altitude, earth curvature, atmospheric deflection and refraction (thomas & ralph, 2015). on the other hand, radiometric correction includes correction for atmospheric noise or unwanted sensor and data correction for sensor irregularities is needed (abebe & megento, 2016; padmanaban et al., 2017). image enhancement is to enhance the appearance of images to aid visual analysis, classification and interpretation of images (abebe & megento, 2016). however, for digital image processing of the satellite images, image enhancement might not be needed. 3.3. classification system image classification involves categorizing the corrected stacked images or the individual panchromatic images into a fewer number of individual land use land cover classes or themes, based on the reflectance values (thomas & ralph, 2015). this can increase and simplify the applicability of rs data. there are two types of image classifiers system, which are supervised and unsupervised. it is important to know that there is no single perfect one in which image can be classified (thomas & ralph, 2015). the major difference among this two method of classification is, in supervised classification first training site development comes which is followed by classification stage (rozenstein & karnieli, 2011; thomas & ralph, 2015). in other way in the unsupervised system, first image is classified based on natural spectral grouping, then the image expert defines land cover identity and group them according to their similarity by comparing with ground truth data (thomas & ralph, 2015). there are many classification algorithms in supervised classification. maximum likelihood classifier, parallel epiped classifier, minimum likelihood classifier, spectral angle mapper, object-based classification, neural network machine hearing, deep learning classification and a spectral correction mapper are the major ones that are often used (thomas & ralph, 2015). the maximum likelihood classification method applies the theory of probability to classification activities and is generally work based on statistics (mean, variance/covariance). it is the most powerful/common classifier and mostly employed (ayele, et al., 2018; kebede, 2018). this method has been used by many researchers, for example many articles reviewed by the authors (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; hernández-guzmán et al., 2019) used this method. identifying appropriate classification system and algorithm is among the main activities need for lcc change study. ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 374 3.4. accuracy assessment it is necessary to validate to what degree the produced classification is similar with what exists on the ground. it is significant for accepting the obtained results and making good decisions (gashu & egziabher, 2018; obodai et al., 2019). accuracy assessment is also needed to reduce the error in rs data (alqurashi & kumar, 2013). source of reference data, sampling system, and sample size must be taken into account to properly develop an error matrix for accuracy assessment (mausel et al., 2004; padmanaban et al., 2017). collection of the reference data is a key element of an accuracy assessment. reference data is the data that is to be compared against classified image. different researchers use different system to collect reference data, also called ground truth. for instance, ground observation using gps (faye et al., 2016; hailemariam et al., 2016; park, 2016), aerial photography (hailemariam et al., 2016), available thematic maps interpretation (ghosh & das, 2019; sarkar, 2018) and google earth images (alqurashi &kumar, 2013; bisrat & gizaw, 2018; herold et al., 2002) can be used. the most common sampling system that is used for collecting reference data is simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and stratified systematic (padmanaban et al., 2017). different researchers use different sample sizes calculation for reference data. on the other hand, classifications covering large areas or with more than 12 land cover categories require more thorough sampling, typically 75 to 100 samples per category. 3.5. land cover change detection detecting changes in lcc is one of the most fundamental and common uses of remote sensing image analysis. it is the system of recognizing variation in the status of things or event by seeing it at different period of time (mausel et al, 2004; alqurashi & kumar, 2013). there are many lcc detection systems. post-classification comparison, change vector analysis (cva), image differencing, image rationing, , chi-square, decision trees, image fusion, hybrid change detection, principal component analysis (pca), artificial neural networks (ann) are among the major methods (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; mausel et al., 2004; thomas & ralph, 2015). all techniques have their own pros and cons. for example, post-classification comparison gives more detail about the image, object that are selected and change detected. on other hand, image differencing, image rationing, and principal components analysis, do not provide sufficient change trend information (alqurashi & kumar, 2013), therefore it is ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 375 difficult to determine trend and direction of changes. several other change detection techniques, such as image differencing, image rationing, pca, chi-square, hybrid change detection and cva, require the selection of a threshold. even though selecting an appropriate threshold is essential for gaining good change detection results, selecting an appropriate threshold is challenging and time consuming. furthermore, the strengths and limitations of individual change detection techniques should be considered while selecting any technique for a specific study. even though selecting training site (sts) is important for good output of change detection as required by analysts, it is time consuming. however, some change detection techniques such as post-classification comparison, artificial--neural networks, need sts. change direction is specified by whether the change is positive or negative in each band on a pixel by pixel basis. the direction of change show whether detected character is increasing or decreasing. however, some change detection techniques such as, hybrid-change detection, image-fusion, image-differencing, chi-square and some others does not provide change direction (pcd). a challenge in change spectrum determination method is to distinguish the pixel change from chain of incoherent data. for most change detection methods, the choice of the threshold value decides the competency of change detection. selecting aappropriate threshold value can maximize separating the areas of real changes. some change techniques such as hybrid-change detection, artificial-neural networks, gis-technique do not require selecting suitable threshold. at the end of the change detection process, structured change matrix is very important for interpretation. hence, some change detection techniques such as post-classification comparison, artificial-neural networks, gis-technique doprovide change matrix (pcm). a comparison of many of the lulcc detection techniques have been compiled in the table 1. the table lists down the characteristics of the technique, its strengths and limitations and additional features (sts: selectingtraining site, pcd: providing change direction, st: selecting threshold, pcm:providing changematrix) required to operate. yes or no in the table shows that whether the technique is needed or not required tocarry out the lcc process. for example, those techniques which need selecting training site is coded as yes under sts column and for those techniques which do not need selecting training site is coded as no in the sts column. similarly, those which provide change direction is coded as yes in the pcd column and those which do not provide change direction is coded as no under pcd column. the information has been compiled from different literature. the references are mentioned in the last column separately. ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 364 table 1. features of some change detection techniques (explanation is in the text) change detection techniques change detection system strength limitations additional features required to operate references sts pcd st pcm post-classification comparison categorizes multi-temporal images into thematic maps separately, then performs a pixel-by-pixel comparison of categorized image reduces the effects of atmospheric, sensor and environmental variances between satellite images; provides a complete information about change matrix it takes a lot ofitimeiand experience toibuild sortingiproducts.ithe final accuracyidependsionitheiqualityiof theiimageiclassifiediforieachidate yes yes no yes (afify, 2011; almutairi & warner, 2010; alqurashi & kumar, 2013; bay & el-hattab, 2016) hybrid-change detection trap optimization is used to isolate variable pixels from a particular image, followed byisupervised classification. theibinary swap maskiis generated fromitheiresults of the classification. thisichange maskifilters theichanged properties of theilulc mapsigenerated forieach idate. thisimethod subtracts the unaltered pixelsifrom the gradation toireduce classificationierrors identifying pathways for change is quite complicated no no yes no (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; mohamed & mobarak, 2016) artificialnneural networkss theninputnuseditoitrainia neuralinetworkiisispectral dataifrom theiperiodiof ichange. the reverse propagationialgorithmiis ofteniuseditoitrainia multilayer neural network model. hasitheiabilityitoipredict data propertiesibasedion trainingiexamples it is difficult to know nature of the hidden layers; longitrainingitime isirequired,ianniisigenerally sensitiveitoitheiamountiofitraining dataiused and annifunctionsiare uncommon iniimageiprocessing softwaren yes yes no yes (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; mohamed & mobarak, 2016; prashant et al., 2012) image-fusion estimate the ratio of registered image of different dates band-by band. minimize effects of solar angle , of shadow and terrain anomalous distribution of the result is often critiqued no no yes no (alqurashi & kumar, 2013) continued.... 376 ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 365 change detection techniques change detection system strength limitations additional features required to operate references sts pcd st pcm gis-technique combine past and current landiuse mapsiwith topographiciandigeological data.iimage wrappingiand binary masking techniques are useful for measuring the dynamics of change in each class. this method allows antenna fusion photo data of current and historical land use data along with other map dates differentigisidataiwithidifferent engineering precisioniand classificationisystem reduceithe qualityiofithe result no yes no yes (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; mohamed & mobarak, 2016) imagedifferencing subtracts the image of the first date pixel by pixel from the image of the second date result interpretation is quite simple and easy cannot provide a detailed change matrix no no yes no (al-doski et al., 2013; almutairi & warner, 2010; mishra & dhurvey, 2018) image-rationing estimate the ratio of recorded images for two date band-by-band minimize effect of solar angle &reduces the effects of shading and terrain, is a simple method to detect changes in urban areas, and better handles calibration errors anomalous distribution of the result is often critiqued no no yes no (afify, 2011; alqurashi & kumar, 2013; mishra & dhurvey, 2018) change--vector analysis it produces two outputs: a spectralichangeivector defines theidirectioniand magnitudeiof theichange fromitheifirstitoitheisecond date,ianditheitotaliamount of changeifor each pixeliis calculated byidetermining theieuclideanidistance betweenitheiextremes throughitheidimensional changeifield processianyinumberiof spectralibands requirediand generates detailedichange detectioniinformation formsiofiland cover change were difficult to identify no yes yes no (almutairi & warner, 2010; alqurashi & kumar, 2013) continued.... 377 ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 366 change detection techniques change detection system strength limitations additional features required to operate references sts pcd st pcm chi-square y ~ (x2m) t s21 6 (x2m) y: numerical valueiofithe imageichange, x:ivectoriof theidifference betweenisix numerical valuesibetween twoidates, m:ivectoriof meaniresiduals forieach bandi,it: cross sectioniof theimatrix, s21: matrixiof sixiconnected inverse covariance multipleibands simultaneouslyiusedito create aisingleichange imagen thenassumption thatny ~ 0 representsnan unchangednpixel when mostnofithe image is changediisiincorrect. furthermore, the change related to the specific spectral orientation could not be easily determined no no yes no (alqurashi & kumar, 2013; lu & moran, 2004) principlecomponentanalysis assume that data from multiple time periods is highlyncorrelatednand that changeninformationncani be distinguished intoinew icomponents. theitwo methods of applying aipca forichangeidetectioniare: (1)iputitwoiorimore image datesiiniaifile,ithen performia pcaiand analyzeitheiimages of secondary components of the changeiinformation; andi(2)ido the pca iseparately,ithen extract the pc image with theisecond date from theipciimage corresponding to the first date it minimizes data redundancy between bands, validates diverse information in derived components, and facilitates easy classification of changed and unchanged area. pca depends on the scene, so it is difficult to perceive the variation between different dates and to interpret the results of the denomination. it cannotiprovideia completeichange category informationimatrixiandirequires thresholdsito define theivariable region no no yes no (afify, 2011; aldoski et al., 2013; almutairi & warner, 2010; alqurashi & kumar, 2013; devi, 2015) continued.... 378 ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 367 change detection techniques change detection system strength limitations additional features required to operate references sts pcd st pcm image regression create relationships between bi-temporal images, then use the regression function to estimate the pixel values for the second date image and subtract the retracted image from the first date image minimize the effects of climatic, sensor and environmental differences between the two dated image requires development of correct regression functions for specified bandprior to implementing change detection no yes yes no (devi, 2015; lu & moran, 2004; mohamed & mobarak, 2016) visual interpretation a band of the image of date1 is red; the same band of the image of date 2 is green and blue if there is the same band of the image of date3. visually interpret the color complex to identify changing areas. an alternative is to digitize variable regions on screen using a visual interpretation based on overlapping images on differentidates humaniexpertiseiand knowledgeiare helpful duringivisual iinterpretation. twoior ithree image datesicanibe analyzedisimultaneously. theianalystican add itexture,ishape,isizeiand patternsito theivisual interpretationitoimakeia idecisionionitheilulcn changen it is not possible to give detailed information about the change. the results depend on the analyst's ability to interpret images. time consuming and difficult to update results no no no no (mohamed & mobarak, 2016; mausel et al, 2004; thomas et al., 2015) note : sts= selecting-training site, pcd= providing changedirection, st= selecting threshold, pcm= providing changematrix 379 ziyad ahmad abdo and satya prakash / geosi vol 5 no 3 (2020) 364-389 380 4. conclusion land cover change is intricate and a continuing process, and is also interconnected such that the extension of one type occurs at the cost of other classes. a millions hectares of land cover changes occur from one type to another within a short period of time worldwide. the expansion of urban settlement at the expense of forest and agricultural land is one of the major land cover change registered. the population changes and the expansion of megacities are leading to the transformation of forests and agricultural areas into urban agglomerations. these lcc have both positive and negative consequences. on the positive side, some changes in lulc have paid a substantial profit in terms of human welfare and economic growth. however, these advances were experienced at ahigh loss in the form of distraction of uncountable ecosystem services, amplified jeopardies of nonlinear changes and the escalation of poverty for some groups of peoples. rapid growth and enlargement of urban centers, rapid population growth, migration to cities, the shortage of land, the need for more production, policy reforms, and high land value, lack of coordination between institutions, corruption, unplanned resettlement programs and change of technologies are among the many drivers of lulcc in today's world. spatially integrating rs and gis can produce powerful technique for optimal lulc planning and monitoring. therefore understanding, analyzing, monitoring and evaluation of dynamics of lcc by using geo-informatics technology like gis and remote sensing is crucial for better management and knowledge of their essential features, processes, and its environmental consequences to support sustainable development. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references abebe, m. t., & megento, t. l. 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(2018). land use/land cover dynamics and modeling of urban land expansion by the integration of cellular automata and markov chain. isprs international journal of geo-information, 7(4), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7040154. bagian 1 sbt.pdf (p.1-16) potong (4)-1-10 finished.pdf (p.17-26) fahrudi ahwan ikhsan et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 16-21 efforts to improve the competency of professionalism teacher in jember regency fahrudi ahwan ikhsan1, fahmi arif kurnianto1, bejo apriyanto1 , elan artono nurdin1 1departement of geography education universit y of jember, indonesia e-mail: ahwan.fkip@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6191 article info: received date 27th november 2017, received in revised from date 4th december 2017, accepted date 7th december 2017, publish date 14th december 2017 abstract this study aims to explain the condit ion of professio nalism and efforts to improve the competence of teachers ips in jember district. the sampling technique was done by rando m sampling which amounted to 55 person. methods of data collection wit h quest ionnaires and documentation. data analysis uses a percentage descript ive. the result of the research shows that the competency o f professio nalism of ips teachers is as fo llows: the acquisit io n o f materials, concepts and scholarship of ips teachers is 87.25% in the high category, the development of learning materials supported by ips teachers creatively is 92.04% including in the high category; mastery of basic competence and basic competence by 87.05% including high category, utilization of communication techno logy for self-development of ips teachers of 86.35% included in the high category. in general, the competency of professio nalism of ips teachers in jember district is categorized as high, namely 88.17%, while the effort to increase the professio nal co mpetence of ips teachers as fo llows: jo ining the training and seminar of 66.81% low category; developing syllabus and ips rpp of 70.50%; doing ptk 48.95% low category; develo p science of techno logy in learning 74.82% high category. overall, the effort to improve the professio nalism co mpetence of ips junior high school teachers in jember district is 71.34 included in the high category. key words: professio nalism competence, ips teachers introduction teacher competence is needed in learning and teaching process. it is because it is related to professio nal ethics which is done by the teacher. competence is not just oriented to the skill to pursue something, but more than professio nalism as a teacher. competence will influence the personalit y and development of the teacher professio n. sumiati (2007) explained that the competence of teachers covering aspects of them are: educat ional background, appearance, activit ies using procedures and techniques, and achievement of results. competence is manifested in real work that is beneficial for oneself and the environment (musfah, 2011). the dynamics that developed to this day that the competence of teachers give influences in the process of learning in the classroom. a professio nal teacher's abilit y is geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 1 no. 1 (2017), page 16-21 , december, 2017 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi 16 mailto:fkip@unej.ac.id https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6191 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi fahrudi ahwan ikhsan et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 16-21 necessary, since in that context the teacher is not only in charge of the transfer of knowledge, but educates the main task. these more capabilit ies must be owned by teachers in generat ing qualit y future generations. ips subject teachers have tasks like other subjects, but the competencies of ips teachers have their own standart. ips teacher qualit y must be able to perform dut ies and obligat ions as an educator in school. the qualit y of professio nal ips teachers are: broad and deep mastery of social sciences, mastery of profound field, attitude and ict skill. one of the causes that indicates the lack of abilit y of teachers to produce adequate qualit y o f students, the low ability and skills of teachers in teaching is often considered the factor causing the low achievement of educational outcomes (agung, 2012). teacher competency ips is needed at junior high school level.emplementation of the curriculum 2013 implements social science consist ing of geographical, socio logical, historical, and economic branches into integrated social studies subjects. problems arising fro m integrated ips applicat ions include graduates of ips graduates are minimal and socializat ion fro m the government to the less junior high school. the impact of ips teachers is difficult to increase the professio nalism in the social sciences, considering that in all schools of smp negeri in jember many teachers of study. the number of teachers in the field of study that many make professional teachers especially social science is not optimal. orentation of ips lesson application is used to study the pheno menon of the past and the coming. the emphasis of study in the field of social studies in the curriculum needs to be done as a step to answer the problems of both pheno mena. optimizat ion of ips lessons for students to solve past and present problems. however, the applicat ion of ips lesson needs to be supported with the competence of teachers relevant to the field of ips.based on data obtained by researchers fro m the office of education jemberbahwa the number of teachers of smp negeri and swasta as many as 386 teachers, while the number of ips teachers in jember district as many as 184 teachers. teacher's last education average ips in kabupatenjember is 96% strata s1, while s2 is only 4%. teachers of subjects at school have different educational backgrounds, if presented according to educational background such as: geography 20%, socio logy 8%, history 21%, economics 34%, pkn2%, 2% religious education, and ips 13% .based exposure description on the background as fo llows: (1) how 17 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 16-21 is the professio nalism of ips teacher in jember regency ?; (2) how to improve the competency of ips teacher professionalism in jember district. the formulat ion of the problem was aimed at this research which aimed at: (1) kno wing the condition of professio nal co mpetence ips teachers in jember district; and (2) to know the effort of increasing the competence of ips teachers in jember district . methods the populat ion in this study is all ips teachers in jember regency number 184. according to arikunto (2006) that the sample is part or representative of the populat ion studied. sampling technique is done by rando m sampling. the sample used is smp negeri ips teachers in jember regency taken 30% at random. so sample number 55 sample. methods of data collect ion in this study using questionnaires and documentation. method of data analysis using descript ive percentage. the variables in this study consist of two kinds of professio nalism teacher ips conditions in jember district and efforts to increase the competency of teacher professio nalism in jember district. results and discussion this study aims to determine the efforts of ips teachers in improving the competence of professio nalism in junior high school district jember. astronomically, jember district is located at the point 1130 30 'to 114002'30''bt and 7059'6' 'to 8033'56' '. administratively jember regency is located in the eastern part of east java province. 1. the result of research analysis of professio nal condit ion of ips teachers in jember regency based on the analysis of the results of the research using descript ive analysis, the professionalism condit ion of ips teachers in jember district is as follows: 21 respondents (38.18%) with very high category, 29 respondents (52.73%) high, and 5 respondents (9.09%) low category. from the results of the analysis can be concluded that the abilit y o f teachers in the learning process to students meet the standards of competence set in the nat ional high standard that is equal to 88.17%. mastery matters, concepts, and science that is teachers ipsthe number of 55 respondents obtained a descript ion of the mastery of materials, concepts, and science supporters ips that diampu by teachers as fo llows: 45 respondents (81.82%) with very high 18 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 16-21 category, 5 respondents (9.09%) high category, and 5responden (9.09%) low category. the classical condit io n of mastery of the material, concepts and science that ips teacher teachers (87.25%) in the high category. penguasaanyang associated with integrat ed social science does not experience constraints in delivery to students. based on the result of the research, it is known that 55 respondents give responses related to the competency standard competence and basic co mpetency o f student's subjects as fo llows: 27 respondents (49,09%) with very high category, 21responden (38,18%) high category, 5 respondents (9,09 %) low category, and 2responden (3.64%) very low category. the classical percentage of standard competency and basic co mpetence of subjects that is supported by social studies teachers (87.05%) are high category. the development of learning tools has fo llowed the development of the era and science of integrated ips on the material taught to students. based on the results o f the research in table 4 it is known that the development of learning materials that ips teachers are able to creatively as fo llows: 29 respondents (52.73%) with very high category, 24 respondents (43.64%) high category, 2 respondents (3.63% ) low category. classically the percentage of the development of learning materials that are able to ips teachers creatively (92.04%) included in the category tinggi.pengembangan material with contextual problems in the field conducted by teachers ips so that students can understand the material in depth. based on the results of the analysis of research results fro m 55 respondents obtained deskripsitentang efforts to improve the professio nalism of ips teachers in jember district as fo llows: 5responden (9.09%) with very high category, 42 respondents (76.36%) high category, 8 respondens (14.55%) low category. the conclusio n obtained that overall the largest (71.34%) has a high effort in improving the competence of professio nalism in the field of integrated ips. to formulate aspects of competency in detail can be analyzed based on certain taxonomy according to benjamin s. bloom competence divided into three aspects, namely: competence in cognitive aspects (intelligence), competence in the affective aspects (feelings), competence in psychomotor aspects (sumiati, 2007: 245). the competency detailed by benyamin s. bloom has been adjusted to his taxonomy create in learning theory. bloom hopes for a teacher to run it the taxonomy he made must refer to the three aspects of his competence detail too. 19 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 16-21 so that there is a match between learning theory and teacher competence, so that the teacher can run the learning process smoothly. teacher competency will have an influence in the process classroom learning. teachers need to have the ability to run his profession as an educator. teacher competency in this case is not only just deliver the subject matter, but a teacher needs to have more ability than that. as a profession, there are a number competencies possessed by a teacher, namely pedagogic competence, personality competence, professional competence, and social competence community (sanjaya, 2006: 18). theoretically, the four competencies can be separated by one each other, but practically the actual four competencies it cannot be separated. the four types of competence intertwine each other in an integrated manner in the teacher. teachers who are skilled at teaching of course you also have to have a good and social person adjustment in society. the teacher is the most important component in a education. without a teacher a learning will not work well. according to dunkin there are a number of aspects that can affect quality the learning process is seen from the teacher factor, namely the teacher formative experience, teacher training experience, and teacher properties (sanjaya, 2006: 53). these three indicators are the most important elements must be owned by a teacher. this is due to the three indicators contains teacher characteristics, namely experiences related to social and educational background and characteristics possessed by the teacher. the position of the teacher as one of the professions must indeed be recognized within people's lives. teachers must be recognized as equal equal professions tall and sitting as low as other professions, like doctors, judges, prosecutors, accountants, architecture, and many others. as a profession, the teacher fulfills the five characteristics or characteristics inherent in the teacher, namely: first, it has a function and social significance for the community, felt benefits for the community. second, demand certain skills obtained through an adequate process of education and training education institutions can be accounted for. one characteristic of teachers as a very important profession is that teachers must have the ability in accordance with the competency standards that have been applied. teacher competency will influence the learning process in the classroom. teachers need to have the ability to carry out their profession as educators. teacher competency in this case is not just conveying subject matter, but a teacher needs to have more ability than that. in general, the competence of a teacher refers to four factors, namely pedagogic competence, personality competence, professional competence, and community social competence (sumiati, 2007: 242). these four factors are expected to be possessed by every teacher, including teachers of social science, abilities that are not necessarily owned by people who are not teachers. so that the teacher can carry out his duties properly. 20 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 16-21 conclusion based on the results of research and discussio n that the average teacher ips in jember have a condit io n of professio nal co mpetence in the high category. this is not separated from the efforts such as: the mastery of the material, the development of learning tools syllabus and rpp, the innovation of the use of ips learning methods. references agung, iskandar . 2012. panduan penelitian tindakan kelas bagi guru. jakarta: bestari musfah, jejen. 2011. peningkatan kompetensi guru. jakarta. kencana prenada. sanjaya, wina. 2006. “strategi pembelajaran berorientasi standar proses. jakarta : kencana prenada media sumiati. 2007. metode pembelajaran pendekatan individual. bandung: rancaekek kencana 21 11 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 11-18 , april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi analysis indicator of factors affecting human development index (ipm) windya wahyu lestari1, victoria efrida sanar2 1,2departement of geography education postgraduate state university of malang, indonesia e-mail: wahyuiin1993@gmail.com doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.7333 article history: received date 1st april 2018, received revised 21th april 2018, accepted date 27th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract the purpose of this study is to determine how big the influence of the indicators of factors that affect the human development index. in addition, to determine the relationship of indicators of factors that affect the human development index, to determine the development of human development of variables. that way can provide a standard against a state in improving the quality of human resources.using the spss application method, this paper found that the variables that significantly influence the indicators of factors affecting the human development index are life expectancy index, education index and income index. the estimation result using correlasion pearsonshows that 14.788% is the variation of each observation is the same. keywords : human development index, life expectancy index, education index, revenue index. introduction human development index is one of the standard for a state in viewing the quality of human resources.the human development index (hdi) has several measures of status or classification.given these measures raises indicators in the factors affecting the human development index.these indicators will determine how the quality of a country's human resources. the human development index itself was first published by undp through the 1996 human development report, which then continues each year.in this publication human development is defined as "a process ofenlarging people’s choices" or a process 12 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 that improves society's aspects of life.this most important aspect of life is seen from a healthy age and healthy life, adequate educational level , and decent standard of living. ( mohammad bhakti setiawan & abdul hakim, page 19). regarding undp says about the most important aspect of life, that aspect must be considered for a state.this is because if one of the most important aspects of life is not balanced with other aspects, the country automatically is still lacking in the quality of its natural resources.so is the human development index does not stand alone in determining the quality of a country's resources.necessary indicators to facilitate a state in analyzing the development of human development. explanation of indicators of factors affecting the human development index as follows: 1. life expectancy index life expectancy index shows the number of years of life that is expected to be enjoyed by residents of a region. incorporating information on the number of births and deaths per year of variable 0 is expected to reflect the average length of life as well as community duplexes. due to the difficulty of getting information from people who have died over a certain period of time, the use of indirect methods (brass method, variantrussel) is used to reduce life expectancy. the basic data required in this method is the average of live birth children and the average child is still alive from the ever married woman. the process of calculating life expectancy is provided by the mortpak program. one way is to standardize life expectancy against its maximum and minimum values. 2. education index calculation of education index (ip) includes two indicators namely literacy rate (lit) and average school (mys).population in use ispopulation aged 15 years and over because in reality the population agedthere are already those who quit school.these limits are necessary to reflect the actual conditions in view of the fact that the population less than 15 years old is still in the process of being school or going to school so it is not appropriate for the average length of school. 13 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 these two indicators of education are raised in the hope of reflecting the level of knowledge (a reflection of lit numbers), where lit is the proportion of the literate population in a whole population population.while the reflection of the number mys. 3. purchasing power parity / ppp to measure the dimensions of decent living standards (purchasing power), undp uses an indicator known as real per capita gdp adjusted. for subnational (provincial or district / city) hdi calculations do not use per capita gdp, because per capita gdp only measures the production of a region and does not reflect the real purchasing power of the community which is the concern of ipm. to measure the purchasing power of the population among provinces in indonesia, bps uses the average data on consumption of 27 selected commodities from the national socioeconomic survey (susenas) which is considered the most dominant in consumption by indonesians and has been standardized to be comparable between regions and between time-adjusted with a ppp index. one of the researchers who examined the indicators of factors affecting hdi is gustav ranis & frances stewart (2005). in a follow-up study, ranis and stewart expanded the scope of the study to cover almost all countries in the world where undp has been recorded in terms of its human development index (ipm). factors affecting the human development index (hdi), they use explanatory variables of gdp per capita growth rate (gdp), literacy shortfall reduction (lit), percentage of gross domestic investment (gdp) per gdp (gross domestic investment as percentage of gdp = gdi), percent of exports to gdp (exports as percentage of gdp = exp), poverty headcount (pov) and dummy for the middle east region (dme), asia and latin america (dal). research conducted on 85 countries in the world. the results of their researchestimate as shown in table 1. 14 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 table 1. results of research estimation gustav ranis & frances stewart (2005) variabel independen variabel dependen: ipm koefisien t –rasio gdp 2,96 3,81** lit 1,94 1,53 gdi 2,80 2,39* exp 1,80 0,42 pov 16,4 4,94** dme 0,21 1,00 das 0,42 3,14** dal 0,36 2,40* konstanta 1,89 3,77** adj r2 n 0,79 85 *coefficientsignificant at a rate of 5% **coefficientsignificant at the rate of 1% the estimation results show that not all independent variables are significant to human development index (hdi). only the variable of economic growth (gdp), gross domestic investment (gdi) and the number of poor (pov) are significant, excluding dummy variables. this model has the disadvantage of including an explanatory variable of the literacy rate, where that variable is a component of the hdi composite. in addition, gdp and gdi variables may not be included together because gdi is part of gdp (estimation error due to multicolinearity). methods this data source uses the original secondary data ie data sources released by bps, bappeda, undp and related recordswith research from the central bureau of statistics in several publications.serial data used in this study was limited to taking the components of the human development index in indonesia in 2010 using the pearson correlation model spp application, it can show the analysis of indicators of factors that affect the human development index. results and discussion 1. results the results of data analysis on the factors that influence the human development index in the form of tables as follows. 15 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 1) ho& hi hypothesis formulation: 1. ho: there is no relationship between life expectancy index against human development index. hi: there is a significant relationship between life expectancy index on human development index. hypothesis testing : if the probability value (p) <0.005 means that ho is rejected, hi is accepted if the probability value (p) ≥ 0.005 means ho accepted, hi is rejected. from the correlation table in the attachment 3.1 can be tested the hypothesis is obtained significant value of life expectancy index (probability value) = 0.001, then the hypothesis test is 0.001 <0.005 then ho rejected, hi accepted which means that there is influence of income index on human development index. 2. ho: there is no correlation between education indices to human development index. 16 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 hi: there is a significant correlation between education index to human development index hypothesis testing : if the probability value (p) <0.005 means that ho is rejected, hi is accepted if the probability value (p) ≥ 0.005 means ho accepted, hi is rejected analysis of data on the calculation of hdi spss program obtained that the correlation table shows the significant value of education index is 0.000.then the hypothesis test is 0.000 <0.005 then ho is rejected, hi accepted.this means there is an influence of educational index on human development index. 3. ho: there is no relationship between income index against human development index. hi: there is a significant relationship between income index on human development index . hypothesis testing: if the probability value (p) <0.005, meaning ho is rejected, hi accepted if the probability value (p) ≥ 0.005, meaning ho accepted, hi rejected analysis of data of ipm calculation on spss program obtained that from correlation table significant value of income index is 0,003, then probability value (p) <0,005 = 0,003 <0,005 ho rejected, hi accepted.thus it can be hypothesized that there is influence of income index on human development index. formulation of the r-squer change model hypothesis 4. ho: there is no relationship between life expectancy index against human development index. hi: there is a significant relationship between life expectancy index on human development index hypothesis testing: if significant value f arithmetic <0.005 (f table), it means ho rejected, hi accepted if significant value f arithmetic ≥ 0.005 (f table), meaning ho accepted, hi rejected from the table it is found that the significant value of f is 0,000.so here 0.000 <0.005 means ho rejected, hi accepted.thus it can be hypothesized that there is influence of life expectancy index, education index, and income index on human 17 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 development index.the value of p-value obtained gives a result greater than 5% ie 14.788%, so it can be concluded that the variation of each observation is the same. 2. discussion the quality of the population can measure the human development index factors affecting the human development indexare life expectancy index, education index and income index. by identifying the index, a benchmark can be used to measure. ipm figures provide a high level of achievement of activities undertaken by the state or region. the higher the value of hdi means the country/region, showing the achievement of human development the better. supported by analysis using spss method, that is life expectancy index, education index and index, have human development index factor. with the result of p-value obtained obtained gives bigger result of 5% that is 14,788%, can be accessed every same person. supported by previous research by researchers such as ayomi surya (2014), yamin (2017), ernany (2016) et al showed that "the three indicators include life expectancy index, education index and income index affecting human development index". one of the researchers examined the analysis of human development index in madiun city in 2003-2012. based on the results obtained indicate that "the poverty level and open unemployment rate in swp madiun and surrounding areas greatly affect the growth of hotel and trade sector". conclusion this study found that the existence of variables that significantly influence the indicators of factors affecting the human development index are life expectancy index, education index and income index.the estimation result using correlasion pearson shows that 14.788% is the variation of each observation is the same.this proves that there is a relationship between each other between one variable with another variable. 18 windya wahyu lestari and victoria efrida sanar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 11-18 references ayomi surya. 2014. analysis of the influence of main sector growth on poverty level, unemployment rate, and human development index (hdi) in unit area development madiunand surrounding year 2003-2012. journal ilmiah. (online), accessed on april 20, 2018 charisma kuriata ginting s. 2008.analysishuman development in indonesia. (online), accessed on november 27, 2014 ernany endah. 2016. analysisof effect of economic growth, total of human development and individual development (ipm) on number of poor population in district of berau. journal of economi. (online), accessed on april 20, 2018 gideonse hendrik. 2015. effects of demography. journal of teacher education. online, accessed on april 20, 2018 jahan selim dkk. 2016. human development report 2016. new york: united nations development programme. mohammad bhakti setiawan & abdul hakim. 2013. human development index indonesia. journal of economia. 9 (1): 19-21. (online), accessed on november 27, 2014 ratih dyah. 2007. pembangunan pendidikan dan mdgs di indonesia. jurnal kependudukan di indonesia. 2(2). (online), accessed on april 19, 2018 surya ayomi.2012. influence analysis of main sector growth rate on poverty level, unemployment rate, and human development index (hdi) in unit of madiun area and surrounding year 2003-2012.(online), accessed on november 23, 2014 tri maryani.journal.human development index analysis in central java province central java.(online), accessed on november 26, 2014 yamin muhammad zulfikar. 2017. analysis on factors that influence the human development index of malang regencybased on regional approach and panel regression.journal of regional and rural development planning. 1(2): 202-216. (online), accessed on april 19, 2018 96 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 research article assessing the impacts of climate variability on rural households in agricultural land through the application of livelihood vulnerability index ginjo gitima 1 * , abiyot legesse 2, dereje biru 3 1department of geography and environmental studies, university of gondar, p. o. box 196, gondar, ethiopia 2department of geography and environmental studies, dilla university, p.o. box 419, dilla, ethiopia 3department of geography and environmental studies, bonga university, p. o. box 334, bonga, ethiopia received 18 november 2020/revised 15 april 2021/accepted 23 april 2021/published 30 april 2021 abstract climate variability adversely affects rural households in ethiopia as they depend on rain-fed agriculture, which is highly vulnerable to climate fluctuations and severe events such as drought and pests. in view of this, we have assessed the impacts of climate variability on rural household’s livelihoods in agricultural land in tarchazuria district of dawuro zone. a total of 270 samples of household heads were selected using a multistage sampling technique with sample size allocation procedures of the simple random sampling method. simple linear regression, the standard precipitation index, the coefficient of variance, and descriptive statistics were used to analyze climatic data such as rainfall and temperature. two livelihood vulnerability analysis approaches, such as composite index and livelihood vulnerability indexintergovernmental panel on climate change (lvi-ipcc) approaches, were used to analyze indices for socioeconomic and biophysical indicators. the study revealed that the variability patterns of rainfall and increasing temperatures had been detrimental effects on rural households' livelihoods. the result showed households of overall standardized, average scores of wara gesa (0.60) had high livelihood vulnerability with dominant major components of natural, physical, social capital, and livelihood strategies to climate-induced natural hazards than mela gelda (0.56). the lvi-ipcc analysis results also revealed that the rural households in mela gelda were more exposed to climate variability than wara gesa and slightly sensitive to climate variability, considering the health and knowledge and skills, natural capitals, and financial capitals of the households. therefore, interventions including road infrastructure construction, integrated with watershed management, early warning information system, providing training, livelihood diversification, and swc measures' practices should be a better response to climate variability-induced natural hazards. keywords: households; livelihood vulnerability index; climate variability; tarchazuria district qq geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 1, april 2021, 96-126 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i1.20718 *corresponding author. email address : ginjo7205@gmail.com (ginjo gitima) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9438-3625 mailto:ginjo7205@gmail.com 97 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 1. introduction the detrimental effects of climate change and variability have become an environmental and socioeconomic problem that is rapidly causing climate-driven hazards for people around the world (adu et al., 2018). globally, climate-related hazards are seen to have a huge impact on young, elderly, poor and marginalized populations such as households headed by women and people with limited access to resources (ipcc, 2014; tanner et al., 2015; paul et al., 2019). climate-related hazards have many indirect impacts on the livelihoods, health, water, agricultural production and socioeconomic welfare of systems (gezie, 2019; masuda et al., 2019; endalew & sen, 2020). climate variability is predicted to increase the frequency and severity of certain severe weather events (ipcc, 2018), and disasters such as floods of agricultural lands, droughts, storms, and cyclones (ullah et al., 2018). also, africa is the utmost vulnerable continent to climate variabilitywith 350–600 million africans facing increased water stress by the 2050s (hahn et al., 2009). climate change and variability are adversely affecting smallholder farming households in africa because their activity depends on climate-regulated water resources with low adaptive capacity (adu et al., 2019). similarly, dependence on agriculture, pastoralism and lack of irrigation means that african farmers are especially vulnerable to climate hazards (hahn et al., 2009; araro et al., 2019). indeed, rural households' livelihood is considered to be highly vulnerable to climate change and variability (turpie & visser, 2013). this livelihood vulnerability of rural farmers in africa is triggered by exposure to climate change and variability and by combining social, economic, and environmental factors that interact with it, including sub-saharan africa (ofoegbu et al., 2017). the agricultural sector in sub-saharan africa is extremely susceptible to potential climate changes and variability (turpie & visser, 2013). food insecurity is one of the major drivers that determine development dynamics in east africa, especially in ethiopia; due to these the country faces drought and poverty in different periods due to climate changes and variability that was directly affecting the agricultural output (few et al., 2015; ademe et al., 2020; ketema & negeso, 2020). ethiopia is an agro-based economy where agriculture contributes 45% to the gross domestic product (gdp). the agriculture sector is a source of livelihood for more than 80% of the population (dendir & simane, 2019). in fact, rain-fed agriculture in the country is more vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate variability (gezie, 2019) and extreme events like drought and pests (endalew 98 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 & sen, 2020). even if productivity grew, climate variability would still dramatically impact incountry (teshome & baye, 2018). in addition, climate change projected in ethiopia is expected to result in decreased precipitation variability and an increase in temperature (1.1 to 3.1°c by 2060 and 1.5 to 5.1°c by 2090) with a rise in the frequency and intensity of extreme events such as flood and drought (national meteorological agency, 2007). other studies indicate an increase of temperature in all seasons of 1.4°c to 2.9°c by the 2050s (conway & schipper, 2011). besides, rainfall and temperature patterns show large regional differences (gezie, 2019). such trends of increasing temperature, the high variability of precipitation, and the rising frequency of extreme events are expected to continue in the country (dendir & simane, 2019). vulnerability assessment approaches tend to be inextricably related to the vulnerability concept and interpretation. in line with, the outcome of vulnerability and its conceptual meanings, dessai & hulme (2004) highlight the different approaches that the two concepts take (without explicitly referring to them) to inform climate adaptation policy. physical vulnerability concepts prefer to adopt a top-down approach to assessing the strategy of climate adaptation, while vulnerability of contextual concepts focus on socio-economic vulnerability that follow a bottom-up approach (young et al., 2009). a top-down approach usually starts with international climate forecasts, which can then be rationalized and used to determine climate change's regional effects.an essential feature of bottom-up approaches is primarily the participation of the stakeholders and population of the scheme in classifying climate-change stresses, influences and adaptive strategies (fellmann, 2012). according to neupane et al. (2013) socioeconomic parameters such as access to essential resources like forest, land, and water should also be reflected in the vulnerability analysis. moreover, the importance of incorporating socioeconomic systems with biophysical systems (integrated approach) at varied spatial and social scales in the vulnerability assessment. an integrated approach is effective and may adequately capture all possible dimensions of vulnerability when one integrates both the biophysical (sensitivity and exposure) and the socioeconomic (adaptive capacity) aspects of vulnerability (endalew & sen, 2020). studies suggest that poor households' livelihood in rural areas of ethiopia are the most vulnerable to climate change and variability (deressa et al., 2009). similarly, current climate shocks and stresses already have an overwhelming impact on the vulnerability of farmers, 99 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 particularly in rural communities (sujakhu et al., 2019). likewise, climate variability vulnerability is understood to be the result of the interaction between the biophysical drivers (include climatic exposure) and the function of the system’s sensitivity and adaptive capacity. the exposure constituents entail individuals, biological systems, ecological capacities, services, assets, infrastructure, financial, or social resources in places and settings that could be unfavorably influenced by climate change and variability (ademe et al., 2020). sensitivity is the degree to which the rural household is adversely affected by exposure to climatic variables' variations (teshome, 2017). the adaptive capacity constituent the capacity of systems or people ability, establishments, people, and different ecosystems to conform to potential harm, exploit openings, or react to varied consequences (amuzu et al., 2018). different scholars have been conducted to study the vulnerability of ethiopian households to climate-related extreme events. for instance, a study conducted by dercon et al. (2005) using panel data set. however, most of these studies are very general and the results are aggregated at national or regional levels. these studies have also been limited concerned about rural livelihoods vulnerability to climatic-hazards on district and context-specific nature at a local level. in addition, aggregated national results do not capture the complex state of vulnerability at the local level, while they are important to understand development priorities (simane et al., 2014; narayanan & sahu, 2016). moreover, the context-specific essence of risk and interventions did not examine the degree to which rural livelihoods in agricultural land are vulnerable to climatic-related extreme events (ford et al., 2010; azene et al., 2018). hence, our study focuses on livelihood vulnerability to climate variability at contextspecific nature in tarchazuria district of dawuro zone. also, dendir & simane (2019) suggested that stakeholders plan context-specific intervention is important than the national level to reduce rural farmers' vulnerability to climate variability and strengthen farm households' adaptive capacity. tarchazuria district faced climate-related natural hazards and no study has examined in our study area in local detail. the rural farm households in the district are predominantly rain-fed and hence are prone to risks of climate variability. due to frequent climatic events like drought, floods, and rainfall irregularities, there are the main problems on indirect costs, crop failure, death of livestock, water shortage, and loss of biodiversity. moreover, climate variability has also direct and indirect impacts on the prevalence and spread of diseases and pests in the study area. therefore, this study aimed to assess the impacts of climate variability on rural households 100 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 in agricultural land through the application of the livelihood vulnerability index in the tarchazuria district of dawuro zone. 2. methods 2.1 biophysical setting of the study area this study was conducted at tercha zuria district in the dawuro zone of southwest ethiopia. geographically, the study area located between 7°05'00" to 7°15'00"n latitude and 36°45'00'' to 37°20'00''e longitude (figure 1).the study area is located at 510 km in southwest of addis ababa the capital city of ethiopia. the district shares borders in the north with maraka and tocha district, in the south and southwest gojeb river, in the east and northeast gena district and in the west konta special district. the district covers a total area of 588 square kilometers. figure 1. location of the study area the physiographic setting of the study area is a dissected and rugged landscape, having well-drained and moderately weathered brown soil (nitisols) and orthic acrisols. thus, soil erosion and floods in the area is mainly attributed to the dissected and rugged topography. the geology of the study area is abundant with rhyolites and trachy basalts mainly overlying in the precambrian basement and tertiary volcanism (bore & bedadi, 2015; gitima & legesse, 2019). 101 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 the elevation ranges lie between 918 m to 2170 m above sea level. the dominant agro-ecology in the districtis tropical (kola) and sub-tropical (woina-dega) agro-climate. the average annual minimum and maximum temperatures of 13 years were 14.65℃ to 16.12℃ and 26.4℃ to 29.3℃, respectively. the 13 years (2007-2019) of mean annual rainfall was 1398.8 mm, and the mean monthly rainfall ranges between 18.6 mm and 323 mm (national meteorological agency, 2019). the rainfall is a bimodal type in the study area: the short rainy season is between march and may, and the long rainy season between june and september (bore & bedadi, 2015). agriculture is mainly composed of crop production and animal husbandry and it is the main source of livelihood of the population in the district. the dominant activities under land use pattern in the study area include the cultivation of perennial crops such as enset (enseteventricosum), banana, coffee, mango, avocado and etc. whereas the annual food crops, including cereals (maize, sorghum, teff), pulses (beans, peas), (maize and teff are largest produced), and root crops like potatoes, yams, sweat potatoes and cassavas. generally, mixed agriculture is the major economic activity in the study area (gitima & legesse, 2019). however, the watershed has ample potential for cultivations, its farm productivity is very low because farmers use traditional means of production. besides, crop production is mainly rain-fed coupled with poor market access makes the livelihood of farming households extremely stagnant (abebe, 2014). 2.2 data sources and collection tools the data required for the current study is obtained from both primary and secondary sources and also these necessary data were of both qualitative and quantitative in nature. the primary data were collected through the questionnaire, key informant interviews, fgds, and field observations. questionnaire was used to collect information from the sampled rural households. prior to the survey, the enumerators were trained how to interview and fill the questions. close-ended and open-ended format questions were prepared to the selected sample rural household heads and administered through face-to-face interview to get information about the impacts of climate variability on rural household livelihoods. also, two focus group discussions, the discussion among a small group of six to seven members of the farmers were carried out in the district. in addition, key informant interviews were held with respondents from different sections of the community such as three development agents, two from non-government 102 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 organizations, four model farmers, and three elderly farmers. moreover, secondary data were collected from published and unpublished documents. furthermore, time series climatic data such as temperature and rainfall were obtained from the regional meteorological agency (hawassa) to predict the trend and variability over time. the reference periods for the climatic data were between 2007 and 2019. this range was chosen based on the concept of climate variability and its resulting effects on the rural livelihoods in agricultural land. 2.3 research design and sampling procedure this study employed a cross-sectional survey research design and longitudinal time series meteorological data were used records over the period of 2007-2019. in selecting representative sample households, multistage sampling techniques were carried out to select sample household heads for the study from the district. the first stage, tarchazuria district, was selected using purposive sampling techniques among the ten districts of dawuro zone because in the district rural farmers' livelihoods affected by climate variability like drought and extreme events, and climate data availability and meteorological station in the area. secondly, two kebeles were purposively selected using on the above district selection technique i.e., : mela gelda (372 household heads) and wara gesa (464 household heads).finally, simple random sampling procedure was applied to select 270 representative farm household heads for the study. 2.4 methods of data analysis the unit of analysis of this study focused on rural farm household heads. qualitative data were analyzed by using thematic analysis of categorization; the data were gathered through observation, interview and focus group discussions. quantitative data were analyzed by descriptive statistics such as percentage, mean, ratio, maximum, and minimum by using microsoft excel. metrological data such as rainfall was analyzed by using standardized precipitation index and coefficient of variation (cv), whereas, temperature was analyzed by means of simple linear regression and standardized temperature anomalies. household exposure (he) and household sensitivity (hs) indices complemented with basic household information of farmers were analyzed using descriptive statistics. 103 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 2.4.1 simple linear regression it is the mainly used to analyze the association between one quantitative result and a single quantitative explanatory indicator. the method is important to detect and characterize the long-term trend and variability of temperature and rainfall values at the annual/monthly time scale. the parametric test takes into account random variable y on time x in a simple linear regression. the regression line slope coefficient was interpolated that computed from the data is a coefficient of the regression or the pearson correlation coefficient (teshome, 2017). it can be calculated with eq. 1: y = α + 𝛽𝑥. (1) where: 𝑌 refers natural disasters (rainfall and temperature variability) during the period; α is constant of regression; 𝛽 represents slope of the regression equation; 𝑥 refers to number of years from 2007 to 2019. 2.4.2 standardized precipitation index (spi) standardized precipitation index (spi) developed by the (world meteorological organization, 2012). the number of cold nights and warm days per month was calculated using the monthly observation of minimum and maximum temperature, respectively. the spi was used to identify droughts across the years from 2007 to 2019. it is a statistical measure indicating how unusual an event is, making it possible to determine how often droughts of certain strength are likely to occur. the practical implication of spi-defined drought, the deviation from the normal amount of precipitation, would vary from one year to another. it can be calculated with eq. 2: 𝑆𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥𝑖−�̅� 𝛿 (2) where; spi= anomaly of rainfall (irregularity) in different time period; xi is yearly rainfall in the study period; �̅�is the long-term average yearly rainfall; and 𝛿is the standard deviation of rainfall in observed time period (teshome, 2017). accordingly, the drought severity classes are: extreme drought (spi <-1.65), moderate drought (-0.84 >spi > -1.28), severe drought (-1.28 > spi > 1.65) and no drought (spi >-0.84) (world meteorological organization, 2012). 104 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 2.5 constructing livelihood vulnerability index vulnerability is one factor determining whether people have risks to their livelihoods in agricultural land or not (suryanto & rahman, 2019). thus, the index is used for comparison among the communities. in addition, the sustainable livelihood framework (slf) where vulnerability context is the major determinant of sustainability of livelihood assets as it directly influences livelihood strategies, institutional process, and livelihood outcomes of the community. the effects of climate change and variability on farmers' livelihoods have been considered under the vulnerability context of the sustainable livelihood framework or slf (can et al., 2013). the livelihood vulnerability index calculations developed by hahn et al. (2009) is applied in this study, which consists of the following six main components: these are livelihood assets of sustainable livelihood framework such as human, physical, social, natural and financial capital. in addition to these, we added one main component i.e., livelihood strategies. the sub-components have been developed as indicators under a single component. vulnerability to variability is determined by a complex interrelationship between multiple factors where few factors are not often directly quantifiable. vulnerability assessment requires a detailed contextual understanding of the relevant systems and how structural changes impact them. the vulnerability assessment involves estimation of the vulnerability level of a community and its contributing factors through the development of indices following three steps. the first step identifies the indicators. next, using the actual, minimum, and maximum sub-component indicators, the standardized index value for the sub-component indicators is calculated. finally, the standardized major component indices are calculated and aggregated to form an overall index (endalew& sen, 2020). therefore, the vulnerability indicators and measurements were identified, operationalized, and hypothesized in table 1. 105 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 table 1. vulnerability indicators and hypothesized functional relationships explanations of specific indicators hypothesized relationship to vulnerability source components average distance to health facility/center (km) percent of hhs with family member with chronic illness percent of hhs reported malaria in their locality the average distance to health facility ↑ with vulnerability the family members with chronic illness ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs reported malaria in their locality ↑ with vulnerability adu et al. (2018) human capitals years spent on education years of farming experience index percent of hhs family never got vocational training percent of hhs have no information about climate variability and natural hazards years spent on education ↑ vulnerability ↓ years of farming experience index ↑ vulnerability ↓ hhs family never got vocational training ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs have no information about climate variability and natural hazards ↑ vulnerability ↑ can et al. (2013) dependency ratio of households percent of female headed households average family member in a household dependency ratio of households ↑ vulnerability ↑ percent of female headed households ↑ vulnerability ↑ average family member in a household ↑ vulnerability ↑ can et al. (2013) percent of hhs reported high rate of soil erosion percent of hhs having farmlands in sloppy area percent of hhs who didn't practice swc measures rate of soil erosion ↑ vulnerability ↑ farmlands in sloppy area ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs who didn't practice swc measures ↑ vulnerability ↑ azene et al.(2018) natural capitals percent of hhs that depend on forest resources percent of hhs reported change of tree cover. percent of hhs reported severe damage on common forests hhs that depend on forest resources ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs reported change of tree cover ↑ vulnerability ↑ severe damage on common forests ↑ vulnerability ↑ azene et al. (2018) ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 continued 106 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 explanations of specific indicators hypothesized relationship to vulnerability source percent of hhs reporting water conflict in past year percent of hhs utilize water from unprotected sources average number of months with water shortage per year hhs reporting water conflict in past year ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs utilize water from unprotected sources ↑vulnerability↑ water shortage (month) ↑ vulnerability ↑ dendir & simane (2019) percent of hhs dependent solely on agriculture as a source of income average agricultural livelihood diversification index percent of hhs unable to save crops for contingency percent of hhs categorized themselves poor hhs dependent solely on agriculture as a source of income ↑vulnerability↑ livelihood diversification index ↑ vulnerability ↓ hhs unable to save crops for contingency ↑vulnerability↑ hhs categorized themselves poor ↑vulnerability↑ adu et al. (2018); hahn et al. (2009) livelihood strategies % hhs perceived the increasing trend of temperature % hhs perceived the decreasing trend of rainfall mean stedv of monthly maximum temperature for (2007-2019) mean stedv of monthly minimum temperature for (2007-2019) mean stedv of monthly rainfall for (20072019) trend of temperature ↑livelihood vulnerability↑ trend of rainfall ↓livelihood vulnerability↑ mean stedv of monthly maximum temperature ↑livelihood vulnerability↑ mean stedv of monthly minimum temperature ↑livelihood vulnerability↑ mean stedv of monthly rainfall ↑livelihood vulnerability↑ teshome (2016); asrat & simane, (2017). natural hazards & climate variability percent of hhs who do not have off-farm employment in birr percent of hhs don't have access to credit percent of hhs reported tiresome credit procedures phhs who do not have off-farm employment ↑vulnerability↑ hhs don't have access to credit ↑vulnerability↑ hhs reported tiresome credit procedures ↑vulnerability↑ huong et al. (2019) financial capitals & wealth components s continued ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 107 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 explanations of specific indicators hypothesized relationship to vulnerability source components livestock ownership in tlu average land hold size in ha average yearly off-farm income in birr livestock ownership in tlu ↑ vulnerability ↓ average land hold size ↑ vulnerability ↓ average yearly off-farm income ↑ vulnerability ↓ asrat & simane (2017) percent of hhs house roof made of grass percent of hhs house located in hazard prone /slope areas percent of hhs that with housing affected by flood in last 5 years hhs house roof made of grass ↑vulnerability↑ hhs house located in hazard prone /slope areas ↑vulnerability↑ hhs that with housing affected by flood in last 5 years ↑vulnerability↑ physical capitals average time to reach market in minute percent of hhs no transport access all the year percent of hhs reported challenged by public road average distance to agricultural inputs in minute average time to reach market in minute ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs no transport access all the year ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs reported challenged by public road ↑ vulnerability ↑ average distance to agricultural inputs in minute ↑ vulnerability↑ huong et al. (2019) percentage of households not associated with any organization/cooperatives percent of hhs have loose ties to relatives/neighbors hhs not associated with any organization/cooperatives ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs have loose ties to relatives/neighbors ↑ vulnerability ↑ panthi et al. (2016) social capitals percent of hhs not member of credit & saving group percent of hhs not member of religious groups percent of hhs not member of other organization (idir or ikub) hhs not member of credit &saving group ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs not member of religious groups ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs not member of other organizations ↑ vulnerability ↑ ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 continued 108 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 note: hhs households, ↑ increases, ↓ decreases and idir and ikub are local/traditional institutions/organizations explanations of specific indicators hypothesized relationship to vulnerability source percent of hhs feel insecurity of farmland percent of hhs don't encouraged by land certificate percent of hhs have no regular information from government policies percent of hhs not visited by das in a cropping season percent of hhs unhappy by their local leaders’ decisions hhs feel insecurity of farmland ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs don't encouraged by land certificate ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs have no regular information on government policies↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs not visited by das in a cropping season ↑ vulnerability ↑ hhs unhappy by their local leaders’ decisions ↑ vulnerability ↑ ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 components 109 2.6 calculating the livelihood vulnerability index 2.6.1 composite index approach both equal and unequal weighting schemes are the two most common methods for combining indicators. in the first step, each indicator is given equal weight. in the second step, expert opinion, complex fuzzy logic, or principal component analysis are all used to assign different weights to various indicators (hahn et al., 2009). we used both equal and unequal weights in this study, then used an integrated method to compute composite vulnerability indices using weighting average systems. according to adu et al. (2018), a single component is consisting several subcomponents (indicators), each of these indicators is calculated on a different scale, such as percentages or ratios and etc., therefore, it was necessary to the data into indices using either eq. (3) or eq. (4). indexshi = sh−smin smax−smin . (3) indexshi = smax−sh smax−smin . (4) where; sh = observed sub-component of indicator for household and smin and smax are the maximum and minimum values, respectively (adu et al., 2018). using eq. (5) to obtain the index of each major component (the sub-component indicators were averaged) : mh = ∑ indexshi n i=1 n . (5) where six major components (human capital (h), natural capital (n), social capital (s), physical capital (p), financial capital (f) were calculated using mhis and livelihood strategies (ls)) for household h, indexshi consist of the sub-components, indexed by i. then, six major component were averaged with eq. (6) to find the district-level lvi (adu et al., 2018): lvih = ∑ 𝑤 𝑀𝑖 𝑀ℎ𝑖 6 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑤𝑀𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 . (6) which can be also expanded as: ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 110 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 𝐿𝑉𝐼ℎ = 𝑤𝐻 𝐻ℎ+𝑤𝑁 𝑁ℎ +𝑤𝑆𝑆ℎ +𝑤𝑃 𝑃ℎ+𝑤𝐹 𝐹ℎ+𝑤𝐿𝑆𝐿𝑆ℎ 𝑤𝐻 +𝑤𝑁 +𝑤𝑆+𝑤𝑃 +𝑤𝐹 . (7) 2.6.2 calculating the lvi–ipcc: ipcc framework approach according to hahn et al. (2009), suggest an alternative approach to measuring the lvi. table 2 explain the major components’ organization. table 1 (the same subcomponents outlined) were used in eq. (3), (4), and (5) to calculate the lvi–ipcc. when the major components are combined, the lvi–ipcc diverges from the lvi (hahn et al., 2009). table 2. categorization of major components into contributing factors from the ipcc ipcc contributing factors to vulnerability major components exposure (e) natural disasters and climate variability adaptive capacity (a) socio-demographic profile livelihood strategies social networks sensitivity (s) health, knowledge and skills natural capital financial capital source: adopted from can et al. (2013) they are combined according to the categorization scheme in table 2, using the following equation: 𝐶𝐹ℎ = ∑ 𝑤 𝑀𝑖 𝑀ℎ𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑤𝑀𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 .. (6) where; cfh is an ipcc defined contributing factor (exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity) for rural households h, mhi are main components for household h is indexed by i, 𝑤𝑀𝑖 is the weight of every main component, and n is the number of main components in every factor with contribution. when exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity were combined in calculation, the formula developed by hahn et al. (2009) combining the three contributing factors using: 𝐿𝑉𝐼 − 𝐼𝑃𝐶𝐶ℎ = (𝑒ℎ − 𝑎ℎ ) ∗ 𝑆ℎ . (7) where; lvi–ipcch indicates the lvi for household h represented using the ipcc vulnerability framework, e is the households’ exposure result, a is households’ the capacity of adapative result, and s is the household’s sensitivity result (weighted mean score of the health, knowledge, skills, natural capital and financial major components) which ranged from 111 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 (-1) the least vulnerable to (+1) the most vulnerable on the lvi–ipcc scale (adu et al., 2018). 3. results and discussion 3.1 maximum and minimum temperatures over the last 13 years the average temperature hurts agricultural output and significantly reduces agricultural output. a one percent increase in average temperature would reduce agricultural output by 2.5% in the long run. the long-run elasticity of agricultural output concerning average temperature is -2.5 indicating that agricultural output is most sensitive to an average temperature increase in the long run. a decrease in agricultural productivity is likely as a result of increased temperature variability. this may be due to the fact that high temperatures deplete soil nutrients, making livestock and agricultural productivity difficult (ketema & negeso, 2020). climate variability causes the frequency and severity of weather events. accordingly, an analysis of the climate variability in the study area over the last 13 years (2007–2019) found that the maximum and minimum mean temperatures were increased over time. in a way that simple linear regression shows about 0.66 and 0.36-degree centigrade has been increased to the mean maximum and minimum temperatures of the study area per decade, respectively. this shows that the district had been in a warming trend for the last thirteen years (2007 to 2019). these results also confirm the survey results in terms of the respondents' perceived increment trends of the temperature over the last 13 years. moreover, key informants’ interviewers indicated the increasing trends of temperature and shifting of seasonal weather phenomenon causes the spreading of tropical diseases like malaria and locust. furthermore, fgds discussants claimed that rise of temperature and its adverse effects on crop production is increasingly being felt. these show the main evidence of the impacts of climate variability on rural livelihoods in the district. as shown in figure 2, the maximum and minimum deviations in temperature over the last thirteen years (2007 to 2019) are clearly shown. maximum temperature deviations decreased in 2007, and in 2008 minimum temperature increases were observed from the long average temperature. whereas, both maximum and minimum temperature deviations were shows to rise and fall in 2009 and 2010, respectively. from 2011 to 2012 temperature deviations continued with fluctuation. but from 2013 to 2015 the deviations of minimum temperatures rapidly decreased. from 2017 until 2019 the minimum temperature deviation slightly went upwards from the study area's long-term average temperature. 112 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 figure 2. deviations of maximum and minimum temperatures in the study area as shown in figure 3 the least mean monthly minimum temperature was recorded from 2007 to 2019 in july (14.62 °c), august (14.7 °c), and september (14.68 °c). whereas, the highest minimum temperatures were recorded in the study area in january (16.3°c), february (16.8°c), and march (16.5°c) from 2007 to 2019. the highest mean monthly maximum temperature was recorded in january (29.75 °c), february 30.46 °c) and march (30.5 °c) for the period of 2007 to 2019. while, the least mean monthly maximum temperature was recorded in july (24.6 °c), august (25 °c), and september (25.6°c). similarly, the study made by kedir & tekalign (2016) in the pastoral community of the karrayu people in the oromia region reported that the mean maximum monthly temperature indicates an increasing trend except for july and august. figure 3. mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures y = 0.095x 0.671 r² = 0.139 y = 0.023x 0.161 r² = 0.008 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 tmax. tmin. linear (tmax.) linear (tmin.) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 t e m p . in d e g r e e c e n ti g r a d e maximum temprature mean minimum temprature 113 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 3.2 rainfall anomaly over the last 13 years: standardized precipitation index (spi) rainfall in ethiopia is a major input in determining output due to this the country is named as rain-fed agriculture, where rainfall play an important role (ketema &negeso, 2020). as shown in figure 4 the analysis of metrological data of rainfall indicates the annual temporal variations. the annual rainfall variability from 2007 through 2019 can be detected from the cv value. the result showed that the study area's annual temporal cv was 19.5 percent, indicating a low variability in rainfall. according to asfaw et al. (2018), cv below 20% implies less variability and hence annual rainfall experienced less variability. however, key informant interviewers indicated that climate variability has become unpredictable and associated with erratic rainfall. they also claimed that rainfall's erratic nature brings indescribable hardship to study communities as most of them expressed unhappiness to the current irregular, and unstable nature of rainfall currently experienced. similar findings have been found by araro et al. (2019) in konso district of southern ethiopia, unexpected rain followed by heavy flood and drought. these variations in rainfall pattern have a direct impact on crop yields, livestock production and price fluctuation from the agricultural perspective. also, fgds discussants reported there is a high variability of rainfall and rainy seasons could either delay when farmers predict a fall of rains when they least expected them in the district. therefore, fgds discussants suggested livelihood diversification strategies, and water harvesting methods during the rainy seasons should be the best options to adapt to existing rain variability and extreme weather events. likewise, kedir & tekalign (2016) suggested that proper use of water harvesting technology should be devised to use and manage the intense rainfall of july and august in their study in central ethiopia. moreover, early warning systems and integrated watershed and environmental management measures are required to minimize/avoid disaster and design possible remedial actions. the rainfall anomaly also witnessed for the presence of annual variability and the trends being below the long-term average. as shown in figure 4, the spi (rainfall anomalyvariability and irregularity) can identify and monitor droughts. the evaluation of spi at a certain location is based on a series of accumulated rainfall for a different monthly time scale in a year. the rainfall series is fitted to probability distributions that are subsequently transformed into normal distributions. it follows that the average spi for the target location and the chosen period is zero. negative spi numbers specify less than median or long-term average rainfall, whereas positive spi values indicate greater than median rainfall (mohammed & scholz, 2019). figure 4 also clearly shows the variation of rainy years (wet) and years of drought (dry) episodic pattern. the results of the last 13 years indicated; seven years (53.8%) received 114 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 below the long-run average rainfall whereas 6 years (46%) obtained above long-term average rainfall. of the major drought events, such as 2007, 2008, and 2009, have been observed in the study period. this implies the district received below the long-term mean rainfall, but their severities were different based on spi. the 2007 rainfall amount emerged as the lowest record in the observation period, and according to the drought severity classes used by azene et al. (2018), the year 2007 marked the extreme drought year in the study area. the result also indicated that the years 2010 to 2014 received surplus rainfall from the average mean with positive spi values. this identified the probability of the highest erosion and flood occurrences in the district, but its occurrence was not recorded. consecutive negative spi values were observed from 2015 to 2018 followed in 2019 slightly recorded above normal average rainfall (figure 4). figure 4. standardized precipitation index (spi) for the study area 3.3 monthly standard deviations of rainfall the result in table 3 shows that the rainfall data recorded in 2007–2019 are characterized by a significant variability of monthly rainfall in the district. the lowest average rainfalls were recorded among the months whereby january (18.6 mm), february (24.87 mm), and november (39.5 mm) followed in march (44.3 mm). whereas, the highest average monthly rainfall was recorded in august (323 mm), july (299.5 mm), and september (297.4 mm), followed by may (289.7 mm) in study period between 2007 and 2013. the standard deviation is one way of summarizing the spread of a probability distribution; it directly related with the degree of uncertainty allied thru predicting the value of a random variables. high values indicate more uncertainty than low values (teshome, 2016). accordingly, may (129.6), april (79.5), and october (77.8) had the highest standard deviation indicates more uncertainty in the district (table 3). while, january (18.7), 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 spi -2.019 -0.145 -1.425 1.5271 0.8715 1.2567 0.3978 0.6899 -0.288 -0.622 -0.212 -0.179 0.147 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 s p i 115 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 november (22.84), and february (26.3) and the lowest standard deviations followed by december (43.7). it has been observed from the study that rainfall is generally at its peak among august, july, and september, receiving more than three fourth of the amount of rainfall in these months. table 3. monthly mean rainfall, standard deviations, coefficient of variations and rainfall coefficient for 2007-2019 month jan. feb. mar apr. may jun. jul. aug. sept. oct. nov. dec. mean (mm) 18.6 24.87 44.3 172.8 289.7 217.6 299.5 323 297.4 128.4 39.5 47.9 stedv 18.7 26.3 55 79.5 129.6 60.7 75 75.3 97.3 77.8 22.84 43.7 cv 1.0 1.06 1.3 0.46 0.45 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.33 0.60 0.58 0.92 note: stedv=standard deviations of each month, cv=coefficient of variation 3.4 households' livelihood vulnerability index (lvi) practically, assessment of livelihood vulnerability is too complicated and difficult to be covered all because there are many aspects, dimensions and factors that relating to livelihood vulnerability, e.g., economic, political, demography, etc., and it was certainly mentioned in some reports (can et al., 2013). this study only focuses on some major components that influence rural livelihoods in agricultural lands of households due to climate variability in the tercha district of dawuro zone. the results of lvi standardized average scores of all 13 indexed major components calculated from 45 subcomponents or indicators commune are presented collectively in table 4. the indices being relative values were compared across the two kebeles such as wara gesa and mela gelda. overall wara gesa (0.60) households had a high livelihood vulnerability index with dominant major components of natural, physical, social capital, and livelihood strategies than mela gelda (0.56). an indexed major component range of (0.50) to (0.73) and (0.38) to (0.62) in wara gesa and mela gelda, respectively, showing a high degree of vulnerability to climate variability-related natural hazards. 3.4.1 human capital vulnerability as indicated in table 4, the indexed capital as human capital consisted of three major components and ten indicators. the vulnerability index of the lvi's human capital major components showed that mela gelda (0.59) was more vulnerable to climate variability than wara gesa (0.52). a higher number of households causes the higher vulnerability on the health component index of mela gelda (0.70) travel high distance to health facility/center than wara gesa (0.67). mela gelda recorded a higher percentage (44.8) of households with family member got chronic illness due to climate variability induced hazards than wara gesa (34.2). households in mela gelda also reported that a higher percentage (52.4) of malaria in their locality than wara gesa (37.3). mela gelda also showed a higher vulnerability on the 116 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 knowledge and skills indexed major component (0.72) than wara gesa (0.63), these were caused by lower years spent on the education of household heads for mela gelada (0.89) than wara gesa (0.55), and a large percentage of household heads never got vocational training about climate adaptation strategies for mela gelda (62.7) than wara gesa (58.3). household heads of mela gelda also reported a higher percentage (85.7) had no information about climate variability and natural hazards than wara gesa (62.3). the vulnerability index of the major components of the socio-demographic profile showed that mela gelda (0.50) was more vulnerable than wara gesa (0.46); these were because of a higher dependency ratio of households in mela gelda(0.72) than wara gesa (0.56). this could be explained by the fact that the population proportions under 15 and over 65 years that were dependent were greater in mela gelda than in wara gesakebele. and, high percentages of female-headed households were found in mela gelda (25.2) than wara gesa (15.7), and a higher average family member in mela gelda (0.69) than wara gesa (0.62). similarly, fgds discussants and key informant interviewers in mela gelda suggested that large family size may contribute to households’ vulnerability to climate variability induced risks in the case of limited rural livelihood options. 3.4.2 natural capital vulnerability climate variability has a higher effect on agricultural land, forests, and water, which are the essential source of rural livelihood sustainability. climate variability's shortage of natural resources enhances resource-dependent conflict (thakur & bajagain, 2019). the indexed natural capital consisted of three major components as indicated in table 4. the results of the natural capital of lvi standardized average scores in wara gesa (0.73) a higher than mela gelda (0.62). land is an important natural capital and indicator of wealth. in this study, agricultural lands found in sloppy and erosion prone areas, farmers didn’t practice structural swc measures are considered as indicators to measure vulnerability. the major components of land resources were found to be higher vulnerable to climate variability and natural hazards in wara gesa (0.69) than mela gelda (0.49). when indicators reviewed the major components land resources, wara gesa was the most vulnerable in terms of house heads reported high percent rate of soil erosion in wara gesa (75) than mela gelda (53), having a high percent of farmlands in a sloppy area in wara gesa (84) than mela gelda (52) and a higher percentage of household heads who didn't practice physical soil and water conservation measures in wara gesa (49) than mela gelda (42). moreover, during fgds the participants reported the most of farmlands situated rugged topography and sloppy area these causes a high rate of soil erosions. 117 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 in addition, when the total standardized weighted scores of the indicators of forest resources showed that mela gelda (0.53) was less vulnerable than wara gesa (0.73). these were because of the large percentage of households depending on forest resources recorded in wara gesa (73) than mela gelda (54). in comparison, the highest percentage of households reported that about a change of tree cover and severe damage to common forests in mela gelda than wara gesa. the key informant interviewee realized the farmers located near the main roads and close to the market place clear forests because charcoal is their income source.wara gesa (0.74) showed a slightly higher vulnerability standardized score in terms of water resources than mela gelda (0.70) on this aggregated major component. the indicators of water resources were more vulnerable to climate-induced natural hazards due to a high percentage of households reporting water conflict in past years and households to utilize water from unprotected sources. 3.4.3 financial capital vulnerability as indicated in table 4, the indexed financial capital such as income and wealth considered as major components to measure vulnerability. the aggregated indicators' overall standardized average score was shown to be more vulnerable in mela gelda (0.60) than wara gesa (0.55) to climate variability induced natural hazards. mela gelda (0.66) showed a slightly higher vulnerability in terms of indicators of average yearly off-farm income than wara gesa (0.60), a large percentage of households did not have off-farm employment in mela gelda(34.5) than wara gesa (28.4). about (46.7) percent of mela gelda households reported that they had no access to credit than wara gesa (36.2). results from the survey showed households' average livestock ownership in tlu of households for mela gelda (1.66) was less vulnerable than wara gesa (1.23), and the average land hold size of households for mela gelda (1.87) was less vulnerable than wara gesa (1.42). 3.4.4 physical capital vulnerability as shown in table 4, the indexed physical capital consisted of two major components and seven indicators. waragesa showed a slightly higher vulnerability (0.72) on the physical capital standardized score than mela gelda (0.69). results from the survey showed the percentage of households with a house roof made of grass of (35) percent for wara gesa and (24.5) for mela gelda. other indicators were the highest percentage of households’ crops and houses affected by flood in the last 5 years for wara gesa (37.4) were more vulnerable to climate variability than mela gelda (18.6). about (82.7) percentage of wara gesa households reported their houses located in hazard-prone /slope areas and more vulnerable 118 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 than mela gelda (56.7). in addition, fgds discussants suggested most households are engaged in agricultural activities in sloppy areas, but the majority of the households have no plans to protect floods along with rugged topography. by road infrastructure on households' vulnerability to climate variability, the results suggest that levels of vulnerability in waragesa (0.72) were slightly highest than waragesa (0.69). the cause of the road vulnerability is that a large percentage of households had no transport access all year, and public roads challenged them. 3.4.5 social capital vulnerability social capitals such as social networks and relationships, organizational membership, policy and leadership, and service delivery are affected by extreme weather events and natural climatic hazards due to which they have to adjust their social partnership, delay the delivery of services, often make the rural households dispute with the leader due to natural disaster management. as revealed in table 4, the indexed social capital consisted of three major components and nine specific indicators. the vulnerability standardized average score of the social capital major components showed that mela gelda (0.64) was more vulnerable to climatic-induced natural hazards than wara gesa (0.59). when indicators reviewed the major components networks and relationships, wara gesa was the most vulnerable in terms of households’ heads reported that a high percentage of household heads not associated with any organization/cooperative in wara gesa (75.3) than mela gelda (37.5), and a higher percentage of household heads had loose ties to relatives/neighbors in wara gesa (23) than mela gelda (12). by organization affiliation on households’ vulnerability to climate variability, the results show that levels of vulnerability in waragesa (0.38) was highest vulnerable to climate-induced natural hazards than mela gelda (0.20), this was because of a high percentage of households not a member of the organization like idir and ikub, etc. 3.4.6 livelihood strategies vulnerability the indexed livelihood strategies component /profile consisted of four subcomponents/indicators. considering the percentage of households dependent exclusively on agriculture as a source of income as an indicator a higher vulnerable in mela gelda (83) than wara gesa (62.4), and average inverse agricultural livelihood diversification index a higher vulnerable in wara gesa (0.685) than mela gelda (0.50). wara gesa (54%) shows a slightly greater vulnerability to climate variability based on the percentage of households unable to save crops for contingency than mela gelda (52%). wara gesa also showed greater 119 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 vulnerability (77.4 %) on the percentage of households categorized themselves poor than mela gelda (63%). table 4. summary of the lvi result for indexed major components, and capitals and profile formula gelda and wara gesa indexed major components number of indicators indexed capitals and profile standardized average score mela gelda wara gesa health 3 human 0.59 0.52 skills and knowledge 4 socio-demographic profile 3 land resources 3 natural 0.62 0.73 forest resources 3 water 3 income and wealth 6 financial 0.61 0.56 housing 3 physical 0.53 0.62 road infrastructure 4 networks and relationships 2 social 0.38 0.50 organizational affiliation 3 policy and leadership services 4 livelihood strategies 4 livelihood strategies 0.62 0.65 total average lvi 0.56 0.60 figure 5. spider diagram of the indexed capitals and components of the lvi 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 human capital natural capital financial capital physical capital social capital livelihood strategies mela gelda wara gesa 120 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 3.4.7 lvi-ipcc contributing factors and indexed components based on similar indicators that calculate their respective methods of the lvi-ipcc contributing factors were computed by grouping exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity into three groups (table 5). the lvi–ipcc contributing factors in the study area showed households for mela gelada (0.64) have a higher standardized average score than wara gesa (0.57). according to the ipcc classification of vulnerability exposure to natural hazards caused by climate variability was a high contributing factor for rural households. yet, wara gesa households (0.55) have a greater capacity for adaptation than melagelda (0.47). the sensitivity contributing factor value for wara gesa (0.60) is slightly lesser than that of the mela gelda (0.62) indicating that mela gelda was more sensitive than wara gesa. the standardized weighted result of the overall lvi-ipcc score was for mela gelda (0.105) and for wara gesa (0.012), indicating that the showing of the incidence of great vulnerable conditions of rural households to climate variability-induced natural hazards in the district which is a similar result to that of the lvi standardized weighted scores. table 5. lvi–ipcc contributing factors calculation for households (mela gelda & wara gesa) ipcc contributing factors to vulnerability indexed major components number of indicators mela gelda wara gesa exposure (e) natural hazards and climate variability 5 0.64 0.57 adaptive capacity (a) socio-demographic profile 3 0.47 0.55 livelihood strategies 4 social networks 2 sensitivity (s) health, knowledge and skills 7 0.62 0.60 natural capitals 9 financial capital& wealth 6 lvi-ipcc value 0.105 0.012 note : lvi-ipcc= [exposure-adaptive capacity] × sensitivity figure 6 also shows the vulnerability triangle that plots scores of contributing factors for adaptive capacity, exposure, and sensitivity. the vulnerability triangle reveals that the livelihoods in agricultural land of rural households in wara gesa were more vulnerable in terms of household adaptations' capacity considering the major components of the sociodemographic profile, livelihood strategies, and social networks. the rural livelihoods in agricultural land of households in mela gelda were more exposed than wara gesa to climate variability and slightly sensitive to climate variability, taking into consideration of the health, and knowledge and skills, natural capitals, and financial capitals of the households in the study area. 121 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 figure 6. vulnerability triangle of lvi-ipcc contributing factors 4. conclusion rural households in mela gelda were a higher vulnerable than those in wara gesa in terms of indexed major components such as health, skill, and knowledge, socio-demographic profile, income and wealth, policy and leadership services. in comparison, farm households in wara gesa were more vulnerable in terms of land resources, forest resources, water resources, networks and relationships, organizational affiliation, and livelihood strategies. the livelihoods in agricultural land of rural households in wara gesa were more vulnerable in terms of the capacity for household adaptations considering socio-demographic profile, livelihood strategies, and social networks. the rural households in mela gelda also more exposed than wara gesa to climate variability and slightly sensitive to climate variability, considering the health, knowledge and skills, natural capitals, and financial capitals of the households in the study area. hence, interventions including road infrastructure construction, integrated with watershed management, specific area early warning information system, livelihood diversification, afforestation/reforestation, and land degradations rehabilitation should be a better response to climate variability-induced natural hazards in the study area. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the tercha district agricultural offices experts for their support in providing the necessary data for the study. in addition, we have enormously benefited from the study communities, and they shared for us their knowledge and experiences with patience without the feeling of tiredness. we also wish to thanks the 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 exposure adaptive capacity sensitivity mela gelda wara gesa 122 ginjo gitima et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (1), 2021, 96-126 regional meteorological agency (hawassa station) and zonal agricultural offices fortheir assistance in giving necessary data. references abebe, z. t. 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university of jember, indonesia e-mail: fahmiarif.fkip@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6192 article info: received date 27th november 2017, received in revised from date 4th december 2017, accepted date 7th december 2017, publish date 14th december 2017 abstract the purpose of this study to analysis the influence of group investigation learning model towards the level of conservation knowledge of students in senior high school. the type of research is the quasi-experimental study with nonequivalent control group posttest only design. the subject of the study consisted of class xi social science are selected based on the score of final semester exam on 2014-2015 teachings year that had an average of almost the same (homogeneous).the results of this study are showed significant influence of gi models on geography level of knowledge to learn of students. it was based on the results of the independent sample t-test analysis showed a p-value of 0.000 level. p-level value is smaller than 0.05 (p <0.05). keywords: group investigation learning, level of knowledge, conservation introduction conservation of the north coast of java is very important given the high level of population growth. conservation will be very meaningful if taught to students in a contextual way. this is supported by so much digital literacy and can be accessed by anyone. abrasion becomes the main problem that must be known by students not only on cognitive, but also psychomotor and affective aspects. therefore a group investigation method is needed in order to facilitate the delivery of concepts from teacher to student effectively. the learning model has several advantages. according to slavin (2005: 5) model of group investigation (gi) has several advantages for students, among others "can develop relationships between groups, acceptance of classmates who are weak in the academic field, improve self-esteem, growing awareness to think, solve problems, ability to integrate and apply the knowledge ". gi learning will help students who are academically weak and geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 1 no. 1 (2017), page 22-28 , december, 2017 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi 22 mailto:fahmiarif.fkip@unej.ac.id https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6192 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 22-28 embarrassed when asked the teacher directly. the students usually feel more comfortable and free when asking a question. it can help teachers to teachs the students who do not understand the material. gi learning model also teachs the students to become researchers. this is in accordance with the opinion of sharan (2014: 130) group investigation model has the advantage of it being a class community of researchers who answered questions from a problem that comes from the surrounding environment. the existence of the research community requires all students to teribat participated in the study. therefore, the formation of small groups of five students will make all students are active in research and reduce the possibility of students who do not work in groups. mushodik study (2013) found that "model group investigation affect the critical thinking skills of students of madrasah aliyah negeri 6 jakarta". the study has similarities and differences with this research. similarities with this study that the use of models gi and material conservation of the environment (class xi), while the difference of this study to measure the students' level of knowledge to learn geography, and research mushodik measure critical thinking skills. according to rusman (2012: 222) the group investigation model has advantages such as "developing student creativity, both individually and in groups and is seen as an active learning process, because students will learn more through the process of formation and creation". students will have space to develop their creativity by determining topics independently. the process of formation and creation will also make it easier for students to remember for a long time and understand the material that has been learned. according to sumarmi (2012: 127) the group investigation model has several advantages as follows. allows students to use inquiry skills that are able to prepare students' future, giving students the opportunity to more intensively research (find and find) solving a problem, develop student leadership, allow teachers to give more individual attention to student learning needs, enable students to be more actively involved in learning, both independently and more freely in discussions, can be used in schools that carry out various types of classroom arrangements, student grouping, and scheduling, and provide opportunities to develop respect for other students who work help group progress in achieving goals. gi learning can form students who are used to finding and finding. students who are familiar with these two things will be better prepared to face future challenges that require more capable human resources to analyze a phenomenon. this ability is also supported by mutual respect between friends in gi learning. according to majid (2013: 175) the group investigation model has several advantages, including "improving student performance in academic tasks, students can accept 23 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 22-28 friends who have different backgrounds, and develop students' social skills". academic assignments can be well completed if students are given the opportunity to share teaching materials with their friends. it can only happen optimally with a small group of 5 students. the small group will be easy to do the division of tasks. methods this type of research that is quasi-experimental design with non equivalentcontrol group posttest only. the following designs were used in this study. experimental group x o1 control group o2 (jacksen, 2011:153) description : x = learning using a model group investigation = learning using a lecture and discussion o1 = charging a queisioner in experimental class o2 = charging a queisioner in control class results and discussion the findings in this study indicate that the model group investigation significant effect on students' level of knowledge to learn the coastal conservation. calculation t-test with spss 16.0 the value of the p-value for the t-test is 0,000 (appendix 13). judging from the level of 95%, the figure is less than 0.05 sig. the data in this study were in the form of acquisition of high school geography problem solving skills in the aspects of environmental problems. the acquisition score data of problem solving ability in the form of gainscore was determined based on the difference between the final ability score (posttest) and the initial ability score (pretest). this score illustrates the acquisition of high school geography problem solving skills in both the control and experimental groups. measuring the ability to solve high school geography problems is obtained through giving questions in both classes consisting of 5 items in the form of essays. the question is made according to the indicators of problem solving abilities and consulted and validated by environmental material experts. after several revisions, the questions were tested before use. test questions include the level of difficulty, power difference, validity, and reliability. based on the calculation of the level of difficulty, 24 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 22-28 difference in power, validity, and reliability for the trial class, the following results are obtained. the results showed that the model group investigation significant effect on high school students' level of knowledge to learn coastal conservation. this is evidenced by the hypothesis test. hypothesis test results show p-value for the t-test of 0.000 (0.000 <0.05). the average value of the experimental class level of knowledge for 206, while the average value of level of knowledge control class is 163. the results are in accordance with the opinion of sharan (134: 2014) "investigation group to motivate students to take an active role in determining what they learned and how they study". the results also supported by the results of previous studies, including research conducted by tan (2004). the equation of this study with previous research the models gi effect on students' level of knowledge to learn geography. the research also has differences with previous studies. this study uses a class xi ips sma as a research subject, whereas previous studies using class viii smp as a research subject. this study learning material that is the preservation of the environment, while learning materials in research tan namely natural resources. the influence of the pbl model on the problem solving ability of high school geography is allegedly caused by the characteristics of the model, namely: 1) oriented to real problems; 2) real investigation; and 3) cooperation. the three characteristics of the pbl model are thought to have the advantage of increasing each indicator of problem solving ability. this is in line with the opinion of trianto (2009) that "problem solving abilities are obtained through a process of centering on real problems". first, this learning functioned as a place to solve real problems that occur in the surrounding environment. the presentation of real problems into learning can influence the development of the ability of high school geography problems. this is in line with the opinion of amir (2010) "problems provide opportunities to increase motivation in students ". motivation will trigger students to develop patterns of thinking about the problems presented. giving a problem in the real context provides motivation in the form of a challenge for students to think of finding an effective solution. the motivation triggers students to develop their thinking skills. development of thinking skills is used to examine problems that become a benchmark for the success of pbl models in achieving goals this research. motivation grows because every human being has curiosity. this curiosity motivates to actively build cognitive understanding in the human brain. this is in line with the opinion of sumarmi (2012) "mo-del pbl fosters the development of a curious attitude / further curious, objective, independent, critical, and analytical thinking both individually and 25 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 22-28 in groups". this is in accordance with the opinion of slavin (2005: 5) group investigation model has several advantages for students, among others "can develop relationships between groups, acceptance of classmates who are weak in the academic field, improve self-esteem, growing awareness to think, solve problems , integrate and apply the knowledge capabilities ". third, the teacher just gave gi problems early learning. the problem that the teacher namely access to mangrove forests could only use boats and frequent flooding in the village of mojo. it requires students to analyze problems that occur. the existence of these demands could challenge students to think critically about the problems that occur and then poured in question and determine the sub-theme of the research. it was appropriate opinion of huda (2011: 124) group investigation model has several advantages for students, among others, "the students are involved in the activities of high-level thinking, such as synthesizing, summary, hypotheses, conclusions, and present a final report". fourth, students investigate different sub-themes. gi learning in this study membagai class into five groups. two groups investigated the mangrove forests of the physical aspect, while the three groups menginvesigasi groups of aspects of society. sub themes of different makes high curiosity of students. the group not only focused on the sub theme diinvestigasinya, but also have to know the sub-theme investigated by other groups. students will be more comprehensive knowledge by analyzing several sub-themes. this is in accordance with the opinion of trianto (2007 : 60 ) " learning activities should involve a variety of activities and wide-ranging skills and lead students to the types of different learning resources , either inside or outside of school " . additional findings in this study include group work seriously because their work will be evaluated by other groups and all the students are more active in learning . such findings make gi learning in the classroom experiment goes well . students are easier to be supervised and regulated by the teachers in each phase of learning . each group is serious in doing its job because it will be evaluated on another group . each group evaluates the clarity , attractiveness and relevance of presentation. this is in accordance with the opinion of pintrich , et al (1991 : 10 ) "extrinsic goal orientation complements intrinsic goal orientation , and concerns the degree to the which the student perceives herself to be participating in a task for s good, such as grades, rewards, performance, evaluation byothers, and competition ". experimental class students also looks more active in learning. no more students are sleeping, playing mobile phone, or talking with friends. the opposite occurs in the control class. some students in the control class still looks passive. this is indicated by the students were sleeping and talking with friends. learning 26 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 22-28 control class that will obviously interfere with the teacher in presenting the material and passive students who will not understand the material conveyed teacher. this is in accordance with the opinion of rusman (2012: 222) model of group investigation has advantages such as "develop student creativity, either individually or in groups and is seen as an active learning process, because more students will learn through the process of formation and creation". gi model's shortcomings in this research that not all students in the group are active in asking when the stage presentation of the results is in accordance with the opinion.hal sumarmi (2012: 132) that gi has the following disadvantages: (1) the gi is not supported by the results of research in particular; (2) projects often involve groups of students who can afford because students are better able to direct their own learning; (3) gi sometimes requires setting different circumstances, different material types and different teaching styles; (4) the state of the class does not always give a good physical environment for small groups as between one group with another group too close to the discussion group can not run well then interfere with each other; and (5) the success of gi models depend on the student's ability to lead a group or work independently. conclusion based on the exposure data analysis and discussion , it can be concluded that the study on environmental preservation material with group investigation model a positive effect on students' level of knowledge to learn geography . the average score of students' level of knowledge to learn geography experimental class is higher than the control class . this is because the learning steps gi that requires students to search for learning resources and analyze problems independently . activity resulted in students learning geography students' level of knowledge is high. references huda, miftahul. 2011. cooperative learning. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. jacksen, sherri l. 2011. research methode: moduler approach. stamford: cengage learning. majid, abdul. 2013. strategi pembelajaran. bandung : pt remaja rosdakarya. mushodik. 2013. pengaruh model pembelajaran group investigation terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis siswa madrasah aliyah negeri 6 jakarta. tesis tidak diterbitkan. malang: pps universitas negeri malang pintrich, r. paul .et al. 1991. a manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning 27 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 22-28 questionnaire.ann arbor, michigan : national center for research to improve postsecondary teaching and learning. rusman. 2012. model-model pembelajaran. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. sharan, shlomo. 2014. handbook of cooperative learning. new york: teachers college press. slavin, robert e. 2005. cooperative learning: theory, research and practice (n. yusron. terjemahan). london: allymand bacon. buku asli diterbitkan tahun 2005. sumarmi. 2012. model-model pembelajaran geografi. malang : aditya media publishing. tan, ivy geok chin. 2004. effects of cooperative learning with group investigation on secondary students’ achievement, level of knowledge and perceptions. singapore: national institute of education. trianto. 2007. model-model pembelajaran inovatif berorientasi konstruktivistik. jakarta: prestasi pustaka. 28 level of knowledge of senior high school students to north coastal of java conservation abstract introduction results and discussion conclusion references 319 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 research article assessing the effectiveness of geography-based online learning during the covid-19 pandemic in higher education abdul wahab abdi1,*, syahrul ridha1,2, muhammad yunus3, puspita annaba kamil4, intan safiah5, ahmad nubli gadeng1 1department of geography education, universitas syiah kuala, jl. teuku nyak arief, banda aceh, 23111, indonesia 2pusat riset ilmu sosial dan budaya (prisb), universitas syiah kuala, jl. teuku nyak arief, banda aceh, 23111, indonesia 3department of pancasila and civic education,universitas syiah kuala, jl. teuku nyak arief, banda aceh, 23111, indonesia 4department of geography education, stkip al-washliyah, jl. al-washliyah, banda aceh, indonesia 5department of primary school teacher education,universitas syiah kuala, jl. teuku nyak arief, banda aceh, 23111, indonesia received 26 july 2021/revised 25 november 2021/accepted 3 december 2021/ published 20 december 2021 abstract the covid-19 pandemic almost stalled the face-to-face learning method in all institutions across the globe. consequently, for learning to continue uninterrupted, there was a need to change teaching mode to online using social media and other platforms. this research aimed to examine the effectiveness of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic and the challenges geography students faced in implementing this type of study. the research used a descriptive qualitative approach involving questionnaires designed to determine the implementation of online learning and the challenges encountered. the questions were structured through synthesizing various components of learning. random selection was used to select 305 participants from various higher education institutions in the aceh region, indonesia. the results indicated that online learning during the covid-19 pandemic was effectively implemented. however, some challenges were encountered, including students who could not fully participate since they could not log in to the provided learning platforms. furthermore, students from rural areas had poor internet connectivity besides the inability to buy internet quota. there were many instances of reported power supply failures, and this hindered online learning. overall, learning geography during the pandemic was effective, though it had a fair share of challenges. the research also identified the need to develop an online learning model, teaching material, and multimedia in supporting geography-based online learning. keywords: assessing; effectiveness; geography-based online learning; covid-19; higher education geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 319-333 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.25811 *corresponding author. email address : wahababdi@unsyiah.ac.id (abdul wahab abdi) (suranjan majumder) mailto:wahababdi@unsyiah.ac.id 320 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 1. introduction the covid-19 pandemic has negatively impacted all sectors, especially education (sandhu & de wolf, 2020). recent statistics indicate a drastic increase in the spread of coronavirus, especially in jakarta and east java. this situation has led to the introduction of stringent measures, including restrictions of social gatherings, to reduce the transmission of the virus (satuan tugas, 2020). educational institutions such as schools and higher learning centers were closed until such a time when the virus could be contained and transmission rates reduced. however, it was expected that learning could adopt new techniques, such as online learning platforms guided by parents and teachers. implementing technology in the education sector could enable the education sector to achieve the set goals and objectives according to the curriculum (mutton, 2020). globally, the pandemic has negatively affected the normal way of working since people fear contracting the virus (talidong & toquero, 2020). the education sector has not been isolated either since learning in all institutions shifted from face-to-face to online using social media platforms (baloran, 2020; barnes et al., 2020). however, the education sector was unprepared for the transition, thereby experiencing various challenges in implementing online learning (scull et al., 2020). today almost all schools across the globe have adopted the online learning system despite the challenges in its implementation (barnes et al., 2020; coolican et al., 2020; nasri et al., 2020; talidong & toquero, 2020). according to morgan (2020), the new system has its advantages, such as preventing student regression in online learning compared to a school setup. however, the teachers and learners have experienced uncertain time transitions to new ways of learning (allen et al., 2020). moreover, online learning has not fully achieved the set objectives in some modules that require face-to-face interaction between teachers and students. therefore, there is a need to have face-to-face learning-based sessions despite having an online platform to effectively achieve the set curriculum goals (moorhouse, 2020; osman, 2020). with the current pandemic, learning remains disrupted unless strategic innovations and new ideas are implemented (hazen, 2020; hazen & alberts, 2021). the novelty of this research was to provide information related to learning geography in higher education based on the location of different students, either in villages or cities. the two locations have different geographical characteristics that affect the quality of learning (thomas & bryson, 2021). therefore, in a scenario where face-to-face learning is not implemented, online-based 321 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 learning is needed using both the web and digital applications (bryson & andres, 2020; holloway et al., 2021). based on the available statistics and background information, the research sought to identify the effectiveness of learning during the covid-19 pandemic in higher education institutions. the outcome was measured using the components of learning geography, which included the design of geography-based online learning, learning material, media used, learning procedure, and student participation. the research also aimed to identify various challenges faced by geography students in implementing online-based learning. 2. methods 2.1. research design the research adopted a descriptive qualitative design to analyze the effectiveness of learning geography using the online platform during the pandemic. the technique gave the effectiveness of the innovations in the future. 2.2. data collection and analysis the research used a questionnaire to determine the implementation of geographybased online learning during the covid-19 pandemic in higher education. questions were designed by synthesizing components in learning, such as online learning needs, learning design, learning materials, media utilized, implementation, and student participation, as illustrated in (table 1). a simple random technique was used in sampling as it represented the population, whereeach individual had the same opportunity to participate (setyosari, 2013). the questions were divided into five categories; the need for online-based learning during covid19 (items #1 through #8); the design of online-based learning (items #9 through #16); learning material and media used in online-based learning (items #17 through #23); implementation of online-based learning (items #24 through #35); and student participation in online-based learning during the covid-19 pandemics (items #36 through #42). 322 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 table 1. forty-two questions were designed to determine the effectiveness of the implementation of geography-based online learning questions need for geography-based online learning 1 is it necessary to have online learning during the covid-19 pandemic? 2 is internet connectivity necessary for online learning? 3 is lack of internet connection a challenge in implementing online learning during the covid-19 pandemic? 4 do all students get a free and adequate internet quota from the university during online learning? 5 was it necessary to have an effective platform (such as zoom, google meet, etc.) for online learning? 6 it needs student ability, which is good in using digital technology/internet. 7 it needs the location of the student, with internet accessibility for online learning. 8 it needs the development of an online-based collaborative learning model through an e-learning system. design of geography-based online learning 9 learning is designed specially by using an e-learning system. 10 design and inform the learning goal. 11 the design of the task and evaluation is suited to the learning goal. 12 the design of the learning goal is suited to the cognitive domain (remember, understand, application, analysis, evaluation, and create). 13 the learning goal can be achieved through online learning using the existing platform such as zoom, google meet, etc. 14 the steps of learning which are used to help to learn effectively, such as student participation and time usage in learning 15 students easily do procedures and steps of online learning. 16 learning strategy is done collaboratively and centered on students. learning materials and media used in geography learning 17 learning media such as pictures, videos, and animation can maximize understanding of learning materials and increase knowledge. 18 audiovisual media (picture, animation, and video) is easily accessed. 19 learning materials are suited to the learning goal, which has been set. 20 learning materials are easily accessed during online learning. 21 the scope of learning materials is global and deep. 22 the sequence of learning materials in each session suited the learning goal. 23 the truth of concept, word, and fact. the geography-based online learning procedure 24 online learning activities increase understanding of the material being learned. 25 learning takes place according to the set time. 26 the lecturer delivers well the learning goal and topic of discussion. 27 the lecturer delivers the task to support learning goal achievement. 28 lecturers use the most suitable method in delivering learning materials. 29 form a group to discuss, do the project, and solve the problem. 30 the lecturer demonstrates the material learned by using audiovisual media. 31 lecturers guide students to understand the materials and tasks so they can be finished well. 32 the lecturer helps students to participate and contribute to discussion actively. 33 presentation of student work outcomes can increase knowledge and skill. 34 lecturer and student conclude and give feedback to learning which is going on. 35 the lecturer gives motivation and delivers learning goals and topic of discussion for the next session. student participation in geography-based online learning 36 in online learning, students can participate well with their friends and lecturer. 37 can communicate well with friends and lecturer. 38 can cooperate well among friends in doing the task. 39 good coordination among friends in doing the task. 40 share the task among friends objectively. 41 students deliver work outcomes compactly. 42 students had participated well in discussions, collaborations to do the task, and presenting the outcomes. the questionnaires were analyzed based on a likert scale where the respondents specified their level of agreement based on (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral or 323 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 don’t know; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree) (jo & bednarz, 2014). a total of 305 students from aceh province distributed in urban and rural areas were sampled to participate in the research since they experienced varying challenges. the questionnaires were filled through a google form sent via social media (whatsapp group) for data collection from 28 may until 11 june 2021. this was meant to increase student awareness of the importance of embracing social media in learning circumstances (halliwell, 2020). additionally, a descriptive statistic technique was used to analyze the data, which was presented in bar charts to determine the response of geographic-based online learning. 3. results and discussion the research results revealed two important findings of geography learning during the covid-19 pandemic. first, it identified the effectiveness of the system, and second, the challenges the students faced in online learning. the elaboration of those two findings is explained as follows. 3.1. the effectiveness of online learning research findings established that online learning during the covid-19 pandemic in higher education was effective. this was determined from the student perception (79%) regarding online learning. however, online learning experienced some challenges, for instance, students in rural settings lacked access to the internet, and therefore, they could not learn as programmed. the percentage was obtained from five learning components, including learning design, material, media of learning, a form of media used, the procedure of learning, and student participation in online learning. 3.1.1 the need for geography-based online learning during the covid-19 pandemic online learning was designed to achieve the set curriculum goals even though the students did not have face-to-face interaction with their teachers. however, during implementation, learning did not attain an optimum level since some students used less effective platforms.in addition, students from rural areas had challenges regarding internet connectivity. on the contrary, students from urban areas did not have similar challenges, especially internet access. therefore, the research identified a need to have a defined learning model for effective online learning. table 2 shows the total score in identifying the need for online-based learning. 324 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 table 2. the score in identifying the need for geography-based online learning question score 1 the covid-19 pandemic needs effective online learning. 1306 10.7% 2 a good internet connection is needed for online learning. 1477 12.1% 3 lack of internet connection becomes an obstacle in online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. 1404 11.5% 4 students get free and adequate internet quota from the university during online learning. 1234 10.1% 5 it needs an effective platform (such as zoom, google meet, etc.) for online learning. 1248 10.2% 6 it needs student ability, which is good in using digital technology/internet. 1314 10.8% 7 it needs the location of the student, which is well covered by internet access in online learning. 1353 11.1% 8 it needs the development of an online-based collaborative learning model through an e-learning system. 1249 10.2% total 10585 86.76% table 2 shows that geography-based online learning was necessary during the covid19 pandemic (86.76%). this was in line with the higher education policy regarding universities which recommended research investigating the effectiveness of online learning during quarantine time, as shown in figure 1. figure 1. percentage of student response to the need for geography-based online learning 3.1.2 the design of geography-based online learning during the covid-19 pandemic, geography-based online learning differed from the previous one, which did not engage the learners on online platforms. this section will discuss question 1 question 2 question 3 question 4 question 5 question 6 question 7 question 8 strongly disagree 1% 1% 4% 6% 5% 1% 2% 1% disagree 3% 1% 2% 7% 4% 2% 3% 4% neutral or don’t know 15% 1% 3% 14% 14% 12% 7% 21% agree 27% 7% 14% 21% 30% 34% 27% 34% strongly agree 53% 90% 78% 51% 47% 51% 61% 40% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 325 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 student responses to the learning design developed by the lecturer. table 3 shows the total score of student response to the design of learning during the covid-19 pandemic. table 3. the score of student response to the design of geography-based online learning question score 9 learning is designed specially by using an e-learning system. 1140 9.3% 10 design and inform the learning goal. 1288 10.6% 11 the design of the task and evaluation is suited to the learning goal. 1270 10.4% 12 the design of the learning goal is suited to the cognitive domain (remember, understand, application, analysis, evaluation, and create). 1211 9.9% 13 the learning goal can be achieved through online learning using the existing platform such as zoom, google meet, etc. 1146 9.4% 14 the steps of learning which are used to help to learn effectively such as student participation and time usage in learning. 1186 9.7% 15 students easily do procedures and steps of online learning. 1067 8.7% 16 learning strategy is done collaboratively and centered on students. 1152 9.4% total 9460 77.54% the research found out that geography-based online learning was implemented as planned at a response rate of (77.54%) as shown in table 3. the finding established that learning plans were prepared hurriedly without an in-depth analysis of the studying environment. additionally, it was noted that the lecturers introduced new learning materials when students were already in the mid-semester, resulting in confusion besides not covering the required content fully. furthermore, the indonesian policy regarding online learning was established in march 2020, whereas the lectures began in january 2020, and this led to learning sessions disruptions. in adapting to the new normal, it is necessary to continue implementing the online learning system and keep improving the hitches identified towards achieving the set goals. figure 2 corroborates the finding of the design of learning in the form of a percentage of student response to the design of online learning, which had been developed by the lecturers. figure 2. student response to the design of geography-based online learning question 9 question 10 question 11 question 12 question 13 question 14 question 15 question 16 strongly disagree 1% 0% 1% 1% 3% 2% 6% 3% disagree 5% 1% 5% 6% 7% 5% 13% 2% neutral or don't know 31% 13% 12% 20% 25% 23% 29% 33% agree 45% 48% 43% 42% 40% 43% 27% 40% strongly agree 18% 38% 40% 31% 25% 27% 24% 23% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 326 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 universitas syiah kuala is among the institutions using system management learning (e-learning) before the covid-19 pandemic, which has helped students continue with studies, as shown in (figure 3). thus, it is expected that online learning can be implemented in other higher learning institutions in aceh, for both public and private institutions. figure 3. e-learning platform inuniversitas syiah kuala 3.1.3 learning materials and media the current learning materials and media used in online learning do not differ from those used before the covid-19 pandemic. the materials are suited with an online learning goal set before, whereas learning media dominantly uses audiovisual such as media display through youtube and other learning resources. the total score of suitability between learning materials and learning media used in online learning is shown in table 4. 327 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 table 4. the score of student response to learning materials and media used in geography learning question score 17 learning media such as pictures, video, animation can function to maximize understanding of learning materials and increase knowledge. 1323 12.4% 18 audiovisual media (picture, animation, and video) is easily accessed. 1146 10.7% 19 learning materials are suited to the set learning goal. 1241 11.6% 20 learning materials are easily accessed. 1101 10.3% 21 the scope of learning materials (global) and deep. 1102 10.3% 22 the sequence of learning materials in each session suited the learning goal. 1198 11.2% 23 the truth of concept, word, and fact. 1192 11.2% total 8303 77.78% table 4 shows materials and media used for online learning, which were deemed effective at a rate of (77.78%). this was possible since the learning materials enhanced the achievement of the set goals according to the curriculum. however, learning media such as pictures, video, animation functions were enough to maximize the use of the five senses in understanding the learning material. therefore, the lecturers needed to develop learning materials and media that could provide the required content. figure 4 shows the percentage of student response to learning material and media used during the covid-19 pandemic. figure 4. student response to learning materials and media used in geography learning 3.1.4 learning procedure the procedure of online-based learning needs to be followed in accordance with the learning plan. table 5 shows the efficacy of the procedure or learning steps. question 17 question 18 question 19 question 20 question 21 question 22 question 23 strongly disagree 1% 4% 2% 4% 2% 1% 3% disagree 1% 9% 3% 12% 11% 6% 2% neutral or don't know 11% 25% 16% 30% 31% 20% 29% agree 35% 31% 43% 30% 37% 45% 35% strongly agree 51% 31% 35% 25% 20% 28% 31% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 328 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 table 5. the score of student response to the geography-based online learning procedure question score 24 online learning activities increase understanding of the material, which is being learned. 1000 5,5% 25 learning takes place in accord with the time, which had been determined. 1142 6,2% 26 the lecturer delivers well the learning goal and topic of discussion. 1185 6,5% 27 the lecturer delivers the task to support learning goal achievement. 1182 6,5% 28 lecturers use the method, which is suitable in delivering learning materials. 1225 6,7% 29 form a group to discuss, do the project, and solve the problem. 1127 6,2% 30 the lecturer demonstrates the material learned by using audiovisual media. 1143 6,2% 31 the lecturer guide students to understand the materials and tasks so they can be finished well. 1230 6,7% 32 the lecturer helps students to participate and contribute to the discussion actively. 1234 6,7% 33 presentation of student work outcomes can increase knowledge and skill. 1214 6,6% 34 lecturer and student conclude and give feedback to learning which is going on. 1205 6,6% 35 the lecturer gives motivation and delivers learning goals and topic of discussion for the next session. 1268 6,9% total 14155 77,35% the research identified that the online-based procedures were recommendable for effective learning plans at a score of (77.35%). although some factors could not be determined in the current learning due to inadequate time, the online platform provided an understanding of the material. students were also not familiar with online learning platforms such as zoom and google meet, thus spending a lot of time connecting to the system. figure 5 shows the percentage of student responses concerning procedure/steps of learning. figure 5. student response to procedure/steps of geography-based online learning 3.1.5 student participation in geography learning the level of student participation was used to establish whether online learning was being implemented effectively during the pandemic.the assessment was determined through question 24 question 25 question 26 question 27 question 28 question 29 question 30 question 31 question 32 question 33 question 34 question 35 strongly disagree 11% 5% 2% 3% 1% 5% 4% 2% 2% 3% 4% 2% disagree 15% 11% 8% 4% 4% 9% 5% 5% 6% 3% 3% 1% neutral or don't know 28% 20% 20% 23% 18% 25% 27% 18% 14% 19% 19% 17% agree 30% 34% 37% 43% 45% 33% 42% 37% 42% 42% 43% 39% strongly agree 17% 30% 32% 27% 32% 28% 23% 38% 36% 33% 32% 41% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 329 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 the participation of lecturers and students in solving online problems by giving theoretical and practical contributions. the students coulduse social media platforms such as whatsapp, instagram, and youtube applications with minimal challenges (halliwell, 2020; salehudin et al., 2020). table 6 shows the score of student participation response to online learning. table 6. the score of student participation response in geography-based online learning question score 36 in online learning, students can participate well both with their friends and lecturer. 1170 11.0% 37 can communicate well both with friend and lecturer. 1180 11.1% 38 can cooperate well among friends in doing the task. 1155 10.8% 39 coordinate well among friends in doing the task. 1181 11.1% 40 share the task among friends objectively. 1189 11.1% 41 students deliver work outcomes compactly. 1162 10.9% 42 on the whole, students had participated well in discussing, collaborating to do the task, and presenting work outcomes. 1205 11.3% total 8242 77.21% table 6 shows that during the covid-19 pandemic, students participated in online learning (77.21%) despite the challenges encountered. some of the contributing factors that hindered participation included location. the difference in the location greatly influenced the internet connectivity and other social factors making it difficult for students, especially in the rural areas, to participate fully. besides, students living in rural areas were from low-income families, making it difficult to purchase an internet quota. nevertheless, higher education institutions such as universitas syiah kuala provided a subsidy of internet quota for online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. figure 6 shows the percentage of student participation in following online learning dur-ing the covid-19 pandemic. figure 6. percentage of student participation in geography-based online learning question 36 question 37 question 38 question 39 question 40 question 41 question 42 strongly disagree 5% 4% 4% 2% 1% 4% 1% disagree 5% 6% 9% 7% 7% 7% 7% neutral or don't know 21% 20% 23% 20% 22% 26% 20% agree 41% 37% 31% 41% 41% 31% 38% strongly agree 29% 32% 33% 29% 29% 33% 33% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 330 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 3.2. challenges faced by geography based online learning during the pandemic the survey was done among geography students living in rural and urban areas. according to abidah et al. (2020) & rasmitadila et al. (2020) , the majority of the students in the rural setting had poor internet connectivity and often experienced blackouts making learning a challenge, especially when signing into the online system. contrarily, students from urban areas such as banda aceh city and lhoksumawe city did not experience challenges with internet connectivity though they had frequent blackouts. therefore, the lack of a reliable power supply was a major and common problem. also, most of the students had difficulties using the online learning model and were not familiar with the social media platforms. this calls for the measure from all stakeholders, including the government, teachers, and students, to adopt technology as a way of mitigating learning challenges faced caused by the pandemic (leacock & warrican, 2020). internet connectivity was essential in enhancing the effective implementation of the online learning system. poor network and lack of a reliable power supply led to a partial participation of students contributing to the drawbacks experienced during online learning (rejeki & mukminan, 2020). most parts of aceh province are categorized as the least developed frontier where internet connectivity is yet to be installed (ridha & kamil, 2021). due to these challenges, the students are unable to cover the intended content according to the curriculum.however, it is important to teach geography in relation to the physical location of students. this will help them understand the introduction of landscapes, morphology, and spatial associations linked to online learning (ikhsan et al., 2018). to ensure effective implementation of online learning, lecturers have tried various applications to support the system, such as zoom, google meet, jitsi, and webex. the applications are evaluated with the help of the students in determining the advantages and disadvantages before choosing the most reliable in terms of installation, bundle consumption, learning features, sound quality, pictures, and adaptability. the most accepted application by most students could be chosen as the best fit for geography-based online learning. 4. conclusion the geography-based online learning during the pandemic in higher education institutions was effective, with a score of 79%. factors that hindered online learning during the covid-19 pandemic included poor internet connectivity and lack of power, especially for students from a rural setting. besides, most students from rural areas come from low household income backgrounds, which could not enable them to buy bundles for the internet 331 abdul wahab abdi et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 319-333 compared to their counterparts living in the city. this research concluded that learning geography during a pandemic was quite effective. however, there is a need to solve the identified challenges and integrate efforts between the government and various stakeholders in improving the online learning platform. furthermore, based on the description given, follow-up research can be conducted to determine the impact of developing online-based learning, teaching material, multimedia, and skills in the face of a pandemic. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this study. references abidah, a., hidaayatullaah, h. n., simamora, r. m., fehabutar, d., & mutakinati, l. 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(2021). combining proximate with online learning in real-time: ambidextrous teaching and pathways towards inclusion during covid-19 restrictions and beyond. journal of geography in higher education, 45(3), 446–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2021.1900085. https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/article/view/14765 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00221341.2021.1872681 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10872981.2020.1764740 https://covid19.go.id/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02607476.2020.1802701 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi/article/view/21428 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15325024.2020.1759225 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03098265.2021.1900085 8 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 level of knowledge of senior high school students to mangrove conservation fahmi arif kurnianto1, bejo apriyanto1 , elan artono nurdin1 , fahrudi ahwan ikhsan1 1departement of geography education universit y of jember, indonesia e-mail: fahmiarif.fkip@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6190 article info: received date 27th november 2017, received in revised from date 4th december 2017, accepted date 7th december 2017, publish date 14th december 2017 abstract geography learning in xi social science classes still do minated by conventional teaching methods that make students become unmotivated in learning. therefore, it is necessary to apply a model o f learning that can foster activity and student ’s level of knowledge. the group investigat ion learning model (gi) has several advantages. advantages of group invest igat ion learning model among others: (1) increase the abilit y to think crit ically, (2) creating a learning environment that is democratic, (3) enhance the development of soft skills, (4) may improve social solidarit y, dan (5) improve student’s level of knowledge to learn. the purpose of this study to analyze the influence of group invest igat ion learning model towards the level of mangrove knowledge of students in senior high school. the type of research is the quasi-experimental study with non equivalent control group posttest only design. the subject of the study consisted of class xi social science are selected based on the score of middle semester exam (uts) 2 on 2014-2015 teachings year that had an average of almost the same (ho mogeneous).the results of this study are showed significant influence o f gi models on geography level of knowledge to learn of students. it was based on the results of the independent sample t-test analysis showed a p-value of 0.000 level. plevel value is smaller than 0.05 (p <0.05). the average score student’s level o f knowledge to learn geography experimental class is higher with a score of 208, while the control class w ith a score of 177. that's because the investigat ions conducted the mangrove forest, teachers simply deliver early learning problems, frequent interaction between students during learning, and students investigate different sub-themes. keywords: group investigat ion learning, level of knowledge, mangrove introduction the low ability of students to write the article above needs to be found a solution so that in the future the teacher can take anticipatory measures improve the skills of students writing articles. this is important to do immediately writing articles trains students to think critically for logical (strong) reasons. according to sanjaya (2006: 78), "one of the factors geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 1 no. 1 (2017), page 8-15 , december, 2017 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:fkip@unej.ac.id https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6190 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi 9 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 causing low language skills indonesian students, especially in written language, are because teachers tend to apply conventional learning. "conventional learning in the application of teachers is moreactive, while students are passive that is only accepting the lessons given teacher. the negative impact of conventional learning is that students are less motivated learning. according to kosasih (2007: 35), "motivation is the driving force which determines the direction of action towards the goal to be achieved motivation for students to learn more actively. maybe so far students are less motivated to learn because the learning applied by the teacher to students is boring (lecture method accompanied by writing on the board.) learning needs to be done for that innovative that is motivating students to learn, namely applying the model group investigation learning mushodik study (2013) found that "model group invest igat ion affect the crit ical thinking skills of students of madrasah aliyah negeri 6 jakarta". the study has similarit ies and differences with this research. similarit ies with this study that the use of mo dels gi and material conservation of the environment (class xi), while the difference of this study to measure the students' level of knowledge to learn geography, and research mushodik measure crit ical thinking skills. the research findings ulfah (2014) "learning model group invest igat ion influence on student learning outcomes sman 1 banjarbaru". the study has similarit ies and differences with this research. similarit ies with this study is the use of the model group invest igat ion, while others study the difference between this measure and the level of knowledge to learn geography students study geography ulfah measure student learning outcomes. the use of gi models by utilizing mangrove forest in the village of mojo as a source of learning is done on the basis o f competence to analyze the preservat ion of the environment in relat ion to sustainable development (environmental preservation material). level of knowledge of students is expected to increase with the learning. this is supported by the opinio n sharan (2014: 130) wrote that "gi has a unique character on the integration of the four basic features such as: invest igat ion, interaction, interpretation, and intrinsic level o f knowledge". based on the above problems, the researchers plan to conduct a study ent itled "effect of model group invest igat ion level o f knowledge high school students studying geography". methods this type of research that is quasi-experimental design with non equivalentcontrol group posttest only. the fo llowing designs were used in this study. 10 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 experimental group x o1 control group o2 (jacksen, 2011:153) description : x = learning using a model group investigation = learning using a lecture and discussion o1 = charging a queisioner in experimental class o2 = charging a queisioner in control class results and discussion the findings in this study indicate that the model group invest igat ion significant effect on students' level o f knowledge to learn geography sma.hasil calculat ion t -test with spss 16.0 the value of the p-value for the t-test is 0,000 (appendix 13). judging from the level of 95%, the figure is less than 0.05 sig. other findings in this study include: (1) the students look happy to observe the mangrove forest in the village of mojo, (2) students embarrassed to ask, be more frequent ly asked, especially to the friends group of their, (3) students feel more challenged by the the task of formulating the questions given by the teacher, (4) sub different themes makes the curiosit y of students is high. addit io nal findings in this study include group work seriously because their work will be evaluated by other groups and all the students are more active in learning. this was caused by invest igat ions conducted outside of school, the teacher only spoke about the problems in early learning, and frequent interactio n between students during the learning. these three factors that make learning gi different fro m other cooperative learning. the results showed that the model group investigation significant effect on high school students' level of knowledge to learn geography. this is evidenced by the hypothesis test. hypothesis test results show p-value for the t-test of 0.000 (0.000 <0.05). the average value of the experimental class level o f knowledge for 208, while the average value of level of knowledge control class is 177. the results are in accordance with the opinio n of sharan 11 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 (134: 2014) "invest igation group to motivate students to take an active role in determining what they learned and how they study". the results also supported by the results of previous studies, including research conducted by tan (2004). the equation of this study wit h previous research the models gi effect on students' level of knowledge to learn geography. the research also has differences wit h previous studies. this study uses a class xi ips sma as a research subject, whereas previous studies using class viii smp as a research subject. this study learning material that is the preservat ion of the environment, while learning materials in research tan namely natural resources. research results yulianto et al (2013) supports these results. et al yulianto research results obtained gi cooperative learning inquiry-based experiments effect on students' level of knowledge. equation yulianto research colleagues with this study lies in the model of gi effect on students' level o f knowledge. the study also has differences with this research. yulianto research subjects and others that junior high school students of class viii, while the subject of this research the high school students of class xi. this study learning material that is the preservation o f the environment, while learning material on yulianto et al study the refraction of light (physics). research results widiarsa et al (2014) also supports this research. et al widiarsa research results obtained gi cooperative learning effect on students' level of knowledge. equation widiarsa et al study with this research is a model of gi effect on students' level of knowledge. the study also has differences with this research. widiarsa research subjects and others that class x sma, while the subject of this study the high school students of class xi. research results widiarsa et al (2014) also supports this research. et al widiarsa research results obtained gi cooperative learning effect on students' level of knowledge. equation widiarsa et al study with this research is a model of gi effect on students' level of knowledge. the study also has differences with this research. widiarsa research subjects and others that class x sma, while the subject of this study the high school students of class xi. widiarsa et al conducted research on the subjects of bio logy, while this research was conducted on the subjects of geography. model gi effect on high school students' level of knowledge to learn geography because: first, the implementation of the research done by the students in the mangrove forest village of mo jo pemalang. students must do research outside of school. students are researching ways to preserve the mangrove forests and the role of communit ies in conservat ion. the learning environment outside the classroom is different fro m in the classroom. the difference is that learning outside the classroom is more 12 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 contextual than in the classroom. students look happy to see the mangrove forest in the village of mojo. it was appropriate the opinio n sharan (2014: 130) that the model group invest igat ion has the advantage of it being a class communit y of researchers who answered questions from a problem that comes fro m the surrounding environment. second, frequent interact ion when learning gi implemented. students often interact with ot her students in a group to formulate questions and find answers to these questions. students who had been quiet and shy to ask, be more frequently asked, especially the group of their friends. it happened because the student was given a place and time that is sufficient to ask the group of their friends. this is in accordance wit h the opinio n of slavin (2005: 5) group invest igat ion model has several advantages for students, among others "can develop relat ionships between groups, acceptance of classmates who are weak in the academic field, improve self-esteem, growing awareness to think, solve problems , integrate and apply the knowledge capabilit ies ". third, the teacher just gave gi problems early learning. the problem that the teacher namely access to mangrove forests could only use boats and frequent flooding in the village of mojo. it requires students to analyze problems that occur. the existence of these demands could challenge students to think crit ically about the problems that occur and then poured in question and determine the sub-theme of the research. it was appropriate opinio n of huda (2011: 124) group invest igat ion model has several advantages for students, among others, "the students are invo lved in the activit ies o f high-level thinking, such as synthesizing, summary, hypotheses, conclusio ns, and present a final report". fourth, students invest igate different sub-themes. gi learning in this study membagai class into five groups. two groups investigated the mangrove forests of the physical aspect, while the three groups menginvesigasi groups of aspects of societ y. sub themes of different makes high curiosit y of students. the group not only focused on the sub theme diinvestigasinya, but also have to know the sub-theme diinvent igasi other groups. students will be more comprehensive knowledge by analyzing several sub-themes. this is in accordance with the opinio n of trianto (2007 : 60 ) " learning activit ies should invo lve a variet y of activit ies and wide-ranging skills and lead students to the types of different learning resources , either inside or outside of school " . addit ional findings in this study include group work seriously because their work will be evaluated by other groups and all the students are more active in learning . such findings make gi learning in the classroom experiment goes well . students are easier to be supervised and regulated by the teachers in each phase of learning . each group is serious in doing its job because it will be evaluated on `13 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 another group . each group evaluates the clarit y , attractiveness and relevance of presentation . this is in accordance with the opinion of pintrich , et al (1991 : 10 ) "extrinsic goal orientation complements intrinsic goal orientation , and concerns the degree to the which the student perceives herself to be participat ing in a task for s good, such as grades, rewards, performance, evaluat ion byothers, and compet it ion ". experimental class students also looks more active in learning. no more students are sleeping, playing mobile phone, or talking with friends. the opposite occurs in the control class. some students in the control class still looks passive. this is indicated by the students were sleeping and talking with friends. learning control class that will obviously interfere with the teacher in present ing the material and passive students who will not understand the material conveyed teacher. this is in accordance with the opinio n of rusman (2012: 222) model of group invest igat ion has advantages such as "develop student creativit y, either individually or in groups and is seen as an active learning process, because more students will learn through the process of formation and creat ion". gi model's shortcomings in this research that not all students in the group are active in asking when the stage presentation of the results is in accordance with the opinio n.hal sumarmi (2012: 132) that gi has the fo llowing disadvantages: (1) the gi is not supported by the results of research in part icular; (2) projects often invo lve groups of students who can afford because students are better able to direct their own learning; (3) gi somet imes requires setting different circumstances, different material t ypes and different teaching styles; (4) the state of the class does not always give a good physical environment for small groups as between one group with another group too close to the discussion group can not run well then interfere with each other; and (5) the success of gi models depend on the student's abilit y to lead a group or work independent ly. conclusion based on the exposure data analysis and discussion , it can be concluded that the study on environmental preservat ion material wit h group investigation model a posit ive effect on students' level of knowledge to learn geography . the average score of students' level o f knowledge to learn geography experimental class is higher than the control class . this is because the learning steps gi that requires students to search for learning resources 13 `13 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 and analyze problems independent ly . akt ivias resulted in students learning geography students' level of knowledge is high. references huda, miftahul. 2011. cooperative learning. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. jacksen, sherri l. 2011. research methode: moduler approach. stamford: cengage learning. kosasih. 2007. optimalisasi media pembelajaran.jakarta : pt. grasindo. mushodik. 2013. pengaruh model pembelajaran group investigation terhadap kemampuan berpikir kritis siswa madrasah aliyah negeri 6 jakarta. tesis tidak diterbitkan. malang: pps universitas negeri malang. pintrich, r. paul .et al. 1991. a manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire.ann arbor, michigan : national center for research to improve postsecondary teaching and learning. rusman. 2012. model-model pembelajaran. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. sanjaya, wina. 2006. strategi pembelajaran berorientasi standar proses. pendidikan”, jakarta : kencana prenada media. sharan dan shlomo. 1999. handbook of cooperative learning. new york: teachers college press. slavin, robert e. 2005. cooperative learning: theory, research and practice (n. yusron. terjemahan). london: allymand bacon. buku asli diterbitkan tahun 2005. sumarmi. 2012. model-model pembelajaran geografi. malang : aditya media publishing. tan, ivy geok chin. 2004. effects of cooperative learning with group investigation on secondary students’ achievement, motivation and perceptions. singapore: national institute of education. trianto. 2007. model-model pembelajaran inovatif berorientasi konstruktivistik. jakarta: prestasi pustaka. ulfah, restu. 2014. pengaruh model pembelajaran group investigation terhadap hasil belajar siswa geografi siswa sma negeri 1 banjarbaru. tesis tidak diterbitkan. malang: pps universitas negeri malang. widiarsa, putu dkk. 2014. pengaruh penggunaan model pembelajaran kooperatif tipe group investigation (gi) terhadap motivasi belajar dan pemahaman konsep biologi 14 `13 fahmi arif kurnianto et al / geosi vol. 1 no. 1 (2017) 8-15 siswa sma negeri 2 banjar. e-journal program pascasarjana universitas pendidikan ganesha program studi administrasi pendidikan 5 (1): 1. yulianto, a dkk. 2013. pengaruh pembelajaran kooperatif tipe group investigation berbasis eksperimen inkuiri terhadap motivasi belajar siswa. unnes physics education journal, 2 (2) : 1. 15 1 application of contextual teaching learning to learning results in understanding the life environment in smp negeri 2 sukodono elan artono nurdin1, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan1, fahmi arif kurnianto1 , bejo apriyanto1 departement of geography education university of jember, indonesia e-mail: elan.fkip@unej.ac.id doi : 10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6189 article info: received date 27th november 2017, received in revised from date 4th december 2017, accepted date 7th december 2017, publish date 14th december 2017 abstract this study aims to determine the improvement of learning outcomes geography by applying contextual teaching and learning (ctl) on the concept of environmental pollution. this research was conducted at smpn 2 sukodono, lumajang. the method used in this study is the method classroom action research (car), ptk is implemented as an effort to overcome problems that arise in certain classes. this method is done with four stages, namely planning, action, observation, and reflection. the four stages are cycles that take place repeatedly and carried out with the same steps and focused on learning contextual teaching and learning (ctl). based on the results research that has been done shows that student learning outcomes increased. this increase can be seen through the cycle have been done. in the first cycle the average student learning outcomes were 54.76 at the time of the pretest and 77.46 at the time of post-test. while in the second cycle the average student learning outcomes 48.33 at pretest and 78.28 at posttest. key words : contextual teaching and learning, learning outcomes, smpn 2 sukodono introduction social studies learning in environmental problem material at sukodono junior high school 2 is generally still dominated by teacher activity. classes focus on teachers as the main source of knowledge and teaching and learning activities that are guided only by textbooks. so that learning activities do not provide opportunities for students to interact with concrete objects in real situations. this matter resulting in students not caring about what happened in the environmentaround it. therefore the teacher should give concrete examples in every learning so that students can be responsive and caring for the environment in which the student lives. at the initial observation at smp 2 sukodono shows the fact that environmental geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 1 no. 1 (2017), page 1-7 , december, 2017 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:elan.fkip@unej.ac.id https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v1i1.6189 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi 2 conditions are in the area mining of cement raw materials experiences a variety of good soil contamination,air and water are not accompanied by students' concern for t he problem. this can be seen from the lack of attention from students to the problem environmental pollution that occurs in the area around his residence, even students do not seem to care about the pollution problems that occur with as if nothing had happened. in addition, the results of observations in the process of teaching and learning activities, these activities only run theoretically and are not related to real environment where students are. observation results of student learning completeness only reached 60%. the incompleteness of student learning outcomes is influenced by many factors, such as inadequate school facilities, selection of methods inaccurate learning, learning media is less interesting and level low student activity. lack of community care, school and the teacher's role results in less than optimal results. to overcome this problem, a strategy is needed learning that empowers students more, namely an approach learning that is able to educate students with experience and the environ ment. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is expected to be more effective learning, because students will learn more active in thinking and understanding material in groups. ctl can facilitate students in absorbing subject matter, and students can strengthen understanding of the amount of subject matter. therefore the need to carry out class action research at smpn 2 sukodono with the hope that learning outcomes can improve accordingly with a meaningful learning process. methods action research for this class in 2 cycles. every cycle is a process flow of activities that includes planning (planning), acting, observing, and reflecting (reflecting). the series of activities aims to direct students to learning problems and confirm that the cycle is go ing well. before the research activities are carried out, it is necessary beforehand make preparations which will later be needed in research activities. the activities that have been carried out at this stage, this preparation is: (a) initial observations are carried out to identify problems through interview with biology study teachers, then together the teacher determines the form of problem solving in the form of application contextual learning model on the concept of environmental pollution; (b) prepared learning tools (making lesson units, plans learning, works sheet, preparing tools and materials for practicum); (c) arranged instruments and observation sheets to observe activities students; (d) prepared test questions; (e) trial questions in other classes are carried out with a number of questions 30 item; (f) analyzed the results of the test questions which include: question validity, reliability the question, the level of difficulty and the differentiating problem. 3 results and discussion the planning stage in the first cycle begins with preparing everything something related to the design of learning that will be applied in this research. the preparation includes making an implementation plan learning (rpp) using the ctl learning approach. the contextual learning approach was chosen because it can link environment and student understanding. application of this contextual learning expected to encourage students' interests, motivations and activeness in the process learning, so that it can improve student learning outcomes optimally. contextual learning is the concept of learning that helps teachers linking learning material taught with real world situations students and encourage students to make connections between knowledge owned by its application in everyday life. learning contextualization prioritizes knowledge and experience or the real world (real world learning), high-level thinking, student-centered, active students, critical, creative, solving problems, students learning fun, exciting, not boring, and uses a variety of learning resources. 51 the results of observations that researchers conducted on schools show that teaching and learning activities carried out in the morning, the classroom is sufficient so no students enter during the day, schools are in rural areas and close to residential areas, school infrastructure is still not complete, most students who study at this school are surrounding communities school, a minimum score set for social studies subjects is 70. after being discussed with the teacher concerned, it was decided the concept that is deemed necessary to be developed is the concept of environmental pollution. the concept of environmental pollution is taken because of the environmental conditions in the mining area of various raw materials for cement good pollution of land, air and water is not accompanied by the concern of students against the problem. this can be seen from the absence of attention from students on environmental pollution problems that occur in the area around the place where he lives, even students seem unconcerned about problems pollution that occurs with as if nothing has happened. furthermore, researchers discuss with subject teachers in making lesson plans compiled based on the 2006 curriculum (ktsp). the concepts taught in the first cycle consist of sub-concepts of felling. forests at the first meeting and air pollution at the second meeting. these concepts are delivered with the help of works sheet, where worksheets are carried out in groups. the group in the first cycle is formed by division randomly regardless of the abilities of each individual, with the hopes of the group formed can work together well without it rely on each other. based on observations made during the learning process take place, it can be seen that the division of groups is done randomly and evenly distributed, each group consisted of male and female students without see students' abilities. each group puts the name of the group above 4 group table. some students do not want to gather with groups that are already set by the teacher. the student only wants one group with friends they want, besides that there are still many students joking when learning takes place. ctl learning and have never experienced learning with a model that is. students are not used to using the ctl learning model so that the first time the learning took place the learning atmosphere was still visible ambiguous. implementation of the ctl learning model using work sheet applied to the first meeting in cycle i. students are less conducive and still lazy in working on work sheet. the process of thinking together working on work sheet is still not optimal, only a few students dominate in groups. in this meeting, individual responsibility still not enough. in addition, there was an error in working on the worksheets due to students do not pay attention to the teacher's instructions. material reinforcement is given when students ask about the concept not yet understood. then the teacher and students together make a conclusion about concepts that need to be memorized. some active students make notes about the most important concepts and other students not pay attention to conclusions let alone take notes. based on the results of the calculation of the initial ability test research data (pretest) students get the lowest value 15 from range 1 to 100 and value the highest 70 with a class average of 42.56 and a standard deviation of 13.08. at the end of the cycle i ability test obtained an increase in value the lowest student is 60 and the highest value is 85. the average grade reaches 74.92 with a standard deviation of 6.32. in the first cycle the average student learning outcomes were 54.76 at the time of the pretest and 77.46 at the time of post-test. while in the second cycle the average student learning outcomes 48.33 at pretest and 78.28 at posttest. data on improving student learning outcomes in the first cycle can know from the results student learning after experiencing learning with ctl on cognitive aspects is a multiple choice (multiple choice) objective test obtained results as follows: table 1. general data statistic pre test post test lowest score 15 60 highest score 70 85 mean 40,14 71,39 median 42,5 75 modus 45 75 standar deviation 13,08 7,58 total sample 36 76 data processed (2018) learning outcomes in the first cycle before learning is done lowest value 15 and the highest score only reaches 70, median is 42.5, the value most students get (mode) is 45, the 5 value the average pretest score of 40.14 with a standard deviation of 13.08. after experiencing learning with ctl, learning outcomes increase, with value the lowest is 60 and the highest value reaches 85, the middle value (median) is 75, the value the most obtained by students (mode) is 75, the average value of the pretest score 71.39 with a standard deviation of 7.58. but in the final test result (posttest) the first cycle was only 21 students who achieved the kkm score with a percentage of success amounting to 58.33%. at the planning stage in the first cycle the teacher plans learning to be applied with ctl, determine the subject matter, developing learning scenarios, preparing instruments (mastery tests concept), formation of student learning groups, and preparing learning resources. then proceed to the action stage. at the action stage, namely with apply learning with ctl that is written in the learning scenario / learning implementation plan (rpp). the series of activities at the first meeting is the teacher gives apperception and motivation by asking students "what comes to mind your mind when you hear bald forest? what happens when the forest bald rain? what impact will it have? "(principle asking). teacher give a picture of the bald forest and dense forests to students with give an example of 2 children who have one short hair and one long hair to move forward. then the teacher explains what is occurs when both are doused with water (modeling principle). teacher guide students to form heterogeneous discussion groups that are consists of 45 people with different intelligence, and each group members have their respective roles (the principle of the learning community). the teacher gives works sheet 1 about deforestation and deforested forest (principle constructivism). the teacher asks students to look for various reasons why people do logging (inquiry principle). the teacher asks each group explain the answer to the results of the discussion (principle of reflection). the teacher gives score of each group answer (actual assessment principle). the results of the observation (observation) in the first cycle of the first meeting are: on the beginning of learning the classroom atmosphere was not conducive, the class atmosphere was still visible not yet orderly because students are not used to learning with ctl so that when learning begins there are still students joking when taking lessons. at the discussion stage to work on the works sheet the discussion was not going well, some students were still joking with friends and students still not used to discussing learning so there are still many from each group asking questions. at the stage of carrying out an investigation or observation of cooperation the group has not been well established, some of the students still rely on it smart friend. when presenting the results of student group work yet look brave in presenting the results of discussion and observation of students, because students are not used to presenting the results of student 6 discussions. the activity carried out at the second meeting was the teacher giving apperception and motivation by asking students "why the smoke of a motorized vehicle is black? "(asas asked). teacher simulates air pollution by burning the mosquito repellent the smoke is stored in jars containing a cricket (modeling principle). the teacher instructs students to sit in groups (the principle of the learning community). the teacher gives works sheet 2 about air pollution (the principle of constructivism). the teacher asks students to look for types of material that can pollute the air (principle inquiry). the teacher asks each group to explain the answers to the results of the discussion the (principle of reflection). the results of the study are in accordance with the following opinions. ctl is a strategy that involves students in full in the learning process. students are encouraged to move learn the subject matter to be learned. mulyasa (2009: 217-218) states: ctl is a concept that emphasizes the interrelationship between learning platform with the life world of students real, so that students are able to connect and apply learning outcomes competencies in daily life -day. in line with this understanding, sanjaya (2009: 255) explained that: "ctl is a learning strategy emphasize the process of full student involvement to get find the material studied and connect it with real life situations that encourage students to get apply it in their lives. based on the opinion above, it can be concluded that the model ctl learning is a learning process that involves students in learning so students can construct their own knowledge and their learning skills obtained with experience directly so that the learning process will be more effective and meaningful, because learning here is not only memorizing but understanding. activities are all activities or a series of learning activities that occurs in a learning process that is like listen, take notes, and answer questions from the teacher. activity is a principle or principle that is very important in learning interactions teach. because in principle learning is doing. there is no learning if there is no activity. teaching in school also comes alive as activity in life in society. in line with things that, nasution (2004: 89) revealed that "children think as long as he does. so without the act of the child it is said no thinking, so that children can think for themselves then they must given the opportunity to be able to do it alone. because children will think and find new answers after the child has done something. furthermore sardiman (2010: 24) states: "learning as a process of interaction between human beings and their environment it may be personal, facts, concepts or theories. hamalik (2004: 30) explains that, "learning outcomes is evidence of a change in one's behavior, which is seen in aspects such as; aspects of knowledge, understanding, habits, skills, appreciation, emotional, social, physical relationships, ethical character, and attitude. sukardi (2009: 215) explains that learning outcomes are "the value that shows the achievement of 7 student learning outcomes. based on the explanation above, can be concluded that the learning outcomes is a form of ability and intelligence obtained by students as a result of the learning process which includes cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. conclusion based on the results of research, data analysis and discussion of research obtained conclusion that environmental learning by using contextual tecahing learning model can increase students' learning results. this finding will be very effective especially in material relating to concrete concepts. the teacher's ability to master the tool greatly affects the motivation and student learning outcomes references hamalik, oemar. 2004. proses belajar mengajar. bumi aksara. jakarta. mulyasa. 2009. praktik penelitian tindakan kelas. bandung: rosdakarya nasution. 2004. sosiologi pendidikan. jakarta: pt rineka cipta. sanjaya, wina. 2009. strategi pembelajaran berorientasi standar proses. pendidikan. prenada : jakarta. sardiman. 2010. interaksi dan motivasi belajar mengajar. jakarta: pt. raja grafindo. sukardi. 2009. metodologi penelitian pendidikan(kompetensi dan praktiknya). jakarta: bumi aksara research article sediment flow characteristics in the upper slope of volcanic landscapes with dryland agriculture la ode hadini1,*, junun sartohadi2 , m. anggri setiawan3, djati mardiatno3 , nugroho christanto3 1department of geography, halu oleo university, kendari, 93232, indonesia 2department of soil science, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia 3faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia received 1 june 2021/revised 9 november 2021/accepted 25 november 2021/published 20 december 2021 abstract increasing population densities and food demands are major factors contributing to the widespread use of agricultural drylands in upper volcanic slope areas. this phenomenon poses a high risk of severe erosional events that are environmentally hazardous. therefore, this study aims to analyze the sediment flow characteristics, based on the relationship between sediment flow and water level as well as the sediment discharge rate and soil loss. field surveys were conducted to determine the soil measurement, slope morphology and dryland cover characteristics. the sediment flow was evaluated at the gully outlet, where 169 suspension data pairs for the modeling and 130 suspension data pairs for the validation, as well as the bed load, water level, rainfall and water flow characteristics were obtained. tables and figures were subsequently used to represent the measurement data and analysis results for the correlation between the flow rate effects, sediment and soil loss on the water surface. the results showed that the sediment flow in volcanic landscape slopes with dryland agriculture were possibly characterized by the polynomial relationship, using the suspension discharge model, qs=0.0322q 2+6.0625q–1.2658. under this condition, the average rate of soil loss in the form of sediment load and erosion rate of the catchment area occurred at 953.53 and 1,657.94 ton/ha/yr, respectively. furthermore, the sediment sources in the soil loss were believed to originate from 83% of the suspended sediments and 17% bed loads. keywords: discharge; dryland; landscape; sediment; volcano 1. introduction indonesia is home to more than 400 volcanoes, out of which 127 occur in the active category (badan geologi indonesia, 2011). also, the country’s volcanic landscape exhibits a distinctive utilization pattern, starting from the cone to the upper and foot slopes (sartohadi & pratiwi, 2014). the general trend shows that these regions are not exploited intensively, due to possible high-intensity fire hazards. however, the middle slope is used for agro-forestry and agriculture production activities (nandini & narendra, 2010; alstrom & akerman, 2016; geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 241-259 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.24480 *corresponding author. email address : laodehadini@uho.ac.id (la ode hadini) 241 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0059-8335 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7401-1886 242 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 zhou et al., 2016). the land is typically developed for agricultural practices from the foot slope and downstream (bachri et et al., 2017). sediment flow due to the erosional process in the upper volcanic gradient appears relatively sensitive to the land use. population pressures and food demands progressively transform the utilization of these areas into dryland agriculture. furthermore, tropical climate with high topographic rainfall on volcanic slopes, increases the risk of soil erosion, leading to sediment flow. sediment flow is generally a potential source of soil loss in the watershed, and its adverse impact encompasses water quality deterioration and siltation (panagos et al., 2015; wulandari et al., 2014; mondal et al., 2015). in addition, there is need to control the flow rates from the upper volcanic watershed, based on the level of tolerated soil loss for sustainable application. various methods have been employed in predicting the soil loss (li et al., 2015; nocoń, 2016; maltsev & yermolaev, 2020), including usle equations (sharma et al., 2011), geowepp (maalim et al., 2013) and gstars4 (ahn & yang, 2015). each technique has its unique advantages and disadvantages, as viewed from various aspects, such as the research scope and scale, data input, labor, cost and time (maalim et al., 2013; verma & jha, 2015). however, certain challenges tend to occur, due to the limitations in the developing prediction methods, including the overestimation or underestimation of the real field conditions. these weaknesses are possibly overcome through the optimization of specific forecast patterns by increasing the levels of detail on a small coverage area and simultaneously applying the key area methods. in a minimal watershed, these key area procedures have the ability to improve the prediction quality, where the sediment flow and the accompanying processes in land and channel erosion are easily observed. sediment delivery ratio (sdr) is a major prediction technique that matches with the key area method. based on this concept, the total erosion rate in watersheds is estimated by detecting the sediment flow (ayuningtyas, 2012; lazzari et al., 2015). erosion process dynamics and the watershed geophysical conditions represented by the channel outlet, are practically depicted, using hydrograph discharge and sediment grain analyses. the hydrograph discharge assessment describes the relationship between flow and sediment release by erosion determinants, while the sediment grain test provides clues to erosion sources contributing to the sediment flow. furthermore, sediment flow has the capacity to navigate an outlet in the form of suspended and bed load sediments. the watershed specific geophysical characteristics tend to generate a unique hydrological response and sediment flow properties typical of dryland agriculture. the sediment flow 243 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 characteristics are commonly concluded from a set of information, such as the relationship pattern between sediment flow and water level flow rate, as well as the sediment flow rate and grain size texture (kellner & hubbart, 2018; hadini et al., 2019). soil thickness and other associated properties, including texture (rusdi et al., 2013), structure (renard et al., 1977), organic matter, fertility and permeability, are used to determine the soil erodibility and, consequently, the resultant sediment flow attributes. previous study correlated the soil depth with soil loss in karst areas, where the thin soil region demonstrated a gradual infiltration and rapid water flow (utomo et al., 2012). this outcome produced a suspension curve of qs= 8.561q 0.893 and soil loss of 0.77 tons/ha/yr. another earlier study also reported spatially typical sediment flow characteristics in various soil types, including a unique sample in sermo reservoir (wulandari et al., 2014). apparently, no studies have been conducted on the physical characteristics of watershed landscapes with homogeneous land use as a key area. however, suspension flow dynamics have been analyzed extensively in basins with varied land use patterns, alongside diverse geophysical conditions, based on certain assumptions or generalizations. the results are dependent on presumed uniformity, potentially generating a bias towards the real field situations. as a consequence, investigations on sediment flow dynamics need to employ a key area approach in providing broader coverage for a minor watershed with homogeneous land use and geophysical conditions. this method further supports the planning of the basin’s physical features in a more comprehensive and uniform manner, to produce a report that matches real field conditions. the key area technique also create studies that appropriately enable the generalization for other watersheds with similar characteristics. the geophysical characteristics of a volcanic watershed appear unique, indicating possible hydrological response in the form of sediment flow and soil loss that only simulates sedimentation. meanwhile, bompon refers to a volcanic watershed with a soil thickness above 10 m-categorized super thick soil (sartohadi et al., 2013). this area serves numerous purposes, in terms of agro-forestry, settlements, rice fields and dryland agriculture. the typical features of bompon watershed are very suitable for key areas in the study of sediment flow and soil loss characteristics in volcanic landscapes for each land use. therefore, this study aims to analyze the sediment flow in a volcanic watershed for dryland agricultural area, with several challenges, including the relationship pattern between sediment flow and water level flow rate, sediment discharge rate and soil loss, as well as the sediment source types. 244 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 2. methods bompon volcanic watershed along the borders of magelang, purworejo, and wonosobo regency, central java, served as the key area (figure 1). this region stretches between 9,163,200-916,400 mn and 396,300-397,800 me, with an elevation ranging from 377 up to 539 m above sea level and a large area of ±300 ha (0.03 km2).uneven rainfall conditions are known to characterize its climate, due to the influence of geomorphological features. also, between september 2015-august 2016, the average annual rainfall in bompon attained 2,214.5 mm. figure 1. locations of key areas in bompon, a volcanic watershed for dryland agriculture 245 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 the area is geomorphologically located in the foot slope of sumbing volcano, with rolling to hilly topographies, and is infiltrated by a volcanic intrusion, which causes the bedrock to experience intensive alteration. furthermore, the combination of this process and weathering has the capacity to generate a super thick soil layer, that is more than 10 meters, with high clay contents. bompon vegetation cover is primarily an aspect of an agro-forestry system known to cultivate various tree species, including durian, coconut, sea hibiscus (hibiscus tiliaceus), mahogany, chinese albizia (albiziachinensis), rosewood, gnetumgnemon, lansiumdookoo, lansiumdomesticum cv. kokossan, jackfruit, teak, bamboo, banana, salak (salaccazalacca), turmeric, ginger and cardamom. in the lower stand layers, creeping surface plants, such as grass and galangal, are observed. multi-level vegetation stands of various heights create a very dense and wide canopy spanning between 1-12 m, with a multilayer covering. however, the erosion occurrence in agro-forestry varies significantly, although its rate appears relatively mild (hadini et al., 2019). dryland agriculture in bompon volcanic watershed has started to intensively support human lives amid the increasing economic pressures and reduced movement capacity of other commercial sources. this system generally cultivates seasonal crops, such as cassava, maize, peanuts and vegetable, although the cultivation practices leave the soil surface relatively open, leading to an increase in erosion hazard and the concomitant sediment flow. this study employed a field survey to identify the soil measurement, slope morphology and the characteristics of the sample land for dryland agriculture. the suspension flow was measured at the gully outlet, using a natural plot, such as a catchment gully watershed. also, the sediment flow, comprising suspended sediments and bed loads was evaluated at every rainfall event for ± two (2) years, resulting in 169 pairs of suspension data for model building and another 130 data pairs for verifications. rainfall conditions and water level suspension flow were recorded with an automatic rain recorder (arr) and automatic water level recorder (awlr), respectively. this was followed by representing the resulting data in tables and graphs to describe the relationship between rainfall and sediment flow. subsequently, a sediment flow analysis was conducted, depending on the water level and suspension flow, while the suspension data was analyzed using the filtration method, where the suspension weight and concentration were determined. the multiplication of this concentration by flow rate resulted in the suspension discharge for each water level flow rate (wulandari et al., 2014). meanwhile, the flow discharge was obtained by observing the water level at a broad-crested weir installed at the outlet and then calculated using weir discharge equation (herschy, 2009). the flow discharge at a particular 246 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 water level and the sediment concentration at a certain interval were correlated with the suspended sediment discharge. this relationship was modeled into a sediment discharge curve, which refers to a regression line between sediment discharge and flowrate, using the eq. 1 (wulandari et al., 2014): qs = aq b (1) where: qs= sediment discharge (g/s); and q= flowrate (l/s). the water level data was plotted into a flow hydrograph to provide information on the flow rate at each rainfall, while the hydrograph and water level data formed a graph representing the relationship between the water level and the stage-discharge rating curve of eq.1. flow rate data were used to determine sediment discharge, although both the flow and sediment discharge generated a sediment-discharge rating curve. however, to plot the sediment discharge curve (suspension), the flow rate and sediment discharge data were positioned on x and y axes, respectively. the plotted data described a series of instantaneous correlation between flow and suspended sediment discharges, and further analyzed to identify the average suspension discharge as a function of the average flow rate at each rainfall. this was followed by statistically evaluating the calculations for the relationship analysis, using microsoft excel 2010, with correlation and regression test features (santoso, 2007). furthermore, the sedimentation process produced erosion and sediment values that indicates the level of watershed degradation. these indicators were determined from sdr with the eq. 2 (ayuningtyas, 2012): d=sdr =y/t (2) where d= sediment delivery ratio; y= sediment yield obtained at watershed outlets (ton/ha/yr); t= total erosion of the catchment area (ton/ha/yr). the sdr value was then calculated from the watershed area, using formula by boyce (1975) in eq. 3: sdr = 0,41 a-0,3 (3) where sdr= sediment delivery ratio; a=watershed area (ha) 247 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 3. results and discussion this study focused on the sediment flow in a volcanic watershed for dryland agriculture encompassing several challenges, including the relationship pattern between sediment flow (suspension discharge) and water level (flow discharge), the sediment discharge rate and soil loss, as well as the sediment source type. 3.1 the relationship between suspension and flow discharges the relationship pattern between the suspension discharge and water level is presented in the form of a correlation between suspension discharge and flow rate. this is possible considering that changes in the water level influences the flow rate. meanwhile, the alterations in the flow rate tend to control the changes in the suspension discharge. 3.1.1 the relationship between flow discharge and water level based on the land utilized for dryland agriculture, the relationship between flow rate and water level generated a flow rate model with an equation q=0.9328h1.5247. figure 2 represents the determination coefficient of the curve at r²= 0.9999. this flow discharge model was developed from 299 pairs of flow rate and water level data. meanwhile, the value of r²= 0.99 indicates that the flow rate variations were influenced by 99% of water level change and 1% of other factors. figure 2. flow discharge model of water level in the key area for dryland agriculture in bompon watershed y = 0.9326x1.5247 r² = 0.9999 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 f lo w d is c h a r g e ( m 3 /s ) water level (m) dryland agriculture rating curve power (dryland agriculture rating curve) 248 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 the t-test resulted in thit= -0.163 and the use of microsoft excel application obtained ttab= tinv (0.05; (299-1))= 1.97. this thit value appeared minimal, compared to ttab, indicating no significant difference between the discharge with direct field measurement and the counterpart from the flow curve analysis. therefore, the flow discharge model on super thick soil in upper volcanic slopes with dryland agriculture fulfilled the requirements in flow rate calculation for various outlet water levels.the observation data analysis and the flow curve model calculation generated an average flow rate of 1.64 and 1.61 m3/sec, respectively. also, the difference between the observed and the modeled flow rate was 0.0034 m3/s, indicating a percentage error (deviation) of 2.04%. according to widasmara & hadi (2016), the allowable deviation value occurs between 10-20%. therefore, the flow rate model in this study appears suitable for predicting the watershed flow discharge, with deviation value probably above 10%. this is because the data distribution in building the model has been altered, including the zero water level value during the measurement. field observation showed that the zero water-level change also tends to occur, due to the sediment accumulation. this circumstance influences the flow morphology upstream of the gauging station. also, the sediment accumulation contained sand and silt capable of altering the flow morphology during rainfall. the error sources responsible for producing irregularities, involved the use of mean value in daily flow calculations, although the calculation does not represent the peak discharge. suripin (2000) stated that the use of flow rating curves from the mean value of a series of daily discharge data possibly generates 50 % or more errors. the deviation value in this study was more preferred compared to the previously reported flow rate model. this deviation is probably caused by the cross-sectional channel properties responsible for triggering the sediment, or a control section. in a centralized control section, the downstream channel flow appears centered because its basic morphological shape experiences channel narrowing (soewarno, 1991; gao et al., 2017). 3.1.2 the relationship between suspension discharge and flow discharge the flow discharge model in the form of a flow curve type in dryland agriculture (q= 0.9328h1.5247) was used to simulate a suspension sediment discharge in the study area. figure 3 shows that the suspended sediment discharge and the flow discharge produced a polynomial relationship, qs=0.0349q 2+5.9374q-1.0601, with a determination coefficient ofr²=0.82 (qs=suspension discharge (g/s); q=flow discharge (l/s)). as a consequence, the suspension flow variations were possibly described as the influence of 82% flow rate factors 249 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 and 18% other determinants. the t-test of the suspension curve model yielded thit=-0.000605, while the microsoft excel results obtained ttab=tinv(0.05;299-1)= 1.97. furthermore, the thit value appeared minimal, compared to ttab, indicating no significant difference between the field measured suspension discharge and the simulated value from the suspension curve model. figure 3. graph of the suspension discharge model and flow discharge at the dryland agriculture in bompon watershed the results of the suspension sediment calculations from the suspension discharge model matched the requirements for assessing the suspension discharge at various water levels, with error rate at approximately 18%. particular factors known to contribute to these errors include the sampled sediment and discharge concentrations using conventional tools that potentially did not measure the overall suspension, leading to smaller values, and secondly, limited time interval for the sampling discretization, specifically during highintensity rainfall with rapid flow rate changes. however, the need to address the vulnerabilities by correcting both error sources appears very significant. the modification is also performed by examining the data quality, specifically based on the requirements in data homogeneity and outliers (wulandari et al., 2014; neno et al., 2016; yan et al., 2015). y = 0.0334x2 + 6.0106x 1.3244 r² = 0.8298 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 s u sp e n si o n d is c h a r g e ( g /s ) flow discharge (l/s) curve of suspension discharge poly. (curve of suspension discharge) 10 20 30 40 60 50 250 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 3.1.3 verification of suspension discharge model the suspension discharge model was verified to ensure the consistency of its application. this process was conducted by collecting suspension and water level samples in similar gauging stations at different time intervals from january-march 2018. the t-test results showed that the discharge curve model was not applicable to the overall rainfall states, although the two test conditions obtained tstat= -4.066, that is, greater than ttab= 1.969. subsequently, various rain conditions were analyzed, including the low-moderate and highextreme rainfall occurrences. this test was aimed at determining the possibility of a consistent suspension discharge model under certain rain conditions (low-moderate or highextreme). the results showed a stable suspension discharge model only in low-moderate rainfall, as evidenced in the test value tstat=1.1478 (smaller than ttab=1.996). this finding indicatesthat the suspension discharge model in areas of dryland agriculture appears applicable only for water level variations in low-moderate rainfall. 3.2. calculation of flow discharge and suspended sediment discharge 3.2.1 calculation of flow rate and suspension sediment discharge on awlr the suspension discharge model was used to obtain a suspension discharge for the flow rate (q) of each water level. this parameter was calculated from the individual daily, monthly, and annual flow rates recorded by awlr. the daily suspension discharge refers to the average of suspension discharge in a day, while its summation in a month is called the average monthly suspension discharge. consequently, the variation of the monthly suspension discharge in a year is possibly identified. meanwhile, the unit adjust ment in expressing the suspension discharge as an annual period is achieved by converting g/s to tons/year, using a multiplier of 31.536. table 1 presents the average monthly suspension discharge for a year at 262.01 ton/yr, with an average flow rate of 1.80 l/s. the maximum suspension flow discharge at 563.34 ton/yr, occurred in may during raining season. this event produced a flow rate of 3.64 l/s, while the minimum occurrence in september, 20.77 ton/yr, also in raining season, generated the lowest flow rate of 0.10 l/sec. therefore, rainfall factors that control the flow rate conditions are very influential towards sediment flow (suspension) and soil loss in a volcanic watershed mainly used for dryland agriculture. in summary, each rainfall event demonstrated different characteristics with separate flow rates and suspension discharges. based on the suspension flow rate model calculation, a significant difference was observed in the suspension discharge for different flow rates. 251 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 table 1. average flow rate (q) and suspension discharge (qs) based on dryland agriculture practices in the watershed key no months flow discharge q (l/s) suspension discharge qs (ton/yr) total suspension qs/a (ton/ha/yr) year average year average year average 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 1 january 3.00 3.00 390.78 390.78 1207.46 1207.46 2 february 2.09 2.09 286.83 286.83 886.26 886.26 3 march 1.98 1.98 285.31 285.31 881.58 881.58 4 april 0.10 0.10 40.24 40.24 124.33 124.33 5 may 5.85 1.03 3.44 984.33 70.50 527.42 3041.46 217.85 1629.65 6 june 1.33 1.34 1.33 173.94 171.60 172.77 537.46 530.22 533.84 7 july 0.84 0.42 0.63 76.06 19.96 48.01 235.03 61.68 148.35 8 august 0.84 0.31 0.57 76.06 55.40 65.73 235.03 171.19 203.11 9 september 0.39 0.57 0.48 5.86 35.69 20.77 18.09 110.28 64.19 10 october 2.07 1.67 1.87 352.10 238.61 295.35 1087.93 737.27 912.60 11 november 1.42 5.85 3.64 152.34 984.33 568.34 470.73 3041.46 1756.09 12 december 4.77 0.10 2.44 879.32 5.86 442.59 2716.99 18.09 1367.54 average 1.80 262.01 809.59 max 3.64 568.34 1756.09 min 0.10 20.77 64.19 note: ton/yr = 31.536 g/s the suspension discharge in dryland agricultural areas appeared relative extensive, strongly reflecting the suspended sediments as well as the study area conditions. field observations indicated that the flow at the gauging station drained the suspension with reasonably large sediment at every rain event, particularly with high intensity and lengthy durations. the watershed capacity to store and drain water into the soil in these regions was considerably minimal, leading to the flow stoppage immediately after the rain. furthermore, the annual distribution of the suspended sediments in the sample areas observed two (2) peak periods, termed may and november. in both months, the rain occurrence appeared more frequent with high intensity, resulting in extensive average flow rates. 3.2.2 calculation of sediment discharge and soil loss sediment discharge known to instigate soil loss,occurs in the form of sediment load and also refers to the accumulation of all sediment types, including the suspended sediments and bedloads into the channel outlet. the sediment load was subsequently calculated depending on the weight of suspended sediment and bed loads from the field data measurement and analysis. table 2 shows an average sediment load of 86,660.11 g, comprising sediments and bed loads of 81,385.04 g and 6,045.02 g, respectively. 252 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 table 2. calculation of sediment discharge and soil loss no sample codes bedload suspended sediment weight of suspended sediment total weight of sediment percentage of sediment wb (g) concentration c (g/l) discharge q (l/s) v (l) qsh (g/s) rain duration t (minute) ws (g) w (g) %wb %ws 1 2 3 5 6 7 8=5*6 9 10=8*9 11=4+10 12 13 1 06-mar-17 1,024.59 1.4601 1.8036 4328.6682 2.6335 40 6,320.47 7,345.06 13.95 86.05 2 07-mar-17 2,237.37 0.3260 2.6586 6699.7409 0.8666 42 2,183.96 4,421.33 50.60 49.40 3 25-mar-17 8,677.65 2.5124 3.8433 11299.3855 9.6560 49 28,388.72 37,066.37 23.41 76.59 4 05-apr-17 36,885.2 4 4.7698 20.3478 70810.4379 97.0551 58 337,751.90 374,637.14 9.85 90.15 5 23-apr-17 (1) 2,034.24 0.7023 0.2274 573.1064 0.1597 42 402.48 2,436.72 83.48 16.52 6 23-jan-18 10,852.1 7 13.0875 1.8036 1623.2506 23.6048 15 21,244.32 32,096.50 33.81 66.19 7 24-jan-18 19,673.1 3 60.1184 3.8776 6979.6812 233.1151 30 419,607.19 439,280.32 4.48 95.52 8 25-jan-18 4,240.20 83.9386 1.0164 1036.7737 85.3190 17 87,025.36 91,265.55 4.65 95.35 9 31-jan-18 823.87 23.9045 1.0047 723.3792 24.0167 12 17,292.03 18,115.90 4.55 95.45 10 04-feb-18 4,351.76 26.8223 1.0047 2833.2353 26.9482 47 75,993.80 80,345.56 5.42 94.58 11 05-feb-18 3,104.01 14.4334 1.8036 2705.4176 26.0323 25 39,048.48 42,152.49 7.36 92.64 12 07-feb-18 1,393.46 7.8116 1.0047 361.6896 7.8483 6 2,825.37 4,218.84 33.03 66.97 13 08-feb-18 3,001.26 6.6616 1.0047 964.5056 6.6929 16 6,425.18 9,426.44 31.84 68.16 14 09-feb-18 4,338.04 8.0985 2.7640 2653.4714 22.3844 16 21,489.04 25,827.08 16.80 83.20 15 11-feb-18 3,514.37 13.4374 3.8729 3485.6101 52.0416 15 46,837.43 50,351.81 6.98 93.02 16 12-feb-18 3,619.36 10.9801 3.8776 3489.8406 42.5763 15 38,318.70 41,938.06 8.63 91.37 17 20-feb-18 2,039.02 17.9242 1.8036 5194.4018 32.3283 48 93,105.62 95,144.64 2.14 97.86 18 22-feb-18 4,203.97 18.6944 3.8776 5816.4010 72.4893 25 108,733.99 112,937.97 3.72 96.28 19 23-feb-18 6,085.91 7.6122 11.3742 22520.8717 86.5830 33 171,434.39 177,520.30 3.43 96.57 20 24-feb-18 2,647.68 7.3504 6.5150 19154.1038 47.8880 49 140,790.80 143,438.48 1.85 98.15 21 04-mar-18 2,198.06 5.8921 3.8776 7444.9933 22.8472 32 43,866.63 46,064.69 4.77 95.23 total 126,945.36 336.5379 79.3634 180698.9653 923.0866 632 1,709,085.88 1,836,031.25 average 6,045.02 16.03 3.77 8,604.71 43.96 30 81,385.04 86,660.11 17 83 maximum 36,885.2 4 83.94 20.35 70,810.44 233.12 58 419,607.19 439,280.32 83 98 minimum 823.87 0.33 0.23 361.69 0.16 6 402.48 2,436.72 2 17 note: q=cd*cv*((9.8))^(1/2)*b*((h))^(3/2); ws=(qs*60)*t; v=((qs/(24*60))*t 3. 3 the type of sediment source material during the flow the percentage of suspended sediment loads in the study area varied from 17-98%, with an average of 83%., while the bed load composition to sediment loads ranged between 2-83%, with an average of 17%. these bed loads have been estimated using the borland & maddocktables (1951), based on the concentration and grading of suspended sediments in the forms of clay, silt and sand provided the bed load composes 20% of the suspended materials (soewarno, 1991). the ratio of bed load to the suspended sediments (6,045.02/81,385.04) was estimated at 0.0698 or 7.5%, while the average bed load of 7.5% x 308.60= 23.14 ton/yr, was obtained using similar ratio for the mean value of the annual suspension discharge in table 1. this study further achieved a bed load discharge of approximately 331.74 ton/yr. the comparison between the sediment yields in the channels and soil erosion is defined as sdr (ayuningtyas, 2012; lazzari et al., 2015). according to ma’wa et al., (2009), the relationship between the characteristics of the catchment area and sdr is calculated using 253 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 eq. 3. the results also generated a watershed key area of 0.324 ha, while the sdr obtained 0.2472, while the rate or total soil loss was based on the sediment yield, or sediment discharge per unit area (331.74 ton/yr)/(0.324 ha)= 953.53 ton/ha/yr. eq. 2 was used to generate the total erosion rate in the watershed key area at 1,657.94 ton/ha/yr. this study indicated that high flow rates were able to influence the sediment flow and erosion process in dryland agriculture areas, leading to soil loss (sambodo & arpornthip, 2021). the extent to the effect of flow discharge on the sediments is significantly dependent on erosion, particularly the soil erodibility (morgan, 2005; hadini et al., 2019). soil erodibility refers to a complex property that is based on soil infiltration rate and its capacity to withstand detachment by raindrops and scouring by surface runoff. this parameter is strongly influenced by the state of the soil structure (renard et al., 1997), organic matter, texture and soil permeability (desifindiana et al., 2013). based on the soil texture, fine sand and silt fractions are soil particles possibly affecting soil erodibility (morgan, 2005; rusdi et al., 2013; hadini et al., 2021). in dryland agricultural areas of bompon volcanic watershed, the super thick soil is characterized by surface silt-clay and clay texture, with a range of compositions, including sand 7-3%, silt 14-58% and clay 34-57%. table 3 shows the soil permeability occurrence in the moderate category, with an average of 4.23 cm/hr as well as the bulk density ranging between 0.97-1.20 g/cm3, averaged at 1.11 g/cm3. figure 4 is a map representation of the soil texture distribution in the study area. based on the dominance of soil texture by clay fractions, a volcanic watershed extensively utilized for dryland agriculture, is classified as hardly erodible. however, the total sediment yield was estimated at 953.53 ton/ha/yr, while the overall watershed erosion attained 1,657.94 ton/ha/yr, which was categorized as ‘very heavy’ erosion rate (departemen kehutanan, 1986). the observation results showed that in dryland applications, certain differences in the sediment discharge were observed at each rain event. these variations occurred with distinct flow rates that are controlled by the rain intensity and duration. furthermore, the consistency test (t-test) outcomes reported a strong and positive correlation between sediment discharge (suspension) and flow rate, indicating a more intensive land erosion process in triggering sediment flow and soil loss, compared to the erosion effects (scouring) at the bottom of the channel and base load. this statement corresponded to leopold & maddock (1953), where a robust association between suspended sediment and flow discharge signified a more intensive land erosion process in triggering sediment flow than the erosion (scouring) in the canal and on the bed load. 254 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 table 3. characteristics of surface soil for dryland agriculture watershed no. soil characteristics t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 dryland agriculture watershed max min average 1 sand (%) 13.3443 9.2377 8.5904 9.1651 7.7635 6.9694 13 7 9 2 silt (%) 14.1041 37.2408 39.2815 56.3412 41.3775 14.9183 56 14 33 3 clay (%) 72.5517 53.5215 52.1281 34.4937 50.8590 78.1123 78 34 57 4 soil texture classification (usda) clay silty clay loam silty clay loam clay silty clay silt loam clay 5 permeability (cm/hour) 4.966 1.433 0.601 8.223 8.412 1.764 8.41 0.60 4.23 6 permeability classification s al al ac ac al fairly fast fairly slow fair 7 bulk density (g/cm3) 1.201 1.068 1.168 1.156 0.971 1.083 1.20 0.97 1.11 note: t= sampling sites at the dryland agriculture figure 4. distribution of soil texture characteristics in the research areas rainfall factors and geophysical conditions are known to strongly influence flow discharge, which controls erosion. this process induces sediment flow and soil loss in the watershed key area primarily utilized for dryland agriculture.sediment flow is also regulated by the dynamics of rain characteristics, such as intensity and duration. an important aspect of 255 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 241-259 the study of sediment flow in the upper watershed region refers to the assessment of the sediment flow characteristics under different land uses, including agroforestry, settlements and dryland agriculture. this study obtained distinct sediment flow for these land use types as a response of the dynamics of the land’s geophysical characteristics to specific rainfall.the process commenced with a rain event, known to trigger the breakdown of soil aggregates, leading to splash and sheet erosion. alongside the increase in rainfall intensity and duration, the accumulation of surface flow becomes more intense, leading to rillerosion, gullyerosion, and sediment transport to the channel outlet (verstraeten, et al., 2007; gumiere, et al., 2015). therefore, the conservation of land resources against erosion and sedimentation effects is expected to prioritize proactive measures towards reducing the raindrop energy and rill erosion occurrence by an extensive rate of concentrated flow. 4. conclusion the sediment flow characteristics in volcanic landscape slopes with dryland land use characterized by (1) the relationship pattern between the suspension discharge and flow rate possibly used according to the change in flow rate of the suspension discharge by generating a curved model of the suspension discharge curve qs=0.0322q2+6.0625q-1.2658; (2) sediment flow that causes very heavy erosion rates by producing an average soil loss rate of 1,657.94 tons/ha/year; (3) suspension and bed load sediments as the dominant type of soil loss sediment sources, with contribution rates of 83% and 17%, respectively; (4) soil loss sources with a more dominant proportion of suspended sediments indicating further widespread soil losses due to land erosion processes in the watershed areas, compared to the counterparts from the groove erosion process and channel bed loads. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this study. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to the relevant parties for assisting in the study implementation and paper preparation, specifically the indonesia endowment fund for education (lpdp) for financially supporting the doctorate study of the authors. further appreciations are extended to the staffs and technicians of the soil laboratory for their assistance during the laboratory analysis process, in addition to the translucent team that 256 la ode hadini et al. / geosfera 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(2016). sediment sources in a small agricultural catchment: a composite finger printing approach based on the selection of potential sources. geomorphology, 266, 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.05.007. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0022169406005567?via%3dihub https://www.neliti.com/publications/228373/pemodelan-debit-aliran-das-bompon-menggunakan-metode-rasional-modifikasi https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0169555x14005170?via%3dihub https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0169555x16302847?via%3dihub abstract 1. introduction 2. methods 3. results and discussion 3.1 the relationship between suspension and flow discharges 3.1.1 the relationship between flow discharge and water level 3.1.2 the relationship between suspension discharge and flow discharge 3.1.3 verification of suspension discharge model 3.2. calculation of flow discharge and suspended sediment discharge 3.2.1 calculation of flow rate and suspension sediment discharge on awlr 3.2.2 calculation of sediment discharge and soil loss 3. 3 the type of sediment source material during the flow 4. conclusion conflict of interest acknowledgements references 1 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 research article analysis of mapping forest, settlement, and rice field areas in konawe selatan district, indonesia us andri estining sejati1,* , i gede purwana edi saputra2 1geography education study program, universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka, jl. pemuda 339 kolaka, 93561, indonesia 2physics education study program, universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka, jl. pemuda 339 kolaka, kolaka, 93561, indonesia received 16 october 2021/revised 13 november 2021/accepted 26 november 2021/published 20 december 2021 n.ac abstract the rampant land-use change in konawe selatan district and the uncontrolled use leads to disaster and environmental stability effect, consequently, mapping the area function is important for controlling land-use activities to reduce the risk of disaster. therefore, this study aims to determine the direction, distribution, and effective area of the function of forests, settlements, and rice fields. this study used a regional survey with a quantitative approach. base map data of administrative, slope class, soil type, rainfall, and land-use obtained from the regional planning agency and sas planet were used and analyzed with quantitative descriptive analysis overlayed with scoring. the result showed that the direction of area functions was dominated by limited production forests by 50.05% while the distribution of protected forest function was spread across 14 sub-districts with limited production forests in all sub-districts, production forests in 17 sub-districts, settlements in 21 sub-districts, and rice fields in 9 sub-districts. furthermore, the effective area shows that all area functions are accordance with the directions, except for rice fields which took over the function of forest while the effective area controlled by the regional planning shows that all area functions need correction following the regulation of the minister of agriculture of indonesia. areas which do not accordance with the function need to be evaluated, hence, regional planning is required to be revised by the people's representative in konawe selatan. keywords: analysis; forest; rice field; settlement; mapping 1. introduction land-use change in konawe selatan district is rampant and the uncontrolled use leads to disaster and environmental stability effect. this was backed up by bps (2020) data showing 77 flood cases and 17 landslide cases which indicated that there are human effects on land usage that does not accordance with its function. therefore, land-use planning needs to pay serious attention to the regional capacity because changes in conservation areas such geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 334-352 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.27484 334 *corresponding author. email address : andriest@usn.ac.id (andri estining sejati) (suranjan majumder) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2052-9094 mailto:andriest@usn.ac.id 335 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 as deforestation cause flooding, landslides, and erosion (appannagari, 2018; hadmoko et al., 2017; hamdani et al., 2014; sejati et al., 2019). the district has several steep slope areas with hilly morphology, this plays an important role in protecting the surrounding environment as environmental changes. furthermore, landuse activities in line with land-use functions are important in maintaining environmental stability in the region and surrounding areas because analysis of the function of forest areas, settlements, and rice fields has a positive impact on the environment (basu, 2017; setiawan et al., 2013). the suitability of land use practiced in the district is assessed with regional planning by determining the protected forest areas, limited production forests, permanent production forests, settlements, and rice fields. determination of areas such as protected forests leads to sustainable development related to regional planning and spatial use as experienced by people in india and indonesia (latif, 2014; shankar, 2012). the creation of good planning goals is influenced by physical factors which are the receptacle for planning and important in the preparation of settlement land suitability (sejati et al., 2020) while physical and non-physical data are essential in determining green zones and changes in land use in a region (li et al., 2016; suryani, 2019). the decree of the agriculture minister number 837 (1980) states that the direction of land use functions is the basis for determining appropriate and permissible activities by considering the physical factors. moreover, determination of the direction of land use functions maintains environmental quality, regional sustainability and maximizes potential use space, consequently, this helps toavoid misuse that damages the environment. meanwhile, regional planning is defined as an activity that involves spatial planning, space utilization, spatial use control, and use of a clear algorithm (stewart & janssen, 2014; law number 26, 2007). masyhuri (2019) stated that changes in land use without planning and utilization that have a strong basis causes damage to the environment. study related to mapping the function of the area with gis includes zhou et al. (2019) that tracked reforestation in the loess plateau in china after the “grain for green” project by integrating palsar and landsat imagery with a map accuracy of 91%. also, hirschmugl et al. (2014) mapped forest degradation due to selective logging through time series analysis in central africa with map accuracy above 85% while lister et al. (2020) used remote sensing data to improve the efficiency of national forest inventories in the united states national forest inventory. another was ganz et al. (2020) that used a combination of aerial images 336 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 and sentinel-2 satellite data compared to national forest inventory data with an accuracy of 95.21%. furthermore, xu (2021) mapped the settlements from landsat and sentinel time series by integrating pixel and object-based methods thereby reaching 90% of areas in different landscape conditions followed by herfort et al (2019) mapping human settlements with 80% accuracy and few volunteer efforts by combining crowdsourcing and deep learning. mansaray et al. (2017) used sentinel-1a and landsat 8 datasets with accuracy increased by 5.3% on rice fields in urban shanghai, southeast china while nguyen et al. (2015) mapped rice seasonality in the mekong delta with multi-year envisat asar wsm data with an overall accuracy of 85.3%. studies related to mapping the function of areas are focused on forest areas such as ganz et al. (2020) ; hirschmugl et al. (2014) ; lister et al. (2020) ; zhou et al. (2019) , and settlement areas such as herfort et al. (2019) ; xu, (2021) and rice fields such as mansaray et al. (2017) ; nguyen et al. (2015) . however, complex forest areas, settlements, and rice fields haven’t been examined by previous studies, and all previous research used remote sensing in form of single, double, and multiple data. this study combines remote sensing data from arcgis imagery image and regional planning agency which were reviewed by the regional planning. however, the new thing is the complex mapping of forest areas, settlements, and rice fields equipped with an analysis of the actual function of the areas studied with remote sensing and geographic information system data, then reviewed with the regional planning at the district. the geographic information system maps forest areas, rice fields, and settlements in konawe selatan district with indicators in the decree of the agriculture minister number 837 (1980) while area functions were analyzed using spatial analysis capabilities (amnah, 2016; mann & saultz, 2019; rika et al., 2016). this study aims to determine the direction, distribution, and effective area of the function of forests, rice fields, and settlements in the district. 2. methods this study is a regional survey with a quantitative approach and physical data were collected using arcgis 10.4.1 software for personal use with license subscription while the map of the study area was in the konawe selatan district, southeast sulawesi, indonesia. the distance between konawe selatan district capital and southeast sulawesi capital (kendari city) is 37.3 kilometers. figure 1 shows the map of the study area. 337 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 figure 1. research area konawe selatan map the base map which includes slope map, soil type map, rainfall map were used as physical indicators to determine the area function while the land use map was used to control physical map with actual conditions from arcgis imagery image and the administrative map divided the maps into sub-district to assess the distribution. the slope map, soil type map, rainfall map, and administration map were obtained from the regional planning agency of konawe selatan district (bappeda) with a scale of 1:25.000 in 2015 while the land use map was downloaded from the sas planet application in form of arcgis imagery image ecw data with scale 1:25.000 in 2021. the data were analyzed using quantitative descriptive analysis and was presented as an overlay with scoring equipped with a table of area, area difference, and percentage. the slopes, soil types, and rainfalls map were scored to determine the protected forest area while the map of area function was produced using the overlay method with scoring. table 1, 2, and 3 shows the scores of each parameter according to the decree of the agriculture minister number 837 in 1980. 338 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 table 1. rainfall scoring rainfall (mm/day) classification score >34.8 very high 50 27.7-34.8 high 40 20.7-27.7 medium 30 13.6-20.7 low 20 <13.5 very low 10 table 2. soil type scoring soil type classification score regosol, litosol, organosol, renzina very sensitive 75 andosol, laterite, gromosol, podsol, podsolic sensitive 60 brown forest soil, non calete brown, mediteran medium 45 latosol little sensitive 30 alluvial, glei soil, planosol, brown hydromorf, arterite groundwater not sensitive 15 table 3. slope scoring slope (%) classification score >40% flat 100 25-40 declivous 80 15-25 medium 60 8-15 steep 40 0-8 very steep 20 the criteria for determining forest protection were described in detail in the decree of the agriculture minister number 837 in 1980. the overlay results of the three score elements were summed and added to the criteria for determining forest area which include a minimum score of 175 or more in protected forest area, score between 125 to 174 in limited production forest area, minimum score of 124 or less in permanent production forest area, minimum score of 124 or less with slope between 2 to 8% in the rice field area, and minimum score of 124 or less with slope less than 2% in the settlement area. the next data obtained was the direction of distribution and percentage and it was overlaid with the administrative map to become a regional distribution map per sub-district while the distribution map was overlaid with land use to become a map of the effective area which was analyzed to obtain the difference between the land use area. the effective area map was evaluated with the suitability of the south konawe district spatial planning by considering the difference. figure 2 shows the study flow chart. 339 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 figure 2. research flow chart 3. results and discussion all rainfalls in konawe selatan district are within the score range of 10 with an average annual rainfalls of 1727.029429 mm and average daily rainfalls of 4.7308571 mm which ranges between 2.23 mm/day and 6.33 mm/day. a score of 10 was obtained because it was included in the daily rainfall range of less than 13.6 mm which is a very low level or class i. rainfall was used as a potential component of protected forest with annual data, this is convertible into daily data and given a score according to the parameters specified in the center for land conservation and soil conversion (fitrianti et al., 2013; wardhana et al., 2020). figure 3 shows the rainfall map of the konawe selatan district. land use map administration map rainfall map soil type map slope map digitation overlay with scoring area function direction map konawe selatan district area function distribution map konawe selatan district overlay effective area function map konawe selatan district overlay regional planning of konawe selatan district 340 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 figure 3. rainfall map of konawe selatan district the soil type in south konawe regency is majorly podsolik with 193,396.26 hectares or 45.9%, followed by litosol with 100,722.09 hectares or 23.9% and kambisol with 72,218.93 hectares or 17.14%. soil type scores vary from 15, 45, 60, to 75, and podsolic soils are classified as sensitive to erosion (very high/sensitive or class iv) with a score of 60 while litosol soils are classified as sensitive to erosion (very very high/very sensitive or class v) with a score of 75. meanwhile, kambisol soil is classified as high/less sensitive to erosion or class iii with a score of 45. soil type helps in determining the function of forest areas and shows the level of soil erosion, easily eroded soil has a higher score because the soil needs to be conserved to prevent erosion and disasters such as landslides (hardianti & harudu, 2019; kurnianto et al., 2018). figure 4 shows the soil type map of the south konawe district. 341 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 figure 4. soil type map of konawe selatan district furthermore, the district is dominated by slope above 40% with 149,550.6 hectares or 35.49%, followed by 0-8% with 134,386.8 hectares or 31.89% and 15-25% with 123,393.6 hectares or 29.28%. soil type scores vary from 20, 40, 60, 80, to 100, and slopes above 40% are classified as very steep or class v with a score of 100, slopes of 0-8% are classified as flat or class i with a score of 20 while slopes of 15 -25% are classified as rather steep or class iii with a score of 60. the gentler the slope, the more suitable it is for residential land use and in this case a maximum of 25% (dibyosaputro, 2016; sakarov, 2019). the slopes are dominated by the structural karst hills landform with 87.84%, fluviotectonic with 8.93%, and anthropogenic with 3.22%, hence, the most structural karst hill slope is above 40% with 32.42%. the data shows that konawe selatan is hilly karst with various slope which spreads across the sub-district with metamorphic rock created due to faults (maulana et al., 2018). meanwhile, the fluvio-tectonic is a landform influenced by rivers and faults that have an energy source from plates in indonesia (kusumayudha et al., 2018). the faults in the district are sangi-sangi and konaweha while the anthropogenic are smaller slope areas with activity in the rural settlement (saadu et al., 2021). figure 5 shows the slopes map of the south konawe district. 342 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 figure 5. slope map of konawe selatan district rainfall maps, soil types, and slopes of south konawe district were overlaid to produce a map of the direction of the function of forest areas, rice fields, and settlements with the result of the overlay showing that the direction of the function is dominated by limited production forests with 210,466.7 hectares or 50.05% and settlements with 133,899.6 hectares or 31.84%, then regional potential mapping was used to determine strategic policies in the future (faturahman, 2017). table 4 shows the directions of the area function. table 4. direction area function of konawe selatan distict nu. direction area function area (hectares) percentage (%) 1 protected forest 52563.29 12.50098 2 limited production forest 210466.7 50.05471 3 production forest 9986.818 2.375137 4 settlement 133899.6 31.84497 5 rice field 13556.92 3.224206 amount 420473.3 100 figure 6. shows the area function direction map of konawe selatan district. 343 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 figure 6. area function direction map of konawe selatan district the map of the direction of regional functions was overlaid with a map of the subdistrict administration in the area to get a map of the distribution of regional functions. the most protected forest area functions are in lainea sub-district with 9,310.68 hectares, wolasi sub-district with 8,057.9 hectares, baito sub-district with 7,129.75 hectares, konda subdistrict with 5,301.83 hectares, laeya sub-district with 4,746.84 hectares, landono subdistrict with 4,458.04 hectares, ranomeeto sub-district with 3,313.46 hectares, lalembuu sub-district with 2,648.8 hectares, and kolono sub-district with 1,700.37 hectares while other sub-districts have a portion less than 200 hectares. luxfiati & harudu (2019) stated that mapping of forest areas is presentable in form of location distribution and potential suitability with regional planning. limited production forests are spread across all sub-districts with kolono, moramo, angata, buke, palanga, lalembuu, laeya, andoolo, and tinanggea having more than 10,000 hectares while other sub-districts have less than 10,000 hectares. however, production forests are spread across 17 sub-districts with laeya, palanga, baito, and tinanggea sub-districts having more than 1,500 hectares while the other sub-districts have less than 1,500 hectares. according to lesmana & purnama (2017), production forest mapping is useful for 344 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 inventorying production forest locations and assisting the forestry service where the study is carried out. settlements are spread over 21 sub-districts having more than 200 hectares, except the buke sub-district with 12.7 hectares while rice fields are spread over 9 sub-districts with more than 200 hectares in lainea, kolono, laeya, ranomeeto, north moramo, west ranomeeto, and sabulakoa sub-districts while landono and north moramo have less than 200 hectares. zulfikar et al. (2013) stated that mapping of rice fields to determine the potential increases productivity as well as preventing inappropriate land conversion. figure 7 shows the area function distribution map. figure 7. area function distribution map of konawe selatan district the distribution map is controlled with a land-use map whose base map is based on the arcgis imagery image downloaded from the sas planet application to see the actual condition of the first stage. thereafter, land use map was overlaid with a map of the distribution of area functions to get the corrected effective area and this is a combination of potential through physical base maps obtained from the regional planning agency of south konawe district in 2015 and the actual situation through sas planet images in 2021. david (2016) stated that the ideal mapping of forests in accordance with national parks is a followup to forest mapping in general while farizki & anurogo (2017) showed that gis mapping 345 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 and remote sensing images are used as complements. figure 8 shows the land use map whereas figure 9 shows the effective area function map in konawe selatan district. figure 8. land use map of konawe selatan district figure 9. effective area function map of konawe selatan district 346 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 the effective area comparison between land use and direction of the area function (difference 1 in table 5) shows that all the functions of the area accordance with the direction, except the rice field area which exceeds the direction by 35928.33 hectares. the function of the area that has undergone conversion into rice fields is forest area with limited production forest of 30949.22 hectares. a large number of transmigrations is the motive for managing production forest land and limited production forest (margono et al., 2012). the effective area controlled by regional planning (difference 2 in table 5) shows the direction of excess area function in limited production forest with an excess of 175810.47 hectares and rice fields with an excess of 25823.26 hectares of the effective area while the functions of the area which have been converted into limited production forest and rice fields are protected forest area of 69794.78 hectares and production forest of 56886.07 hectares and the protected forest is combined with conservation forest. meanwhile, the settlements have excess functions of conversion but are still in the reasonable category due to function in regional planning while other village settlements and transmigration are not clearly stated. the real area needs to be controlled with the target area in the regional plan such as the control of slum settlements in bandung (maula et al., 2019). regional planning as a law at the regional level through regional law number 19 in 2013 is controlled by a higher regulation, namely decree of the agriculture minister number 837 in 1980 as seen in the difference 3 under table 5. furthermore, the function of protected and conservation forest areas was corrected by a reduction of 69245.71 hectares, addition of 206759.69 hectares to limited production forest area, reduction of 55030.18 hectares in production forest, addition of 128972.60 hectares to settlements, and reduction of 10105.08 hectares in rice fields. land use planning involves using the strongest guidelines such as in the nairobi area that uses kenya’s local agenda 21 planning guide (panek & sobotova, 2015). table 5 shows the result of the difference analysis between the direction area function based on the ministry of agriculture, effective area based on real land use interpretation of arcgis imagery, and the area based on the regional planning. 347 andri estining sejati & i gede purwana edi saputra / geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 334-352 table 5. area function analysis area function area in hectare direction area (a) effective area (b) regional planning (c) difference 1 (b-a) difference 2 (b-c) difference 3 (a-c) protected forest 52563.29 52014.21571 121809 -549.07 -69794.78 -69245.71 limited production forest 210466.69 179517.4684 3707 -30949.22 175810.47 206759.69 production forest 9986.82 8130.925599 65017 -1855.89 -56886.07 -55030.18 settlement 133899.60 131325.4436 4927 -2574.15 126398.44 128972.60 rice field 13556.92 49485.25756 23662 35928.33 25823.26 -10105.08 4. conclusion the direction and distribution of area function in the konawe selatan district show that all areas have potential functions. the forest area function has the biggest potential and the ability to control the disaster and environmental stability effect. furthermore, the effective area shows that all area functions accordance with the directions, except for rice fields which led to reduction of the production forest while the area controlled by the regional planning shows the direction of excessive area functions in limited production forests and rice fields which reduced the protected forest area and the production forest. during regional planning of area functions, all functions area needs to be corrected for both addition and reduction following the regulation of the minister of agriculture of the republic indonesia. the study on the area of regional planning as a law at the regional level is controlled by a higher regulation like minister decree, hence, an advanced study must investigate the suitability between map with actual site condition and regional survey that collects the data from villages in every sub-district. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this study. acknowledgement the authors are grateful to simlitabmas brin for providing funding through the national competitive research for beginner lecturer research through decree number 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(2013). pemetaan lahan sawah dan potensinya untuk perlindungan lahan pertanian pangan berkelanjutan di kabupaten pasaman barat, sumatera barat. jurnal ilmu tanah dan lingkungan, 15(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.29244/jitl.15.1.20-28. https://jurnal.ipb.ac.id/index.php/jtanah/article/view/11514 222 research article the influence of soil conditioning on soil infiltration rate in urban facilities searphin nugroho1,*, wahyono hadi2 1department of environmental engineering, mulawarman university, samarinda, east kalimantan, 75117, indonesia 2department of environmental engineering, adhi tama institute of technology, surabaya, east java, 60117, indonesia received 10 june 2021/revised 8 august 2021/accepted 19 august 2021/published 31 august 2021 abstract several attempts have been made to increase the permeable area in the cities, which include the building of green facilities such as parks and urban forests. since these areas were built with soil compaction, the potential for infiltrating water differs compared with the natural green area. therefore, this research aims to analyze the influence of soil conditioning on the constant infiltration rate using variables such as soil compaction, texture, and the presence of vegetation cover in urban facilities. the data used were obtained through field infiltration measurement using a single ring infiltrometer. in this research, the analysis carried out includes soil texture, horton equation, the difference between conditioned soils and control plots, and usda hydrologic soil classifications. the results showed that all variables (soil compaction, the presence of vegetation cover, and soil texture) have a significant effect on the constant infiltration rate. based on the soil conditioning, the infiltration rate is increased on the vegetated plots and decreased on the plots with the combination of vegetation and compaction, as well as the compacted plots. furthermore, the effect of vegetation cover is more significant in silt loam textured soil, while the influence of compaction is more on clay textured soil. the potential constant infiltration rate on the plots of similar characteristics with green urban areas are on k2 and l2 with 2.698 mm/h and 1.525 mm/h, respectively. therefore, these plots have a moderate runoff potential based on usda hydrologic soil classification. keywords: compaction; infiltration; soil conditioning; urban facilities 1. introduction all processes related to defect in the earth's surface are influenced by human activities, which are responsible for the landform changes, especially during the environmental planning that involves public policies (sucahyanto et al., 2018). the global development of urban areas due to an increase in population has continuously threatened natural dynamics, the availability of resources, and environmental quality (mcgrane, 2016; marie mireille et al., 2019). moreover, changes in land cover have caused some problems such as soil degradation which depends on intensity, pattern, and types of land cover change , geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 2, august 2021, 222-240 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i2.24646 *corresponding author. email address : searphin91@gmail.com (searphin nugroho) 223 namely depletion of nutrients, decrease in infiltration capacity and moisture content of the soil (marie mireille et al., 2019). infiltration is one of the major components of the hydrological process by which water enters the soil profile from the surface (gundalia, 2018). in this process, the water entering into the soil are from precipitation, irrigation, leaf drip, and stem flow, or runoff which was routed over the land surface and reinfiltrates (vereecken et al., 2019). therefore, infiltration is an important main source of groundwater, which plays a major role in the ecological and geological environment, as well as economic and social development (zhang et al., 2020). the reduction of the permeable area from these land cover changes, especially in urban areas such as land hardening and vadose thickening has caused many problems which include decreased precipitation infiltration, soil erosion, and increased runoff that leads to flooding (apollonio et al., 2016; zhang et al., 2020). meanwhile, the reduced infiltration rate has been proven from some researches by gregory et al. (2006) and zemke et al. (2019). these researches analyzed the effect of soil compaction on infiltration rate due to the activities of urban area expansion or development, and the results showed that soil compaction reduced soil infiltration rate drastically, which leads to a possibility of increased runoff, especially during heavy rainfall. furthermore, several types of researches have been conducted to analyze the effect of land cover use or change on soil infiltration. one of these was research by regüés et al. (2017), that analyzed the effect of various factors such as land use, vegetation cover, soil and bedrock characteristics, moisture and altitude, on soil infiltration in three different environments in spain. the results of the research showed that land with vegetation cover in normal and burnt conditions has a higher soil infiltration rate compared with the unvegetated vacant land. based on land use, vegetation cover is one of the most important factors that influence soil infiltration rate. there have been limited studies on the combination effect between soil compaction and types, as well as land cover, especially vegetation on constant infiltration rate. this is due to the infrastructural development of the urban areas, especially public facilities, and some considerations such as soil types and structure which are different from one area to another. in addition to creating awareness on the present needs of green areas or space in urban areas, some public facilities such as parks are built (hwang et al., 2020), which involve soil compaction in the process and depend on factual conditions in the field and client demands. this showed that the constant soil infiltration rate and the potential runoff from these facilities differed compared with more natural or uncompacted green space, even between other parks or facilities inside a city, which affect the development of urban drainage. searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 224 therefore, this research aims to calculate and analyze the influence of the combinations on soil conditioning which consists of a type, land cover, and compaction variations on measured constant soil infiltration rate in urban facilities. also, to determine the potential constant soil infiltration capacity and the runoff on the plots of similar characteristics with the compacted green areas. 2. methods 2.1 initial data collection and field studies the pre-research data collection was needed to determine the research location, which was the soil type map of surabaya city from its respective departments and google maps for the information of urban facilities in the city. these data were used as a basi s for the field analysis and the selection of the most ideal locations for testing soil infiltration. in this research, the chosen locations were kenjeran beach amusement park and lempung urban forest, surabaya, which are shown in figure 1. the reasons for choosing these two urban facilities for this research are as follows: a) each of the test fields is located on different soil types based on the map in surabaya city, where kenjeran beach amusement park is on the hydromorphic alluvial soil and lempung urban forest on gray alluvial, b) the variations on the land cover, where some parts of these locations are covered by vegetation, while others are not covered (vacant), and c) easy access to clean water for soil infiltration tests, as anticipation when the time to achieve constant infiltration rate is longer than expected. at the test fields, some soils were sampled at 10 – 30 cm from the surface and brought to the laboratory to determine the distribution of soil particles based on the indonesian national standards (sni 3423:2008). moreover, the soil texture of the test plots was analyzed by matching the laboratory data with the usda soil textural triangle. based on this soil triangle, there were 12 types of soil textures determined by the distribution of the soil particles. these types of textures were clay, sandy clay, silty clay, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, loam, sandy loam, loamy sand, sand, silt loam, and silt (schoeneberger et al., 2012). the visualization of the soil texture variations is shown in figure 2. searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 222 figure 1. the test fields on the soil type map in surabaya city figure 2. the usda soil textural triangle (schoeneberger et al., 2012) 225 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 226 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 2.2 test field conditioning in this research, each of the test locations was divided into four test plots with the size of 1 x 1 m. for the conditioning of the test plots, the variables to be analyzed were considered, namely soil type, land cover, and soil compaction. the variations of the plots are shown in table 1. table 1. plot conditioning in test fields numb. location plot conditioning plot code vegetation compaction 1 kenjeran beach amusement park ✓ k1 ✓ ✓ k2 k3 ✓ k4 2 lempung urban forest ✓ l1 ✓ ✓ l2 l3 ✓ l4 based on table 1 above, there are four types of plots with different soil conditioning in each location, which consist of: a) control plots (without vegetation cover and compaction, plot k3, and l3), b) plots with vegetation cover only (k1 and l1), c) plots with compactio n only (k2 and l2), and d) plots with vegetation cover and compaction (k4 and l4). in both test fields, some parts had no cover on the surface, therefore, it was not necessary to cut the vegetation in these places. for the test plot compaction, four of th e eight plots were compacted using a stamper with durations of approximately 30 seconds, which was adopted from gregory et al. (2006). the soil types on kenjeran beach amusement park and lempung urban forest are different from ea ch other. therefore, the soil type that was most affected by the conditioning was also analyzed. 2.3 soil infiltration measurements soil infiltration rate measurements at test fields were conducted using a single -ring infiltrometer and a ruler to observe the change in the surface water level inside the ring, every five minutes. furthermore, water was added to the original surface water level in the ring every five minutes until its rate became constant. the documentation of the measurements is shown in figure 3. 227 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 figure 3. the soil infiltration measurement on the test plot 2.4 modeling the soil infiltration rate curve from the measurements on the test plots, the curve of soil infiltration rate or capacity is modeled using the horton equation. according to qing et al. (2020), the soil infiltration rate on the specific time, f, is calculated as follows: f = fc + (f0 − fc). e −kt (1) where f is the infiltration rate or capacity (mm/h), f0 is the initial infiltration rate or capacity (mm/h), fc is the constant infiltration rate or capacity (mm/h), e is the exponential value of approximately 2.718, k is the value that indicates the decrease of soil infiltration rate or capacity, and t is the duration of the infiltration (h). the eq. 1 above can be rearranged to determine the value of k, which is written as follows: ln(f − fc) = −kt + ln(f0 − fc ) (2) by following the general formula of the single linear equation, where ln( f – fc ) is the output value, -k as the gradient value or m, and ln(f0 – fc ) is the value of the constant, the eq. 2 is written as follows: k = − [ln(f−fc ) − ln(f0−fc )] t (3) due to the infiltration rate measurement in the field only a few minutes after time t = 0, the value of the initial infiltration rate at time t = 0 (f0) is unknown. therefore, to obtain the value of f0, a curve was made between the infiltration rate measurement data against time. furthermore, microsoft excel and the included solver add-in were used to adjust and extend the curve until it reached the y-axis intersection, where t = 0. after the data were obtained, the modeling of infiltration capacity was performed using all the steps explained above. 228 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 2.5 analysis stage 2.5.1 influence of the soil conditioning on the constant soil infiltration rate in this analysis, all the measured constant soil infiltration rates from the test plots with soil conditioning such as k1, l1, k2, l2, k4, and l4, are compared with the control plots which are k3 and l3. these comparisons are needed to determine the influences from the research variables such as the soil types, soil compaction, and the presence of vegetation cover. the difference of the constant infiltration rates (δf) is calculated as follows: ∆f = fsc −fctrl fctrl × 100% (4) where δf is the infiltration rate or capacity difference (%), fscis the constant infiltration rate or capacity on the plots with soil conditioning (mm/h), and fctrl is the constant infiltration rate or capacity on the control plots (mm/h). 2.5.2 comparison between the infiltration rate measurements with modeled infiltration rate all the soil infiltration measurements from test plots were compared with all the modeled infiltration rates based on the horton equation, using the modeled one as the reference with originlab. this was conducted to analyze the average difference or gap between the predicted infiltration rate calculated by the horton equation with the actual rate in the test plots using the same time frame from the initial to when the rate becomes constant. 2.5.3 potential constant infiltration capacity from the test plots the values of potential constant infiltration capacity from all tested plots were determined from the calculation process when the soil infiltration capacity was modeled using horton equations on eq.1–eq.3, especially when the infiltration capacity became constant. these values were classified based on the usda hydrologic soil group to determine the fastness or slowness of the rates and the potential to generate surface runoff in rainy conditions. according to satheeshkumar et al. (2017), the information about usda hydrologic soil group is shown in table 2. table 2. usda hydrologic soil group (satheeshkumar et al., 2017) hydrologic soil (hsg) runoff potential water transmission final infiltration (mm/h) group a low high rate >7.5 group b moderate moderate rate 3.8 – 7.5 group c moderate moderate rate 1.3 – 3.8 group d high low rate <1.3 229 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 3. results and discussion 3.1 the test fields conditions and their soil textures as previously mentioned, there are two locations to be tested in this research, which are kenjeran beach amusement park at the northeast and lempung urban forest at the west side of surabaya city. based on the soil type map of surabaya, kenjeran beach amusement park lies on the hydromorphic alluvial, while the lempung urban forest area is on the gray alluvial. during the research, it was observed that the soil at both locations was not precisely natural, especially on the surface part. this was because the places were buried by the soils that came from the outside. at kenjeran beach amusement park, the soil is a combination of the padas pile on the bottom part covered by the silt loam texture on its surface, while at lempung urban forest, some clay soils were from the excavation of boozem (detention pond) around the forest. therefore, a further investigation of the soil texture is recommended. the results of the particle compositions from the sampled soil in all plots are shown in table 3. table 3. soil texture of the test plots plot soil texture gravel (%) sand (%) silt (%) clay (%) k1 silt loam (0-25 cm) 0.011 0.120 76.242 23.627 landfill (26-100 cm) k2 silt loam (0-25 cm) 0.167 4.707 74.428 20.698 landfill (26-100 cm) k3 silt loam (0-30 cm) 5.387 13.960 64.026 16.627 landfill (31-100 cm) k4 silt loam (0-30 cm) 0.423 1.843 81.456 16.278 landfill (31-100 cm) l1 clay (0-100 cm) 0.284 20.308 19.376 60.031 l2 clay (0-100 cm) 0.980 31.285 11.092 56.643 l3 clay (0-100 cm) 0.713 14.759 23.166 61.362 l4 clay (0-100 cm) 0.709 27.051 11.276 60.964 based on table 3, from the soil texture analysis in the laboratory, all the samples from the test plots were dominated by fine-sized particles. most of the sampled soils from kenjeran beach amusement park were silt particles at approximately 64.03 – 81.46%. meanwhile, the clay particles were the dominant sampled soils in lempung urban forest with approximately 56.46 – 61.36%. based on the soil texture classifications, kenjeran beach amusement park was classified as silt loam and lempung urban forest as clay. the detailed visualizations of the soil texture from all test plots are shown in figure 4. 230 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 figure 4. the detailed locations of all test plots in their respective soil textures 3.2 soil infiltration measurements on the test plots soil infiltration measurements were carried out to determine the ability of the soil surface to drain water. in this research, the measurements were analyzed with the influence of the soil conditioning, such as compaction, presence of the vegetation cover, and soil types. the results of the infiltration rate measurements in the kenjeran beach amusement park are shown in table 4, while the lempung city forest is shown in table 5. table 4. soil infiltration measurements in kenjeran beach amusement park k1 plot k2 plot k3 plot k4 plot δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) 15 6 24 5 1.5 18 15 4 16 15 2.5 10 15 5.5 22 5 1 12 15 2 8 15 2 8 15 5 20 5 1 12 15 1 4 15 1.5 6 15 4 16 5 0.5 6 30 1 1.99 15 1 6 15 3 12 15 0.5 1.99 30 1 1.99 15 1 5 15 3 12 15 0.5 1.99 30 1 1.99 15 1 5 15 2.5 10 15 0.5 1.99 45 1 1.33 15 2 8 45 1 1.33 15 2 8 45 1 1.33 15 2 8 σt = 150 σt = 65 σt = 135 σt = 225 231 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 table 5. soil infiltration measurements in lempung urban forest l1 plot l2 plot l3 plot l4 plot δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) δt (min) δh (mm) f (mm/h) 20 2 6 15 0.5 2 60 3 3 15 0.5 2 20 1.5 4.5 120 0.25 0.125 60 2 2 120 0.125 0.0625 20 1 3 120 0.25 0.125 60 2 2 120 0.125 0.0625 20 0.5 1.5 120 0.25 0.125 60 1 1 120 0.125 0.0625 20 0.5 1.5 60 1 1 20 0.5 1.5 60 1 1 σt = 120 σt = 375 σt = 360 σt = 375 note: δt = the defined range time needed for measuring the water decrease in the single-ring infiltrometer δh = the height difference of the decreased water in the single-ring infiltrometer on a defined time range f = the infiltration rate σt = the total time needed for the soil infiltration rate becomes constant based on table 4, the highest initial infiltration rate measurement in the kenjeran beach amusement park area of the tested four plots was k1 with approximately 24 mm/h. this was successively followed by k2, k3, and k4 plots with 18 mm/h, 16 mm/h, and 10 mm/h, respectively. for the constant infiltration rate, the highest plot among the four was k1, with approximately 8 mm/h, followed by k2, k3, and k4 with 1.99 mm/h, 1.99 mm/h, and 1.33 mm/h, respectively. the results of the lempung urban forest area as shown in table 5, indicated that the highest initial infiltration rate measurement from the tested four plots was the l1, with approximately 6 mm/h. consequently, it was followed by l3, l2, and l4 plots with 3 mm/h, 2 mm/h, and 2 mm/h, respectively. for the constant infiltration rate, the highest plot among the four was l1 with approximately 8 mm/h, followed by l3, l2, and l4 with 1 mm/h, 0.125 mm/h, and 0.0625 mm/h, respectively. based on the correlation between the constant infiltration rate with soil textures from both locations, kenjeran beach amusement park that has silt loam textured soil has a higher constant infiltration rate compared with lempung urban forest that has clay textured soil, when conditioned with the same treatment such as being vegetated, compacted, etc. this is because the dominant silt particles in kenjeran beach amusement park have larger pores, which caused higher infiltration rates. similarly, this pattern occurred in research by folorunso & aribisala (2018) which showed that soil with higher and finer particle compositions has a lower rate and accumulated infiltration. this was conducted using a sandy clay textured soil with higher particles compared with others with higher sand particles. in research by patle et al. (2019), the infiltration rate measurements were measured in the loamy 232 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 sand and sandy loam textured soil that has a lower average infiltration rate because of the higher clay particles compared with loamy sand textured soil. according to table 4 and table 5, the total time needed for the soil to reach the saturated state (σt) on all test plots varies from one condition to another. the longest σt overall were on the l2 and l4 plots with approximately 375 minutes, which hav e clay textured soil. the shortest σt overall was on the k2 plot with approximately 65 minutes, which has silt loam textured soil. meanwhile, the time difference needed to reach the constant infiltration rate condition between each plot was caused by several factors including soil type, texture, and anthropic interventions such as compaction. moreover, coutinho et al. (2020) stated that the field with finer soil particles that are often used by society tends to have a smaller infiltration rate and the time needed to reach its saturated condition is longer than expected. as previously mentioned, the test fields in this research are the urban facilities, where human activities and social interactions always happen. also, these locations consist of the soil with fine-sized particles. these results are also confirmed in research by ma et al. (2016) which showed that different soil textures have varied periods needed to reach the saturated condition, where sandy soils have a shorter time compared with loamy soil that has a smaller particle size. 3.3 the influence of soil conditioning on constant soil infiltration rate the influences of the combinations of the research variables such as the soil types, compaction, and the presence of vegetation cover with the constant soil infiltration rate were analyzed on the selected urban facilities in kenjeran beach amusement park and lempung urban forest in surabaya city. each location has a control plot with the condition of without soil compaction and vegetation cover on the surface (vacant land), which are k3 in kenjeran beach amusement park and l3 plot in lempung urban forest. the comparison of the effect of soil treatment on the constant infiltration rate is shown in table 6. table 6. comparisons of the constant soil infiltration rate based on different soil conditioning test plot fsc (cm/h) soil conditioning control plot fctrl (cm/h) δf (%) k1 8.000 vegetated silt loam soil k3 1.990 + 302 k2 1.990 vegetated and compacted silt loam soil k3 1.990 0 k4 1.333 compacted silt loam soil k3 1.990 33.16 l1 1.500 vegetated clay soil l3 1.000 + 50 l2 0.125 vegetated and compacted clay soil l3 1.000 87.5 l4 0.063 compacted clay soil l3 1.000 97 note: δf = the infiltration rate or capacity difference fsc = the constant infiltration rate or capacity on the plots with soil conditioning fctrl = the constant infiltration rate or capacity on the control plots 233 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 based on table 6, there are differences in the constant infiltration rate related to the effect of the research variable or soil conditioning on the test plots, whether these conditionings increased or decreased the soil infiltration rate. the maximum increased δ f value on the conditioned test plots with silt loam soil was 302% on the k1 plot with vegetated silt loam soil, while the maximum decreased δf value was 33.16% on the k4 plot with compacted silt loam soil. similarly, this trend occurred on the conditioned test plots with clay soil, where the highest δf value was on the vegetated soil (l1) with 50% and the lowest was on the compacted soil (l4) with -97%. based onthe soil conditioning in test plots, the highest constant infiltration rate was on the vegetated plots (k1 & l1), followed by control or bare plots (k3 & l3), vegetated and compacted plots (k2 & l2), and compacted plots (k4 & l4). when the data were reviewed by the effect of compaction only, the compacted had a lower constant infiltration rate than the uncompacted control plots. in the kenjeran beach amusement park, the constant infiltration rate in the k4 plot was 33.16% smaller than the k3. meanwhile, in the lempung city forest, the constant infiltration rate in the l4 plot was 97% smaller than in the l3. the results showed that the soil compaction had a significant effect to reduce the constant infiltration rate in lempung urban forest with clay textured soil compared with the kenjeran beach amusement park with silt -textured soil. similarly, these results are confirmed in research by aziz et al. (2017) that analyzed the effect of the sand fraction on several variables such as soil density in the play yard. the research used the compaction in the play yard and measured the infiltration rate of the plots with varying sand fractions, which led to a decrease in soil infiltration rate on every test plot. furthermore, several types of researches conducted by andayono (2018) and dong et al. (2019) have implemented various compaction levels, which showed that higher compaction level lowers the soil infiltration rate. this is in line with the research conducted by gregory et al. (2006) which stated that soil compaction activities affect its physical properties, while the strength and density are increased and the porosity, as well as the distribution of pores, are reduced. therefore, the water infiltrated into the soil becomes smaller. from the presence of vegetation cover, the vegetated plots had a higher constant infiltration rate than others that were without cover. at kenjeran beach amusement park, the constant infiltration rate in k1 was 302% higher than in the k3 plot. fu rthermore, in the lempung city forest, the constant infiltration rate in the l1 was 50% higher than in the l3 plot. these results showed that the presence of vegetation cover had a significant effect on enhancing the constant infiltration rate in kenjeran beach amusement park with silt-textured soil compared with the lempung urban forest with clay texture. similarly, previous research 234 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 by regüés et al. (2017) confirmed that vegetation cover on the soil increases the infiltration rates, where all vegetated lands have a higher average infiltration rate compared with the bare land that has an average rate of approximately 103.36 mm/h. this occurred due to the typical surface sealing in the type of land, compared with the vegetated lands that have larger pore holes. in the plots that combined the variable vegetation cover with compaction, the constant infiltration rate was smaller, which was approximately equal to the rate of the control plot in the silt loam soil and decreased compared with the control plot in the clay soil. furthermore, the presence of vegetation on compacted soil has no significant effect on the increase of the infiltration rate. however, this figure was still higher than the test plots which were only compacted and not vegetated. in kenjeran beach amusement park, the constant infiltration rate in the k2 was the same as the k3 plot. meanwhile, in lempung city forest, the constant infiltration rate in the l2 plot was 87.5% lower than in the l3. these results showed that the type of soil conditioning had a significant effect on reducing the constant infiltration rate in lempung urban forest with clay textured soil, although, it was still higher compa red to the plot with soil compaction only (l4). for the kenjeran beach amusement park with silt loam textured soil, the conditioning has no significant difference on the constant infiltration rate. based on the field measurements in kenjeran beach amusement park, especially at the first 15 minutes, the infiltration rate in the k2 plot was higher than in the control (k3). moreover, similar research on the analyzes of soil infiltration rate with these vegetated and compacted plots or with the green urban areas has also been conducted by coutinho et al. (2020) and zhang et al. (2020). in the research by coutinho et al. (2020), the infiltration measurements were carried out in the public infrastructures that consist of gardens, children’s recreation, and communal areas where each place has a different soil texture and only the gardens were vegetated. the highest infiltration rate was in the garden, followed by children’s recreation, and communal areas. in previous research by zhang et al. (2020), the infiltration measurements were carried out in the park, square, block, and other shared spaces, which are vegetated and compacted, but the type of soil texture is unknown. the highest constant infiltration rate was on the park, followed by square, block, and other shared space. based on the analysis using spss, the permeability of the soil in different green areas is influenced by several factors such as bulk density, moisture content, and noncapillary porosity. 235 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 3.4 comparisons of soil infiltration measurements on and modeled soil infiltration the comparison between the modeled infiltration capacity formed using the horton method and the measurement of the infiltration rate in the field was carried out to determine the significant difference between the two values, especially when at the constant state. therefore, the modeled infiltration capacity was used as a benchmark because it predicts the maximum rate of water that infiltrates into the soil. the visualized differences between the modeled infiltration rate and the field measurement are shown in figure 5. figure 5. the comparisons between measured and modeled infiltration rates in test plots 235 236 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 based on figure 5, there are some differences between the modeled infiltration rate using the horton equation with the actual infiltration rate in the test fields, where the actual rates were consistently lower than the modeled, with an exception at the k1 plot. at that plot during the first one hour from the time t = 0 and from the t = 1.25 – 1.5 h, the field measurements were higher compared with the predicted infiltration rate. the average difference between the modeled infiltration curve with the measured infiltration curve is shown in table 7. table 7. the average difference between the modeled infiltration curve with the measured infiltration curve test plot the average difference between curves (mm/h) k1 1.502 k2 1.920 k3 5.153 k4 0.755 l1 0.940 l2 1.813 l3 0.997 l4 1.719 based on table 7, it was shown that the differences between the measured infiltration curves with the modeled varied on each test plot. meanwhile, the plots that have average differences under 1 mm/h were the k4 plot, l1 plot, and l3 with approximately 0.755 mm/h, 0.940 mm/h, and 0.997 mm/h, respectively. however, some plots such as k1, k2, l2, and l4 have a large average difference which ranged from 1.5 to 1.9 mm/h. the largest average difference occurred on the k3 plot with a value of 5.153 mm/h. this showed that the measured infiltration rates in the test plots were significantly smaller compared with the predicted rate modeled by horton’s equation. according to vereecken et al. (2019), this occurred because the infiltration rate measurements from the test locations are affected by the changes in the soil profile conditions. this depends on the time of the infiltration measurements, which are related to the initial soil water content and weather dynamics. when this research was conducted, surabaya city was in the rainfall season, which showed that the probability of the initial water content in the soil profile on both test fields was high. since the city is in the tropical climate zone, the weather changes from rainy to sunny condition occurs frequently. 237 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 3.5 potential constant infiltration capacity from the test plots based on the calculations using horton’s equation, the potential of constant infiltration rate from the test plots is predicted. therefore, the potential runoff generated from these places is determined, one of which is by classifying the potential constan t infiltration rates by using the usda hydrologic soil group as shown in table 2. the potential constant infiltration rate from each plot and their classifications are shown in table 8. table 8. the classification of the potential constant infiltration rate from test plots test plot the potential constant infiltration rate (mm/h) usda soil group runoff potential k1 8.638 a low rate k2 2.698 c moderate rate k3 3.040 c moderate rate k4 2.086 c moderate rate l1 2.362 c moderate rate l2 1.525 c moderate rate l3 2.130 c moderate rate l4 1.416 d high rate based on table 8, the highest potential constant infiltration rate is 8.638 mm/h on the k1 plot, while the lowest one is 1.416 mm/h on the l4. from all test plots available, 1 plot (k1) is classified as the a group with low runoff potential, 6 plots (k2, k3, k4, l1, l2, and l3) as the c group with moderate, and 1 plot (l4) as the d group with high runoff potential. the plots that have a similar characteristic with the urban green areas, which are the k2 and l2, have the potential constant infiltration rate of approximately 2.698 mm/h and 1.525 mm/h, respectively. these plots have a moderate potential to generate surface runoff in the rainy season based on the usda hydrologic soil classifications. meanwhile, the difference between these urban green areas with compacted plots (k4 and l4) is the presence of the vegetation covers, which tends to improve the infiltration on the green urban areas that have a high bulk density from the anthropogenic activities. although the runoff potentials of k2 and l2 are categorized as moderate, the potential infiltration rates on these plots are closer to the high runoff category. therefore, some options to improve the soil permeability in urban green areas need to be considered by the local government. 4. conclusion based on the soil conditioning tested in this research, the infiltration rate is increased on the vegetated plots in both silt loam and clay textured soil. the combination of vegetation and soil compaction slightly decreased the infiltration rate in the clay textured soil, but there 238 searphin nugroho & wahyono hadi / geosfera indonesia 6 (2), 2021, 222-240 was no difference in the silt loam a significant decrease in the infiltration rate occurred on the compacted plots only in silt loam and clay textured soil. the effect of vegetation cover is more significant in silt loam, while the influence of compaction is more impactful on the clay textured soil. also, the potential constant infiltration rate from the plots of similar characteristics with green urban areas are on the k2 and l2 with approximately 2.698 mm/h and 1.525 mm/h, respectively. for classifications based on usda hydrologic soil group, the k2 and l2 plots have a moderate runoff potential. therefore, for further research, more variations in soil compaction and texture on the vegetated land are to be analyzed to better understand the soil's ability to infiltrate through the soil profile on the green urban facilities. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to all departments involved in surabaya (department of public works, highways and drainage; department of culture and tourism, and department of food security and agriculture) for providing the information needed and the permission to use some urban facilities for this research. furthermore, the author is to parents and friends for finalizing this research within the limited time frame. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references andayono, t. 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(2020). comparative study and simulation of soil infiltration performance in open green space. tehnickivjesnik technical gazette, 27(3). https://doi.org/10.17559/tv-20191230171234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-017-0301-4 https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.10.0191 https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.10.0191 https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9050204 https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113164 https://doi.org/10.17559/tv-20191230171234 29 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 29-36 , april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi the effect of the use of interactive multimedia on the improvement of geography learning achievement m. kurniawan arif syaefulloh1, dyah respati suryo sumunar2 1,2departement of geography education yogyakarta state university, indonesia email: kurniawan_shinyo@yahoo.com, respatisuryo@yahoo.com doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.7470 article history: received date 20th april 2018, accepted date 25th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract this research aimed to discover the effect of using interactive multimedia on the improvement of (2) geography learning achievement, and (2) learning interest of grade students ips of ma el bayan majenang. this study was a quasi-experiment using the quantitative approach. the population was 106 grade xi students ips. a sample of 36 students was established the cluster sampling technique. the data collection used an achievement test, questionnaire on interest in learning, observation and documentation. the data analysis technique used was the inferential statistical technique. the hypothesis testing was performed using the manova test with spss 20 program. the results of the study were follows. (1) the error rate (p) geography learning result was 0.009. because it was smaller than 0.05, there was an effect of the use of interactive multimedia on the achievement of geography learning.(2) the level of error (p) interest in learning was 0.00. because it was smaller than 0.05, there was an effect of the use of interactive multimedia on the improvement of students' learning interest (3) from manova statistic test, it could concluded that there was an improvement in geography learning achievement and interest of the students before and after the treatment as the experimental class with the average increase of 35.55 and 11.55 respectively. while the improvement of geography learning achievement and interest in learning of the control class was averagely 29.02 and 2.86 respectively. keywords : interactive multimedia, geography learning achievement, interest in learning 30 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 29-36 , april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi introduction education is a very important thing for the survival of human life. education is implemented in the form of learning and learning process, with the aim that the learner can develop the potential that is in him. if someone has a good education, it will automatically have a good knowledge of science. this shows the importance of education for human life and has various functions to support one's future. the world of education has been known for learning activities. learning is a programmatic undertaken by teachers in instructional design that creates a process of interaction between fellow students, teachers with students and with learning resources. learning in the system approach is a unity of learning components that mutually support each other, one of which is the learning media. the use of creative learning media will increase the likelihood of students to learn more, remember what is learned better, and improve the skills of students in accordance with the purpose of learning. currently the innovation of information and communication technology continues to be done for the purposes of learning activities, one of the breakthrough is the use of interactive multimedia in learning. susilana (2008: 10) explains that the use of multimedia is expected students will be easier to determine with what and how students to be able to absorb information quickly and efficiently. the use of interactive multimedia in teaching and learning can generate new desires and interests, generate motivation and stimulation of learning activities, and even bring psychological influences on students. in addition to generating motivation and interests of students, interactive multimedia can also help students improve understanding, present data with interesting and reliable, facilitate interpretation of data, and condense information. characteristics of learning geography itself there are materials that are abstract, because it deals with physical and social phenomena so that the need for interactive multimedia to visualize the abstract thing in the class so that the intended concept can be understood well. this is supported by mckagan et al. (2007) that students will more easily understand the concept of abstract quantum mechanics with the help of interactive software. in addition students become more independent and active in the learning process either directly or indirectly. in fact, not many teachers use the media. media limitations or the ability of teachers to create learning media in schools, encourage teachers to use only lecture methods without any media that can support the material delivered because it is considered easier to do. this kind of learning makes some passive students and is indicated by the behavior of students who m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 31 m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 play mobile, sleep and chat with friends. the result of observation at ma el bayan majenang shows that learning is still centered on teachers and teachers still using lecture method and concept map in geography learning activities. preliminary study results revealed learning outcomes of students in ma el bayan majenang in geography subjects is still relatively low. the average grade of uas geography subjects of class x students in the even semester of the academic year 2016/2017 only reached an average score of 70 under kkm 75. in addition, the initial interest questionnaire test results obtained data that the still low interest in learning ips class xi students in ma el bayan majenang. then came the idea to overcome the problem one of them using interactive multimedia in learning geography. the use of interactive multimedia is expected to be one way to increase students' understanding of the concepts and materials learned geography, as well as increasing interest in students. if the learning interests of students increase, then the learning outcomes of students can also increase. methods this study was conducted to obtain an overview of the effect of using interactive multimedia to improve the learning outcomes of geography and learning interests of students. the method used in this research is the experimental method. the pseudo-experimental method in this study is used so that the researcher can analyze the difference between the experimental class and the control class given different treatment. the research design used in this research is the pretest posttest control group design (randomized subjects, pretestposttest control group design). this research uses two classes, namely experimental class and control class, where the experimental class is the group given a certain treatment, while the control class is the group given different treatment (treatment) as the comparison in the research. the experimental research design is as follows. table 1. randomized subjects, pretest-posttest control group design grup (pretes t) treatme nt (post test) experiment class t1 x1 t2 control class t1 x2 t2 source : sukardi (2015: 185) 32 m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 information : t1 : pretest is intended to determine the interest and students' initial learning outcomes t2 : posttestis intended to determine the interest and learning outcomes of students after being treated x1: geography learning using interactive multimedia x2: geography learning using media textbooks the research procedure performed is shown in the following figure. figure 1. research procedure this research procedure showed two different treatments, which will be given a pretest and initial interest questionnaire then after that a new learning which is done between experimental class that is class xi ips 3 ma el bayan majenang with control class that is xi ips ma pesantren pembangunan (pp) majenang different treatment. after giving treatment (treatment) is given a final test (posttest) and a questionnaire of final interest to know the learning outcomes and interests students student. experimentclass control class pretest andquestionnaire earlylearning interest pretest andquestionnaireearly learninginterest learning withinteractivemultimedia learning withtextbooks posttest andquestionnairefinal learninginterest posttest andquestionnairefinal learninginterest multivariateanalysis 33 m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 the research was conducted in el bayan majenang ma and ma pp majenang started at the beginning of the first semester, ie in july 2017 until september 2017 on the learner class xi ips academic year 2017/2018. population to be studied in this research is all students of class xi ips at ma el bayan majenang academic year 2017/2018 amounted to 106 students who are divided into three classes and students class xi ips in ma majenang ma amounting to 36 students in one class. research sampling with cluster sampling technique is a sampling technique based on groups (classes) that provide equal opportunities for each element (member) of the population. then selected randomly by drawing a class treated with learning using interactive multimedia in ma el bayan majenang which is used as experiment class and one class xi ips from ma majenang ma as control class treated with textbook. data collection techniques used in this study include achievement test, questionnaire (questionnaire) interest in students learn, observation, and documentation. the data collection instruments used in this study include: (1) test instruments consisting of pretest and posttest, and (2) non-test instruments consisting of an initial interest interest questionnaire and a questionnaire of students' ultimate learning interest. data analysis technique in this research is inferential statistical technique. according to hinkle in sukardi (2011: 67) says that "inferential statistics are procedures used by researchers to draw conclusions from statistical samples to relate to population parameters". so the analysis of this data can be used to determine the extent to which the similarity between the results obtained from a sample with the results to be obtained from the population as a whole. the research data analyzed were initial and final conditions data on aspects of learning outcomes and the interests of students. this study aims to determine whether there is influence of the use of interactive multimedia to improve learning outcomes geography and interest in students learning classes xi ips ma el bayan majenang. to test the research hypothesis, the collected research data was analyzed by manova (multivariate analysis of variance) test using spss 20.0 program. results and discussion 1. results the results of this study were obtained from pretest and experimental class data and experimental class which aimed to know the influence of the use of interactive multimedia in the form of flash and powerpoint on the learning result of the students' geography on the 34 m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 biosphere material, which in the experimental class using interactive multimedia flash and powerpint and control classes using textbooks and lectures. based on the result of the calculation of research data about the test of experimental geography of the experimental class, from 36 students sampled, the average pretest value of 44,30 and posttest 79,86, standard deviation pretest 10,89 and posttest 9,52. the result of the test result of control class geography study, from 36 students who were sampled, got pretest value of 40,41 and posttest 69,44, standard deviation of pretest 12,26 and posttest 9.83. a summary of the gain data of students' abilities is presented in the following table. table 2.data enhancement gainscore learning outcomes class average gainpretest posttest experiment class 44,30 79,86 35,56 control class 40,41 69,44 29,03 the table shows the highest increase of students' learning result is in the experimental class that is the class given treatment using interactive multimedia that is equal to 35,56. while in the control class, the class treated using textbooks increased by 29.03. the average increase in the ability of students treated by using interactive multimedia is higher than the increase in the average of classes treated using textbooks. 2. discussion data interest in early learning of students derived from the data score questionnaire interest in learning geography given before the learning is done. the result of the questionnaire of early learning interest in the highest grade experimental grade was at 75, while the lowest score was 41. then the result of the initial interest interest questionnaire in the highest value control class was at 76, while the lowest score was 42. the result of questionnaire of the final learning interest in the experimental class showed the highest score was 77, while the lowest score was 53. then the final learning interest questionnaire in the control class showed the highest value was 75, while the lowest score was 44. the result of early interest and interest data shows that it can be seen there is increasing interest in students students in the classroom experiments using interactive multimedia that is equal to 11.55. meanwhile, the increase of students' learning interest in the control class using textbook is 35 m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 only 2.86. this suggests that the average increase in students 'learning interest in the experimental class is higher than the average increase in students' learning interest in the control class. manova test on multivariate tests with error level less than 0.05 that is 0.00, meaning h0 is rejected. so it is proven that there is influence of the use of interactive multimedia to improve learning outcomes geography and interest in learning geography students xi ips ma el bayan majenang. furthermore, based on table 15. test of betweensubject effects, shows that the relationship between interactive multimedia (x) with geography learning result has an error rate smaller than 0.05 that is equal to 0.09. this indicates that there is an influence of the increase of geography learning result caused by difference of usage of instructional media (x). while the relationship between interactive multimedia (x) with the learning interests of students have an error rate smaller than 0.05 that is equal to 0.00. this shows that there is an increasing interest of students are caused by differences in the use of instructional media (x). the results of the manova test with multivariate tests and test of between-subjects effects final learning outcomes data and questionnaire data interests of students showed the influence of the use of interactive multimedia to improve learning outcomes geography class xi ips ma el bayan majenang. conclusions some things that can be concluded from the implementation of this research are as follows. (1) classroom learning using interactive multimedia shaped flash and powerpoint makes it easier for students to understand biosphere material compared to conventional learning using textbooks and lectures. it is reviewed from the results of the study there is an increase in learning outcomes geography students class xi ips 3 ma el bayan majenang. average grade increase (gainscore) class xi ips 3 ma el bayan great as experimental class of 35.55. while the average grade increase (gainscore) class xi ips ma pp majenang as a control class of 29.02. (2) there was an increase in students 'learning interest in the experiment class significantly with gainscore 11.55, while the students' learning interest in the control class only increased with gainscore 2.86. based on these conclusions then can be submitted some suggestions as follows. learning in the classroom by using interactive multimedia is expected to be used as an alternative for teachers in an effort to improve learning outcomes and learning interests of 36 m. k. arif syaefulloh. and dyah r.s..sumunar / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 29-37 students in teaching and learning activities geography. learning using interactive multimedia requires more preparation time and meetings to make the research more optimal. references anderson, l. w. dan david r kratwohl. (2010). kerangka landasan untuk pembelajaran, pengajaran, dan assesment (penerjemah: prihantoro, a. dari a taxonomy for learning, teaching, dan assesing: a revision of blomm’s taxonomy of educational objectives a bridged eddition: addison wsley longman, inc. 2001). yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. arsyad, a. (2010). media pembelajaran. jakarta : raja grafindo persada. mardapi, d. (2008). teknikpenyusunaninstrumen tes dan non tes. yogyakarta :mitracendekia press. mckagan, s. b., perkins, k. k., dubson, m., malley, c., reid, s., lemaster, r., and wieman, c. e. (2007). developing and researching phet simulations for teaching quantum mechanics. in american journal of physics 76, 406 pasya, g. k. (2006). geografipemahamankonsep dan metodologi. bandung: buana nusantara. sudjana, n. (2010). media pengajaran. bandung: algesindo sinar baru. sukardi. (2015). metodologi penelitian pendidikan. jakarta : bumi aksara. susilana, r. & riyana, c. (2008). media pembelajaran. bandung : universitas pendidikan indonesia. 60 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 60-66, april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi demographic factors influence on population added in sumbersari jember district east java elan artono nurdin1,fahmiarif kurnianto2 ,bejo apriyanto3 ,fahrudiahwan ikhsan4 1,2,3,4department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia e-mail*:elan.fkip@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.7515 article history: received date 23th february 2018, received revised 25th march 2018, accepted date 25th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract population growth is the increasing population changes at any time which is calculated in the number of individuals. this study aimed to determine the effect of demographic factors on the growth of population in the district of jember in east java sumbersari. selection of research areas using purposive sampling technique which is in district sumbersarijember. the number of samples is equal to the number of population is the whole population in jember in 2012 2016. the results of this study show the influence of demographic factors include fertility, mortality, and migration on population growth is the f> m and positive migration rises (n) in the district sumbersarijember, east java. keywords: population growth, demographics, migration introduction population growth or population dynamics is a phenomenon of population change in either increasing or decreasing the number of people in a region from time to time. a change in the number of people affected by demographic factors such as births (fertility or birthrate), death (mortality), and migration (migration); as well as nondemografi factors such as level of education and health. it is said to increase when there is birth and residents who come to the region, the opposite can be said to be reduced if there is death and there are people who leave the region. the population growth rate is the rate of population in a region / country in a certain period (%). required the calculation of population growth aims to predict the population of a region in the future. the population of the knowable through surveys, registration and population census at a certain period and the schedule has been adjusted in the region. population growth is a factor related to social conditions the economy of a region. 61 elan artono nurdin, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 60-66 table 1.population in jember year 2012-2016. no district total population average population added 20122016 year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1 kencong 66129 66471 66838 67251 67583 364 2 gumuk mas 80628 80970 81337 81750 82154 382 3 puger 117035 117377 117744 118157 118740 426 4 wuluhan 117229 117571 117938 118351 118936 427 5 ambulu 107331 107673 108040 108453 108990 415 6 tempurejo 71793 72135 72502 72915 73276 371 7 silo 106040 106382 106749 107162 107690 413 8 mayang 48783 49125 49492 49905 50151 342 9 mumbulsari 63205 63547 63914 64327 64645 360 10 jenggawah 82789 83131 83498 83911 84325 384 11 ajung 75666 76008 76375 76788 77168 376 12 rambipuji 80329 80671 81038 81451 81853 381 13 balung 78339 78681 79048 79461 79853 379 14 umbulsari 70634 70976 71343 71756 72111 369 15 semboro 43739 44081 44448 44861 45083 336 16 jombang 50476 50818 51185 51598 51852 344 17 sumberbaru 101465 101807 102174 102587 103093 407 18 embankment 84277 84619 84986 85399 85821 386 19 bangsalsari 116416 116758 117125 117538 118118 426 20 panti 60172 60514 60881 61294 61596 356 21 sukorambi 38038 38380 38747 39160 39354 329 22 arjasa 38147 38489 38856 39269 39463 329 23 pakusari 41922 42264 42631 43044 43256 334 24 kalisat 76231 76573 76940 77353 77735 376 25 ledokombo 63400 63742 64109 64522 64841 360 26 sumberjambe 60922 61264 61631 62044 62350 357 27 sukowono 59486 59828 60195 60608 60906 355 28 jelbuk 31859 32201 32568 32981 33144 321 29 kaliwates 114307 114649 115016 115429 115999 423 30 sumbersari 129184 129526 129893 130306 130949 441 31 patrang 96362 96704 97071 97484 97965 401 total 2372333 2382935 2394312 2407115 2419000 source: bps jember, 2017. based on these data, the total population of the year 2012 to 2016 is known that the subdistrictsumbersari experiencing population growth and very m, enarik to be investigated. this study was limited to demographic factors namely, births, deaths, and migration. 62 elan artono nurdin, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 60-66 table 2. number of births, deaths and migration in sub sumbersari year 2012-2016 no year total population number of births number of deaths number of migration income number of migration outcome 1 2012 129184 342 149 178 27 2 2013 129526 367 495 224 89 3 2014 129893 413 580 433 101 4 2015 130306 643 567 339 137 5 2016 130949 935 437 774 519 total 649858 2700 2228 1948 873 source: bps jember 2017. demography is the study of the components of population such as birth, death, marriage, and the migration is calculated and mathematical statistics. this is consistent with the statement mantra (2008) which states that the demography is the study of the structure and process of residents in an area covering the number, distribution, and composition of the population. 1. birth (birthrate or fertility) birth is a natural factor related to the reproducibility of the population. this is similar to adietmo and samosir (2010) that produces a rich offspring fertility is the ability associated with female fertility or fecundity also called. birth is a growing population in a region characterized by the presence of live births. factors supporting the (pro birthrate), their marriage at a young age as in remote villages that requires a daughter to be married when the teenager is also the notion that married late could get embarrassing. in addition, there is another assumption that many children a lot of luck, the child will be proud parents, family successor is a boy so that people will have children continue to acquire boys thus increasing birth. the family planning program were not implemented causing the increased birth rate. inhibiting factor (anti birthrate) the birth of such a delay marriage, child tunjang restrictions, the assumption that the child would be a burden for the family, the family planning program to limit the number of children. 2. death (mortality) deaths were factors in natural population density. death is the loss of human life signs permanently or decrease in population in the region. supporting factors that lead to mortality such as war, natural disaster, disease, traffic accidents and industrial, suicide and murder, are 63 elan artono nurdin, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 60-66 not living a healthy lifestyle, eating irregularly, does not maintain health, as well as health facilities are still lacking in a region (puskesmas clinics, pharmacies, hospitals). inhibiting factor is certainly contrary to the supporting factors such as healthy lifestyle, regular diet and eat nutritious food, health advice adequate number of poor people is low, the level of education of the population is high, and their belief that religious teachings are prohibited from committing suicide and killing people , 3. population coming and going population comes from outside the region who move to other areas with the aim to settle, looking for security and safety, learning, working. while locals go / moved from one area to another with the intention to live, work, or study, can in large quantities (tki). the purpose of this study was to determine the influence of demographic factors on the growth of population in the district of jember regency sumbersari year 2012-2016. results and discussion 1. results a. area and the region's population jember regency has 31 districts is one of them is the district sumbersari. sumbersari sub-district has a total area of 35.32 km2 and is a district that is close to the city center. subdistrictsumbersari have 7 (seven) and 33 environmental village, 152 rukunwarga (rw) and 519 neighborhood (rt). the boundaries of the district of sumbersari namely: north :district of patrang; east :district of pakusari; south :district of ajung; west :district of kaliwates; while the 7 village in the district of sumbersari are as follows: 1. sumbersari; 2. kebonsari; 3. karangrejo; 4. kranjingan; 64 elan artono nurdin, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 60-66 5. wirolegi; 6. tegalgede; 7. antirogo; distance subdistrictsumbersari with the central government jember district only approximately 5 km, so the condition of the area is still in the urban area, it allows the human resources who has a pretty good potential in order to support the acceleration of the implementation of development programs, particularly in the district of sumbersari , moreover, in the district of sumbersari a center of educational facilities ranging from early childhood, elementary, junior, senior and universities. there are some universities who are located in the district of jemberuniversitysumbersari among other things, the muhammadiyah university, university moch. sroedji, pgri teachers' training college, stie mandala jember polytechnic and academy-college or other academy. with many universities in the district of sumbersari this will have an impact on the level of civilization and mindset of the people so that it will be a huge potential in order to spur the progress of the district of sumbersari.dengan number of universities and the academy-the academy else, this will impact on the economic development of society. as the influx of students from outside the region sumbersari who was educated in sumbersari, one in unej, it will cause the effect of rapid economic, such as the emergence of shops, food stalls, hangout places, rental-leasing, and other etc., which ultimately spur to the movement of the economy, which it all is the impact of their places of education in the district of sumbersari. b. population growth the population growth for their four components, namely births, deaths, and migration. the difference between birth and death is called reproductive changes. while the difference between inmigration and out-migration is called net migration. this can be seen in the following table. table 3. model added population model migration positive negative zero 1 m <f n, t, s t t 2 m <f n n, t, s n 3 m = f n t s description: m = mortality (death) 65 elan artono nurdin, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 60-66 f = fertility (births) n = up f = down s =stable based on table 3, it can be seen clearly influence the demographics of the population growth (yasin, 1981, 6). crude birth rate per year can be seen in the following table. table 4. crude birth rate sumbersari district of the year 2012-2016 no year population (people) number of birth (people) crude birth rate (people) 1 2012 129184 342 2,65 2 2013 129526 367 2,83 3 2014 129893 413 3,18 4 2015 130306 643 4,93 5 2016 130949 935 7,14 based on table 4 are the crude birth rate highest occurred in 2016 is 7.14,which means that in 2016 there were 1,000 inhabitantsin from 7.14 childbirth, whereas the amount of the crude birth rate of the lowest occurred in 2012, namely 2.65 means that only the of 2.65 soulbirths in 1000 inhabitants. table 5. crude death rate district of sumbersari year 2012-2016 no year population (people) number of death (people) crude death rate (people) 1 2012 129184 149 1,15 2 2013 129526 495 3,82 3 2014 129893 580 4,47 4 2015 130306 567 4,35 5 2016 130949 437 3,34 based on the 5 table then the crude death rate highest occurred in 2014 is 4.47,which means that in 2014 there were 1,000 residents in 4.47 deaths, while the amount of the crude death rate the lowest occurred in 2012 is 1.15, meaning that only 1.15 soul of death in 1,000 of the population. table 6. total net migration district of sumbersari year 2012-2016 no year population (people) total migration in (people) total migrating out (people) total net migration 1 2012 129184 178 27 1,17 2 2013 129526 224 89 1,04 3 2014 129893 433 101 2,56 4 2015 130306 339 137 1,55 5 2016 130949 774 519 1,95 based on table 6 that the amount of the highest net migration occurred in 2014 is 2.56,which means that by 2014 in1,000 residents are 2,56 migratory, while the number of the lowest net migration occurred in 2013 is 1.04, meaning that only 1.04 inhabitants who migrated in 1000 inhabitants. 2. discussion 66 elan artono nurdin, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 60-66 if you look at the model of population growth (table 3), it can be seen clearly on the effect of demographics on the growth of population. for the average number of births 540 people, the average amount of the death of 446 people, the average number of 390 souls in-migration, the average number of outmigration 175 inhabitants. average number of births is greater than the average number of deaths or f> m. and the average amount of inward migration is larger than the out-migration or im> om. models of population in this study is the m<f and positive migration, naik (n). conclusion given birth rate was 540 inhabitants, the average mortality is 446 people, average in-migration was 390 people, and the average outmigration is 175 people. based on this it can be seen that the average number of births is more than the average number of deaths or f> m and the average number of inmigration is larger than the out-migration or im> om. thus obtained models of population in this study is the m<f and positive migration, naik (n). references adietmo, sri, moetiningsih&samosir, omas, bulan. 2010. dasar-dasardemografi. depok: salembaempat. badanpusatstatistik. 2013. kabupatenjemberdalamangkatahun 2013.jember. badanpusatstatistik. 2014. kabupatenjemberdalamangkatahun 2014.jember. badanpusatstatistik. 2015. kabupatenjemberdalamangkatahun 2015.jember. badanpusatstatistik. 2016. kabupatenjemberdalamangkatahun 2016.jember. badanpusatstatistik. 2017. kabupatenjemberdalamangkatahun 2017.jember. mantra, ida bagoes. 2008. demografiumum. yogyakarta: pustakapelajar. 37 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 37-44 , april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi formal education leaves women from the tributes of childhoods in south kalimantan (analysis of demographic and health data of indonesia year 2012) norma yuni kartika departement of geography education lambung mangkurat university, banjarmasin, indonesia email : noerma.unlam@yahoo.com doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.7393 article history: received date 7th april 2018, received revised 27th march 2018, accepted date 27th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract education is "upstream" in the development of quality human beings, both provincial scale such as in south kalimantan and national scale that is indonesia. education has a "downstream" many branches with positive benefits for men and women. for that purpose the formulation of this paper is how the role of formal education in releasing women from child marriage traps in south kalimantan in 2012. data indonesia demographic and health survey (sdki) year 2012 became a secondary data source in this study, using the method of analysis secondary data. in accordance with the purpose of this study, this study uses the question module of married women aged 15-49 years in the province of south kalimantan 2012. the analysis is done by simple statistics in the form of cross-tabs displayed in the form of tables and bar charts. in order for the discussion to be more comprehensive, analysis is also conducted to find out the independent variable is the level of formal education of women who most contribute in releasing women from the trap of child marriage. the statistic test used is linear logistic regression with the first dummy mating age variable that is the first marriage age under 18 years and above 18 years, using spss software aid. based on the results of the research is known that from the three levels of formal education, formal education at the level of primary education has the greatest contribution seen from the coefficient of determination that women who do not complete the level of primary education or equivalent to junior high education / equal 23.6 percent lead to marriage of children. this means that the higher level of formal education that can be achieved by women in south kalimantan province in 2012, the more women are able to escape from the marriage of children. keywords: formal education, women, traps, child marriage introduction education is "upstream" in the development of quality human beings, both provincial scale such as in south kalimantan and national scale that is indonesia. education has a "downstream" many branches with positive benefits for men and women. educational 38 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 support contributes to the first marriage age, and the first marriage age contributes directly to fertility as proposed by kingsley davis and judith blake. davis and blake are prominent demographic sociologists developing a very useful theory for analyzing the determinants of fertility rates in a country or a group of societies embodied in the social structure of family planning in 1956 (in davis and blake, 1982). they say that fertility is influenced by factors called intermediate variables or intermediate variables, one of eleven variables between that is the age of first mating. in order to achieve the goals in the field of education, the government of indonesia put it into law no. 20 of 2003 on national education system one of which is formal education. formal education pathway is one of the benchmarks to know the level of education that can be seen from the ownership of the diploma accompanied by the amount of value endorsed by the government, both from the level of primary education, secondary education and higher education. formal education is used as a reference to assess the high level of one's education. when people are competing to achieve the highest formal education possible, on the other hand there are some people who can not afford formal education appropriately, from the basic level and to the higher levels. among those who do not have proper education are girls who are trapped in a marriage bond. women who are educated, knowledgeable and have an adequate diploma can compete in the job market, educated women have a greater chance of getting a job than those who do not have education at all. women who work can provide for personal needs and even help meet the needs of household and financially prosperous. educated women will better maintain their reproductive health, the health of children who are born, and maintain the nutritional needs of children. the high rate of child marriage in south kalimantan province since 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 were 17.79 percent, 16.78 percent, 16.06 percent and 15.48 percent, respectively, which ranked first in the marriage cases of children in indonesia south kalimantan province in the emergency status of child marriage. coalition 18 (plus) or the indonesian coalition to stop child marriage states that the difference in the rules of law no. 1 of 1974 on marriage in indonesia, which allows girls to marry at the age of 16 years and 19-year-old boy encourages child marriage. the definition of child marriage here refers to law no. 35 of 2014 on child protection and unicef which reads: 39 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 "any marriage carried out below the age of 18 years, before the girl is physically, physiologically, and psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and childbearing". there have been many studies that conclude that education is the key to successful men and women, but more visible impact on women not to do early marriage. the jensen and thornton (2003) study suggests that early marriage tends to be a significant barrier to women's education. conversely, improving women's education can contribute to delaying marriage for women. for that purpose the formulation of this paper is how the role of formal education in releasing women from child marriage traps in south kalimantan. methods indonesia demographic and health survey data (sdki) become secondary data source in this research, using secondary data analysis method. the sdki was conducted periodically by bps in all provinces in indonesia in 1991, 1997, 2002/2003, and 2007 and 2012. the objective was to collect data on birth rates, contraceptive prevalence and other information. the module used there are three, namely the household question module, the question module of women ever married aged 15-49 years, and male modules aged 15-49 years, and the question module of adolescents for the sdki 2007 and 2012. pursuant to the purpose of this study, then this study uses the question module of women ever married aged 15-49 years in south kalimantan province year 2012. to see the education of women and the first marriage age (ukp) in south kalimantan province, questions were asked from the module of women ever married (1) v106 female education: respondent's education level, and (2) first marriage age v511: age at first cohabitation. the analysis is done by simple statistic in the form of cross table which is displayed in tabular form and bar chart. in order for the discussion to be more comprehensive, the analysis is also conducted to find out the independent variables of the formal education level (primary and secondary education, while the follow-up education can be used in the analysis because it does not meet the statistical test requirements used in the analysis) of women who most contribute in releasing women from child marriage traps in south kalimantan province. the statistic test used is linear logistic regression with dummy first mating age variable that is first married age under 18 years and above 18 years old. statistical test using software assistance is statistical package social science software (spss). 40 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 results and discussion 1. results education channels in indonesia consist of fomal education, non formal education, and informal education, all of which can complement and enrich each other. all that is contained in law no. 20 of 2003 on national education system. according to the law the definition of education is a conscious and planned effort to create an atmosphere of learning and learning process so that learners are actively developing their own potential, personality, intelligence, noble character, and skills needed by him / her, society, nation and state. in this study will only analyze formal education in accordance with research objectives. formal education is a structured and tiered educational path that consists of basic education, secondary education and higher education. formal education is held in schools in general with systematic, structured, multilevel, tiered activities, from elementary school to university and equals to it. formal education consists of 3, namely (1) primary education in the form of elementary school (sd) and madrasah ibtidaiyah (mi) or other similar forms and junior high school and madrasah tsanawiyah (mts) or other similar forms; (2) secondary education and in the form of senior high school, madrasah aliyah (ma), vocational high school (smk) and madrasah aliyah kejuruan (mak) or other similar forms; (3) higher education is a secondary education level that includes diploma, undergraduate, master, specialist, and doctoral programs which are held by universities. universities may take the form of academic, polytechnic, high school, institute, or university. the types of education taught in formal education include general, vocational, academic, professional, vocational, religious and special education. in figure 1 the 18 year age limit refers to the definition of child under child protection law in indonesia and the definition of child marriage according to unicef. in south 41 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 kalimantan province macro women aged 15-49 years who never attended school or never finished primary school or equal to 69.44 percent married before the age of 18 years. in line with the results of bps and unicef (2016) research in 2012, 46.7 percent of women who never attended school or never completed primary school married before the age of 18 years. the number has decreased as education outcomes. the 2004 gupta research results from the international center for research of woman (icrw) show that education is one of the factors that cause women to marry early. meanwhile, when viewed from women in south kalimantan who married first under 18 years, the higher achievement level of education lower percentage. the percentage decreased with the high achievement level of women's education. this is inversely proportional to women who married first over 18 years, the higher achievement level of education the higher percentage. the next analysis results are women who do not complete formal education at the level of primary education or equivalent to junior high school education / equivalent 11.7 times at risk of child marriage compared with women who completed basic education equivalent to junior high school / equivalent. the determinant coefficient shows that women who do not have primary education equivalent to junior high school / equivalent 23.6 percent lead to child marriage. the results of this study are similar to the results of all-country studies observed by unicef in 2005 that in some countries such as in the philippines and tanzania women who did not achieve junior high school education, married under the age of 18 years. third, the result of the last analysis is that women who do not complete secondary education or equivalent with high school education or equivalent 3.3 times are at risk of early marriage compared with women who completed high school education or equivalent. then from the determinant coefficient shows below that women who do not complete high school education or equal 3 percent lead to child marriage. bps and unicef (2016) the sharpest decrease is in senior high school (sma), when the pretensions dropped to 5 percent, higher education encourages women to marry after the age of 18 years. this is due to increased access and support for girls' education. 2. discussions from all the results of this study, it can be concluded that formal education at any level of impact on increasing the age of first marriage of women. it is recommended that girls attend formal schooling, the presence of women in formal schooling whether it is in primary school, junior high school, high school and higher education can delay marriage. the 42 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 government of indonesia has a compulsory education program. the 6-year compulsory education program, then a 9-year compulsory education program in south kalimantan province and indonesia requires every citizen to obtain primary school (primary) and junior high school (sd) for nine years in a formal school. the program is expected to increase to a 12-year compulsory education program for the entire population to receive secondary or high school (sma) education. so that people in indonesia go to school until the age of 18 years. age where a person is no longer a child category. better still if women continue to higher education that is college. estimates if the woman graduated from the degree program or the deed iv age of approximately 22 years, the age includes the age of adulthood, because a person is said to be an adult if it is even 21 years in accordance with article 6 paragraph (2) law no. 1 year 1974 about marriage. age where a person may marry without the consent of both parents. malhotra (1997) the importance of school attendance, relevant to life transitions such as marriage. of the three levels of formal education, formal education at the level of primary education or equivalent to junior high school education / equivalent has the greatest contribution seen from the coefficient of determination. because schools are a medium of socialization, socialization is a lifelong process of social learning. the process of socialization occurs in groups or social institutions that play an important role in the lives of children are family, peers, school and others. sociologically, education is a process of socialization that is in institutions with institutions in the form of schools. school is the second educational institution after a formal family, which has an important role in the process of socialization of children in changing social behavior. an analysis of education status and marital status by bps and unicef (2016) indicates a relationship between lower educational attainment levels and marriage of child age, whereas higher levels of educational attainment will encourage postponement of marriage to adulthood. it requires appropriate government policies and programs to attract women to formal schooling. the advantages of formal education other than when graduated have a diploma, social interaction is honed well, interaction with teachers and interaction with fellow students. as singh and samara (1996) noted that formal schools form ideas and values, which have the effect of knowledge. where once reproductive health education was taboo, it is now one of the compulsory subjects in formal schooling. in order for students to know such as reproductive health, maintaining good reproductive health, ideal first marriage age and the risk of child marriage. so that the marriage of children through education can be broken so as not to continue in the next generation. 43 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 the benefits of formal education in addition to releasing women from child marriage traps in south kalimantan province, formal education certificates became tickets for women competing in the job market, the chances of getting a decent job high. working women will have income so that it has economic independence and can help the family economy. as the theory of economic independence in the marshan (2011) study shows that as women are educated and have income, in marriage women will be less economically dependent and women with greater economic independence will delay marriage. education is one of the 17 global goals of sustainable development goals (sdgs), the 4th global goal of quality education to be achieved by 2030. quality education by ensuring equitable distribution of education and enhancing learning opportunities for all, ensuring inclusive education and fair and encouraging lifelong learning opportunities for everyone. conclusion the role of education, especially formal education, led to the presence of women in the formal school environment. formal education at every level, be it primary education, secondary education and higher education affects the increasing age of first marriage of women. the formal attainment achieved by women, the higher the level of achievement contributes to the release of women from the trap of child marriage in south kalimantan. through proper planning the social problems that will arise can be addressed properly. one of the social issues concerning education for women trapped in child marriages that lead to dropping out or not continuing to higher education levels as well as unmarried women of any age but lacking a formal education diploma as envisaged can be overcome by education nonformal as an alternative solution. by joining package a, package b program, or other equivalent form in the non-formal education path. the role of schools to socialize and realize the importance of education, especially for girls to know what rights are owned as children and women. thus, indonesia in general and south kalimantan in particular will have a strong generation if it has an educated and knowledgeable mother. references badan pusat statistik. 2011. statistik kesejahteraan rakyat tahun 2010. banjarmasin : bps badan pusat statistik. 2011. statistik kesejahteraan rakyat tahun 2011. banjarmasin : bps badan pusat statistik. 2011. statistik kesejahteraan rakyat tahun 2012. banjarmasin : bps 44 norma yuni kartika / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 37-44 badan pusat statistik. 2011. statistik kesejahteraan rakyat tahun 2013. banjarmasin : bps badan pusat statistik, badan kependudukan dan keluarga berencana nasional dan kementerian kesehatan. 2013. survei demografi dan kesehatan indonesia 2012. indonesia : bps badan pusat statistik dan unicef. 2016. kamajuan yang tertunda : analisis data perkawinan usia anak di indonesia. jakarta : bps choe, m.k, shyam thapa and sulistinah irawati achmad. 2001. early marriage and chidbearing in indonesia and nepal. east-west center working papers. population series, no.108-15. davis, kingsley dan blake, judith. 1982. struktur sosial dan fertilitas : suatu kerangka analitis. kependudukan : liku-liku penurunan kelahiran. ed singarimbun. yogyakarta : lp3es bekerjasama degan lembaga kependudukan ugm gupta, geeta rao. 2004. child marriages: social and economics linkages and opportunities for intervention. icrw jensen, robert and rebecca thornton. 2003. early female marriage in the developing world. gender and development, vol. 11, no. 2 marriage (jul., 2003), pp. 9-19 malhotra, a. 1991. gender and the minning of marriage : rural-urban differences in java. journal marriage and family. volume 59, nomor 2, halaman 434-450. marshan. joseph natanael, m. fajar rakhmadi dan mayang rizky. 2011. prevalence of chil marriage and its determinants among young women in indonesia. the smeru research institute. unicef-bappenas-smeru singh, susheela dan renee samara. 1996. early marriage among woman in developing countries. international family planning perspectives, 22: 148-157 dan 175. unicef. 2005. early marriage a harmful traditional practice. the united nations children’s fund (unicef). undang-undang dasar negara republik indonesia tahun 1945 undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 1 tahun 1974 tentang perkawinan dan kompilasi hukum islam. bandung: citra umbara undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional. undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 35 tahun 2014 tentang perlindungan anak https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.34637 research article the compatibility of area functions map with actual site conditions in konawe selatan district la ode nursalam1,*, agus sugiarto2, putri tipa anasi2, ahmad tarmizi abd karim3, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan4, andri estining sejati5 1geography education department, universitas halu oleo, kendari, indonesia 2geography education department, universitas tanjungpura, pontianak, indonesia 3civil engineering and built environment faculty, universiti tun hussein onn malaysia, johor, malaysia 4geography education department, universitas jember, jember, indonesia 5geography education study program, universitas sembilanbelas november kolaka, kolaka, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : laodenursalam77@gmail.com 1. introduction konawe selatan is one of the districts in southeast sulawesi, indonesia. the mapping of its regional functions is useful in planning a land conversion to reduce potential disasters. the conversion of forests can cause floods through deforestation (appannagari, 2018; hamdani et al., 2014). the konawe selatan district is vital in maintaining environmental stability with its steep slopes and hilly morphology. environmental changes have spatial relations with the surrounding area, such as kendari city, bombana district, and konawe district, which is directly bordered. mapping land use activities following the planned function of an area is essential in maintaining the stability of the environment and the surrounding. abstract the konawe selatan district region is characterized by karst hills, various soil types, and steep slopes. functional classification considers the physical and nonphysical characteristics of the location to determine its many uses. the map developed by the regulation of the agriculture minister of indonesia should be checked with the actual condition for the validation process before presenting to the society and local government. therefore, this research aimed to determine the compatibility of the area function map result with the actual conditions in konawe selatan district, southeast sulawesi, indonesia. the research is a regional survey, collecting data from interviews and observations, and the data were analyzed descriptively and quantitatively with percentages. the results show that the compatibility of the konawe selatan district area function map is 89.61%, functioning as a guideline in the land use plan. furthermore, the map could guide potential land-use planning functions such as protected forests, limited production forests, rice fields, and settlements. in conclusion, the map is appropriate for disseminating information and material for land use policies in konawe selatan district to stakeholders. keywords : actual condition; area function; compatibility; map article info article history received : 26 october 2022 revised : 29 november 2022 accepted : 18 december 2022 published : 24 december 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 3, december 2022, 292-303 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 292 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.34637 mailto:laodenursalam77@gmail.com https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 293 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 konawe selatan district, with the area dominated by forest, needs to increase awareness of land use. preservation and maintenance of forest quality and quantity are important in maintaining environmental stability (camacho et al., 2016). the existence of an area function map can provide an overview for the community and local government in realizing a sustainable area.mapping is an important tool as a regional guide for land use planning that pays attention to spatial capacity. the process in geography applies information and remote sensing system (annis & nardi, 2019; eray, 2012). the direction map for the area requires input from the local government policymakers (abadi et al., 2019; faturahman, 2017; von der porten et al., 2019) and serves as an important information tool for people (setiawan et al., 2014). the suitability process is the validation before the map is released to the public, and it is verified by visiting and observing the actual site conditions. the analysis of the area, especially forests, has a positive impact on the environment because it gives the best information to the map reader (anurogo et al., 2018; basu, 2017; setiawan et al., 2013).mapping of regional functions in konawe selatan district can be conducted through a geographic information system. the function of the area can be analyzed with geographical information systems through spatial analysis capabilities (amnah, 2016; mann & saultz, 2019; rika et al., 2016). the process needs to be checked to determine the suitability of the map for actual conditions (kasnar et al., 2019; sejati et al., 2020 ). mapping the function of forest areas can be used as a control for regional development in konawe selatan district. regulations that control the development of an area are regulated in the spatial planning law (uu-26, 2007). furthermore, this law is also controlled by the regulation of the minister of agriculture (kepmentan-837/1980, 1980). national regulations are translated into local reform for konawe selatan district through the regional spatial plan (perda-19/2003, 2013). these regulations become the control and suitability of the map prepared with the local government plan. many studies have researched the function and use of land. initial research was conducted by cahyadi et al. (2012), who showed the land use in gunung kidul district on the map of protected forest areas that were dominated by moderate cultivation, followed by latif (2014), who mapped 218,366 hectares in merauke district or 4.67% of the total area. another research was conducted by suryadi et al. (2017), who mapped the soeharto hills grand forest park area with 53,340.95 hectares, or 78.71% of the total area according to function. in addition, luxfiati & harudu (2019) conducted similar research, resulting in a map of protected forest areas, limited production forests, and production forests in the muna district, with 22.56% not conforming to the regional planning. hardianti & harudu (2019) conducted research in konawe, konawe district, which resulted in the distribution and area of protected, production, and limited production forest, with the largest reaching 260,505.86 hectares. fitrianti et al. (2013) mapped protected buffer and cultivated areas in the gisting district with an 86.27% on the function. in addition, sejati et al. (2020) mapped settlements and their suitability to actual conditions with a 100% conformity level. meanwhile, zulfikar et al. (2013) showed a potential rice field of 9,871 hectares which was not used. previous research has focused on mapping without directly comparing the process to actual site conditions. in the research by sejati et al. (2020), compatibility efforts have been carried out, but the number of samples is still minimal and focuses on residential areas. however, it examined the suitability of complex maps of residential areas, including forest areas, settlements, and rice fields, with actual conditions in the konawe selatan district. field checks are used as a guide for the validity of the map as input for licensing the ideal function of the area as forest, settlement, and rice fields. due to the limited findings concerned with field checks or site visits, this research intends to analyze the suitability of the regional function map with actual site conditions before it is released to the people and local government. furthermore, it aims to determine the suitability of the regional function map with the actual conditions. 294 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 2. methods this research is a regional survey with a quantitative approach covering the entire konawe selatan district, including 22 sub-districts and 315 villages. samples of map suitability with actual conditions were taken from the population using the slovin formula (setiawan, 2007), totaling 77 villages. meanwhile, samples were taken using a proportional random sampling technique in each subdistrict, and figure 1 shows the study area map. figure 1. map of study area the collection of data related to the suitability of maps with actual site conditions using observation sheets and interviews was developed based on the characteristics of the area function (kepmentan-837/1980, 1980). interviews were conducted to determine the suitability of actual site conditions. furthermore, respondents were chosen from the village government stakeholders, such as the head and secretary. observation of the sites would also confirm the results by directly checking the village, and a score of 0 is given when there is an inappropriate function. secondary data in the form of an area function map created using arcgis 10.4.1 software for personal use therm license subscription. the base map from bappekab konawe selatan district includes administrative, slope class, soil type, rainfall, sas planet images, and land use. the map is the result of sejati & saputra (2021), and the effective area was controlled with field observations and interviews to determine the actual conditions. the weighting and the direction of the function area score are shown in tables 1 and table 2 below. 295 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 table 1. weighting for area function map variable value of range classification & score slope slope class slope percentage (%) classification score 1 0 – 8 flat 20 2 8 – 15 sloping 40 3 15 – 25 rather steep 60 4 25 – 40 steep 80 5 >40 very steep 100 soil sensitivity to erosion soil class soil type classification score 1 alluvial, gley soil, planosol, brown hydromorf, arterite groundwater not sensitive 15 2 latosol slightly sensitive 30 3 brown forest soil, non-calete brown, mediterranean moderate 45 4 andosol, laterite, gromosol, podsol, podsolic sensitive 60 5 regosol, lytosol, organosol, renzina very sensitive 75 rainfall rainfall class rainfall range (mm/day) classification score 1 ≤13,5 very low 10 2 13,6 – 20,7 low 20 3 20,7 – 27,7 moderate 30 4 27,7 – 34,8 high 40 5 >34,8 very high 50 source: (kepmentan-837/1980, 1980) table 2. area function classification score classification >175 protected forest area 124-174 limited production forest area <124 permanent production forest area <124 rice field area (slope 8-2%) <124 settlement area (slope <2%) source: (kepmentan-837/1980, 1980) the quantitative descriptive method was used to analyze the data in percentage form. the results of observations of conformity to actual conditions were scored 1 and 0 for appropriate and inappropriate samples. the total score was divided into the percentage of conformity of the map to the actual condition with the formula and categorization by arikunto (2011) , and then figure 2 shows the research flow. 296 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 figure 2. research flow chart 3. results and discussion the map of regional functions in figure 3 shows the parameters contributing to the konawe selatan district’s results. the total rainfall parameter of 421364.6 hectares has an average of 1727.029429 mm/year and 4.7308571 mm/day. daily rainfall as a potential component of protected forest areas is given a score according to the center for land conservation and soil conversion parameters (fitrianti et al., 2013). the higher the rainfall, the more likely an area will become a forest (hardianti & harudu, 2019; luxfiati & harudu, 2019; sejati & saputra, 2021). podsolic dominates the soil type parameter with 193.396.26 hectares or 45.9%. this soil is classified as very high or sensitive erosion sensitivity, contributing to the area’s score as a forest function. eroded soil should be easily conserved to prevent further erosion (hardianti & harudu, 2019). the slope parameter is dominated by a slope above 40%, with 149,550.6 hectares, or 35.49%. slopes above 40% are classified as very steep and contribute to the potential score for forest areas. a slope with an inclination below 25% is considered suitable for residential functions (sakarov, 2019). overlaying the three parameters above gives a map of the area function. the map is controlled with sas planet imagery to determine the effective area (farizki & anurogo, 2017). this area is dominated by limited production forests, settlements, protected forests, rice fields, and production forests with 179,517 hectares or 42.69%, 131,325 hectares or 31.23%, 52,014.2 hectares or 12.37%, 42,485, 3 hectares or 11.77%, and 8,130.93 hectares or 11.93%. regional potential mapping is used to determine strategic policies in the future (faturahman, 2017). the results of observations in selected villages and sub-districts with the heads obtained 70 sample locations with conformity, and 8 sites have several unsuitable areas. the level of map suitability is 89.74%, which indicates the map is worthy of being used as a source of information for the community and stakeholders in the konawe selatan district. suitability to the actual situation is important to check its usability before releasing it to the public or used as a policy consideration (kasnar et al., 2019; sejati, hasan et al., 2020; sejati, karim et al., 2020). mapping the area is to determine its suitability with the regional spatial plan (latif, 2014). figure 3 shows a map of the suitability of regional functions in the konawe selatan district. area function map validated rainfall soil type slope area function map actual condition 297 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 figure 3. area function suitability map konawe selatan district figure 3 shows the validation for area function mapping, where eight points do not match the actual conditions. these incompatible points are obtained from observations, where comparing the function of the area on the map with the actual or remote sensing is called a ground or field check. furthermore, interviews strengthened matching to confirm the observation results (guzzetti et al., 2012). the four data validation locations should function as protected forests, and the actual conditions are about two production forests, a settlement, and a rice field. two data as limited production forest. the incompatibility of the function of the snow area is controlled as input for policymakers in the management (nitoslawski et al., 2021). the suitability of the function of the area obtained 69 points out of 77 or 89.61%. this signifies that the map is suitable for disseminating public information or policy tool for local governments. remote sensing data from the image can be released immediately, while interpretation results should be checked for suitability (cracknell, 2019; dong & xiao, 2016). the results of the observations conducted in 77 selected villages and sub-districts are shown in table 3. mapping through gis, remote sensing, or a combination of the two requires a conformity check to validate the correctness of the map product and image interpretation. regional success in planning is to meet the target proportion of area functions according to the content of the regulation article made (chaturvedi et al., 2015). 298 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 table 3. the scoring of the compatibility area function map with actual condition no sub-district villages/ ward latitude longitude score 1 moramo utara lalowaru ward -4.023638 122.655157 1 2 moramo utara mata lamokula village -4.154094 122.605093 1 3 moramo bakutaru village -4.188031 122.656688 1 4 moramo marga cinta village -4.172302 122.647333 1 5 moramo tambosupa village -4.150543 122.629874 1 6 moramo lamokula village -413465 122.610766 0 7 andolo andoolo village -4.318402674 122.2438924 1 8 andolo alangga ward -4.324972322 122.2552764 1 9 andolo lalonggombu village -4.306226424 122.2256117 0 10 andolo potoro ward -4.34370864 122.2853482 1 11 buke andoolo utama village -4.287358208 122.2096182 1 12 buke awalo village -4.266158577 122.1875458 1 13 buke adaka jaya village -4.242098887 122.2072677 1 14 palangga watu merembe village -4.335082088 122.3597392 1 15 palangga wawonggura village -4.351927135 122.3399257 1 16 palangga onembute village -4.325851452 122.3883411 1 17 palangga palangga ward -4.35195826 122.334185 0 18 laeya punggaluku ward -4.304173505 122.4685432 1 19 laeya rambu-rambu village -4.310062032 122.4423512 0 20 laeya lerepako village -4.306994313 122.4534287 1 21 laeya aepodu village -4.309893209 122.4222374 1 22 wolasi mata village -4.178969021 122.4929562 1 23 konda masagena village -4.121576018 122.5039485 1 24 konda lambusa village -4.115812346 122.4741667 1 25 konda lamomea village -4.088052 122.4520675 1 26 konda tanea village -4.121414967 122.4924614 1 27 baito tolihe village -4.302349355 122.3142592 1 28 baito sambahule village -4.284812455 122.3182848 1 29 lalumbuu atari indah ward -4.399362 122.097672 1 30 lalumbuu puunangga village -4.376474 122.099789 1 31 lalumbuu sukamukti village -4.333425 122.090264 1 32 lalumbuu padaleu village -4.3922 122.075485 0 33 ranomeeto amoito village -4.084947 122.391469 1 34 ranomeeto ranomeeto ward -4.046376 122.459102 1 35 ranomeeto kota bangun village -4.040492 122.464938 1 36 benua benua village -4.256622554 122.1228779 1 37 benua puunggawu kawu village -4.279663 122.111409 1 38 basala lipu masagena village -4.300454 122.063739 1 39 basala epeesi village -4.278287 122.055348 1 40 mowila wuura village -4.106645 122.205999 1 41 mowila lalosingi village -4.093142 122.212425 0 42 mowila mulya sari village -4.096039 122.236082 1 43 mowila lamolori village -4.127896 122.205902 1 44 ranomeeto barat abeko village -4.059342 122.399407 1 45 ranomeeto barat lameuru village -4.046612 122.383566 1 46 palangga selatan wawo wonua village -4.376592 122.436662 1 47 palangga selatan lalowua village -4.440574 122.35742 1 48 angata kosebo village -4.145607 122.109598 1 49 angata lamoeri village -4.152586 122.187814 1 50 angata puao village -4.137542 122.147905 1 51 angata langea indah village -4.087198 122.172425 1 52 angata angata village -4.141360801 122.1132307 1 53 angata landabaro village -4.108716 122.189547 1 54 kolono kolono ward -4.296155 122.680153 1 55 kolono awunio village -4.309916 122.707021 1 56 kolono mondoe jaya village -4.298325 122.697502 1 57 kolono roda village -4.351555 122.728343 1 299 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 no sub-district villages/ ward latitude longitude score 58 kolono wawoosu village -4.3040488 122.6548853 0 59 kolono silea village -4.3002869 122.6650911 1 60 kolono puudongi village -4.297255101 122.6947582 1 61 lainea aoero village -4.372787699 122.5490212 1 62 lainea matabubu jaya village -4.4002717 122.6191297 1 63 lainea watumeeto village -4.383840297 122.5583676 1 64 landono landono dua village -4.059620493 122.301629 1 65 landono lalonggapu village -4.087817997 122.2891244 1 66 landono wonua morini village -4.044136399 122.2563864 1 67 landono lakomea village -4.094630798 122.3233484 1 68 landono wonua sangia village -4.089624997 122.2992433 0 69 landono trinada mulia village -4.082048237 122.2905421 1 70 laonti labotanoe village -4.097481391 122.8039195 1 71 laonti lawisata village -4.203946797 122.8732161 1 72 laonti tue-tue village -4.260566296 122.8888223 1 73 laonti namu village -4.371193092 122.8964071 1 74 laonti rumbia rumbia village -4.425605429 122.805585 1 75 tinanggea molo indah village -4.469072593 122.2959432 1 76 tinanggea lasuai village -4.470986193 122.2475831 1 77 tinanggea panggoosi village -4.462148397 122.1814133 1 the result shows the non-suitable areas’ motive is economic in utilizing the forest. this is under finnis (2021) that the economic motive affects the development of agriculture. some farming locations are near the heavily forested area in ontario, canada. the result also aligns with li et al. (2016) that socioeconomic factors can force land use and cover changes in wuhan city, china. furthermore, livengood & kunte (2012) stated that the local people’s view could affect the development of the settlement area. garcía-nieto et al. (2013) and hirschmugl et al. (2014) reported that the lack of clear boundaries corroborates the land use. the effects of poor planning by choosing problematic areas are the occurrence of floods and landslides. the results show floods and landslides in the area that was non-compatible with a map direction. damhuri et al. (2018) stated that flood disaster areas used as agricultural land need efforts to survive. the results align with saadu et al. (2021), where anthropogenic activities can increase forest degradation and water quality in the north selangor peat swamp forest malaysia. furthermore, shahabi & hashim (2015) stated that landslides in the forest affect human activities. agricultural productivity is below the regional average according to the function of the area. the non-compatible areas have a difference in productivity from 4 to 20 tons/hectare. meanwhile, the agricultural function that does not guide the function map negatively affects land productivity. this is consistent with mansaray et al. (2017), where the major rice production areas in shanghai, china, contributed the largest productivity in the district. nitoslawski et al. (2021) stated that agricultural land forests have less productivity. 4. conclusion the suitability of the area function map with the actual site conditions in konawe selatan district can be disseminated. the valid map dissemination could be used for public consumption and as input to determine the policies, especially land use permits. the economic motive of additional income is the reason for the discrepancy, where forest areas are used as rice fields even though productivity is low due to the high risk of floods and landslides. therefore, further analysis should be conducted to construct the motive of people in land use change of area function using a qualitative approach. 300 la ode nursalam et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 292-303 conflict of interests the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. references abadi, s. y., yusuf, y., rauf, m. a., hasima, r., & rizky, a. 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(2013). pemetaan lahan sawah dan potensinya untuk perlindungan lahan pertanian pangan berkelanjutan di kabupaten pasaman barat, sumatera barat. jurnal ilmu tanah dan lingkungan, 15(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.29244/jitl.15.1.20-28. geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 54-59, april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi geography skills domain taxonomy fahrudi ahwan ikhsan1, fahmi arif kurnianto2, bejo apriyanto3, elan artono nurdin4 1,2,3,4department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia ahwan.fkip@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.7525 article history: received date 19th february 2018, received revised 25th march 2018, accepted date 25th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract this study aims to explain the geography student skills domain. the focus of this research is the domain of geography skills possessed by students. the research method with the a qualitative approach. subjects were students of jember university geography education consisting of 2 men and 2 women with indicators of academic ability value of the national geography exam results. data collection techniques by observation and interview. data were analyzed using the processing unit, categorization and interpretation of data. the findings show that the skills of geography for prospective teachers of geography and geographers to be possessed composed as follows: 1st level thinking skills geography (space, phenomena, location and place, region, environment, coordinate, and humans), level 2 skills of analysis geography (scale, distribution, patterns of interaction, interrelation, connectivity, corologi, descriptions, and agglomeration), and level 3 skills of geographic applications (mapping/cartography, remote sensing, geographic information systems, surveying and mapping of the area, and global position systems (gps)). this level difference is used to distinguish the use of knowledge and application of the science of geography. keywords: students of geography education, geography skills introduction geographic information technology development is needed in the country as a spatial construct. an understanding of the geographical conditions for geographers already beginning to be felt necessary in the geostrategy of the indonesian region. the potential nice area includes land, water, and the air is a challenge for educators in imparting knowledge to the students geography. the role of teachers of geography and geographers can give the perception in building geographic thought. the basic understanding is needed in the face of the digital era in the industrial revolution 4.0. national research council (2005) stressed the importance of spatial thinking in the knowledge and workplace. this condition is in 55 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 54-59 accordance with the current situation of indonesia which entered the era of demographic bonus, so the essence of geography necessary to build the concept in theory and application. geography knowledge and skills critical to building knowledge of geography indonesia. the role of geography education is not only the delivery of knowledge alone, but the potential of indonesian territory is becoming more important. all residents living in the area of indonesia shall have the thinking skills of geography. maryani (2009) explained that geography is important to learn because it has four reasons that the reason for existence, ethics, intellectual and practical reasons. all the reasons that become elements in building understanding think geography. learners and students need to be given an understanding of geography begin thinking base up to the application. the problems that arise about geography skills as a whole is not yet understood. kemp (2008) states the understanding of space (spatial literacy) are less appreciated and be taught to students. impact assessment of spatial understanding into the realm of geography difficult to apply because the difference between the basic concepts and abstract geography teachers and geographers. understanding of society in general educator geography and geographers to environmental conditions (local spatial knowledge) have not developed well, (mccall, 2008). levinson (2003) emphasizes that the human brain is equipped with different structures in processing spatial information and spatial thinking abilities based on the neurological system. therefore we need a basic element in the spatial function in the study of geography as a domain taxonomy think geography. methods this research method using a qualitative approach. moeleong (2013) states that qualitative research is an attempt to build a view studied in detail. these research subjects are students of jember university geography education consisting of 2 male and 2 female based on academic ability value of the national geography exam results. data collection techniques by observation and interview. data were analyzed using the processing unit, categorization and interpretation of data. results and discussion 1.results understanding the concept of geography students can be assessed using geographic skills. forms geography skills include thinking skills such as geography, geography analytical skills and application skills of geography. these three aspects of it as the domain in 56 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 54-59 building think geography for prospective teachers of geography and geographers. concepts think geography is supported by spatial skills as part of the domain of thought geography. the subject of research, the informant in this study with the indicator (1) comparing the geography student thinking ability of men and women; and (2) the results of the national exam subjects geography highs and lows as an indicator in determining the subject. both indicators are used as a basis for data collection interview to the subject of research. the results of field studies through observation and interviews to jember university geography education students as research subjects can be seen in table 1: table 1. geography skills student interview results in geography education jember university research subject name indicators skills thinking geography analysis geography application geography eviaaritasari 1. phenomena 2. space 3. geosphere 4. location 5. region 6. environment 7. human 1. scale 2. phenomena of nature and human 3. corologi 4. connectivity 5. interrelation 6. affordability 7. agglomeration 1. map 2. surveying and mapping 3. remote sensing 4. geographic information system 5. global position system (gps) eva kurniasari 1. object 2. map 3. location 4. place 5. environmental 6. county 7. distance 8. geosphere 1. scale 2. differentiation area 3. connectivity 4. interrelation 5. affordability 6. land suitability 1. map and mapping 2. regional development 3. remote sensing 4. geographical information system 5. global position system (gps) ahmad kurniawan dwi 1. location 2. soordinates 3. place 4. regional 5. environment 6. space 7. phenomena 8. human 1. distribution 2. patterns 3. agglomeration 4. interaction 5. distance 6. connectivity 7. distribution 8. description 9. corologi 1. map and mapping 2. regional development 3. environmental capacity 4. remote sensing 5. geographic information system 6. surveying 7. global position system (gps) dimas abdur rozaq 1. location 2. place 1. pattern 2. agglomeration 1. cartography 2. environmental 57 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 54-59 3. human 4. phenomena 5. space 6. spatial 3. value for 4. corologi 5. description 6. distribution 7. connectivity 3. remote sensing 4. geographic information system 5. survey area and region 6. gps source: data from the study in 2017 geography skills provide an overview of the object space of study. the forms of geographic skills provide a picture of the ability to think space for prospective geographers. the data shows the subject can distinguish the essence of the domain of geography skills both in the realm of thinking, analysis, and application. 2. discussions skills geography is needed in the study of geography. candidates require geographers or geography skills in expressing the phenomena of geography in the field. the phenomena that is real in the field need further study, given the geography is also associated with the occurrence of daily life of every human being. geography skills built with three concepts of the study include: knowledge, analysis, and application. the concept it will help every individual both geographers and prospective geographers in understanding the science of geography to study the location and region. blij and muller (1993) description geography as an academic discipline that deals with the explanation of physical and human characteristics on the surface of the earth with an emphasis on a particular place or location. solem, et.al (2008) the competency model built from the alumni survey data illustrates how professional geographers perceive skill areas as being conceptually related: there was clear discrimination of skills related to physical geography, human geography, and geographic information science and technology. although the factors represent distinct assemblages of geographic and general skills from the perspective of a sample of professional geographers, the nature of work in pro-fessional geography can involve simultaneous application of many types of skills. geography skills need to be supported spatial thinking skills. study of geography more on space and territories and the people in it. all it into an object of study of geography. hagget (2001), geography is an integrative dicipline that brings together the physical and human dimensions of the world in the study of people, place, and environment. herbert and matthews (2001), geography is the study of the surface of the earth. it involves the phenomena and processes of the earth's natural and human environments and landscapes at 58 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 54-59 local to global scales. higgitt (1996) clasified skills that fieldworks might target into four broad groups: (1) intellectual (to develop the student’s understanding of geography); (2) personal (emphasising the importance of vocational and transferable skills); (3) technical (competence at research methods, using equipment, etc), and (4) inter alia skills (skill acquired by virtue of being in the field). geography skills required the first time the work that geography. domain taxonomy geography skills need to be built properly so that no one in the study of geography. the following table 2 domain taxonomy needed in the skills of geography: table 2 taxonomy level skills geography skills geography level 1 level 2 level 3 thinking skills geography skills analysis of geography skills application geography 1. space 2. phenomena 3. location and place 4. region 5. environment 6. coordinate 7. human 1. scale 2. distribution 3. pattern 4. interaction 5. interrelation 6. connectivity 7. corologi 8. description 9. agglomeration 1. mapping/cartography 2. remote sensing 3. geographic information systems 4. survey and mapping 5. global positioning systems (gps) geography skills with three levels above has a different domain. more knowledgeoriented thinking and analytical skills of geography, while the application is a combination of knowledge and geographic information technologies. new knowledge can evolve with their geography skills. level geography skills needed to distinguish between knowledge and application competence of studying geography. these findings confirmed the results koutsopoulos (2011), proposes an epistemological change had taken place in geographic diciplines, the which is developing into a new scienctific. kerski (2008a) comments spatial thinking that helps us make sense of spatial patterns, linkages, and relationships. lee and bednarz (2009 and 2012) restate that spatial thinking is linked to spatial visualization in order to get a better interpretation of patterns of entities of the territory framework (associations, relations, connections or hierarchies). 59 fahrudi ahwan ikhsan, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 54-59 conclusion geography skills have different levels for prospective teachers and geographers. skills geography menyakut thinking skills geography (space, phenomena, location and place, region, environment, coordinate, and humans), skills of analysis geography (scale, distribution, patterns of interaction, interrelation, connectivity, corologi, descriptions, and agglomeration), and application skills geography (mapping/cartography, remote sensing, geographic information systems, surveying and mapping of the area, and global position systems (gps)). all levels of geography think part of the construction for geographer in the study of geography. grouping by using geography skills taxonomy has a function to distinguish the use of knowledge and application of the science of geography. references blij, h, j. de and muller, peter o.1993.physical geography of the global environment.new york: john wiley & sons inc. enok, maryani., & syamsudin, helius. 2009. development of social skills in learning geography. research journal, upi, bandung. hagget, peter.2001.geography a global synthesis.new york: pearson education ltd., prentice hall. herbert, david t. and matthews, john a. 2001. geography a very short introduction.london: oxford university. higgitt, m. 1996.addressing the new agenda for fieldwork in higher education, journal of geography in higher education 20, 3, 391-398. kemp, j.2008. lost in space: on becoming a spatially literate, knowledge uest, the journal of the american association of school librarians. volume 36. number 4 april 2008, the american library associate. kerski, jj (2008a). the role of gis in digital earth education, international journal of digital earth, 1: 4, 326-346. koutsopoulos, ck (2011). changing paradigms of geography. european journal of geography, 1,54-75. lee, j., bednarz, r. (2009). effect of gis learning on spatial thinking, journal of geography in higher education, 33: 2, 183-198. lee, j., bednarz, r. (2012). components of spatial thinking: evidence from a spatial thinking ability test, journal of geography, 111: 1, 15-26. levinson, sc 2003. space in language and cognition: explorations in cognitive disversity.new york: cambridge university press. mccall, mk2008.participatory mapping and participatory gis (pgis) for cra, community drr and hazardassessment.itc enschede: netherlands. moeleong, lexy.2013.metodology qualitative research. bandung: rosda. national research council .2005.learning to think spatially. gis as a support system in the k12 curriculum.washington dc: national research council and the national academies press. solem, michael, cheung, ivan, and schlemper, m.beth.2008.skills in profesional geography: an assessment of workforce needs and expectations, 356-373, association of american geographers. geographic information system (gis) application to analyze landslide prone disaster zone in jember regency east java fahmi arif kurnianto 1 , elan artono nurdin 2 , bejo apriyanto 3 , fahrudi ahwan ikhsan 4 rosmadi bin fauzi5 1,2,3,4 department of geography education, university of jember, indonesia 5departement of geography, university of malaya, kuala lumpur, malaysia email: fahmiarif.fkip@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.752 article history: received date 19th february 2018, received revised 15th march 2018, accepted date 25th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract jember regency has several areas that are morphology of folding hills and mountain folds. the part of landslide prone zone is closely related to the slope of the slope. areas with a sloping slope of more than 15º need attention to the possibility of a landslide disaster. interconnection contacts with weathering of rocks, settlements and land cover also affect the landslide potential. the existence of ijen volcano that produces volcanic rock deposits that are generally not yet unified will increase the potential for landslides in jember regency. landslide has occurred one of them on gunung gumitir street which is the main route of surabaya-jember-banyuwangi traffic. in may 2016 this street is hit by landslide, so the flow of traffic through this lane is paralyzed and must be diverted to a further path, which rotates to situbondo city. the transfer of this pathway resulted in a loss to the local community and who crossed the path.the occurrence of landslide disaster shows that jember regency area is vulnerable and potentially return to landslide. therefore there is a need for a solution to solve this problem. one solution to solve the problem is by utilizing geographic information system (gis) application. the purpose of this research is to analyze zonation prone to landslide in jember district. the design of the research is geographic information system overlay analysis. this design combines several parameters in the determination of landslideprone zones. this design combines several parameters in the determination of landslideprone zones. the parameter used in this research is (1) land use, (2) topography, and (3) soil.based on the research results, it can be known zone with highest to lowest vulnerability level. zone with very high level of vulnerability is located in panti sub-district, sumberbaru, sukorambi, dyke, silo and jelbuk. the zones have similar characteristics that include (1) soil type of andosol, (2) clay texture, (3) uncompacted rock, (4) slope of 30⁰-40⁰ (steep and very steep), and (5) land use for settlements and plantations. keyword: landslide disaster, jember regency, geographic information system ©2018 departement of geography education, university of jember geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 45-53, april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 45-53 introduction jember regency has several areas that are morphology of folding hills and mountain folds. the part of landslide vulnerability zone is closely related to the slope of the slope. areas with a sloping slope of more than 15º need attention to the possibility of a landslide disaster. interconnection contacts with weathering of rocks, settlements and land cover also affect the landslide potential. the existence of ijen volcano that produces volcanic rock deposits that are generally not yet unified will increase the potential for landslides in jember regency. the rainfall of jember regency is high. rain occurs with a 50 mm long intensity (> 6 hours) causing an avalanche. infiltration occurring on slopes with low vegetation cover will lead to greater avalanche potential. the area is also often occur. rain that is not too dense, but run prolonged more than 1 or 2 days, so it will increase the chances of landslides occur. jember regency has a diverse level of vegetation density. if the plant is dense and has a roots that can penetrate until the bedrock layer then the tubuhan will greatly serve as a retarder of the mass of the slope. on the other hand even though plants have shallow roots but grow on soil layers that have strong cohesion power, the stability of the slopes will be strong. in certain cases plants that live on slopes with a certain slope actually acts as an addition to the load of slopes that encourage the occurrence of landslides. landslide has occurred one of them on gunung gumitir street which is the main route of surabaya-jember-banyuwangi traffic. in may 2016 this street is hit by landslide, so the flow of traffic through this lane is paralyzed and must be diverted to a further path, which rotates to situbondo city. the transfer of this pathway resulted in a loss to the local community and who crossed the path. according to sitorus (2006), landslide is a form of erosion whose transport or displacement occurs at a relatively short moment in an enormous volume. in contrast to other forms of erosion (erosion of sheets, furrow erosion, trench erosion) on landslide occurring at once in very short periods. meanwhile, according to dwiyanto (2002), landslide is a type of land movement, generally the land movement that occurs is avalanches and slumps / rotational slides. the forces of gravity and seepage (seepage) are the main cause of instability on natural slopes and slopes that are formed by excavation or stockpiling. the occurrence of landslide disaster shows that jember regency area is vulnerable and potentially return to landslide. therefore there is a need for a solution to solve this problem. one solution to solve the problem is by utilizing geographic information system (gis) application. fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 45-53 gis is designed to collect, store, and analyze objects and phenomena in which geographical location is an important or critical characteristic to be analyzed (prahasta, 2009: 116). gis application has several advantages that can be used to analyze zonation prone to landslides. these advantages include: (1) can analyze various data related to landslide disaster (geological data, slope, rainfall, vegetation, land use, and population density), (2) tool making costly and relative time (3) updating of data contained in the tool also takes a short time, and (4) the tool has comprehensive information, so the accuracy level can be accounted for. zonation analysis prone to landslide needs to be done because there are many factors that influence the occurrence of landslide area of jember regency. this analysis is expected to reduce the number of landslide victims in the area. based on the background of the above issues the authors are interested to take the title "utilization geographic information system (gis) in analyzing landslide avalanche in jember district". this study aims to utilize geographic information system (gis) in analyzing zonation prone to landslides in jember district. according to naryanto (2002), landslide based on speed consists of 5 types, namely: 1. streams, landslides move in unison or suddenly at high speed. 2. avalanches, avalanche material moves slowly with the former horseshoe-shaped landslide. 3. collapse, generally avalanche material in the form of stone and soil move quickly to very fast on a cliff. 4. compound, avalanches that develop from collapse or landslides and progress further into streams. 5. amblesan (land subsidence), occurring in underground mining, excessive ground water suctioning, soil erosion process and in soil compaction process. the decrease of land occurs due to consolidation, ie the decrease of ground level due tochanges in the volume of a soil layer. this process can take place more quickly if there is a loading that exceeds the carrying capacity of the soil or excessive and excessive groundwater extraction. excessive groundwater retrieval may lead to a decrease in groundwater (in deep ground water aquifer systems), whereas the pressure between stones increases. according to aronoff (1998), sig is a computer-based system used to store and manipulate information. gis is a computer-based system that has 4 capabilities to handle geographically referenced data such as: (a) input, (b) data management (data storage and retrieval), (c) data analysis and manipulation and (d) output. fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 45-53 methods the design of the research is geographic information system overlay analysis. this design combines several parameters in the determination of landslide-prone zones. this design combines several parameters in the determination of landslide-prone zones. the parameter used in this research is (1) land use, (2) topography, and (3) soil. the following is a research design scheme. landslide zone soil land use topography figure 1. overlay analysis data analysis technique used in this research is the overlay and buffer analysis that exist in geographic information system (gis). the overlay analiysis serves to accumulate all the parameters used in the study. the buffer analysis is used to determine the furthest distance of an area affected by a landslide disaster. data collected in the form of spatial data and attribute data (rainfall data) obtained from several meteorology, climatology and geophysics agency. observations were also made at the landslide location in the study area. the map data collected are as follows: a) digital map of jember district 1: 100,000 administrative territory obtained from geospatial information agency (big). b) digital map of land type of jember regency scale 1: 100,000 obtained from geospatial information agency (big). c) digital geology map of jember regency scale 1: 100,000 obtained from geological agency. e) digital maps of jember regency use scale 1: 100,000 from landsat imagery fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 45-53 h) digital rainfall map of scale 1: 100.000 kabupaten jember obtained from meteorology, climatology and geophysics agency. i) digital maps of 1: 100.000 scale of slopes of jember regency is obtained from the regional development planning board of jember regency. results and discussion 1. results field data collection is done directly through survey and direct observation (observation), interviews, and documentation to record physical properties in the field. field observation and data collection is done after the factors causing the landslide can be identified. the process of identifying and selecting the parameters observed based on the condition of the research area and the results of the literature review. in this case theoretical considerations (the results of literature studies) and factors of physical condition of the region. here is the result of gis analysis using overlay method. fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 45-53 based on the research results, it can be known zone with highest to lowest vulnerability level. zone with very high level of vulnerability is located in panti sub-district, sumberbaru, sukorambi, dyke, silo and jelbuk. the zones have similar characteristics that include (1) soil type of andosol, (2) clay texture, (3) uncompacted rock, (4) slope of 30⁰-40⁰ (steep and very steep), and (5) land use for settlements and plantations. 2. discussion the most influential factors into the zonation with a very high level of vulnerability is settlements. the settlements built in the zone resulted in low pearmebilitas and porosity of the soil. as a result, the area has a run-off that is not matched by the ability of the land to flow. the existence of the run-off also erodes the soil organic matter, causing the slope to have a considerable load in accommodating run off. this is what causes the region into the zoning with very high landslide vulnerability level. zone with high level of vulnerability is located in district tempurejo. the zones have characters that include (1) soil andosol types, (2) clay textures, (3) uncompacted rocks, (4) slope of 30⁰-40⁰ (steep and very steep), and (5) land use for forests with little settlement. factors that contribute the largest so that the region into the zonation with high levels of vulnerability of the existence of settlements. the settlements built in the zone resulted in reduced pearmebilitas and porosity of the soil. as a result, the area has a run off that has the potential to make the slopes become water saturated. the existence of run off also erodes the soil organic matter, resulting in slopes have a large enough load in accommodating run off. this causes the region to enter into zonation with high landslide vulnerability levels. a zone of low vulnerability lies in almost all districts. the zone has a character that includes (1) inceptisol soil type, (2) clay texture, (3) compact rock, (4) slope of 2⁰-4⁰ (flat), and (5) land use for settlements.the factor that gives the largest contribution so that the region goes into zonation with low level of vulnerability ie slope of the slope. the settlements built in the zone are in accordance with the spatial designation of the area. flat areas, have a suitability to be developed into residential and economic centers of the population. the area has a run off that must be regulated with the correct water spatial principle to avoid high sedimentation in water bodies. the existence of the run off also reduces the pearmebility of the soil, but will not cause a landslide due to the absence of steep slopes. a zone with very low levels of vulnerability lies in almost all districts. the zone has a character that includes (1) inceptisol soil type, (2) clay texture, (3) compact rock, (4) slope of 2⁰-4⁰ (flat), and (5) land use for settlements. fahmi arif kurnianto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 45-53 the most influential factors into the zonation with very low levels of vulnerability that is the slope of the slope and land use. the settlements built in the zone are in accordance with the spatial designation of the area. in addition, this zone is the center of economic activity of jember regency, so almost all buildings meet the standards of good environmental management. conclusion zoning of landslide disaster areas in jember regency consists of very high, high, low, and very low zones. land use factor for settlement gives the biggest contribution in high landslide vulnerability in jember regency. it is also related to the concept of disaster that is always associated with community activities.zoning can be used as a reference for the community to be more concerned about the environment. people can know the important factors. knowledge kebencaaan it will reduce the level of vulnerability landslide disaster in jember regency. references dwiyanto, j. s., 2002. penanggulangan tanah longsor dengan grouting. semarang: pusdi kebumian lemlit undip. naryanto, n.s. 2002. evaluasi dan mitigasi bencana tanah longsor di pulau jawa tahun 2001. bppt: jakarta. prahasta. eddy, 2009. sistem informasi geografis. bandung : penerbit informatika sitorus, s. r. p., 2006. pengembangan lahan 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rusman. 2012. model-model pembelajaran. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. sharan, shlomo. 2014. handbook of cooperative learning. new york: teachers college press. slavin, robert e. 2005. cooperative learning: theory, research and practice (n. yusron. terjemahan). london: allymand bacon. buku asli diterbitkan tahun 2005. sumarmi. 2012. model-model pembelajaran pendidikan lingkungan hidup. malang : aditya media publishing. tan, ivy geok chin. 2004. effects of cooperative learning with group investigation on secondary students’ achievement, motivation and perceptions. singapore: national institute of education. trianto. 2007. model-model pembelajaran inovatif berorientasi konstruktivistik. jakarta: prestasi pustaka. ulfah, restu. 2014. pengaruh model pembelajaran group investigation terhadap hasil belajar mahasiswa pendidikan lingkungan hidup mahasiswa negeri 1 banjarbaru. tesis tidak diterbitkan. malang: pps universitas negeri malang. uno, hamzah. 2008. model pembelajaran, menciptakan proses belajar mengajar yang kreatif dan efektif. jakarta: bumi aksara. 45 dwiyanto, j. s., 2002. penanggulangan tanah longsor dengan grouting. semarang: pusdi kebumian lemlit undip. naryanto, n.s. 2002. evaluasi dan mitigasi bencana tanah longsor di pulau jawa tahun 2001. bppt: jakarta. prahasta. eddy, 2009. sistem informasi geografis. bandung : penerbit informatika sitorus, s. r. p., 2006. pengembangan lahan berpenutupan tetap sebagai kontrol terhadap faktor resiko erosi dan bencana longsor. direktorat jenderal penataan ruang departemen pekerjaan umum: jakarta. 46 47 18 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.24302 research article spatio-temporal variability analysis of rainfall in kumadugu-yobe river basin, nigeria ahmed abubakar jajere 1 , ajiya bulus sawa 2 , usman ado kibon 2 , bibi umar muhammed 1 , modibbo babagana-kyari 3, * 1department of geography, federal university kashere, p.m.b. 0182 gombe, gombe state, nigeria 2department of geography, ahmadu bello university, zaria, kaduna state, nigeria 3department of geography, yobe state university, p.m.b. 1144 damaturu, nigeria *corresponding author, e-mail address: modibbo.bgk@ysu.edu.ng 1. introduction according to alexandrov & genev (2003), the earth's climate had been exhibiting marked "natural" variations and changes, with time scales ranging from millions of years down to one or two years. climatic variability in africa particularly rainfall and temperature, caused by natural forcing factors is large (buontempo et al., 2010; hulme, 1995), the rainfall variability manifest as severe droughts at yearly time-scales or as more prolonged desiccation (hulme, 1995). a decreasing trend in article info article history received : 17 may 2021 revised : 12 february 2022 accepted : 24 march 2022 published : 23 april 2022 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 1, april 2022, 18-41 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). abstract large-scale climatic variability is seriously affecting rainfall and temperature distribution pattern in sudano-sahelian parts of lake chad basin. the kumadugu-gana and yobe rivers that drain the south-western part of the lake chad basin now flow for six months only in a year instead of nine, and this has affected the entire ecosystem of the basin. this study examines the spatiotemporal variability of kumagu-yobe river basin rainfall. the study used monthly rainfall records for 1981-2017 from five different weather stations that spread across the up-and-downstream parts of the basin. to accomplish the objective of the study descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analyzing the rainfall attributes and temporal distribution pattern for each of the stations during the study period. linear regression model was used in analyzing the stations rainfall temporal variability trend. the findings of the study revealed a large scale spatio-temporal variability in the distribution of the rainfall attributes during the study period. generally, the basin recorded increasing trend of rainfall within the study period. annual increasing trends of 1.1mm, 3.1mm, 17.6mm and 17.2mm were observed at potiskum, nguru, bauchi and kano stations respectively. thus, jos records insignificant decreasing trend of -0.2mm annually. specifically, a variability of less than 1% was also observed at jos and potiskum stations which is statistically insignificant. a variability of 19%, 28% and 44% was observed at nguru, kano, jos, and bauchi respectively. overall, throughout the study periods the basin recorded increasing trend of rainfall that is characterised with large scale fluctuations particularly at the upstream section of the basin. however, desertification and upstream water abstraction may have reduced any noticeable increase in stream downstream keywords : river yobe; kumadugu-yobe basin; rainfall; spatio-temporal variability https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i1.24302 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9153-3205 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8740-5494 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 19 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 the amount of rainfall with increasing variability in the west african sudano-sahelian region, in the last 50 years has been reported, (anyamba & tucker, 2005; bibi et al., 2014; jury & isabelli, 2002). also, international fund for agricultural development, ifad ( 2008) also reported a long term decline in west african rainfall of almost 20-40% in 1931-1990. moreover, mertz et al. (2012) reported a significant increase in temperature trend all over african regions. large scale climatic variability is affecting rainfall and temperature distribution pattern in sudano-sahelian parts of lake chad basin (isiorho et al., 1996). the erratic rainfall and rising temperature is causing shrinking and degradation of water resources in the lake chad basin at large, especially dramatic shrinking of the lake chad drainage basin (gao et al., 2011; science daily, 2011), migration of aquifer’s water table (geerken et al., 2010; buma et al., 2016), and decrease in flow of chari, logone and kumadugu rivers and their tributaries (okonkwo et al., 2014). the drying of lake chad is largely at the northern pole of the lake where river kumadugu-yobe empty its water, which number of studies and reports attributed to upstream dam construction (water obstruction) for large scale irrigation (finlayson et al., 2006). according to iucn (2011), river kumadugu-gana (one of the major tributaries of river yobe) which discharges into the main stream at damasak, was contributing 2% of water inflow into the lake chad is no longer reaching river yobe. according to united nations environment programme (2006), the kumadugu-gana and yobe rivers that drain the south-western part of lake chad basin now flow for six months of the year instead of nine. the two major rivers of the sub-basin are the major sources of aquifers, wetlands and floodplain recharge, especially at the downstream within the sedimentary parts of the basin. therefore, it is against this backdrop that this study is focusing on examining the basin rainfall variability pattern. as available studies on rainfall variability focus on the entire eco-climatic region rather than on the hydrological basin for example the works of adeyeri and others in 2017, 2019 and 2020 (adeyeri et al., 2020; pham-duc et al., 2020). although, mahmood et al. (2019) examined the rainfall and temperature variability and trends for the period of 64 years (1951–2015) in lake chad basin catchment in contrast this study used rainfall data from 8 stations all from chari and lagon sub-basin, and used proxy interpolated data for kumadugu, fitri, yeng sub-basins. this study analyse rainfall data from both up and downstream parts of the basin in order to understand specifically the basin rainfall related to spatio-temporal variability pattern. 2. methods 2.1 study area geographically, kumadugu-yobe basin is located approximately between latitude 10 o to 14 o 20’ north of the equator and longitudes 7 o 25’ to 13º east of the greenwich meridian line, respectively. the basin has a total area of 145 833 km 2 . the hydrological boundaries of the basin traverse the states of kano, jigawa, bauchi, and yobe and to a lesser extent, plateau, kaduna, katsina and borno in nigeria and diffa region in niger republic (umar & ankidawa, 2016). the map of the basin is shown in figure 1. the komadugu-yobe river basin has a network of wetlands and pools along its extensive floodplains. a study of recharge trends in the region indicates that the underlying aquifers fundamentally depends on water infiltration from pools that emerge during flood events and continue through drought periods (desconnets et al., 1997). in terms of prevailing land cover, seven to eight different land use land cover could be identified and these includes open water body, dense vegetation, sparse vegetation, shrubs, irrigation fields, desiccated and inundated fields and bare lands. north of the wetlands advancing sand dune and weed invasion has partly affected the landscape of the wetland (oyebande, 2001; thompson & polet, 2000; zemba et al., 2018). 20 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 thompson and polet (2000) reported that the prevailing climate of the komadugu-yobe river area is typically semi-arid in its nature and the rainfall regime depends on the seasonal migration of the inter-tropical convergence zone known as itcz. the spatial distribution of rainfall in the sahel symbolized the difference between productive areas and desertification-stricken areas. the probability of precipitation in the sahel strongly depends on the west african monsoon, characterizing a substantial rainfall probability in the southern areas of the sahel as appropriately highlighted by lapworth et al. (2013). figure 1. map of the study area showing the sampled weather stations 2.2 data source in the course of conducting this study, the monthly rainfall amounts and mean monthly temperature of the river basin were used. the source of the data used and the weather stations where the data are generated are presented in table 1. table 1. nature and source of the data used in the study data used source mean monthly rainfall and temperature records (see fig 4.1) potiskum nguru kano bauchi jos neazdp office gashua neazdp office gashua aminu kano international airport, kano nimet office national tuber crop research institution jos 21 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 2.3 data analysis to accomplish the fundamental objective of this study, we used descriptive statistical tools such as mean, minimum, maximum, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis and coefficient of variance in analyzing the rainfall attributes temporal distribution pattern for each of the stations during the study period. linear regression statistical tool was used in analyzing the temporal variability of rainfall attributes for each station. while correlation statistical tool was used in determining, the relationship of rainfall attributes between the stations. 3. results and discussion 3.1 kumadugu-yobe river basin (kyrb) downstream rainfall variability (1981-2017) 3.1.1 rainfall variability pattern of potiskum (1981-2017) the results of analysis presented in table 2 revealed that there is significant year-to-year variability in rainfall characteristics within these 37 years (1981-2017). the total annual rainfall and rainy days has large variability with a standard deviation of 142mm from the average of 641mm and 9 days from the average 49 days respectively. the coefficient of variance results reveals that the variability in duration of rainy season is larger than total annual rainfall and number of rainy days. on monthly basis, the onset and cessation months of june and september respectively show large variability with a standard deviation of 43mm from the average of 80.3mm and standard deviation of 59 mm from the average of 99mm respectively. the total annual rainfall and rainy days fluctuate between the maximum of 966.1mm to minimum of 374.6mm and maximum of 69 days to minimum of 30 days respectively. the station records precipitation from march to november thus the threshold of 51mm was recorded from april to october within the study period. with the exception of the month of july, the minimum rainfall below 51mm was recorded in all of the months within the period. the month of august, which recorded the peak of season, shows a dramatic variability trend with maximum of 535mm and minimum of 35.2 mm, which is below 51mm threshold with a variance coefficient of 42%. therefore, july rainfall shows high level of stability with a variance coefficient of 32% as shown. as it can be seen in figure 2 the station records, nine rainy months with only four months with rainfall threshold of 51mm. the result of annual variability trend analysis is presented in figure 3. table 2. potiskum monthly rainfall descriptive statistics (1981-2017) mean max min stdv skwn kurtosis coefficient of variance count of rain>51mm (%) jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 feb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 mch 0.6 13 0 2.5 4.5 20.6 400 0 apr 8.3 53 0 15 1.7 1.9 181 0 may 29 16 0 32 2.2 6.4 111 19 jun 80 195 16.9 43 0.7 0.02 52 76 jul 184 361 60.9 65 0.9 1.3 35 100 aug 217 535 35.2 91.5 0.9 2.9 42 97 sep 100 210 1.6 58.7 0.1 -0.8 59 78 oct 24 84 0 25 0.9 0.2 105 14 nov 0.8 27 0 4.5 5.9 36.0 550 0 dec 0 0 0 0 0 0 rdy 49 69 30 9.2 0.1 -0.1 19 arf 641 966 375 142 0.1 -0.1 21 drs 96 135 47 23 -0.3 -0.6 23 note: rdy (rainy days); arf (annual rainfall); drt (duration of rainy seassion) 22 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 figure 2. potiskum monthly rainfall distribution (1981-2017) figure 3. potiskum station annual rainfall variability trend (1981-2017) the variability in rainfall attributes was large in 1980s up until 1990s and lower between 2000 and 2018, as in figure 3. the annual rainfall variability trend shows an increasing trend of 1.1mm, which is statistically insignificant at 0.001 r 2 . the findings of the study contradict the projection of adakayi (2012) who projected a rainfall decline until 2019 and from 2020; rainfall begins to increase until 2030, mean annual number of rain days decreased from 6.5 days per month in 2007 to 5.2 days per month in 2030. therefore, rainfall trend prediction using statistical models is far from reality, as rainfall variability driver’s behaviours are irregular. the decadal drought hypothesis 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec r a in fa ll ( m m ) months y = 1.0877x + 623.15 r² = 0.0072 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 r a in fa ll i n m m years anrf linear (anrf) 5 per. mov. avg. (anrf) 23 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 after the sahelian drought of 1973, 1983 and 1993 is disproved by wetness recorded in 2003, during which potiskum and nguru recorded a wetness index of 1.9 and 1.1 respectively. the results of standardized precipitation index (spi) for potiskum is given in table 3. table 3. descriptive summary of potiskum station spi (1981-2017) drought intensity categories spi values number of years percentage extremely wet >2 1 3 very wet 1.5 to 1.99 1 3 moderately wet 1 to 1.50 5 14 near normal -0.99 to 0.99 25 68 moderately dry -1 to -1.49 1 3 severe dry -1.5 to -1.99 4 11 extremely dry -2< 0 0 figure 4. potiskum station spi variability trend (1981-2017) the spi variability trend for potiskum station during the study period shows a positive trend by 0.01 value per season. as it could be seen from figure 4, the variability was larger in 1980s, the regression r 2 revealed 10 % variability. 3.1.2 rainfall variability pattern of nguru (1981-2017) the results of descriptive statistics of nguru monthly rainfall (1981-2017) are presented in table 3 and figure 5. while results of decadal standardize precipitation index and annual rainfall, variability trend is presented in table 3 and figure 6. y = 0.0079x 15.713 r² = 0.0072 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 years pot linear (pot) 5 per. mov. avg. (pot) spi value 24 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 3. nguru monthly rainfall descriptive statistics (1981-2017) mean max min stdv skwns kurtosis coefficient of variance count of rain>51mm (%) jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 feb 0 0 0 0 0 0 mch 0.4 14 0 2.4 34 536 0 apr 3 38 0 8.4 2.9 8.8 248 0 may 8.8 49 0 12 1.9 3.9 131 0 jun 33 110 4 24 1.2 1.3 73 30 jul 135 314 29 62 0.5 0.3 42 92 aug 161 281 74 49 0.6 0.7 29 100 sep 62 186 5 35 1.1 3.1 57 0 oct 5 39 0 8 2.7 8.1 186 0 nov 0 0 0 0 0 dec 0 0 0 0 0 rdy 31 53 17 8 0.5 0.7 25 arf 408 616 237 85 -0.5 -0.3 19 drt 63 95 35 15 24 the results of the monthly descriptive statistics in table 3 revealed that nguru station records precipitation from march to october thus the threshold of 51mm was recorded from july to september within the study period. with the exception of the month of august, the minimum rainfall below 51mm was recorded in all of the months within the period. the month of august, which records the peak of the rainy season, shows a dramatic variability trend with maximum of 161mm and minimum of 74mm, which is slightly above 51mm, threshold. annual rainfall and rainy days fluctuate between the maximum of 616mm to minimum of 237mm and maximum of 53 days to minimum of 17 days respectively. the annual rainfall and rainy has large variability with a standard deviation of 85mm from the average of 408mm and 8 days from the average 31 days respectively. on monthly basis, the onset and cessation months of july and september showed large variability with a standard deviation of 62 mm from the average of 135 mm and 35 mm from the average of 62mm respectively. the monthly rainfall distribution is presented in figure 5. figure 5. nguru monthly rainfall distribution (1981-2017) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec r a in fa ll i n m m months 25 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 the monthly rainfall distribution in figure 5 revealed that the rainfall of nguru station records, eight rainy months with only three months with mean rainfall threshold of 51mm. the rainfall is largely concentrated in two months (july and august). although september rainfall mean is slightly above the 51 mm monthly threshold, but the month minimum within study period is almost near 00mm reading. the annual rainfall trend is presented in figure 6. figure 6. nguru annual rainfall variability trend (1981-2017) the results of the analysis revealed a significant year-to-year variability in rainfall characteristics within these 37 years (1981-2017), much more than potiskum station. although the variability pattern is similar between the stations, the rainfall fluctuation trend of nguru is dramatic. similar to potiskum station the variability in rainfall attributes of nguru station was also large in 1980s until 1990s and lower between 2000 and 2018, as it can be seen in figure 6. this confirms the results of empirical studies on sudano-sahelian savanah ecological zone rainfall variability in the sudano-sahelian ecological zone of nigeria, over the period of fifty years such as bibi et al. (2014), hulme (2001), and anyamba & tucker (2005). they reported a downward trend in rainfall amount in the 1970s and 1980s and an upward trend for rainfall between 1990 and 2000 with increasing variability in the west african sudano-sahelian region, in the last 50 years. however, mahmood et al. (2019), reported a contradicting result. they reported a statistically significant rainfall-decreasing trend of 1.5mm per annum. this may not be unconnected with the fact that their study period covered (1951-2015), which included two pre-drought decades. therefore, what could be explored from this contraption is that, the observed rainfall recovery by this study and several related study is not up to pre-drought period rainfall pattern. rainfall trend empirical studies between 1950s and 1990s reported a decreasing trend. dramatic rainfall recovery of west african sudano-sahelian ecosystem is a game changer in annual rainfall trend pattern. statistically insignificant annual rainfall variability trend result showed an annual increasing trend of 3.1 mm, as revealed in linear trend result presented in figure 6. the result of the nguru station spi descriptive statistics and variability trend are presented in table 4 and figure 7 respectively. y = 3.0869x + 340.87 r² = 0.1916 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 r a in fa ll i n m m years anrf linear (anrf) 5 per. mov. avg. (anrf) 26 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 4. descriptive summary of nguru station spi (1981-2017) drought intensity categories spi values number of years percentage extremely wet >2 0 0 very wet 1.5 to 1.99 1 3 moderately wet 1 to 1.50 4 11 near normal -0.99 to 0.99 25 68 moderately drought -1 to -1.49 4 11 severally drought -1.5 to -1.99 1 3 extremely drought -2 < 2 5 figure 7. nguru station spi variability trend (1981-2017) the results of descriptive statistics analysis presented in table 4 revealed that, within the study period the rainfall pattern at nguru recorded 25 years of near normal wetness at nguru similar to that of potiskum station. the station recorded seven (7) years of dryness; extreme drought in 1983 and 1986, severe drought in 1986 moderate drought in 1988, 1993, 2004 and 2008. five (5) years of wetness were also recorded with very wet season in 1997 and moderate wetness in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2015, as can be seen from table 4. spi trends vary between nguru and potiskum despite their altitudinal and longitudinal location similarities. these differences may not be unconnected to latitudinal difference, which is believed to be a major driver of rainfall spatial distribution. therefore, it can be concluded that nguru and potiskum rainfall temporal pattern may be having different drivers. the findings of this study confirmed the findings of usman et al.(2015) that reported shift toward wetter condition. similarly, it agrees with the study by ogungbenro & morikanyo (2014) in their study of 90 years rainfall distribution across all climatic zones of nigeria. table 5 presents the decadal rainfall seasonality indices in kyrb. similarly, abaje et al., (2013) also, reported that sudano-sahelian ecological zone of nigeria recorded larger extent of severe drought beginning from 1968 through the early 1970s. the series of 1980s drought was the most severe of the study period. the late 1990s and the 2000s witnessed a decrease in the number of drought occurrences.as confirmed by jajere et-al (2021), argue that although there is a positive shift towards a wetter condition, but statistically insignificant comparing the decadal mean. they reported a break and decline in magnitude and frequency of occurrence of the drought in the area. y = 0.0404x 80.83 r² = 0.1916 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 years (1981-2017) ngr linear (ngr) 5 per. mov. avg. (ngr) spi value 27 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 5. decadal rainfall seasonality indices in kyrb downstream (1981-2017) period nguru potiskum seasonality index remark seasonality index remark 1981-1990 1.3 most rain in three months or less 1.1 most rain in three months or less 1991-2000 1.2 most rain in three months or less 1.1 most rain in three months or less 2001-2010 1.2 most rain in three months or less 1.1 most rain in three months or less 2011-2017 1.4 most rain in three months or less 1.1 most rain in three months or less the result of seasonality index analysis from 1981 to 2017 at downstream of kyrb revealed that the rainfall seasonal spread is largely concentrated within 3 months at both nguru and potiskum. thus, the higher values observed at nguru in 1980s and 2011-2017 revealed that the rainfall spread during the periods occurs in less than three months. 3.2 upstream rainfall pattern during the study period in analysing spatio-temporal rainfall pattern of the upstream, records of jos, bauchi and kano weather stations were considered to depict the climatic pattern of the upstream part of the kyrb. 3.2.1 rainfall variability pattern of jos (1981-2017) the results of descriptive statistics of jos monthly rainfall (1981-2017) are presented in table 6 and figure 8. table 6. descriptive summary of jos annual rainfall (1981-2017) mean max min stdv skew kurt coefficient of variance count of rain>51mm (%) jan 1.5 34 0 6.5 4.5 20.5 425 0 feb 2.9 38 0 8.3 3.4 11.4 288 0 mch 21 148 0 31 2.4 7 148 5 apr 90 247 0 56 0.6 0.5 63 29 may 167 346 48 61 0.5 0.9 37 36 jun 221 402 94 77 0.6 -0.4 35 37 jul 269 431 101 73.2 -0.04 0.02 27.2 37 aug 285 485 74.6 73.3 -0,4 1.8 25.7 37 sep 195 316 85 55.9 -0.04 -0.06 28.6 37 oct 56 267 0.4 52.5 2.3 7.3 94 16 nov 0.5 13.4 0 2.4 5.2 27.8 454 0 dec 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 rdy 103 128 75 9.1 -0.14 2.9 8.8 arf 1317 1612 1018 35 -0.14 0.07 10.2 28 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 figure 8. jos monthly rainfall distribution rainfall (1981-2017) the results of jos station rainfall descriptive statistics between 1981 and 2017 in table 6 revealed that within the study period rainfall in jos plateau is concentrated between april and october. although rainfall was recorded in all the months of year with exception of december within the period, 100% monthly rainfall above the 51 mm threshold was recorded between june to september, thus april and may counts 78% and 97%, also 14% and 43% counts was recorded in march and october. therefore, april and october are the mean onset and cession months, having mean rainfall greater than 51 mm. high rainfall variability between months of the years was observed as shown by the coefficient of variance. however, the wettest month of the year (june, july august and sept) have the least variability with coefficients values of 34.9%, 27.2%, 25.7%, 28.6% respectively. july, august and sept records are negatively skewed with july and sept records showing near normal distribution pattern than august peak. the mean annual rainfall of the area within the period was 1317 mm, and maximum and minimum values were 1612 mm and 1018 mm respectively. the annual rainfall values were positively skewed indicating that most rainfall values are above the mean. the variability of annual rainfall and rainy days is low within the study period with coefficient value of 10% and 9% respectively. a positive shift in jos rainfall was observed and agreed with the study of mustapha et al., (2018), who reported that the mean rainfall of jos was 1263.2mm, during 1971-2012 climatic periodand maximum and minimum values were 1646.6 mm and 814.7 mm respectively. a slight decrease in variability was observed from 12% during 1971-2012 period to 10% during 1981-2017 period. the annual rainfall variability linear trend pattern is presented in figure 9. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec a n n u a l r a in fa ll i n m m months 29 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 figure 9. jos annual rainfall distribution trend (1981-2017) the results of the jos annual rainfall linear trend in figure 9 revealed that the variability of jos annual rainfall trend was almost stable during the study period. the r 2 value revealed a statistically insignificant variability. insignificant annual decreasing trend of 0.2mm was observed. the decadal rainfall seasonality indices of jos and standardize precipitation index of jos is depicted in table 7 and table 8 respectively. table 7. decadal rainfall seasonality indices of jos (1981-2017) 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2010 2011-2017 jos seasonality index remark 0.9 markedly seasonal with a long drier season 0.9 markedly seasonal with a long drier season 0.9 markedly seasonal with a long drier season 0.9 markedly seasonal with a long drier season table 8. descriptive summary of jos spi (1981-2017) drought intensity categories spi values no. of years percentage extremely wet >2 1 3 very wet 1.5 to 1.99 1 3 moderately wet 1 to 1.50 3 8 near normal -0.99 to 0.99 27 73 moderately dry -1 to -1.49 3 8 severe dry -1.5 to -1.99 0 0 extremely dry -2< 2 5 y = -0.2011x + 1312.8 r² = 0.0003 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 a n n u a l r a in fa ll i n m m years ann rf linear (ann rf) 5 per. mov. avg. (ann rf) 30 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 from table 8 the rainfall pattern at jos within the 37 years period records extremely wet period of 2.19 in the year 2000, the rainfall distribution was largely near normal with two years of extreme (1995 and 2005) and moderate drought (1983 and 2006). seventy-three percentage (73%) of the study seasons recorded normal wetness. standardised precipitation index trend analysis results is presented figure 10. figure 10. spi trend and moving averages of jos (1981-2017) the results presented in table 7 and figure 10 revealed that, the decadal seasonality index of jos shows a more stable trend during the study period. the decades record a markedly seasonal rainfall with longer drier season. it could be established from seasonality index results that the climate of jos is a dry land type in terms of rainfall duration, than humid type as 100% monthly rainfall thres hold count, was recorded in only four (july to september) months during the study period. 3.2.2 rainfall variability pattern of bauchi (1981-2017) the results of descriptive statistics of bauchi monthly rainfall from the year (1981-2017) as presented in table 9 and figure 11 respectively. table 9. descriptive statistics of bauchi rainfall characteristics 1981-2017 months mean max min stdv skwness kurt count% cv jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 feb 0.1 1.9 0 0.34 4.8 25 0 402 march 4.7 33.8 0 9.5 2.2 3.9 0 202 april 34.5 163 0 36 1.7 3.4 21.6 105 may 99 278 13.4 53 1.1 2.1 83.8 54 june 160 290 33.7 61 -0.02 -0.5 97.3 38 july 272 638 123 122 1.3 1.5 100 45 august 326 668 54.9 128 0.99 1.7 100 39 sept 190 489 4.1 94 0.8 2.0 91.9 50 oct 39 186 0 45 2.2 4.4 18.9 116 nov 0.07 3 0 0.4 6.1 37 0 608 dec 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 anrf 1127 1871 726 284 0.8 -0.1 45.9 25 y = -0.0015x + 2.929 r² = 0.0003 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020s p i v a lu e jos linear (jos) 5 per. mov. avg. (jos)years 31 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 figure. 11 bauchi monthly rainfall distribution rainfall (1981-2017) the results of descriptive statistics in table 9 revealed that within the study period rainfall in bauchi was concentrated between may and september. hundred percent monthly rainfall above the 51mm threshold was only recorded in july and august. thus, 83.8%, 97.3 and 92% of the season recorded 51mm monthly threshold in may, june and september respectively also 22% and 19% counts was recorded in april and october. therefore, may and september were the mean onset and cession months, having mean rainfall greater than 51 mm. high rainfall variability between months of the years was observed as shown by the coefficient of variance. however, the wettest months of the year (june, july and august) have the least variability with coefficient values of 38%, 45% and 39% respectively. almost all the months’ records are positively skewed with june records showing near normal distribution pattern than august peak. the mean annual rainfall of the area within the period is 1127 mm, and maximum and minimum values are 1871 mm and 726 mm respectively. the annual rainfall values are positively skewed indicating that most rainfall values are above the mean. this result is strongly supported by the findings of mustaphaet al., (2018) in their study on rainfall variation in some parts of northern nigeria. the annual rainfall linear regression results of bauchi station is presented in figure 12. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec r a in fa ll i n m m years 32 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 figure 12. bauchi annual rainfall distribution trend (1981-2017) the results of the annual rainfall variability trend in figure 12 revealed that the variability is significant within the study period with coefficient value of 44%. an annual increase of 17.4 mm was observed during study period. this contradicts the findings of taiwo et al, (n.d.) in their studies on monthly variation and annual trends of rainfall across major climatic zones in nigeria. their findings of revealed that 1.873mm/year for bauchi during 1985-2015. in addition, odiana and ibrahim (2915), in their studies on evidence of climate change in bauchi (1978 to 2008), reported an annual increase of only 0.2mm. this may not be unconnected with the large-scale dryness of 1981-1985 and wetness of 2016 and 2017, which the study did not cover. the result of the standardized seasonality index annual and decadal descriptive statistics and variability trend is presented in table 9, 10 and table 11, respectively. table 10. descriptive summary of bauchi spi (1981-2017) table 10 shows that bauchi station recorded 6 years of wetness within the study period with only 4 years of moderate drought and 27 years of normal distributions. bauchi recorded its extreme wet season in 2013 and moderate drought in 1983, 1987, 1985 and 2009. the decadal standardised precipitation index of bauchi is presented in table 11. y = 17.4x + 796.12 r² = 0.441 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 r a in fa ll i n m m years anrf linear (anrf) 5 per. mov. avg. (anrf) drought intensity categories spi values no of years percentage extremely wet >2 1 3 very wet 1.5 to 1.99 2 5 moderately wet 1 to 1.50 3 8 near normal -0.99 to 0.99 27 73 moderately drought -1 to -1.49 4 10 severally drought -1.5 to -1.99 0 0 extremely drought -2< 0 0 33 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 11. decadal rainfall seasonality indices of bauchi (1981-2017) 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2010 2011-2017 bauchi seasonality index remark 1.0 most rain in 3 months or less 1.0 most rain in 3 months or less 0.9 markedly seasonal with a long drier season 1.1 most rain in 3 months or less the decadal seasonality index of bauchi shows a more stable trend during the study period. the 1991-2000 decade recorded a markedly seasonal rainfall with longer drier season; the decade is the wettest decade in 1981-2017 climatic calendar. it can be concluded from seasonality index results that the climate of bauchi is a dry land type in terms of rainfall duration, than humid type as 100% monthly rainfall threshold count was recorded in only two (july andseptember) during the study period. the result of bauchi station standardized precipitation index linear regression trend is presented in figure 13. figure 13. bauchi spi trend and moving averages (1981-2017) from figure 13, it could be seen that the climate of bauchi is changing to wetter climate. the r 2 value of 0.44, revealed a variability of 44%. the 1980s, and 1990s season were drier, a significant wetness was recorded in 2000s. 3.2.3 rainfall variability pattern of kano (1981-2017) the results of descriptive statistics of kano monthly rainfall (1981-2017) are presented in table 12 and figure 14. y = 0.0611x 1.1586 r² = 0.4399 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 s p i v a lu e years 1981-2017 spi 5 per. mov. avg. (spi) linear (spi) 34 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 12. descriptive summary of rainfall in kano (1981-2017) months mean max min stdv skewn eess kurtosis coefficient of variance count of rain>51mm (%) jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 feb 0.25 8.1 0 1.3 5.9 36 539 0 mar 0.84 21.5 0 3.7 5.4 30.5 434 0 apr 13.1 65.7 0 18.7 1.5 1.4 143 5 may 60 186 0 48.8 0.88 0.3 81.3 46 jun 145 433 36 84.0 1.40 2.8 58 92 jul 268 604.7 91.4 130.1 0.99 0.33 48.5 100 aug 357 739 45.5 146 0.15 0.39 40.9 97 spt 159 346 26.9 69.6 0.25 0.03 44 95 oct 18.7 102.3 0 23.6 1.69 3.19 126 11 nov 0.02 0.7 0 0.12 6.08 37 608 0 dec 0 0 0 0 0 arf 1022 1789 473.7 352.5 0.27 -0.66 34.5 figure 14. kano monthly rainfall distribution (1981-2017) from the results in table 12 and figure 14, it could be seen that within the study period rainfall in kano was concentrated between may to september. although rainfall was recorded in all the months of year with exception of december and january within the period. hundred percent (100%), 92%, 97% and 95% of the study years recorded monthly rainfall above 51mm in june, july, august and september respectively. high rainfall variability between months of the years was observed as shown by the coefficient of variance. however, the wettest months of the year (june, july august and sept) have the least variability with coefficient values of 58%, 48.5%, 40.9%, 44% respectively. september rainfall distribution records show near normal distribution pattern than august. the mean annual rainfall of the station within the period is 1022 mm, maximum and minimum values are 1789 mm and 473.7 mm respectively. the annual rainfall values are positively skewed indicating that most rainfall values were above the mean. the result of the kano station annual rainfall variability is presented in figure 15. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec r a in fa ll i n m m years 35 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 figure 15. kano annual rainfall distribution trend (1981-2017) the results of annual rainfall variability trend for kano revealed a positive trend in annual amount during the study period. an annual increasing trend of 17mm was observed, which revealed a shift in kano rainfall to a wetter climate. the result of variability trend revealed a larger annual variability of 28%. similar results findings was made by murtala et al., (2015) in their study on kano rainfall dynamics and climate change. results of descriptive statistics of the annual decadal standardized precipitation index and annual rainfall variability trend is presented in table 13 and table 14, respectively. table 13. descriptive summary of kano spi (1981-2017) similarly, kano rainfall within the period records extreme wetness in the year 2001 and very wet in 1998 and moderate wetness in 2012, as it can be seen in appendix 9. the results in table 5.13, revealed that almost 3 /4 of the study seasons recorded near normal wetness. the rainfall distribution was largely near normal with severe drought in 1985. the results in six (6) years of moderate drought was recorded 1981 to 1986, with break in 1985. therefore, it can be concluded that the recorded drought of 1980s in kano was not extreme but largely moderate with the exception of that of 1985. y = 17.18x + 695.2 r² = 0.278 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 r a in fa ll i n m m years anrf 5 per. mov. avg. (anrf) linear (anrf) drought intensity categories spi values no of years percentage extremely wet >2 1 3 very wet 1.5 to 1.99 2 5 moderately wet 1 to 1.50 3 8 near normal -0.99 to 0.99 24 65 moderately drought -1 to -1.49 6 16 severally drought -1.5 to -1.99 1 3 extremely drought -2< 0 0 36 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 14. decadal rainfall seasonality indices of kano (1981-2017) variables 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2010 2011-2017 kano seasonality index remark 1.2 most rain in 3 months or less 1.1 most rain in 3 months or less 1.1 most rain in 3 months or less 1.2 most rain in 3 months or less the decadal seasonality index of kano fluctuates during the study period. the decades record a 3-month seasonal rainfall. therefore, it can be concluded from seasonality index results that the climate of kano is a dry land type in terms of rainfall duration, than humid type as only july records 100% monthly rainfall threshold count, during the study period. results of the standardized precipitation index variability trend are presented in figure 16. figure 16. spi trend and moving averages in kano (1981-2017) the linear trend line in figure 16 cross positive line in year 2000, the line reaches the moderate wet value in 2017. variability of 28% was observed during the study period. the spi trend line was negative from 1981 up to 1996. it crossed the positive line in 1996, and dropped to negative in 2013. therefore, what can be explored from the results in figure 16 is that the kano rainfall regime recovered from dedecal dryness in the mid-1990s. the 2000 to 2010 decade is most wet decade during the study period. 3.3 rainfall spatial variability within the basin table 15 present the correlation coefficient result for relationship between annual rainfalls of kyrb meteorological station. while the mean annual rainfall spatial distribution pattern is presented in figure 16. y = 0.0488x 97.473 r² = 0.2786 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020s p i v a lu e s kn linear (kn) 5 per. mov. avg. (kn) years 37 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 table 15. annual rainfall spatial distribution relationship correlation coefficient kano jos potiskum nguru bauchi kano 1 0.085 0.53** 0.32 0.258 jos 0.085 1 -0.08 -0.04 0.164 potiskum 0.53** -0.08 1 0.15 0.174 nguru 0.32* -0.04 0.15 1 0.38* bauchi 0.258 0.164 0.174 0.38 1 note : **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2tailed). with this, the rainfall pattern of jos has no significant relationship with the rainfall of the downstream. the relationship between jos rainfall and that of kano is statistically insignificant. the results of 1981-2017 annual rainfall correlation analysis revealed a positive relationship between rainfall of kano and that of the downstream (potiskum and nguru). a strong positive correlation coefficient of 0.53 significant at 99% confidence level reveals that kano and potiskum rainfall pattern have same drivers, as they are located on almost same latitude, and this could be observed on the spatial distribution map of the rainfall across the entire basin as depicted in figure 17. figure 17. kyrb annual rainfall spatial variability patterns thus, in terms of rainfall received, kano receives more than potiskum example within the period, 1100mm of mean annual rainfall was recorded at kano as against 641mm at potiskum. in addition, the results revealed a positive significant relationship between kano and nguru rainfall pattern at 95% confidence level. the results revealed week positive relationship between downstream (nguru and potiskum) stations as well as between the upstream stations (jos and kano).the result of 38 ahmed abubakar jajere et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (1), 2022, 18-41 the rainfall spatial variability analysis in figure16 reveals that the annual rainfall decrease north eastwards from the watershed head at the north central high lands of nigeria to desert margin drylands of niger republic. within the basin the rainfall amount decreases from 1200mm to less than 400mm. the spatial variability is large and follows the monsoon wind direction pattern. 4. conclusion kyrb recorded a large scale rainfall spatio-temporal variability during the study period (1981-2017). generally the basin recorded increasing trend of rainfall within the study period. annual increasing trends of 1.1mm, 3.1mm, 17.6mm and 17.2mm was observed at potiskum, nguru, bauchi and kano stations respectively, although jos recorded insignificant decreasing trend of -0.2mm annually. the major findings of this study consolidate existing empirical studies on rainfall variability in west african sahel. the rainfall variability within the basin was large in 1980s and 1990s during the study period, what looks like a recovery was observed in 2000s, and 2010s. the findings of this study revealed a break in decadal series of sahelian drought and decline in frequency and magnitude of drought in 2000s and 2010s compared to what is observed in 1980s and 1990s. therefore this study concludes that the basin rainfall is recovering from the drought of 1970s and 1980s. the spatial variability pattern of the basin rainfall is also large, as the rainfall amount decrease from 1200mm at the basin watershed head to less than 400mm at the desert margin. the spatial variability is large and follows the monsoon southwest wind direction pattern. thus, agriculture and hydrological planning, policies and programmes of the basin should adjust to reflect the shift in rainfall pattern especially those designed in response to sahelian drought. following the findings of this paper future study should specifically focus on temperature spatio-temporal variability and its associated impact on the wetlands as well as its relationship with rainfall. moreover, as the current study focused on rainfall spatio-temporal variability, subsequent study should explore the river discharge and the entire ecosystem response to rainfall recovery. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, other people or organizations related to the material in this article. acknowledgements the authors sincerely thank the department of geography and environmental management of ahmadu bello university, zaria nigeria for contribution during the seminar presentation of the research work and north east arid zone development project (neazdp) office at gashua as well as national tuber crop research institute, jos for providing us with the rainfall data. indeed, we are grateful because the study would been practically impossible without such data. references abaje, i. b., ati, o. f., iguisi, e. o., & jidauna, g. g. 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(2018). climatic information as evidence of desert ification processes in northern yobe state, nigeria: implications for agriculture and ecosystem. global journal of pure and applied sciences, 24(1), 117. doi:10.4314/gjpas.v24i1.14. 3.2 upstream rainfall pattern during the study period 83 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 2 no. 1 (2018), page 83, april, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi the influence of team assisted individualization (tai) on team learning model of geographic junior high school in lumajang bejo apriyanto1, elan artono nurdin2, fahmi arif kurnianto3, fahrudi ahwan ikhsan4 1234 departement of geography education, university of jember, indonesia e-mail: apriyanto.bejo@unej.ac.id doi: 10.19184/geosi.v2i1.7527 article history: received date 8th february 2018, received revised 22th march 2018, accepted date 28th april 2018, published date 30th april 2018 abstract selection of the right learning model will increase the chances of achieving student learning success. the choice of learning model should pay attention to students' ability which is generally not the same among students one to another. the main factors are the various intelligence and student backgrounds. in addition, the absorptive capacity of the subject matter between students with one student is not the same so that affect learning outcomes achieved. therefore, teachers need alternative learning model to overcome the diversity of student characteristics, one of them is with individual learning. however, the large number of students in the classroom and the various shortcomings in individual learning such as the effectiveness of learning, time, effort, and curriculum demands, as well as other obstacles, then individual learning is very unlikely to be implemented. an alternative that teachers can do is through the use of learning models that lead to programmed individual learning. the model of learning in accordance with the problem is model team assisted individualization (tai). the tai model is designed as a learning model that combines individual learning with cooperative learning. with the tai model, the weaknesses that exist in individual learning and on cooperative learning can be minimized with the advantages that exist in both. this study aims to determine the effect of the use of tai model on the results of ips geography learning. this research includes quasi experiment type, using pretest-posttest control group design design. the subjects consisted of one experimental class and one control class, grade vii student smpn 4 lumajang. the research instrument is a test consisting of prates and pascates. the data analysis technique uses t-test with spss 16.00 for windows. the result of data analysis shows that the learning result of ips geography of students using tai model is better than students who do not use tai model. thus 84 bejo apriyanto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 83-88 it can be argued that the use of tai model influences the learning outcomes geography ips geography students proposed for teachers in the field of study geography is to make the model tai as an alternative model of learning to improve student learning outcomes. suggestions for further research are piloting the tai model on different materials and levels of higher classes or schools, as well as combining with more varied learning media so as to show a great influence on student learning outcomes and gain greater benefits from the tai model. key words: model team assisted individualization (tai), geography learning result introduction the learning process is very instrumental in the success of student learning. one of the success of the learning process is the selection of learning models. selection of the right learning model will increase the chances of achieving learning success. the choice of learning model should consider the characteristics of students who generally have unequal differences in ability and knowledge. slavin (2008: 7) suggests "students enter into classes with very different backgrounds in skills and knowledge". this of course will affect in terms of absorption and the level of students' understanding of the given material will not be the same. djamarah (2012: 74) states "factor intelligence affects the ability of students to absorb the lesson material provided by the teacher". it is therefore important for all teachers to be aware of this so that a teacher who is directly involved in the teaching-learning process in the classroom has the idea of how to deal with such student characteristics. the very effective learning model used by teachers in the classroom with the number of students is a lot of cooperative learning model team assisted individualization (tai). slavin (2008: 189) suggests "the tai model was initiated as an effort to design an individual form of teaching that can solve problems that make individual teaching methods ineffective." the tai model can be used as an alternative for teachers to conduct individualized learning programmatically, because the learning in this model combines individual teaching with cooperative teaching so that learning success can be achieved jointly by all individuals in each group for one class. in addition 85 bejo apriyanto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 83-88 tai model can overcome the problems that often arise in cooperative learning in general is the diffusion of responsibilities for some members of the group. learning is essentially a change in a person's behavior after a process. learning outcomes according to sudjana (2009: 3) is "the results obtained in the form of impressions that result in changes in the individual as a result of activity in learning. changes in these behaviors are indicators that serve as guidelines for knowing individual progress in everything that is gained in school ". while the results of ips geography learning is the result obtained by students after following ips geography lesson. the result of learning in this research is emphasized on cognitive aspect. bloom in sudjana (2009: 20) states that the cognitive domain is divided into six domains that include recall, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. learning is essentially a change of self / behavior of a person after experiencing the learning process. this is in line with the opinion of rusyan et al. (1989: 8) "learning in the broad sense is a process of behavior change expressed in the form of mastery, use, and assessment of attitudes and values, basic knowledge and skills contained in various fields study or more extensively in various aspects of life ". the weaknesses of cooperative learning in team assisted individualization (tai) models can be minimized by providing different material units to each group member according to their ability in the pleacement test step and the second is the group reward based on the score of each individual in the group score and recognition). thus in team assisted individualization model (tai) can eliminate the possibilities of potential barriers that often occur in cooperative learning in general. this is part of the co-operative learning of team assisted individualization (tai) model. in cooperative learning the role of the teacher is as a facilitator and moderator who essentially convey the subject matter and provide guidance to the students in the learning process. thus the teacher should be ready to guide each individual different, both from the level of intelligence, attitudes, and other characteristics of students. 86 bejo apriyanto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 83-88 methods this study aims to determine the effect of cooperative learning team assisted individualization (tai) model of geography learning outcomes. based on the objectives formulated, then this research using quasi experiment design (quasi experiment). the design used in this research is pretest-posttest control group design where the research subject consists of experimental class and control class. the experimental class was given treatment in the form of cooperative learning model of team assisted individualization (tai), while control class as comparison was not treated by team assisted individualization (tai) model. results and discussion 1. results based on the results of data analysis can be proposed research findings that model teaching assisted individualization team influence the learning outcomes geography ips. students whose learning process using team assisted individualization model get better learning outcomes than students whose learning process does not use team assisted individualization model. based on the results of analysis that has been described earlier can ditemukaan that the use of team assisted individualization model can help improve the learning outcomes geography ips geography class vii smp negeri 4 lumajang on the topic hidrosphere so as to obtain better learning outcomes. classes that the learning process using the tai model obtain higher average learning outcomes than those that do not use the tai model. the use of tai model has an effect on the learning result because the elements in the tai program are able to give great benefit to the students during the learning process. all elements of tai consisting of team, placement test, teaching group, student creative, team study, whole class unit, and team score and team recognition appear to influence student activities during the learning process. at the stage of formation of heterogeneous learning groups (teams) to educate students not to discriminate both academic and gender. initially, high87 bejo apriyanto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 83-88 ability students are not familiar with low-skilled students, whereas low-ability students exhibit a reluctance to join those with high ability. this is indicated by the complaints of some students at the beginning of the group division, some students would not even move to the seat, and others were screaming because they did not fit in with a group friend. but in the next few minutes they got used to it and at the next meeting there was no complaint as before. 2. discussion the existence of a placement test that is not only based on the value of previous material is useful in determining individual guidance to students who are less able to understand the material being studied. with this placement test teachers can find out which students need a lot of help or guidance during their studies. in addition, teachers can also know which students are considered to provide assistance to their friends and do guidance in team study. during teaching group implementation, students enthusiastically pay attention to what the teacher is saying, because in this teaching group the teacher first conveys the purpose of each learning step from team to stage team score and team recognition. at first the students did not want to pay attention to the teacher even many who crowded to make noise in the classroom. but when the teacher gives information that each individual gets individual assignments, scores, and tests at the end of the meeting, students slowly begin to show attention. so when the teacher delivers the outline of the material, students carefully consider the teacher's explanation. individual assignments in student creative encourage students to take responsibility for each task and not assign responsibility to other members because each student gets the same task with different material units, and the group score is based on the individual score earned on the tasktasks and individual tests, so that each student feels the burden and responsibility of each to succeed. initially some students with below average ability were reluctant to work on individual material units. 88 bejo apriyanto, et al / geosi vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 83-88 conclusion based on the results of data analysis and discussion, it can be concluded that the use of team assisted individualization learning model influences the learning outcomes of ips geography of vii grade students of smp negeri 3 lumajang on hydrosphere topic. the average classroom learning outcomes using team assisted individualization model are higher than those that do not use team assisted individualization references awang, h. & ramly, i. 2008. creative thinking skill approach through problem based learning: pedagogy and practice in the engineering clasroom. international journal of human and social sciences, 3 (1):106-109. bilgin, i., senocak, e., & sozbilir, m. 2009. the effects of problem based learning instruction on university students performance of conceptual and quantitative problem in gas concepts. eurasia journal of mathematics, science & technology education, 5 (2): 153-164. bowe, b., flynn, c, howard, r., & daly, s. 2003. teaching physics to engineering students using problem based learning. international journal of engineering education, 19 (5): 742-746. daldjoeni. 1982. pengantar geografi. bandung: alumni bandung. dasna, i wayan.2005.penggunaan model problem-based learning dan kooperatif learning untuk meningkatkan kualitas proses dan hasil belajar kuliah metodelogi penelitian. malang: lembaga penelitian um. dahar, ratna willis. 1996. teori-teori belajar. jakarta: erlangga demirel, m. & arslan, b. 2010. the effects of problem based learning on achievement, attitude, metacognitive awareness and motivation. journal of education. 38 (1): 55-66 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.34508 research article farmers participation in applying silvopasture technology for organic fertilizer production as a sustainable agriculture sumarmi1,* , heni masruroh1 , syamsul bachri1 , agung suprianto2 1 department of geography, universitas negeri malang, jl. semarang 5 malang, 551312, indonesia 2 department of geography education, universitas kanjuruhan malang, jl. s.supriadi no.48 malang, 65148, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : sumarmi.fis@um.ac.id introduction the medowo village is located in kandangan district, kediri province. the location of medowo village on the slopes of mount anjasmoro makes it an ideal location for livestock and farms. medowo village is one of the most productive agricultural communities in the kediri regency (bps, 2020; 2021). some farmers have also implemented the silvopasture method. this is due to the accessibility of certain locations to the forest. the primary plantation products are coffee, durian, avocado, and cloves. in addition, the community farms are the largest coffee producer in kediri regency (bps, 2020; putra & suprianto, 2020). moreover, dairy cows and goats are produced in medowo village. farmers who also own animals, such as goats and cows, use forest land as grazing areas for their livestock. this village is one of the largest milk producers in kediri regency. according to observations and interviews with village officials and the administrators of kud (koperasi unit abstract medowo village is a potential location for plantings due to its location on the slopes of mount anjasmoro in kandangan district, kediri regency. moreover, medowo village is renowned for its dairy for cows and goats. this research aimed to determine the type and level of participation in the production of organic fertilizers to support in sustainable agriculture. this research used a qualitative approach and descriptive method. the data was collected through in-depth interviews, participatory observation, and documenting. the identification of key informant was using the purposeful snowball throwing technique. data analysis used reduction, display, and verification, as well as data validation through focus group discussion (fgd). the discussion was conducted with 20 farmers, with the main topics related to: a) the problem of fertilizer needs in medowo village, and b) producing fertilizer for sustainable farming using the shivansh fertilizer method. according to the results, there were four stages of farmer participation: 1) planning, 2) implementation, 3) utilization of results, and 4) evaluation. the findings indicated that the level of farmer participation is classified as "good" for all stages. participation is demonstrated specifically by attendance, participation, and enthusiasm. high participation is found mostly in stages that include activities in producing the . therefore, inviting farmers at the planning stage is essential to increase participation in program. keywords: agriculture; organic fertilizer; participation; sustainable article info received : 15 october 2022 revised : 20 february 2023 accepted : 17 march 2023 published : 18 april 2023 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 8 no. 1, april 2023, 35-45 © 2023 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 35 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.34508 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3102-0376 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6752-4536 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4576-5616 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0993-0250 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 36 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 desa/village cooperative unit) kerta jaya, existing farmers in medowo village can produce around 20,000 liters of milk per day. this demonstrates that many villagers raise dairy cows. additionally, there are villagers who raise goats, but in smaller numbers than those who raise dairy cows. there are 1168 farmers and 784 breeders in medowo village (medowo, 2020). furthermore, research findings by putra & suprianto (2020) revealed that the level of ownership of the main assets that support the livelihoods of coffee farmers in medowo village is still very low, particularly in terms of human resources, funding, physical, and social factors. because this area has the potential to be used for farms, the farmers in medowo village should already be familiar with ecofriendly or sustainable agriculture. this is due to the fact that medowo village already has a farmer group. however, based on observations and interviews, farmer groups still concentrate on agricultural cultivation; they do not understand the importance of sustainable agriculture. this is supported by research from putra & suprianto (2020), which found that farmers in medowo village have limited human resources. based on an interview with the manager of the farmer group "tani makmur," farmers in medowo village have relied heavily on subsidized and non-subsidized chemical fertilizers for agricultural production. furthermore, the farmer group explained that the availability of subsidized chemical fertilizers in medowo village is less than the number of farmers and the size of agricultural land. this is further supported by a statement in (kementerian pertanian, 2021) that the supply of subsidized fertilizers in indonesia does not exceed 50 percent of the total amount of fertilizer required. in general, farmers in the kediri regency have a deficit of subsidized fertilizers (kompastv kediri, 2021). moreover, non-subsidized chemical fertilizers are extremely expensive, costing up to three times as much as the subsidized fertilizers (citra, 2021). the excessive and continuous use of chemical fertilizers will decrease the carrying capacity of the environment, particularly the soil fertility (patti et al., 2018). in addition, continuous and excessive usage of chemical fertilizers will increase operational expenses and decrease farmer income (medah, 2018). the community in medowo village has not yet optimally utilized agricultural waste. farmers let agricultural waste such as litter, plant branches, rice straw, and bean straw to decompose naturally in the field (karyaningsih et al., 2008). this is acceptable for soil fertility, but it takes a long time to degrade so that plants can absorb it (rohmawati, 2016). agricultural waste will be optimally managed if it is first processed. besides being efficiently absorbed by plants, it is also beneficial for the soil and the environment. agricultural waste can be converted into organic fertilizer to boost the soil's ability to retain water, raise the resilience to erosion, improve biodiversity and soil health, and decrease the usage of inorganic fertilizers. moreover, organic fertilizers leave no residues on crop yields, making it safe for the environment and human health (musnamar, 2003; nurhayati et al., 2011). the medowo village is also known for its dairy production. this is demonstrated by the production of dairy cows collected in kud kerta jaya, which exceeds 20,000 liters per day. every hamlet in medowo village has a milk colling or temporary milk storage facility. this number represents the number of dairy farmers in medowo village. the dairy industry in medowo village is in good category. according to research by hendrawan et al. (2020), the dairy cow breeders of kud kerta jaya members showed good performance, as measured by a conception rate of 65 percent and the absence of reproductive abnormalities in general. however, the management of cow waste is still rather poor, particularly regarding cage hygiene. according to research by fawaid (2020), 69% of animals are still categorized as having poor sanitation. moreover, based on observations, the majority of farms dispose of dairy cow waste directly into the river without processing. this scenario also pollutes the environment, particularly the river that flows through the village. medowo village has the potential to be used for livestock and farms; however, the waste from these two sectors has not been appropriately utilized and managed. in fact, if the waste is processed appropriately and effectively, the residents of medowo village will achieve higher economic and ecological benefits. the processed waste can be used as an organic fertilizer that is 37 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 eco-friendly and supports sustainable agriculture. sustainable agricultural development (including regional development) is an important strategic issue that has recently drawn the interest and discussion in many countries (rivai & anugrah, 2011; sudalmi, 2010). sustainable agricultural development is both an objective and a model for agricultural development. based on the above explanation, unprocessed plantation and animal wastes in medowo village requires proper management. the shivansh fertilizer method is one of the plantation and animal waste management methods that promote sustainable agriculture. this strategy was first implemented in india and has since spread to other developing countries. aside from being environmentally friendly, this strategy is also cost effective and simple for farmers to implem ent (munandar tv, 2021). in addition, waste processed with this technology is highly helpful for plant nutrition and soil fertility, making it ideal for eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture (farming, 2021). therefore, this research aimed to determine the type and level of participation in the production of organic fertilizers to support in sustainable agriculture. several studies have demonstrated the importance of farmer engagement in implementing organic fertilizers for promoting sustainable agriculture. the benefits of organic fertilizers to the environment and the improvement of farmer groups need to be acknowledged (wuri & wibowo, 2021). using organic fertilizers by small farmers also improves sustainable agriculture (adenle et al., 2019; world bank, 2008) and food security (crowley & carter, 2000; gowing & palmer, 2008). furthermore, the application of silvopasture method is a beneficial technique for some farmers to increase farm incomes, raise animal production and welfare, and improve ecosystem resilience (smith et al., 2022). meanwhile, the research on farmer participation in applying organic fertilizers is still limited. therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the type and level of participation in producing organic fertilizers to support sustainable agriculture. methods the research was carried out in medowo village, kandangan district, kediri regency (figure 1). the research began with training in the production of organic fertilizers and then progressed to the production of organic fertilizers. the next step is to observe the participation of farmers in supporting sustainable agriculture implementation. this research used a qualitative approach with a descriptive method. qualitative studies are a type of naturalistic study or research conducted under natural conditions (sugiyono, 2016). qualitative research is conducted to discover and comprehend the phenomena of what study subjects experience and do holistically through descriptions of word forms and language in real contexts (moleong, 2021). key informants are selected through the purposive snowball throwing technique by identifying the initial key informants, namely the head of medowo village, the chairman of the kud kerta jaya, and the head of the farmer group, and then developing them until the data in the field was saturated. data was collected through in-depth open interviews, participatory observation, and documentation. data analysis was applied the method of miles & huberman (2000), including data reduction, data display, and generating conclusions. this method is an interrelated activity before, during and after collecting data in a sequence to generate general insight which is called analysis. data validation is used focus group discussion (fgd) technique. this technique is used to ensure the reliability of the collected data and to gain a more detailed understanding of the fundamental issues by discussing ideas and perspectives from the participants (wuri & wibowo, 2021). the discussion was conducted with 20 farmers of medowo village. the main topics discussed is related to: a) the problem of fertilizer needs in medowo village, and b) producing fertilizer for sustainable farming using the shivansh fertilizer method. 38 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 figure 1. study area results and discussion socialization for the production of organic fertilizer the socialization for the production of organic fertilizer took place at the residence of the chairman of the 'tani makmur' group in medowo village, kandangan district, kediri regency. this socialization activity was attended by 15 people, including the chairman and members of the 'tani makmur' group. the activity began with a guideline from the researcher's coordinator addressing the significance of sustainable agriculture and the disadvantages of agriculture that is not managed in accordance with sustainable agriculture. moreover, the efforts that can be made to ensure the sustainable agriculture managed by the 'tani makmur' group are described. figure 2. socialization for the production of organic fertilizer 39 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 after being briefed, the participants watched a movie on how the indian community created organic fertilizers to promote sustainable agriculture and how to prepare it. following the film presentation, the farmers participated in a question-and-answer session to better understand the information presented. this activity aimed to provide farmers with understanding and awareness before using organic fertilizers. moreover, it is necessary for farmers to have a fundamental understanding of organic fertilizer (lesmana & margareta, 2017; sutopo, 2017). implementation for the production of organic fertilizer the implementation of producing organic fertilizer begins with collecting fresh dairy cow waste, because dairy cows are the most widely bred animal by medowo village at this time. furthermore, collect animal feed scraps and additional grasses. the community performs community service every friday to clean village roads or roads leading to their fields. in addition to being the raw material for the production of organic fertilizers, the grass that is removed during the cleaning process is also used as an element in the production of organic fertilizers (basmal, 2009). grass is divided into two types as a fertilizer material: semi-dry grass and wet grass that has been roughly chopped, which will be stacked alternately when making fertilizer. figure 3. components of organic fertilizer from dairy cow manure and grass found in agricultural areas the following production activity is to construct a location for fertilizer fermentation using plugged-in wood poles. fermentation is produced to increase the effectiveness of good bacteria in decomposing organic fertilizer materials (anwar et al., 2008). furthermore, wire nets are installed in a circle around the wooden poles. in addition, nine doses of dry grass are added to the poles, followed by six doses of wet grass and then six doses of dairy cow manure. these steps are repeated until the fermentation space for the organic fertilizer is full. the fermentation poles are then sealed with a tarp until it is tightly sealed. after five days, the fertilizer cover was opened, the ingredients were mixed, and the cover was re-secured. the demolition was completed on the eighth day, and the process was closed again on the 12th day. in approximately 18 days, the fertilizer is finished. the fermentation period affects whether the produced fertilizer provides good results or not (soraya , 2012; widari et al., 2020). figure 4. the process for producing organic fertilizer 40 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 participation of farmers in the production of organic fertilizers to promote sustainable agriculture participation is the voluntary involvement of individuals in societal activities, resulting from an awareness of social interaction. according to cohen & uphoff (1977), participation is divided into four stages: planning, implementation, utilization of results, and evaluation. the following are the results of the study regarding farmer participation. first, the planning stage. the planning activity is a process that systematically prepares everything that will become a guide for the implementation of activities. at this stage, the importance of sustainable agriculture can be implied from the farmers' participation in the socialization of organic fertilizer production. however, farmer participation is still relatively passive at this stage. in this instance, farmers generally accept the socialization that is provided to them. according to research by wulz (1986), architectural participation is categorized as active when the ideas and concepts originate from the participant, whereas passive participants tend to accept the concepts/activities provided. hence, the form of farmer participation at the planning stage is categorized as passive because farmers do not provide ideas/concepts of the form of activities to be carried out/followed during socialization. second, the implementation stage. implementation is a process for achieving the objectives of planning, so at the implementation stage it has an important role in determining the success or failure of a program or project. at the implementation stage of development, there are several types of activities that allow the community to be involved and participate, particularly in regards to the implementation of work, as the community has the opportunity to provide support, motivation, and enthusiasm through the dedication of time, energy, and resources. at this stage, the participation of farmers is quite active. this is evident from the farmers' participation and activity in the production of organic fertilizers. this is due to the fact that farmers have been educated on the production of organic fertilizers and the importance of sustainable agriculture. in following with research by agidew & singh (2018), it is necessary to expand information on programs or activities to be implemented in order to increase participation awareness. based on in-depth interviews with key informants, it is demonstrated that the activities carried out are in line with the current work and needs of farmers (citra, 2021; kementerian pertanian, 2021; kompastv kediri, 2021). in addition, at this stage of implementation, the form of farmer participation is categorized as active, which is related to factors that affect participation, namely the work and income for farmers (firmansyah, 2009) and the driving factor for participation, which is following with the needs and interests of the community (mulyadi, 2009). third, the utilization of the results stage. community participation in the utilization of the results stage consists of implementing, maintaining, caring for, and establishing each development result, as the community is a subject directly involved in the utilization and maintenance of development results. at this stage, farmer participation is considered active because farmers apply organic fertilizers to their farms voluntarily (figure 4). based on in-depth interviews, it is shown that organic fertilizers are beneficial to farmers when chemical fertilizers are expensive and subsidized fertilizers are limited (citra, 2021; kementerian pertanian, 2021; kompastv kediri, 2021), so that farmers are actively involved at this stage. farmers' participation in participatory activities is highly correlated with the benefits of the program/activities undertaken (defrancesco et al., 2008; pannell et al., 2006; pedersen et al., 2012). furthermore, various literatures have explained why farmers choose to voluntarily participate in the agricultural environment in terms of the benefits derived from the programs that farmers follow or take part in (cullen et al., 2020). 41 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 figure 5. utilization of organic fertilizer to fertilize plants fourth, the evaluation stage. evaluation is a participation in monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the results of planning. the community is able to offer suggestions and concerns regarding the implementation of activities by 'tani makmur' group so that they are carried out in accordance with the plan and achieve the intended results. the farmer participation is classified as active during the evaluation stage. this is evident from the farmers' enthusiasm to provide input and suggestions when evaluating the manufacture of fertilizers and the application of organic fertilizers. based on interviews, it has been determined that the production of organic fertilizers provides financial/economic benefits to farmers as well as future agricultural sustainability. it is essential that farmers understand the relationship between self-identity, attitudes toward strategies, and farmer decisions in order to design future programs that will appeal to a larger number of farmers and simultaneously meet environmental policy goals (cullen et al., 2020). in addition, innovative farmers who intend to continue practicing sustainable agriculture in the future have a positive relationship with farmer participation (barreiro-hurlé et al., 2010; willock et al., 1999). the results indicated that farmer participation in the production of organic fertilizers and their use to support sustainable agriculture was high. this is evident from the forms of farmer participation discussed previously. participation by farmers consists of four stages: planning, implementation, utilization of results, and evaluation. several research studies demonstrate that not all individual/community participation in an activity involves all four stages sequentially. furthermore, the factors that influence farmer participation in the research location are determined, namely age, occupation, and income, as well as the length of working period in the environment (firmansyah, 2009). this is similar to the results of agidew & singh (2018) study, which found that gender, land ownership, and length of residence are significant variables that influence farmers' participation decisions. furthermore, the level of farmer participation is classified as good; it is also determined by the factors driving participation, namely the community's needs for fertilizers, the community's interests, and the conditional nature of each member (mulyadi, 2009). in accordance with the community's requirements, the high cost of chemical fertilizers and the lack of supply of subsidized fertilizers (citra, 2021; kementerian pertanian, 2021; kompastv kediri, 2021) make the production and application of organic fertilizers highly appropriate. farmers are satisfied because they can make their own high-quality fertilizer in a short amount of time, despite the fact that fertilizer is expensive and often difficult to obtain due to its lack of supply. moreover, the community's interest in the organic fertilizer manufacturing program is closely related to the livelihoods of the research subjects. since farmers have been accommodated in the 'tani makmur' group, each member is required to commit to the agreement reached between the chair and the members of the 'tani makmur' group regarding the production and use of organic fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. using the theory of planned behavior as a framework, a number of studies have found a correlation between farmer environmental behavior and social norms (daxini et al., 2018; price & leviston, 2014). additionally, it may be due to the fact that farmers try to avoid judgment or criticism from their peers for failing to meet the expectations of their neighbors (burton & paragahawewa, 2011; emery & franks, 2012). 42 sumarmi et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 35 -45 conclusion participation is the voluntary involvement of individuals or groups in a social activity that results from self-awareness of a social interaction. there are four types of farmer participation in the production and use of organic fertilizers to support sustainable agriculture. the first stage is planning, which is classified as passive participation. the second stage is implementation, which is classified as active participation. the third stage is the utilization of the results, which is classified as active participation. the fourth stage, evaluation, is classified as active participation. the farmer participation rate is quite high. this is evidenced by participation or attendance in activities, activity or involvement in activities and enthusiasm for activities. the government and the agriculture office have been advised to invite farmers directly during the planning stage so that they can participate in designing the program. furthermore, the government and organizations must add and distribute additional information regarding organic fertilizers and sustainable agriculture. acknowledgments the authors express thanks to the research institutions and community service (lppm) of universitas negeri malang for funding this research and the community in medowo village for supporting this research. declarations conflict of interest the authors declare that in the research and preparation of this article, there are no conflict of interests related to certain organizations, institutions, and individuals or groups. ethical approval the research has been approved by the research committee of universitas negeri malang. all research was carried out in accordance with universitas negeri malang research ethics guidelines applicable when human participants are involved. informed consent on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that all participants have been given informed consent and agreed to take part in this study. data availability data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. references adenle, a. a., wedig, k., & azadi, h. 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(2021). faktor yang mempengaruhi partisipasi petani dalam kegiatan pengolahan pupuk organik di desa banjaratma, kecamatan bulakamba, kabupaten brebes. jurnal triton, 12(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.47687/jt.v12i1.162. methods conclusion 277 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.35066 research article exploration of knowledge and community preparedness in flood disaster mitigation erman syarif *, m. maddatuang , h. hasriyanti , alief saputro geography education study program, makassar state university, makassar, 90222, indonesia *corresponding author, email address : ermansyarif@unm.ac.id 1. introduction floods are natural disasters that should be highly considered due to their threats to human lives and the economy. it is also the third largest natural disaster in the world, which has claimed many lives and properties (aryono, 2011; badwi et al., 2020; ningsih et al., 2020; rahmadani & syarif, 2020). according to law no 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management, article 1 point 1 explained that a disaster is an event threatening and disrupting people's lives and livelihoods. this is often caused by natural, artificial, and human factors, leading to life casualties, environmental damage, property losses, and psychological impacts (peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia, 2007). hartuti (2022) also stated that high rainfall caused flooding in several locations within jeneponto district, from december 2018 to february 2019. according to syam et al. (2021), one of the areas in jeneponto regency experiencing abstract floods are natural disasters that should be highly considered due to their threats to human lives and the economy. it is also the third largest natural disaster in the world, which has claimed many lives and properties. therefore, this study aims to identify community knowledge about floods and determine the efforts to increase preparedness strategies. a qualitative study was conducted in the village of sapanan, binamu district, jeneponto regency, indonesia. subsequently, data collection was carried out by observation, interviews, and documentation with various selected informants. based on the results, the following were obtained, 1) the level of knowledge and actions performed by the sapanan people was quite good regarding flooding. this was due to the experience of the community with the disaster, which they had decided to use as a learning platform, 2) the impacts often caused after flooding were the outbreaks of many diseases, which hindered the community from performing their usual activities. this was because they were busy cleaning their homes, with children consequently unable to attend school regarding the muddy state of the chairs and environment, and 3) the community's efforts to increase preparedness for the disasters included land use monitoring and prone location planning in safe areas. in this case, the level of knowledge and actions performed by the people of sapanan village was quite good concerning flooding. this was because of their numerous experience with the disaster, which they had decided to use as a learning platform. keywords : knowledge; preparedness; the community; flood article info article history received : 17 october 2022 revised : 26 november 2022 accepted : 18 december 2022 published : 24 december 2022 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 7 no. 3, december 2022, 277-291 © 2022 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v7i3.35066 mailto:ermansyarif@unm.ac.id https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 278 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 severe flooding was sapanang village within binamu district. besides causing material losses, many people of various groups also became sick and died, namely, infants, children, adolescents, and adults. most of the people in sapanan village are in a vulnerable condition due to living in a potential flood area, indicating the need for a special strategy to improve their chances of survival. in this case, preparedness is an effort that should be considered in minimizing the impact of the disaster. this effort is a series of activities used to anticipate and prepare the community for a better level of readiness in handling disasters (yulaelawati, 2008). in this context, community preparedness is needed to ensure an effective response to flooding, regarding the minimization of its negative impacts. the condition in sapanan village emphasizes limited knowledge about flood mitigation, where slow reactions are often observed due to the frequent experience of the community with the disaster. regarding the flooding incident on january 22, 2019, awareness was immediately raised, leading to the provision of knowledge about the importance of community efforts in increasing preparedness for future disaster occurrences. disaster preparedness is a fundamental need for every region, to reduce the risk of hazardous occurrences anytime and anywhere. this explains the necessity to prevent the disaster through appropriate methods, to minimize the risk of subsequent occurrences, especially human victims involvement (hoffmann & muttarak, 2017; kodoatie, 2002; narayanan et al., 2018; ronan et al., 2015; thomas et al., 2015). the prevention methods used possibly differ in each region, because of the locational geographic effects, common disasters, and social conditions. therefore, each area needs to study the appropriate method for handling natural disasters. preparedness helps the community in forming and planning the actions that should be considered in the event of a flood. this indicates that the solution and evacuation successes during the disaster are very dependent on the readiness of the community and residents. effective and efficient flooding management also requires knowledge of the hazards and risks existing in the watershed (rahmadani & syarif, 2020; simanjuntak & paolo, 2022). since all activities are often carried out suddenly under chaotic conditions during flooding, good planning, coordination, and training are then needed for an appropriate solution and evacuation strategies (hamed & rao, 2019; hirschboeck, 1988; lane, 2017) according to syam et al. (2021), no early warning system, evacuation routes, and first aid training were observed in sapanang village. this subsequently emphasized the prevention and management of flooding in the area. based on the results, the mitigation-based management system prevented and reduced the risk of disasters through physical development and public awareness about the importance of environmental protection. these reports were considered unable to completely display the flood mitigation processes in sapanang village, leading to the performance of this present analysis. therefore, this study aims to carry out the following, 1) identify the knowledge of the community regarding flooding in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency, indonesia, 2) identify the impact of the disaster on the village community, and 3) determine the efforts of the community in increasing preparedness strategies for flood occurrences. 2. methods this qualitative study was conducted between february to may 2022 in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency, south sulawesi province, indonesia, as shown in figure 1. 279 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 figure 1. study area the information sources in this study prioritized primary and secondary data. using the snowball sampling method, primary data were obtained from various informants, which contained the following, 1. key informants: sapanan village communities 2. supporting informants: village and district heads, as well as the communities 280 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 the secondary data then emphasized documents, including relevant books and literature, and related images. the collection of these data was also carried out through observation, interviews, and stage documentation. for the data analysis, a qualitative descriptive technique was used, with the model following the concept provided by miles & huberman (1994). in this concept, the experimental activities were interactively and continuously carried out at each stage of the analysis, for appropriate completion (miles & huberman, 1994). this analytical process was then accompanied by implementing a verification strategy with data reduction, categorization, display, and conclusion. data reduction emphasizes the focus of the analysis according to needs and is often arranged systematically. at this stage, the reduced data provided a comprehensive overview, which was subsequently presented with more understanding at the next level. meanwhile, the reduction stage in this study focused on skipping the informant interviews for each subject. for the presentation stage, all the data obtained from the previous level were shortly presented for easy understanding. this process was carried out by displaying a table or diagram format. the conclusions are, however, expected to answer the formulation of the study problem formulated at the beginning. at this stage, new nonexistent results were highly observed. these outcomes emphasized the description of an object empirically studied and analyzed, whose veracity prioritized the needs for subsequent analysis. 3. results and discussion 3.1. community knowledge of flood disasters in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency based on the results, 61.67% and 38.33% of the informants were women and men, respectively. this large number of women was due to the time used in distributing the questionnaires during working days and hours. the use of the snowball sampling method also affected this large value, because of the consistent recommendations of the gender by other selected informants. regarding the age aspect, the informants ranged from 24-66 years old, with 40% and 3.33% of them aged 40-49 and more than 59, respectively. for their educational level, 56.67% of the informants were s1 graduates and above, with housewives dominating the occupation aspect at 45%. moreover, 93.33% of them had self-owned homeownership status, with 6.67% being rented/contracted. based on their experience of floods, approximately 85% had encountered more than 5 occurrences while living in sapanan village. figure 2. graph of informants' dominant characteristics based on figure 2, most of the residents in sapanan village were in their productive age, with a fairly high educational level. since they have been living in the area for quite a long time, a high 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% woman age 40-49 years education s1 and above housewife owned house experience ≥ 5 floods 62% 40% 57% 45% 93% 85% 281 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 experience level was possessed regarding flood events. although 62% of the informants were women, the objectivity of the results was still not reduced. this was based on the consideration that 85% of them had sufficient experience in handling the disaster, due to encountering floods at their homes more than 5 times. according to these experience levels, the informants assumed that the flood had disrupted life, although it was capable of being handled. in this case, 53.33% of them indicated that the disruptions included clean water issues, working difficulty, and power outages, approximately 31.67% of the informants also prioritized disturbance and difficulty handling, as well as various problem sources, such as the inability to work and compulsory family/property safety. meanwhile, 15% focused on evacuation, due to the uncontrollable events of the problematic disaster or catastrophe. in figure 3, all selected informants stated that flood occurrences in their residential locations were disastrous, with 46.67% of them emphasizing their disruptions to people's lives. approximately 18.33% of the informants also mentioned that the phenomenon was a natural event causing the loss of lives and properties. moreover, 25% of them stated that the flood events occurred due to the careless disposal of garbage, with 10% prioritizing the occurrences as a puddle after rainfall. figure 3. definition of flood according to informants based on figure 4, the informants stated that floods had disrupted life, although were capable of being handled. in this case, 53% of them stated that the disruptions included clean water issues, working difficulty, and power outages. approximately 32% of the informants emphasized disturbance and difficult handling, as well as various problem sources, such as the inability to work and compulsory family/property safety. meanwhile, 15% prioritized evacuation, due to the uncontrollable events of the disaster or catastrophe. 47% 18% 25% 10% cause environmental disturbance causing property loss and loss of life as a result of littering puddles after rain 282 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 figure 4. informants' flooding experience from these results, two factors were observed to cause the flood events, namely natural and human. according to figure 5, several natural factors caused this disaster, regarding the responses of the informants. in this case, 43%, 30%, 20%, and 7% of them emphasized high-intensity rainfall, erosion and sedimentation, living conditions in basins/lowlands, and high tide, respectively. meanwhile, the human causal factors included littering behaviour, house construction on riverbanks, illegal logging, and transformational land use development, regarding 55%, 23%, 12%, and 10% of the informants, respectively. figure 5. natural factors causing floods the level of public knowledge about the signs of an impending flood was identified from each informant's response. in this case, 26.67% and 51.67% of the community believed that a heavy rainfall above 2 h and the excessive water body level were flooding signs, respectively. approximately 3.33% 53% 32% 15% disturbing can still be handled annoying hard to handle catastrophe/out of control 43% 20% 30% 7% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% rainfall lowland river siltation tide sea 283 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 of them also assumed that the signs emphasized the cloudiness of the river water, with several materials washed away. meanwhile, 18.33% believed the flooding signs were due to the leakage/breakage of the river embankments and inactive pumps. regarding the actions performed to prevent or reduce the occurrence of floods, the informants produced various answers, which were capable of describing the level of public knowledge. these results indicated that 26.67%, 20%, and 16.67% of the community appropriately disposed of garbage, cleaned the waterways around residential houses, and collaboratively sanitized the water bodies, respectively. in addition, 13.33% and 23.33% of the population planted trees in upstream areas and elevated river embankment,respectively. figure 6. human factors causing flood according to the results, the actions performed by the community were divided into three stages, namely before, during, and after flood occurrences. before the occurrence of the hazard, various actions were carried out, where 3% of the community developed a disaster-prepared bag containing important documents/securities. approximately 10% of the population also prepared logistics (foodstuff) for emergency needs, with 22% and 42% readying evacuation equipment and elevating the foundation of renovated houses, respectively. in addition, 23% of the community planned/placed valuables in a relatively safe area (23%). 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% throw garbage deforestation house on the riverbank land function transfer 55% 12% 23% 10% 284 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 figure 7. actions performed before the flood figure 8. actions performed during a flood based on figure 8, various actions were performed during a flood occurrence. this showed that 37% of the community stayed at home to maintain the safety of belongings, with 25% of them seeking information related to flooding through neighbours, handy talkies, mobile phones, television, and radio. approximately 7% of the villagers ensured sufficient food/logistics supplies, with 20% assuring the safety of all family members. in addition, 2% of the community evacuated to a safe location, with 12% ensuring the protection of vehicles. from these responses, very few people evacuated/stayed at home during a flood occurrence, because most of them had elevated their houses. 37% 25% 7% 20% 2% 12% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% stay at home searching for information ensuring enough food making sure the family is safe evacuate securing the vehicle 3% 10% 22% 42% 23% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% prepare a disaster preparedness bag setting up logistics prepare evacuation equipment renovating the house put valuables in a safe place 285 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 figure 9. actions performed after the flood regarding figure 9, various actions were performed after the occurrence of a flood. in this case, 58% of the community cleaned houses and goods from flood garbage, with 13% of them providing clean water and bathing facilities for family needs. approximately 8% of the villagers also ensured the adequate health condition of the households from the hazardous effects, with 15% sanitizing the environment from various rubbish/mud. in addition, 5% of the community only ensured the safety of the household electrical panels. based on these results, the level of knowledge and actions performed by the community regarding flooding was quite good. this was due to the numerous disastrous experience possessed by the people while living in sapanan village. in this case, the community had decided to use these events as a learning platform, to handle subsequent occurrences. 3.2 the impact of floods on the community in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency the community problems that often occur due to the impact of flooding included physical, social, economic, and environmental effects. a. the physical impact emphasizes damages to public infrastructures, facilities, and service offices. b. the social impact prioritizes health risks, mental trauma, economic downturn, disruptions of educational (children unable to go to school) and public-service office activities, as well as shortages of food, energy, water, and other basic needs. c. the economic impact includes material losses and disruption of industrial activities, such as inability to work, job lateness, obstructed commodity transportation, etc. d. the environmental impact focuses on water pollution or river vegetation damage. these results were obtained from the following interviews conducted for the informants, regarding the impacts of flooding on the sapanan village community: according to mr. hamzah karaeng lurang, "when asked about the impact caused by this flood, many people are often unable to carry out their normal activities. this is because they are busy cleaning their homes. the flood also caused many diseases. apart from the illness caused, it is normally impossible for me to attend work during flooding occurrences.” (interview, july 23, 2022) 58% 13% 8% 15% 5% cleaning the house provide clean water ensuring family health working together to clean up the environment ensure electrical panels are secure 286 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 based on jamairah karaeng sangging: "the impact of flooding that often occurs in this village, firstly, the houses are dirty due to the soil deposition. secondly, there are many diseases due to the disastrous occurrences" (interview, 23 july 2022). for syamsuddin karaeng liwang, "the flooding effects constantly occurring in this area include excess soil deposition, which leads to dirty surroundings. the existence of many diseases is also a major effect" (interview, 23 july 2022). from these interviews, the impact of flooding on the community prioritized the dirtiness of houses due to the mud soil being deposited. additionally, this disaster caused many diseases, inadequate farming processes, the inability of children to attend school, and the loss of valuable properties. 3.3 community efforts in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency in increasing preparedness for flood disasters in the sapanan village community, several efforts were performed in handling flooding, which often occurred during the rainy season. the following are some principles for actively mitigating the disaster (hermon, 2021). a. accumulate a large amount of water upstream by developing reservoirs, as well as conserving soil and water. b. absorb high rainwater into the ground with infiltration wells and provide green open areas. c. controlling water in the centre through temporary storage in a retention area. d. flowing water quickly into the estuary or the sea, by guarding container capacity. e. securing residents, vital infrastructure, and property. according to paimin (hermon, 2021), the mitigation of flood was used to reduce the risk of the disaster, through physical development and awareness, as well as capacity building. based on an interview with the binamu sub-district head, the following statements were obtained, “i, as the head of the binamu sub-district, specifically have to understand disaster mitigation, especially for the recurrent flood in the village of sapanan. this shows that mitigation is a series of efforts made when a disaster occurs. in this case, we are often invited, and we have to appeal to the public to be vigilant for flood occurrences. however, there are still some negligent people in this regard. the obstacles in this socialization process also include the lack of public awareness and inadequate knowledge about mitigation. in this counselling process, we were also effectively involved.” (interview july 25, 2022). according to suardi karaeng lira, “the actions performed during the flood were efforts to save themselves, such as running to a high place. when the disaster was over, many people had itching, diarrhoea, and lots of mosquito bites.” (interview july 26, 2022). 287 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 muhammad alwi karaeng tompo also stated the following, “the efforts i made when the floods occurred were running to a high and safe place, with valuables also protected. regarding the socialization process, i never participated because i'd rather go to the rice fields.” (interview july 26, 2022). for amran karaeng sija, “the efforts carried out during flooding emphasized protection at a high and safe place. apart from that, information were provided by the government, with the community often invited every rainy season. in this case, the government commonly state that the protection of lives should be highly considered than conditions during flooding events. although the sub-district head has suggested to the government that ditches need to be made for the river, the performance is yet to be implemented.” (interview 26 july 2022). based on these results, the efforts mostly performed by the people were running to high spaces and developing higher house foundations to anticipate flooding. 3.4 community knowledge of flood disasters in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency the results indicated that the level of knowledge and actions performed by the people of sapanan village regarding flooding was quite good. this was because the community had numerous disastrous experiences, which were then used as learning platforms for the prevention of subsequent occurrences. these results were in line with chan et al. (2014), where the greatest impact was observed in calculating and increasing the preparedness and good knowledge levels of rural families. this is because knowledge is a behavioural determinant and the mental aspect of understanding (notoatmodjo et al., 2012). the lack of this determinant regarding flooding was observed from the habits of people that did not care about environmental protection. for example, those disposing of garbage indiscriminately on riverbanks and ditches, and large land conversions -size. this was in line with dantzler (2013), where various factors influencing families were examined, regarding the self-preparation for disastrous events. in this case, the attitude of the household was a very important factor. attitude is the willingness of an individual to perform. it is also an action in determining complete behaviour, knowledge, thoughts, beliefs, and emotions, which played very important roles. in this case, two attitudinal components were observed within the family, namely risk perception and previous disastrous experiences. since disasters are events separated in space and time, some people only considered them a possibility and consequence of natural changes (erdelj et al., 2017; geale, 2012; jiang & ritchie, 2017; mcentire, 2021; raikes et al., 2019). 3.5 the impact of floods on the community in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency the impact caused by the flood in sapanan village was observed from the interviews conducted with various informants. this included the numerous disease outbreaks that prevented people from working, as most of them were often busy cleaning their homes. in this case, the daily activities of people became the sanitization of mud remnants from flooding (boardman & vandaele, 2020; de walque et al., 2017; winkler et al., 2018). according to unesco, the physical, social, economic, and environmental impacts were observed. a. the physical impacts emphasize the damage to public facilities and service offices. 288 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 b. the social impacts included death, health risks, mental trauma, economic downturn, disruptions of educational (inability to attend school) and public-service office activities, as well as shortages of food, energy, water, and other basic needs. c. the economic impacts prioritize material losses and disruption of industrial activities, the inability to work, job lateness, obstructed commodity transportation, etc. d. the environmental impacts include water pollution and river vegetation damage. 3.6 community efforts in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency in increasing preparedness for flood disasters the results show that the efforts performed by the community in handling flooding often occurred during the rainy season. this involved self-rescue, where people commonly ran to higher spaces for protection and returned to their respective homes after the disastrous occurrences. the community did not also dispose of trash in the river, with most of them working collectively to appropriately clean the water ditches. the development of permanent ditches or retaining walls with embankments along the river was subsequently proposed, although none had been implemented. this was supported by the general guidelines for disaster mitigation, regulation of the minister of home affairs number 33 of 2006, dated 18 october 2006. to reduce flooding, the comprehensive mitigation steps include the following, a. supervised land use and site planning for safely placing vital vulnerable facilities in the area. b. adjustments to building designs need to be multilevel and resistant to flooding. c. infrastructure development should be watertight. d. construction of retaining walls and embankments along the river, to reduce flood disasters. e. setting the speed of surface water flow and upstream areas is very helpful in reducing the occurrence of floods. some of the efforts needed in regulating the speed of water entering the drainage system also include the development of a dam/reservoir development, reforestation, and construction of infiltration platforms. f. dredging rivers and developing river slits in open channels, pipes, or tunnels, to reduce flooding risk. g. construction of retaining walls and breakwaters for wave energy reduction in the events of a storm or tsunami. the following are the principles for actively mitigating flood disasters (hermon, 2021), a. retain much water upstream by developing reservoirs, as well as conserving soil and water. b. absorb a large amount of rainwater into the ground with infiltration wells and provide green open areas. c. control water in the middle through temporary storage in the retention area. d. distribute water quickly to the estuary or the sea, by maintaining the tank capacity. e. securing residents, vital infrastructure, and property. from these descriptions, the knowledge of the people of sapanan village towards flood mitigation emphasized the efforts to save themselves during and after the disastrous occurrencesdisasters (during a flood and after a flood occurs). their knowledge also prioritized the impact caused by flooding and the efforts to overcome it. 289 erman syarif et al. / geosfera indonesia 7 (3), 2022, 277-291 4. conclusion based on these results, the level of knowledge and actions performed by the people of sapanan village regarding flooding was quite good. this was due to the numerous experience of the community in handling disasters. in this case, the experience was subsequently used as a learning platform for the prevention of floods. furthermore, the impact often caused after flooding was the outbreak of many diseases, which influenced the inability of the community to carry out their usual activities. this was because they were busy cleaning their homes, with the inability of the children to attend school subsequently influenced by the deposition of mud on the chairs and institutional environment. community efforts in sapanan village, binamu district, jeneponto regency in increasing preparedness for flooding, the following community efforts should be conducted in sapanan village, (1) supervision of land use and site planning for safe placement of vital vulnerable facilities, (2) adjustments to building designs need to multilevel and resistant to flooding, (3) infrastructure development should be watertight, (4) construction of retaining walls and embankments along rivers to reduce flood. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references aryono, d. p. 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(2018). long-term ecological effects of the red mud disaster in hungary: regeneration of red mud flooded areas in a contaminated industrial region. science of the total environment, 644, 1292-1303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.059. yulaelawati, e. (2008). mencerdasi bencana: banjir, tanah longsor, tsunami, gempa bumi, gunung api, kebakaran. grasindo. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0589-6 https://doi.org/10.35580/lageografia.v21i1.36127 https://doi.org/10.51171/b.v2i1.255 https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6435a2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.059 ©2018 department of geography education, university of jember 1 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 1-10 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.7845 analysis of tourist travel patterns toward health care facilities (case study of prambanan sub-district, klaten district) nida hanifah1, marta nilasari catur pujianingsih2, dea handika pratiwi3, linta alfi fahmi4, fathurohim anhari5, thoriq albayani6 1,2,3,4,5,6department of geography education, muhammadiyah university of surakarta email : kenzielittel@gmail.com received: 20 june 2018/revised: 16 july 2018/accepted: 20 july 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract one of the sectors that are closely related and reasonably determining for the growth and development of the tourism sector is the health sector. the aim of this research was toa) know the affordability of health care facilities from tourism prambanan and plaosan temple, b) to know the travel patterns of tourists headed for healthcare facilities.this research uses qualitative descriptive method by using data collection observation techniques, documentation, and data analysis using network analysis.the network analysis method that used is the closest facility.the results of this research show that a) the affordability of the nearest health service facility from the plaosan temple object is kebondalem lor health center which is traveled by 1.7 km distance and takes about 4 minutes from the location of plaosan temple, while the closest health service facility from the prambanan temple is prambananhealth center which is taken with distance of 5.3 km and travel time 14 minutes from location of prambanan temple.to be known travelers can use private vehicles at tourism plaosan temple, because the attractions have a radius of 1.7 km. while on the tourist object of tourism prambanan temple can not use private vehicle because the mileage exceeds 3 km, and b) the travel pattern of tourists to health care facilities is categorized good, because the tourists can access health services with the nearest route and adequate facilities. keywords: travel patterns, health facilities, network analysis 1. introduction the journey is formed because of the activities that are out of domiciles. that was mean, the relationship between the region of space is very instrumental in creating the journey and the pattern of land use distribution will greatly affect the pattern of travel people(ofyar, 1997). travel patterns are used to find out the magnitude of the journey from the original location (origin) to the destination location (destination), one of the travel patterns did by the people is towards health care facilities. the pattern of the journey towards health care facilities, is affected by accessibility. 2 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 accessibility of health services is the ability of every person in seeking health services in suitable with what they need. access dimensions include: physically (including geographical issues), cost, or social access. access to medical services is the ability of each individual to seek health services needed(laksono & dkk, the accesibility of health service in indonesia, 2016). health takes an important role in the development of a country. according to law no. 36 of 2009, development efforts must be based on health insight, meaning that national development should pay attention to public health so that the government is responsible for the availability of access to information, education, and health services facilities in improving and maintaining health for the people. to achieve the goal of good development required the supply of sufficient and affordable health facilities in each region. health development in every region will achieve success if the community, government, and health management agency synergize in realizing good health. health care facilities according to the regulations of the government of the republic of indonesia number 47 year 2016 is a tool or place used to provide health services, whether promotive, preventive, curative or rehabilitative by the central government, local government, and the community. the health service facility consists of several types, that is: (1) the place of health workforce practices, (2) community health center, (3) clinic, (4) hospital, (5) pharmacy, (6) blood transfusion unit, 7) health laboratories, (8) optical, (9) medical treatment facilities for legal purposes, (10) traditional health care facilities. health care facilities are used to carry out the efforts of the health services which include preventive efforts, curative, and rehabilitative programmes implemented by the government, local authorities and communities. according to (anwar, introduction to health administration , 2010), in indonesia was in general health care facilities are divided into three, that is: (1) primary health service, (2) secondary health services (secondary health services), (3) third-level health services (tertiary health services). according to law no. 47 of 2016 article 3 states, health care facilities provide health services such as individual health services and community health services. 3 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 table 1. needs of health infrastructure facilities in settlement areas no type of facility number of supporting population (person) needs per unit of facilitiy standard (m2/person) criteria floor area min. (m2) land area min. (m2) radius achievement (m) location and settlement 1 posyandu 1.250 36 60 0,048 500 in the middle of neighboring groups. not cross the highway 2 treatment of citizens hall 2.500 150 300 0,12 1000 in the middle of neighboring groups. not cross the highway 3 bkia/ maternity clinic 30.000 1.500 3.000 0,1 4000 it can be reached by public transport 4 health center helpers and environmental medicine hall 30.000 150 300 0,006 1.500 5 health center and medicine hall 120.000 420 1.000 0,008 3.000 6 clinic 5.000 18 1.500 7 drugstore 30.000 120 250 0,025 1.500 source: sni 03-1733-2004 aboutspatial regions and cities (normative views. technical) muta’ali (2013: 133134). factors that affect the low accessibility is topography, because it can be a barrier for the smoothness to conduct interaction in that area. hydrological conditions such as rivers, lakes, swamps, and the sea is also very influential to the development and the growth of agriculture, fisheries, transportation, industry, and tourism. so, the height of the region depends on morphology, topography, sea, network system and the availability of supporting facilities and infrastructure to facilitate various relationships between the surrounding areas (narsid, development geography, 1998). utilization of health facilities owned by district prambanan in the year 2016 there are 2 health center that is kebondalem lor public health center is located in kebondalem lor village and prambanan health center is located in kemudo village. one sector that is closely related to the growth and development of the tourism sector is the health sector. the health sector is important for comfort and safety travelers. travelers are increasingly balanced with the needs of health facilities. the facilities or health service facilities in prambanan subdistrict are the first-rate health facilities providing basic or outpatient health services. for that we need to note the fastest route for tourists to health service facilities in accordance with the needs of tourists by using network analysis. 4 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 according to groenou and tilburg (1975) network analysis is an analytical method used to calculate the size of the network structure and content. network analysis is used to find the shortest distance through line segments according to the length of the geometry line. data model is created by giving weight factor on line segment (road). determination of the first shortest path using dijkstra algorithm, which serves to find the shortest path from one node to the node. this algorithm calculates the route/distance of the rational basis depending on the optimization criteria selected on a route that is a weighting factors such as the length of the road segment, the time taken from one node to another node, the speed of the vehicle, the traffic density, etc(kuntarto & purwanto, use of geographic information network analysis system for route planning tourists in sleman, 2012). research conducted by kwawaqoirum m; et al (2017) with research title geometric network analysison geographic information system (sig) to know distribution pattern junior high school (smp) in part district wonogiri”. result of this study (1) distribution education junior high school (smp) in part district wonogiri has a diffuse pattern, (2) influential factors to distribution junior high school (smp) is a students, (3) analysis performed by research found that there should be an addition junior high school (smp) located in the district wonogiri which is approaching the border giriwono village, after that need to be school transfer from giripurwo village to village village. network analysis related to three major things, that is the location of the origin, destination, and travel. network analysis has the ability to perform network analysis for the purpose of determining routes, driving directions, nearby facilities, service area, and locations. network analysis providing support to be able to realistically model the network conditions, such as entering one-way street information, reversing restrictions, vehicle height limits, speed limits, and travel speed values based on traffic. the purpose of this research is (a) to know the affordability of health service facility from tourism object of prambanan temple and plaosan temple, and (b) to know the pattern of tourist trip to health service facility. determining the fastest route will affect tourist travel patterns in prambanan. travelers who understand the importance of health care facilities will attempt to find the fastest route towards the nearest health facilities. 2. the methods the method used is descriptive qualitative researchers. bogdan and tailor as quoted by moeleong, defining the qualitative methodology as a research procedure generates descriptive data in the form of words or written or oral forms of policy action (moeloeng, 5 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 2002). this research was conducted in district prambanan, central java. researchers take 16 village is kemudo village, kebondalem lor village, kebondalem kidul village, brajan village, sanggrahan village, joho village, cucukan village, tlogo village, bugisan village, kotesan village, randusari village, sengon village, kokosan village, taji village, geneng village and pereng village. this researchers was conducted for 3 months, that is march to may 2018. the data used in this research is the primary data obtained directly through observation in the field, and secondary data include books, articles, journals, as well as using the supporting sources include data bps sub district prambanan and google earth. technique of data analysis using network analysis that is determining optimal route from tourism object of temple to health service facility (health center) which will pass by tourists if need medical aid. network analysis closest facility is a determination of closest facility from one place to the destination. where the existing health service facilities in district prambanan there are 2 places namely kebondalem lor health center and prambanan health center. 3. results and discussion one of the most closely related and significant sectors for the growth and development of the tourism sector is the health sector. prambanan sub-district has cultural tourism such as prambanan and plaosan temple. tourists who visit come from local or foreign countries, efforts in anticipation of the needs of the tourists will encourage tourists to find out about the optimal route between affordable tourism prambanan and plaosan with health care facilities. tourists can know the distance, speed, and travel time, so that tourists can find out the route between prambanan temple and plaosan to the nearest health service facility. affordability to basic health service facilities that is health center in prambanan sub-district from the cultural tourism sites of prambanan and plaosan can be easily reached. here is the table of health service facilities near from tourism object prambanan and plaosan temple. 6 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 table 2. nearby facilities of the temple no object of the temple the nearest health centers distance 1 plaosan temple clinics of kebondalem lor 1,7 km 2 prambanan temple clinics of prambanan 5,3 km source: result of calculation, year 2018 based on the table above the affordability of the health facilities towards from the cultural attractions of the temples vary, depending by the relative location of the temple with the nearest health centers, prambanan temple located in the village of tlogo, prambanan sub-district, klaten regency. the nearest route to the health service facility of the temple is the kebondalemlor public health center with the distance to be reached by tourists is 1.7 km, while the object of plaosan temple is located in dukuh plaosan, bugisan village, prambanan district, klaten regency has the closest route to health service facility that is prambanan health center located in kemudo village, prambanan sub-district, klaten district with a distance of 5.3 km. the output obtained by tourists through network analysis is the fastest optimal route map between the attractions of prambanan temple and plaosan temple with health service facility of health center. the existence of the optimal route can increase the knowledge of the tourists about the distance and the nearest time to reach health facilities, with the map, the tourists can choose and know the optimal route to health facilities. the target to be achieved is that tourists have the knowledge and information related to the optimal route to health care facilities when the situation is sick and needs urgent help. this optimal route can be a reference for tourists to choose health center based on the tourist location of the temple in the visit. the results of this mapping is the tourists can easily understand the closest and fastest route for visiting the clinic that can be reached easily. if there is something urgent especially health, tourists are no longer confused in choosing the closest route from its location. prambanan temple is a tourist attraction that has enough tourists, so the health of tourists need to be considered. one of them by mapping the optimal route from the location of the temple to health care facilities based on distance, speed and travel time required. the existence of optimal route map is expected to tourists can travel calmly and have information about the route of health care facilities that can be reached from the attractions, thus encouraging the government to realize a good and affordable service facilities. tourist travel patterns toward health facilities can make it via the route. in this study, because it is used to locate the nearest health facilities from the attractions of plaosan 7 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 temple and prambanan temple, then the method used is the new closest facility. the following healthcare facilities route map methods closest facility. figure 1. maps of the route to the nearest health centers of tourism plaosan temple based on figure 1, the nearest health service facility from plaosan temple is kebondaem lor public health center which is located 1.7 km from the location of the temple. the time taken from prambanan temple to the health facility is 4 minutes. the path directed on the map through the network analysis automatically shows the route of the nearest and most efficient road. here's the route landing table to the nearest health center. 8 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 table 3. direction from plaosan temple route towards kebondalem lor community center no direction distance (dalam km) 1 go west on lain street 0.6 2 turn right on local street 0.2 3 bear right to stay on local street 0.8 4 continue on lain street <0.1 5 continue on local street <0.1 6 finish at kebondalem lor health center 1.7 source: results of the mapping closest facility network analysis. figure 2. route map of clinics nearest tourist places of prambanan temple based on figure 2, the nearest health service facility from prambanan temple is prambananhealth center which is traveled by 5.3 km distance from the location of the figure 2. route map of clinic nearest tourist placest of prambanan temple 9 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 temple. time taken from prambanan temple toward health facilities is 14 minutes. the path directed in the map through network analysis automatically shows the route of the nearest and the most efficient way. the following table direction towards the nearest clinics. table 4. direction of route of prambanan temple towards prambanan health center no direction distance ( km) 1 go east on local street 0.1 2 turn right to stay on local street 0.4 3 turn left at jalan lain to stay on local street 0.2 4 turn left ton on main street 2.5 5 turn left on lain street 0.9 6 make sharp left to stay on lain street 0.3 7 make sharp right on local street 0.5 8 turn left on main street 0.3 9 finish at prambanan health center 5.3 source: results of the mapping closest facility network analysis. based on the results of the mapping, the use of new closest facility to find the closest facilities of the incident in this study is to determine the nearest health service from prambanan temple and plaosan tourist sites, because the health of tourists at any time can be disturbed then the most important thing is to determine the nearest health facility to make it easier to travel the distance and the nearest time so as to provide comfort in tourist visits.research performed by agus kuntarto and taufik herry purwanto (2012) with the title's "use of network analysis geographic information systems for planning tourism route in sleman regency ". the type of research used is qualitative with the method used is network analysis geographic information system. the result of this research is route analysis from hotel hyat to prambanan temple obtained result that is (1) fastest route takes 11 minutes with distance 17,7 km, (2) side route route takes 24 minutes with distance 19,9 km , (3) side road side route takes 33 minutes with distance of 40 km, and (4) optimal route takes 24 minutes with distance of 18.1 km. 4. conclusion the closest route from prambanan temple that is located in the village of tlogo, district prambanan, klaten regency to the nearest health service facility is kebondalemlor public health center with mileage that will be reached by tourists that is 1.7 km and the required travel time is 14 minutes. while temple object plaosan is located in dukuhplaosan, bugisan village, sub district prambanan, klaten district has basic health service facility that 10 nida hanifah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 1-10 is prambanan health center located in kemudo village, prambanan district, klaten regency with distance of 5.3 km and with travel time required is 4 minutes. application of new closest facility to find the nearest facility of incident in this research is to determine the nearest health service from prambanan temple and plaosan tourism location, because the health of tourists at any time can be disturbed then the main thing is to determine the nearest health facility to facilitate the distance and the nearest time so as to provide comfort in tourist visits. references anwar, a. (2010). introduction to health administration.jakarta: binarupa aksara. groenou, m. v., & tilburg, t. v. (1975). network anaysis. vrije universitet, amsterdam, the netherland. kuntarto, a., & purwanto, t. h. (2012). use of geographic information network analysis system for route planning tourists in sleman. journal of the earth indonesia of vol 1 number 2, 141. laksono, a. d., & dkk. (2016). the accessibility of health service in indonesia. yogyakarta: kanisius pt. law number. 36 year 2009 about health law number. 47 year 2016 about health facilities. moeleong, l. (2002). qualitative research methods. bandung: teens rosdakarya. muta'ali, l. (2013). regional and city spatial planning (tinjauan normatif-teknis). yogyakarta: badan penerbit fakultas geografi (bpfg) gadjah mada university. narsid, s. (1988). development geography. jakarta: space. o.z, t. (1997). transport planning and modeling. bandung: institut teknologi bandung. ©2018 department of geography education, university of jember 67 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 67-78 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.7992 level of landslide susceptibility in cibal district of manggarai east nusa tenggara dominikus victorius bate1, puguh karyanto2, moh.gamal rindarjono3 1,2,3 sebelas maret university, indonesia email : dominikusbate04@gmail.com received: 6 july 2018/revised: 19 july 2018/accepted: 30 july 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract this research aims to determine the degree of susceptibility of landslides in cibal districts. the method used in this research is descriptive survey method. the population in this research is all of the land in cibal districts. data collection technique is done by using observation technique and documentation study. data analysis technique in this research uses crosstab technique. the results of this study can be seen that the level of susceptibility of landslides in cibal based on crosstab results, there are three categories of vulnerability of landslide , they are low, medium and high. low landslide susceptibility rate of 6.979,65 hectares or 64,09% is found in nine sub-districts / village. the moderate landslide susceptibility rate has an area of 3.634,67 hectares or 33,38%, in seven villages. while the high landslide susceptibility rate is found only in one village with an area of 275,65 hectares or 2,35% of the total area of cibal districts. keywords : susceptibility, landslide, cibal district 1. introduction natural disasters are disasters that caused by events or events that is caused by nature such as earthquakes, tsu-nami, eruption volcanoes, floods, dry, hurricanes, and landslides. natural disasters can give effects on the economic, social and environmental sectors. suripin (2002) defines landslides as a form of erosion where the transport or movement of the soil mass occurs at some point in a relatively big volume. in terms of movement, there are some erosion caused by the movement of the soil mass, creep, rock fall and mud flow. the mass that moves in the landslide is a big mass. therefore, the occurrance of landslide will bring victims, such as environmental damage, agricultural land, settlement and infrastructure and property and even loss of human life. according to minister of public works regulation no. 22 of 2007, the process of landslide that starts from the absorption of rain water into the soil that will increase the weight of soil. if the water penetrates to the impermeable soil that acts as a slip plane, the soil 68 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 becomes slippery and the weathering soil above. it will move along the slope and out the slope. landslide can occur if the intensity of rainfall is high, slope to steep slopes, thick weathering, rocks and geologic structure varies. land use is less suitable with the characteristics of the land (sutikno, 1994 in permata, 2016). susceptibility is a condition caused by human activities (the result of physical, social, and environmental processes) that causes the increasing susceptibility of society to harm. the degree of vulnerability can be assessed from physical (infrastructure), social, demographic and economic susceptibility (muta'ali, 2012). susceptibility is the degree which society, structure, service or geographic area potentially or may be damaged or disturbed by a certain dangerous impact due to its nature, its construction, and its proximity to dangerous or vulnerable areas (djaelani, 2008). susceptibility is a condition of a community group that leads or causes inability to face the threat of danger (nurjanah, 2011: 16). according to the regulation of the head of national disaster management agency (bnpb) no. 04 of 2008 susceptibility is a state or behavior of people or society that causes inability to face threats or danger. cibal is one of the areas that often occur landslide . recorded on march 3, 2007 occured a great landslide that cause 44 people died, 21 people were injured, 6 houses severely damaged, 500 people evacuated, along the road. there are 5 major landslide point, 14 medium landslide and 12 small landslide and total broke road. in 2016, there were 13 landslide occur in cibal sub-district which resulted in 14 damaged houses and also many people who suffered injuries . then, there were 11 major landslides and 4 moderate landslides (bpbd manggarai regency, 2007, 2016) 2. the methods the location of this research is in cibal district of manggarai regency east nusa tenggara which is astronomically located between 80 22 '52' '80 32' 50 '' ls and 1200 29 '13' '1200 30' 48''bt and based on coordinates universal transfer mercator (utm) is located between 13396556 mt 13400525 mt and 932037 mu 950452 mu. the research was conducted from june to august 2017. the area has 17 villages , an area of 10.889,97 hectares and the population is 27.482 soul. 69 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 figure 1: administration map of cibal districts 2017 the type of this research is qualitative descriptive research. the data used are the primary data in the form of measurement and observation results in the research sites includes population data and settlements (units). while the secondary data in this research is administrative map of cibal districts, manggarai regency. the sampling technique is saturated side where the member of population as a sample (sugiyono, 2016). the sample in this research is all sub-districts / village in cibal districts of manggarai regency. 70 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 the landslide susceptibility analysis only uses population and settlements. settlement is the density of settlements in areas that occur landslide. the population is obtained from cibal district data in 2016 figures. population and settlement density data were obtained from the statistic central bureau of manggarai regency. population density and settlements were classified into three classes. they were low, medium, and high class. to know the class interval of population density and settlement, it is used formula: = − 1k exp : c = estimation of class amount (low, medium, high) k = class amount xn = highest value x1 = smallest value source : (supranto, j, 1996 ) after population density and settlement, the two parameters are classified again into three classes . the classes are low, medium, and high class. to know the class is used calculation in crosstab, as follows : table 1. matrix between population and settlement density population density low medium high s et tl em en t d en si ty low low low medium medium low medium medium high medium medium high source : aditya, triyas,(2009) 3. results and discussion 3.1 population density the existence of the population is one of the parameters. it is very important in setting the level of susceptibility of landslides because community is a distinguishing factor determining whether the disaster landslide can be categorized as a disaster or just as a natural phenomenon. administratively, cibal districts area is one of area in manggarai regency which has a large number of residents. the population in cibal districts is 27.482 soul that consist of 13.588 male and 13.894 female population. 71 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 classification of population density is divided into three categorie. the categories are low, medium and high population density. the calculation is obtained by using the formula: = − exp : c= approximation of class amount k= class amount xn= highest value x1= smallest value source : supranto :1996 from the formula above, it can be obtained the amount of classes are 155 . therefore , it can be known the clasification category as follows : table 2. clasification of population density class no class of population density 1. 150 – 305 soul/km2 low 2. 305 – 461 soul/km2 medium 3. 461 – 615 soul/km2 high for further related of population density can be seen on table 4 below : table 3. population density of cibal 2017 no subdistricts/village population amount large (km2) population density (soul/km2) category 1 nenu 2.452 6,95 353 medium 2 wudi 1.477 3,55 416 medium 3 rado 1.694 2,76 615 high 4 welu 2.152 5,60 384 medium 5 barang 1.310 5,83 225 low 6 pinggang 1.452 6,58 221 low 7 golo 1.312 5,01 262 low 8 pagal 2.703 8,27 327 medium 9 gapong 1.095 3,97 276 low 10 perak 1.432 9,54 150 low 11 beamese 1.250 3,78 331 medium 12 lando 990 4,85 204 low 13 langkas 1.416 7,90 179 low 14 kentol 1.081 3,90 277 low 15 riung 2.109 13,87 152 low 16 ladur 1.965 12,32 160 low 17 goloncuang 1.592 4,22 377 medium total 27.482 108,90 4.908 source : research data analysis 2017 72 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 based on table 3 above, it can be seen that cibal has three classes of population density . they are low, medium, and high. there are ten villages that have low population density. the villages in barang, pinggang, golo, gapong, perak, lando, langkas, kentol, riung, and ladur village. six sub-distric/ villages in medium category are nenu village, wudi, welu, pagal, beamese, and goloncuang village. one village with high category is rado village. perak village is the village with the lowest population density of 150 soul/km2 while rado village is the highest population density of 615 soul/km2. population density can be seen in the below map: figure 2 : population density map of cibal 2017 73 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 3.2 settlement density the density of settlements has an effect on the susceptibility of landslide is the addition of load on the land which is in high danger zone so with the addition of this load can potentially the occurrence of landslide. the density of the settlement is the number of houses, schools, and other buildings on a certain land area expressed in units/km2. classification of settlement density equal to population density is divided into three categories; low, medium, and high. the calculation of settlement density classification also uses the same formula as population density. from the formula , it can be obtained the number of classes is 19 so it can be known classification category, as follows: table 4. clasification of settlement density no settlement density class of settlement density 1. 20 – 39 units/km2 low 2. 39 – 58 units/km2 medium 3. 58 – 76 units/km2 high for further related to the density of settlements can be seen in table 6 below: table 5. settlement density of cibal 2017 no subdistricts/village settlement amount( unit) large (km2) settlement density (unit /km2) category 1 nenu 430 6,95 62 high 2 wudi 268 3,55 76 high 3 rado 184 2,76 67 high 4 welu 322 5,60 57 high 5 barang 199 5,83 34 low 6 pinggang 265 6,58 40 medium 7 golo 225 5,01 45 medium 8 pagal 458 8,27 55 medium 9 gapong 236 3,97 59 high 10 perak 222 9,54 23 low 11 beamese 208 3,78 55 medium 12 lando 95 4,85 20 low 13 langkas 255 7,90 32 low 14 kentol 192 3,90 49 medium 15 riung 296 13,87 21 low 16 ladur 310 12,32 25 low 17 goloncuang 318 4.22 75 high total 4.483 108,90 797 source : research data analysis 2017 based on table 5, the density of the settlements is classified into three classes. the classesare low, medium, and high. there are six sub-districts / villages with low 74 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 density categories .they are barang village, perak, lando, langkas , riung , and ladur village . five sub-districts / village with medium category that is pinggang village, golo , pagal , beamese , and kentol village. six other villages with high category are nenu village, wudi, rado, welu, gapong, and goloncuang village. lando village is the village with the lowest density of settlements .there are 20 units/km2 while wudi village is the village with the highest density of settlements of 76 units/km2. for more details can be seen on the following map: figure 3 : settlement density map of cibal 2017 75 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 3.4 landslide susceptibility after knowing the condition of population and settlement, so it can be counted density of population and settlement in every village. the calculation is divided into three classes. the classes low, medium, and high class. to search the landslide susceptibility class using crosstab, it can be seen in table 7 below: table 6. class count of landslide susceptibility cibal districts 2017 no sub-districts/village population density setlement density susceptibility of landslides 1 nenu medium high medium 2 wudi medium high medium 3 rado high high high 4 welu medium high medium 5 barang low low low 6 pinggang low medium low 7 golo low medium low 8 pagal medium medium medium 9 gapong low high medium 10 perak low low low 11 beamese medium medium medium 12 lando low low low 13 langkas low low low 14 kentol low medium low 15 riung low low low 16 ladur low low low 17 goloncuang medium high medium source : data analysis 2017 based on the calculation of the class of population density and the density of settlements, it can be obtained level of susceptibility landslide in each sub-districts or village in districts cibal manggarai regency. for the class of susceptibility is divided into three classes namely low, medium, and high landslide susceptibility classes. as for explanation of each class of landslide susceptibility, as follows: a. low landslide susceptibility level (l) areas with low landslide susceptibility have little or no impact on landslides. the relatively small population and settlement density makes the area relatively vulnerable. population density in this area ranges from 150 305 soul/km2 while the density of settlements ranges from 20 to 39 units/km2. low landslide susceptibility rates are found in village barang, pinggang, golo, perak, lando, langkas, kentol, riung, and ladur. 76 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 low landslide susceptibility can occur due to low population densities and clasified settlements. the area of low landslide susceptibility is 6.979,65 hectares or 64,09% of the total area. b. medium landslide susceptibility level (m) areas that has medium susceptibility landslides are having moderate effects on landslides. the medium of population density and settlements that are making the area relatively has medium susceptibility. population density in this area ranges from 305 461 soul/km2 while the density of settlements ranges from 39 to 58 units/km2. the level of landslide susceptibility in pagal, nenu, wudi, welu, gapong, beamese and goloncuang villages. the area of moderate avalanche susceptibility is 3.634,67 hectares or 33,38% of the total area. c. high landslide susceptibility level (h) areas with high landslide susceptibility have a high or large influence on landslides. population density and high settlement make the area classified as having high susceptibility. population density in this area ranges from 461 615 soul/km2 while the density of settlements ranges from 58 to 76 units/km2. the high landslide susceptibility rate is found only in rado village. the high landslide susceptibility area is 275,65 hectares or 2,35% of the total area of cibal districts. based on the analysis of landslide susceptibility level, the distribution can be seen on the map below: 77 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 figure 4 : landslide susceptibility map of cibal 2017 4. conclusion based on the results of this research, it can be concluded that the susceptibility of landslide in cibal districts , manggarai regency of 2017. there are three classes of susceptibility, low, medium, and high. the low landslide susceptibility was found in barang village, golo village, pinggang village, perak village, lando village, langkas village, kentol village, riung village, and ladur village with 6.979,65 hectares or 64,09%, the susceptibility level of landslide is located in nenu village, wudi village, welu village, pagal village, gapong village, beamese village, and golo ncuang village with an area of 78 dominikus victorius bate, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 67-78 3.634,67 hectares or 33,38%. while the high landslide susceptibility rate only found in rado village with an area of 275,65 hectares or 2,35% of the total area of cibal districts. references aditya, triyas & marjuki, bramantyo, (2009) preparation of diy province risk map. yogyakarta: provincial government of diy & ppmu scdrr regional disaster mitigation agency (bpbd) of manggarai regency in 2017 nurjanah. 2012. disaster management. bandung: alfabeta regulation of national agency for disaster management 04 of 2008 on guidelines for the preparation of disaster management ministry of public works regulation no. 22 of 2007 muta'ali. 2012. environmental support capacity for regional development planning. yogyakarta: faculty of geography gadjah madah univercity. gems, s. 2016. risk management and landslide mitigation. ugm: yogyakarta sugiyono. 2016. quantitative research methods, qualitative, and r & d. bandung: alfabeta supretno, j. (1996). statistics, theory and applications. jakarta: erlangga suripin.2002. preservation of land and water resources.yogyakarta. 377 research article assessment of coral reef life-form classification scheme using multiresolution images on parang island, indonesia wahyu lazuardi1, pramaditya wicaksono2,* 1 geospatial information agency, bogor, 16911, indonesia 2 department of geographic information science, faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia received 26 october 2021/revised 14 december 2021/accepted 21 december/published 30 december 2021 abstract spatial information on the varying composition of coral reefs is beneficial for the management and preservation of natural resources in coastal areas. its availability is inseparable from environmental management goals; however, it can also be used as a means of supporting tourism activities and predicting the emergence of certain living species. a satellite image is one of the effective and efficient data sources that provide spatial information on coral reef variations. this study aimed to evaluate the classification scheme of coral reef life-form using images with different spatial resolutions on parang island, karimunjawa islands, central java. these images were from planetscope (3m), planetscope resampling (6m), and sentinel-2a msi (10m), whose spatial resolutions functioned as the base for building the 3m, 6m, and 10m classification schemes producing 12, 11, and 9 classes, respectively. as for the classification method, it integrated both object-based and pixel-based approaches. the results showed that the highest overall accuracy (60%) was obtained using sentinel-2a msi image (10m), followed by planetscope (3m) with 48% accuracy, and planetscope resampling (6m) with 40% accuracy. this finding indicates that multiresolution images can be used to produce complex coral reef life-form maps with different levels of information details. keywords: coral reef; life-form; planetscope; spatial resolution; classification scheme 1. introduction coral reefs are one of the natural resources in coastal areas that play fundamental ecological roles for the life of marine flora and fauna (larkum et al., 2006). if managed, preserved, and utilized optimally, coral reefs can provide many benefits for coastal communities. their exceptional socio-economic and cultural values and interests spread beyond their function as fish habitat, including abundant sources of seafood, coastal protection, and marine tourism (giyanto et al., 2017). therefore, effective and efficient geosfera indonesia vol. 6 no. 3, december 2021, 377-397 p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v6i3.27592 *corresponding author. email address : prama.wicaksono@ugm.ac.id (pramaditya wicaksono) https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5797-0284 mailto:prama.wicaksono@ugm.ac.id 378 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 management and monitoring of coral reefs are paramount to improve the sustainability and usefulness of these shallow-water ecosystems, especially when under a significant amount of environmental stress. in this situation, spatial information on the characteristics of benthic compositions and coral substrates becomes necessary (hoegh-guldberg et al., 2007). when available, this information is not only beneficial for detecting and monitoring the impact of environmental management and changes in the living patterns of marine biota due to altered environmental conditions, but it can also be used as support facilities in tourism (dudgeon et al., 2010). most importantly, spatial information on coral reef life-forms is acquired for its close relationship with coastal environment dynamics, especially with several coastal environment aspects. complex geomorphological characteristics and diverse life-form compositions can be used in biodiversity assessment. certain life-forms are also known to affect the growth and development of organisms, particularly the abundance of fish (madduppa et al., 2019), and some are highly sensitive to the coastal environment dynamics. therefore, their spatial information can be the basis for monitoring, explaining the potential of and threats to coastal resources, and ultimately creating opportunities to build and grow the blue economy (voyer et al., 2018). large-scale mapping and monitoring are a stepin coral reefs management and conservation (green et al., 2000). to meet these requirements means, among others, to utilize multispectral remote sensing technology, that is, satellite imagery that can provide an effective and efficient alternative source of data for coral reef mapping (hedley et al., 2005). since multispectral satellite images with visible to near-infrared (vnir) channels can be used to remotely characterize benthic habitats, such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, and macroalgae (goodman et al., 2013), they have been widely used to map ones in optically shallow waters (phinn et al., 2012; wicaksono et al. 2019a). the specifications of multispectral satellite imagery continue to evolve, including increased spatial and spectral resolution and higher data acquisition capacity. straightforward integration and access to multispectral satellite imagery enable its further development, in particular, applications for mapping, monitoring, and modeling for coral reef studies. such advancement can contribute to increasing the accuracy of benthic habitats classification (roelfsema et al., 2013). using different images can produce detailed information regarding the existence, diversity, and type of coral reefs, the composition of the geomorphological zone of coral reefs, benthic habitats, and coral life-form composition (goodman et al., 2013). the level of detail of coral life-form information offers depends on the spatial resolution of the image 379 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 used (roelfsema et al., 2013). therefore, each remote sensing image needs to be assessed for its capability to produce spatial information on a particular complexity of benthic habitats. several studies related to coral reefs use a classification scheme at the life-form level. for example, wicaksono (2016) mapped 28 classes of coral life-forms around kemujan island, zhang et al. (2013) used two classification schemes—namely group level (3 classes) and code level (12 classes), phinn et al. (2012) mapped benthic habitat communities with 15 class schemes, and roelfsema et al. (2013) also mapped coral reefs with a 20-class scheme. in some of these studies, the classification results do not cover all existing classes of coral reef life-forms, indicating limitations in the ability of the used images to discriminate between them. in addition, each coastal environment has different characteristics of coral reefs, meaning that any classification scheme and model developments must be first adjusted to them. mapping coral reefs at the life-form level is one of the challenges several researchers remain to experience, mainly because the model designed for a coastal environment depends on the complexity of the coral reef composition and, thus, may very well be inapplicable to other coasts. therefore, it is imperative that the role of multiresolution imagery in producing spatial information of coral reefs with various levels of detail be examined. therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the classification scheme of coral reef lifeform using images with different spatial resolutions on parang island, karimunjawa islands, central java. the multispectral satellite images used in this study are planet scope (3m), planetscope resulted from the resampling process (6m), and sentinel-2a msi (10m). despite their easy access and fitting spatial resolution for mapping the individual variation of a class of coral reefs, these images are still rarely used in detailed benthic habitat studies, underlying their uses in this research. the study was designed to assess the classification scheme for coral reef life-form mapping using satellite images with different spatial resolutions on parang island, karimunjawa islands, central java province (figure 1). parang is one of many islands in indonesia that has highly diverse coastal ecosystems and is part of the karimunjawa national park region. compared with the other regions in karimunjawa islands, parang is the least visited destination because it is located somewhat far from the main island of karimunjawa. low tourism activity has little to no effect on the condition of shallow water ecosystems on parang island. accordingly, the coral reef cover on the island remains widely diverse and preserved. 380 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 figure 1. the location of parang island 2. methods 2.1 image preprocessing the multispectral images used in the research were planetscope (3m spatial resolution), planetscope resampling (6m) recorded on april 30, 2018, and sentinel-2a msi (10m) on april 17, 2018. these images were corrected to minimize any biases caused by sensory and atmospheric conditions. in this study, the sentinel-2a msi image (10m) had the level 1c, and its digital number (dn) was converted to top-of-atmosphere reflectance (rtoa). furthermore, this image was subjected to atmospheric, sunglint, and water column corrections. the planetscope image was the sr product that had been corrected to bottomof-atmosphere reflectance (rboa) and subjected to water column correction. however, sunglint correction was not applied to the planetscope image because of a missed coregistration between visible and nir bands, entirely removing the possibility of performing this correction.the specifications of both images can be seen in table 1. table 1. specification of the planetscope and sentinel-2a msi images (suhet, 2014; planetlabs, 2017) image spesification planetscope sentinel-2a msi spatial resolution (m) 3 10 radiometric resolution 12-bit 12-bit temporal resolution 1 day 15‒30 days spectral resolution (µm) blue band 0.42‒0.53 0.45‒0.52 green band 0.50‒0.59 0.54‒0.58 red band 0.61‒0.70 0.65‒0.68 near-infrared band 0.77‒0.90 0.78‒0.90 note : for the sentinel-2a msi image, only the bands used in the study are presented, including visible – nir bands 381 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 2.2 atmospheric correction dark-object subtraction (dos) was applied in this research because although it is one of the simplest atmospheric correction methods (chavez, 1996 in nazeer et al., 2014), it produces better results than other methods (nazeer et al., 2014). dos was carried out by analyzing the reflectance of dark objects in the image, and then the reflectance value was used to remove the atmospheric offset in the sentinel-2a msi image at rtoa level (chavez, 1996 in nazeer et al., 2014). 2.3 sunglint correction sunglint is a mirror-like specular reflection on the water surface that can produce noise in remote sensing applications for mapping in the optically shallow and optically deepwater regions. this study used a sunglint correction method by hedley et al. (2005). kay et al. (2009) compared various sunglint correction methods and showed that the hedley et al. (2005) and lyzenga et al. (2006) has the most constant results compared to other methods. kay et al. (2009) also explained that the use of the hedley et al. (2005) is more suitable for mapping benthic habitats, whereas for the correction method lyzenga et al. (2006) is more suitable for use in bathymetry mapping. 2.4 water column correction the water column correction of sunglint-free images aimed to minimize changes in the spectral response of benthic habitats due to depth variations and the attenuation of electromagnetic energy in the water column (maritorena, 1996). lyzenga (1978) developed one of the most widely used algorithms for water column correction (zhang et al., 2013) and is one of the simplest methods of water column correction (zoffoli et al., 2014). this water column correction method utilizes the water column attenuation coefficient or ratio at two different wavelengths to eliminate the need for depth information and the water column attenuation coefficient at each wavelength (lyzenga, 1978). the attenuation coefficient value for each band pairis presented in table 2. table 2. the ratio of water column attenuation coefficient value for each band pair image attenuation coefficient (ki/kj) dii 12 dii 13 dii 23 planet (3 m) 0.822 0.600 0.733 planet resampling (6 m) 0.854 0.601 0.710 sentinel 2 msi (10 m) 0.7195 0.518 0.722 382 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 2.5 field data collection the field data were collected by the photo-transect method, which is very efficient in terms of cost, time, and energy (roelfsema et al., 2006). photos of benthic habitat were captured using an underwater camera by the surveyors while snorkeling in the optically shallow water. a gps 78s was attached to the surveyor and set to the tracking mode to record coordinates at an interval of two seconds, with a utm coordinate system in the 49m zone and the datum wgs84. the time indicators on both gps and underwater cameras were synchronized (up to seconds) to geotag the taken benthic habitat photos with gps coordinates accurately (phinn et al., 2012). the compositions of benthic habitat and coral reef life-forms were obtained by interpreting the photo samples taken during the photo-transect survey in coral point count excel (cpce) software. 2.6 image classification images that had been subjected to water column correction functioned as the input to the two-level classification process. in the first level, the major classifier was types of benthic habitats, namely coral reefs, seagrass, macroalgae, and bare substratum. in the second level, the minor classifier was the coral life-form, which was built according to the spatial resolution and segments of the used satellite images and based on the dominant life-form samples in each segment. in this level, the cross-classification of coral life-forms was carried out in each spatial resolution to assess whether the classification results were consistently accurate. after applying all classification schemes, the most suitable one for each satellite image was determined based on the highest accuracy produced (table 4). as an attempt to improve mapping accuracy, this study integrated two different approaches in the classification scheme, namely object-based and pixel-based (ma et al., 2017). several studies have proven that using the hybrid obia-supervised classification method can improve mapping accuracy (ma et al., 2017). the object-based approach adopted in this study was limited to the segmentation process in idrisi selva 17. meanwhile, the pixel-based supervised classification involved the use of algorithms, such as support vector machine (svm) and classification tree analysis (cta), both of which possess the capacity to provide accurate classification of remote sensing images (zambon et al., 2006; wicaksono et al., 2019a). compared with other algorithms in supervised classification, svm can produce higher mapping accuracy than maximum likelihood (ml) and artificial neural network (ann) (pal & mather, 2005; wahidin et al., 2015). cta can analyze large amounts of data with complex structures (cappelli et al., 2002 in zambon et al., 2006). in terms of 383 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 classification, cta algorithm has been reported to increase classification accuracy in several previous studies (wicaksono et al., 2019b) and provide better results than ml. in addition, the object-based image analysis (obia) relies on object characters or aspects to create classification, namely shape, texture, and relationship between objects (mafanya et al., 2017). although it can provide good mapping results, this study did not solely use obia because it lacks quantitative verification (ma et al., 2017) and is highly dependent on the developed rules when applied to remote sensing data. furthermore, designing and generating the rules requires adequate knowledge and experience, and even then, it is not easy to ascertain the error or truth of said rules. in addition, the development of obia rules strongly depends on the number of classes to be used in the classification. for instance, a high class diversity requires the developed rules to pay attention to each class, which is a lengthy process where repeated experiments are conducted to obtain a good rule for each step. 2.7 accuracy assessment accuracy assessment is an approach used to determine the extent to which a study result can be trusted. in the case of benthic habitat classification, its accuracy was assessed using a confusion matrix analysis. samples for validation were used as reference data. confusion matrix analysis offers information about user's accuracy (ua), producer's accuracy (pa), overall accuracy (oa), and kappa coefficient (congalton & green, 2009). we determined the most appropriate classification scheme for each image based on the confusion matrix results. 3. results and discussion 3.1 field data collection the field survey of benthic habitat was carried out on april 17-19, 2018, and the location of the transects for data collection is presented in figure 2. during this field survey, 1,658 samples were obtained. based on the life-form variations at the study location, the dominant coral reef life-forms obtained by analyzing the photo samples were branching, stag horn, massive, pillar, foliage, encrusting, tabular, and dead coral; thereby, only these classes were used as the training areas for object classification. however, not all life forms can be used as a single class for training areas in the classification process, except for the frequently encountered and homogeneous ones. in some locations, the life-forms of coral reefs were not always homogeneous but consisted of multiple types. 384 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 figure 2. field data collection using the photo-transect method 3.2 coral reef life-forms classification scheme the classification scheme of coral reef life-forms was obtained through the dominance analysis of each segment in the three satellite images (phinn et al., 2012). however, should the existing sample consist of different classes and has the same percentage, it is classified based on the number of classes in the image segment (mixed class). based on table 3, the classification schemes of coral reef life-forms, built from each image, have different numbers of classes. 385 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 table 3. the classification schemes of benthic habitats and coral reef life-forms at each spatial resolution 3.3 benthic habitat mapping benthic habitat mapping sought to obtain the best spatial distribution of coral reef (coral reef mask image), which was used as a basis for the classification of coral reef lifeforms. in the classification process, the benthic habitat was a major classifier that defined four types of habitat, namely coral reef, seagrass, macroalgae, and bare substratum (figure 3). the classification scheme of benthic habitat has an oa of 57-63% (table 4). planetscope resampling (6m) images produced the highest accuracy, with an oa of 63.10% and a kappa coefficient of 0.38, which was obtained using the cta classification algorithm and was higher than using the svm algorithm. the accuracies of benthic habitat mapping using the cta and svm algorithms differed by approximately 5%. the overall accuracies of benthic habitat classification from different algorithms and images are compared in table 4. table 4. summary of the assessment of benthic habitat mapping accuracy image cta svm oa (%) kappa oa (%) kappa planetscope (3 m) 57.26 0.49 61.86 0.32 planetscope resampling (6 m) 63.10* 0.38 58.75 0.22 sentinel-2a msi (10 m) 57.26 0.16 57.14 0.08 note : *indicates the highest overall accuracy judging from the overall classification schemes of benthic habitat, cta algorithm produced a spatial distribution of benthic habitats more consistently—in which all types of benthic habitat classification scheme classes classification validation bare substratum 105 119 macroalgae 69 55 seagrass 219 194 coral reef 412 437 coral life-formclassification scheme planetscope (3m) c la ss if ic a ti o n v a li d a ti o n planetscope resampling (6m) c la ss if ic a ti o n v a li d a ti o n sentinel-2a msi (10m) c la ss if ic a ti o n v a li d a ti o n branching 55 65 branching 45 57 branching 78 95 branching staghorn 15 10 branching staghorn 33 21 branching tabular 62 51 branching tabular 79 74 branching tabular 79 85 foliage staghorn 23 16 foliage 19 9 foliage 22 15 massive 54 68 massive 54 64 massive 24 30 massive branching 72 65 massive branching 36 41 massive branching 85 80 massive staghorn 47 41 massive foliage 11 6 massive branching tabular 29 22 massive tabular 24 30 massive staghorn 50 69 massive staghorn 19 26 staghorn 29 38 massive tabular 45 36 massive tabular 46 41 tabular 48 32 staghorn 27 16 staghorn 31 39 staghorn tabular 14 8 tabular 24 20 tabular 32 38 386 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 habitats were classified—and with a higher oa for each satellite image than svm algorithm, even though the accuracy difference is merely 5%. svm algorithmprovided less accurate results because several types of benthic habitats, such as macroalgae and sand were not applicable for classification. another reason was inter-class misclassification; for example, sand was misclassified into seagrass and macroalgae. sand has a spectral response that is similar to low seagrass and macroalgae due to the contribution of sand reflectance as the substrate of seagrass and macroalgae (wicaksono, 2016). also, coral reefs were misclassified into macroalgae because both objects have comparable spectral response due to similar pigmentation (hochberg & atkinson, 2000; wicaksono, 2016). figure 3. a comparison of benthic habitat classification resulted from different classification algorithms and satellite images table 5. comparison of user’s accuracy (ua) and producer’s accuracy (pa) of coral reef classes image cta-based svm-based pa (%) ua (%) resulted accuracy (%) pa (%) ua (%) resulted accuracy (%) planetscope (3 m) 80.55 73.79 59.43 89.93 59.10 53.14 planetscope resampling (6m) 83.07 73.19 60.79 87.87 61.84 54.33 sentinel-2a msi (10 m) 85.35 68.69 58.62 99.77 56.26 56.13 387 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 based on the overall results of the benthic habitat classification, the individual accuracy (ua and pa) of the coral reef life-forms classification ranged from 56 99% (table 5). the cta-based classification from planetscope (3m) was used in the masking of coral reef images or to exclude non-coral reef pixels in the mapping. although the oa of the ctabased classification from planetscope (3m) image was slightly lower than planetscope resampling (6m), the spatial resolution was higher than planetscope resampling (6m) and sentinel-2a msi (10m), and producing more precise coral reef masking delineation. 3.4 coral reef life-form mapping the coral reef life-forms were mapped by applying the classification schemes built on each satellite image (see table 3). the coral reef life-form classification (figure 4) with the highest oa (60.78%) was obtained from sentinel-2a msi image using cta algorithm and the 10m scheme, and then followed by planetscope (48.39%), and planetscope resampling (40.83%) (table 6). although the cta algorithm could consistently produce maps of coral reef life-forms with higher oa than svm, the generated classification was relatively low, in particular, because of a large number of misclassifications as a result of similar statistics between the classes of coral reef life-forms. for this reason, both cta and svm classification algorithms could not separate one life-form from another straightforwardly. the coral reef life-form classifications built from the three satellite images showed different spatial distribution (figure 4). planetscope (3m) and sentinel-2a msi (10m) images presented similar distributions of life-forms in some locations, and different spread patterns are found in some others. this similarity indicates consistency in the classification results produced using different images. the spatial distribution of several coral reef lifeforms corresponds to the theory proposed by english et al. (1994), that is, coral reef lifeforms spread following the locations of optimal environmental conditions for their growth. the opposite is true for the classification scheme built from the planetscope resampling (6m), which only has one class, i.e., the tabular branching that dominated the study area. it is caused by the effects of the image pixel resampling process from 3m to 6m. 388 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 figure 4. comparison of coral reef life-form maps with the highest oa table 6. comparison of the overall accuracies of the resulted coral reef life-form classifications the resampling process generalizes pixel values by considering the surrounding pixels (i.e., mean values). therefore, variations in the pixel values of the analyzed objects canbe very similar, and as a result, pixels that should be classified as different objects are categorized as the same object. accordingly, the image resampling process is not recommended for addressing issues of unavailable images with a particular spatial resolution due to its poor results. different distributions of coral reef life-forms obtained from the multiresolution images were potentially caused by the size of the spatial resolution itself. as evidence, different spatial resolutions have different spectral responses from the object composition. accordingly, the distributions of coral reef life-forms are different from one satelliteimage to another (figure 4 and table 7). the classification results of the satellite image with 6m spatial resolution were not included in the comparison because the images 3m scheme 6m scheme 10m scheme cta (%) svm (%) cta (%) svm (%) cta (%) svm (%) planetscope (3m) 38.76 30.05 35.32 27.52 48.39 39.45 planetscope resampling (6m) 40.83 31.65 39.91 27.52 36.01 40.60 sentinel-2a msi (10m) 39.91 26.38 46.56 30.28 60.78 42.20 389 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 generalization ofthe spatial resolution was believed to produce less representative distribution. table 7. the classification schemes of coral reef life-forms based on the highest accuracy of the maps produced from each satellite image and classification scheme (table 6), the coral reef life-forms captured in planetscope (3m) and sentinel-2a msi (10m) were best mapped using the 10m scheme. unlike in the two satellite images, the coral reef life-forms featured in planetscope resampling (6m) were best mapped using the 3m scheme. however, not all life-forms were applicable for classification. eight classes of coral reef life-forms were consistently classified in all images and schemes, namely branching, tabular branching, massive, massive branching, massive staghorn, massive tabular, staghorn, and tabular. as seen in tables 8, 9, and 10, each life-form was properly classified for each image with high ua and pa. nevertheless, overestimate and underestimate could occur. therefore, the classes above can be used in the classification schemes of coral reef life-forms in various images (table 7). table 8. confusion matrix of planetscope (3m) using the 10m scheme based on the ctabased classification result 3m scheme 6m scheme 10m scheme c o r a l r e e f l if e -f o r m c l a s s e s branching branching branching branching staghorn branching staghorn branching tabular foliage foliage foliage staghorn branching tabular branching tabular massive massive massive massive branching massive branching massive branching tabular massive staghorn massive foliage massive branching massive tabular massive staghorn massive staghorn staghorn massive tabular massive tabular tabular staghorn staghorn staghorn tabular tabular tabular classes references 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 total ua % 1 62 0 7 22 13 12 0 2 0 118 52.54 2 3 37 2 3 6 0 7 6 10 74 50.00 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.00 4 18 4 3 43 1 7 7 19 1 103 41.75 5 11 0 0 0 43 17 1 8 11 91 47.25 6 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 6 66.67 390 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 table 9. confusion matrix of planetscope (3m) using the 3m scheme based on the ctabased classification result class references 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 total ua (%) 1 46 5 6 0 14 19 0 23 0 0 8 4 125 36.80 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.00 3 16 1 48 1 20 1 6 13 6 9 0 11 132 36.36 5 0 0 1 1 16 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 22 72.73 6 0 4 0 5 3 21 0 3 0 0 0 0 36 58.33 8 2 0 14 0 4 0 0 25 26 0 0 8 79 31.65 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 100 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 100 12 1 0 5 0 7 0 0 5 0 0 0 15 33 45.45 total 65 10 74 9 64 41 6 69 36 16 8 38 436 pa (%) 70.77 0 64.86 0 25.00 51.22 0 36.23 8.33 25.00 0 39.47 oa (%) 41.00 legend: 1 :branching 4 :foliage 7: massive foliage 10 :staghorn 2: branching staghorn 5 :massive 8 :massive staghorn 11 :staghorn tabular 3: branching tabular 6: massive branching 9: massive tabular 12 :tabular table 10. confusion matrix of sentinel-2a msi (10m) using the 10m scheme based on the cta-based classification result classes references 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 total ua % 7 0 0 3 0 0 0 15 0 6 24 62.50 8 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 0 4 75.00 9 1 8 0 0 2 0 0 0 4 15 26.67 total 95 51 16 68 65 41 30 38 32 436 pa (%) 65.26 72.55 0.00 63.24 66.15 9.76 50.00 7.89 12.50 oa (%) 48.39 legend: 1 :branching 4 :massive 7: massive tabular 2: branching tabular 5 :massive branching 8 :staghorn 3: foliage staghorn 6: massive staghorn 9: tabular class references 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 total ua % 1 83 0 5 28 17 20 0 3 0 156 53.21 2 7 46 0 12 2 0 0 0 14 81 56.79 3 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 100 4 0 5 0 28 8 0 0 5 3 49 57.14 5 2 0 0 0 38 6 17 0 5 68 55.88 6 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 100 7 0 0 0 0 0 5 13 0 0 18 72.22 8 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 4 37 81.08 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 100 total 95 51 16 68 65 41 30 38 32 436 pa (%) 87.36 90.19 68.75 41.17 58.46 24.39 43.33 78.94 18.75 oa (%) 60.78 391 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 the classification schemes of coral reef life-forms are constructed from three satellite images with different spatial resolutions. three schemes of classification with varying numbers of classes have been built in this study (table 3). some classes in these schemes depict similar types of coral reef life-forms, such as branching, tabular branching, massive, massive branching, massive staghorn, massive tabular, staghorn, and tabular. nevertheless, some classes are only found in a particular scheme because their generation depends on the uniquely formed image segments (phinn et al., 2012). each satellite images of which indeed produces classification schemes with different suitability for coral reef life-form mapping. here, suitability is defined by the highest oa in each image. table 6 shows that planetscope (3m) and sentinel-2a msi (10m) images are suitable using the 10m scheme, whereas planetscope resampling (6m) image using the 3m scheme. planetscope (3m) is not suitable using the 3m and 6m schemes because the statistical value of each pixel in its segment is too precise. consequently, the same objects have varying pixel values, causing too many misclassifications (purkis, 2018). meanwhile, the 10m scheme produces higher accuracy than the 3m and 6m schemes because the classification wasbuilt from images with a lower spatial resolution (general information) (zhang et al., 2013). as a result, variations of pixel values in a segment are considered one life-form class so that the said segment can be classified according to the input sample (phinn et al., 2012). planetscope resampling (6m) is more suitable using the 3m scheme because the generalization during the spatial resolution resampling results in similarities. in this case, the 10m scheme is not suitable for use because the effect of generalization increases the homogeneity of image statistics to planetscope (3m) instead of the sentinel-2a msi (10m), even though the level of precision is different. several studies have shown that the higher the number of classes used, the lower the accuracy (wicaksono, 2016; wicaksono et al., 2019a). however, the contrary is true for this study, where the findings correspond to zhang et al. (2013) instead. they used two classification schemes consisting of group level (3 classes) and code level (12 classes) and found that the latter produces a higher accuracy (86.7%) than the former (84.3%). legend: 1: branching 4: massive 7: massive tabular 2: branching tabular 5: massive branching 8: staghorn 3: foliage staghorn 6: massive staghorn 9: tabular 392 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 sentinel-2a msi (10m) is more suitable using the 10m scheme because it produces classes that are more general than the 3m and 6m schemes. the classified types of coral reef life-forms in the sentinel-2a msi image will not be optimal if the used classification scheme is built from images with more detailed spatial resolutions. for example, if two different classes from the 3m or 6m scheme occupy a segment, one that appears dominantly will be selected over the other, creating low accuracy. on the contrary, if the used classification scheme is built from the same image, each sample of each class undoubtedly corresponds to the previously formed segments. consequently, each segment can be classified more accordingly to the input sample, leading to a higher oa than the other schemes. the selected satellite images can map the life-forms of coral reefs with overall accuracies of 48.39% (planetscope 3m, cta, 10m scheme), 40.83% (planetscope resampling 6m, cta, 3m scheme), and 60.78% (sentinel-2a msi 10 m, cta, 10m scheme). multiresolution images produce classifications with multilevel accuracy (mumby & edward, 2002), and satellite imagery with a more detailed spatial resolution can yield higher accuracy (goodman et al., 2013). however, the highest accuracy in this study is shown by images with a lower spatial resolution (10m) because the more detailed ones, i.e., 3m and 6m, cannot represent a community or a dominant class of coral reef life-forms. in addition, sentinel 2 msi also has a fairly consistent image quality (hedley et al., 2018; wicaksono et al., 2021) compared with planetscope, whose pixels between scenes are inconsistent and snr is of poor quality (wicaksono & lazuardi, 2018). based on the percentage, the coral reef life-forms are covered with diverse objects, meaning that the resulted spectral response is a function of various classes. sentinel-2a msi (10m) has successfully produced the highest accuracy, followed by planetscope (3m) and planetscope resampling (6m). the resampling process generalizes the spectral response value of the image, and the results are less suitable for representing a variety of objects because the spectral response is the mean value of the surrounding pixels. in other terms, the spectral response produced in the resampling process shows similarities among different objects. these numerous cases of misclassifications contribute to the overall accuracy of planetscope resampling (6m), which is lower than that of planetscope (3m). furthermore, the difference in oa can be caused by the quality of the used satellite image. for instance, despite the high spatial resolution, the pixel sharpness of the planetscope (3m) image is still lower than sentinel-2a msi (10m) that has a lower resolution. furthermore, the results obtained from the three satellite images have different ua and pa. 393 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 when the accuracies are compared, the cta algorithm evidently produces the best and most consistent accuracy (zambon et al., 2006) of life-form classification (wahidin et al., 2015). it allows the proper classification of coral reef life-forms in each of the three satellite images. the cta and svm algorithms produce different oa by averagely 12%, which, in terms of oa, is significant. the svm algorithm provides a low accuracy because not all coral reef life-forms are classified. on the contrary, the cta algorithm has a better capability to classify coral reef life-forms, especially in schemes that create a large number of classes. although the accuracy derived in this study is merely 40‒60%, the results are in line with previous similar studies (phinn et al., 2012; roelfsema et al., 2013; wahidin et al., 2015; wicaksono, 2016). although sentinel-2a msi (10m) can create a coral reef life-form map with higher accuracy than other images, the level of information obtained from it is somewhat general. meanwhile, planetscope (3m) has lower accuracy, but it can map coral reef life-forms in more detail and involve precise information compared with sentinel-2a msi (10m). 4. conclusion our results have shown that both planetscope (3m) and sentinel-2a msi (10m) can be used to map coral reef with higher complexity. this finding indicates that multiresolution images can be used to produce complex coral reef life-form maps with different levels of information details. in our case, the classification scheme on multiresolution images shows that the coral reef life-forms in planetscope and sentinel-2a msi images can be mapped using the 10m scheme, whereas the ones in planetscope resampling (6m) image are mapped according to the 3m scheme. parang island has eight types of coral reef life-forms that can be classified consistently in each satellite image, namely branching, branching staghorn, tabular branching, massive branching, massive staghorn, massive tabular, staghorn, and tabular. based on the statistical analysis and accuracy assessment, the maximum overall accuracies of the coral reef life-form maps produced from planetscope (3m), planetscope resampling (6m), and sentinel-2a msi (10m) images are 48.39% (10m scheme), 40.83% (3m scheme), and 60.78% (10m scheme), respectively. the accuracy obtained in our work can be used as a reference for future works of coral reef life-forms mapping. possibly, variations in accuracy is expected since coral reefs life-forms may vary significantly between areas. finally, the future availability of detailed coral reef map at regular basis will be beneficial to assist coastal manager in determining and monitoring the effective action to managed their area sustainably. 394 wahyu lazuardi & pramaditya wicaksono/ geosfera indonesia 6 (3), 2021, 377-397 conflict of interest there is no conflict of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed in the article. acknowledgements this research is funded by “direktorat riset dan pengabdian masyarakat – direktorat jenderal penguatan riset dan pengembangan – kementerian riset, teknologi, dan pendidikan tinggi republik indonesia” via penelitian dasar unggulan perguruan tinggi – pdupt scheme grant number 153/un1/ditlit/dit-lit/lt/2018. references congalton, r. g., & green, k. 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(2014). water column correction for coral reef studies by remote sensing. sensors, 14(9), 16881-16931. https://doi.org/10.3390/s140916881. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0272771413004253 https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/14/9/16881 references 52 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 52-66 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.7867 the spatial study of health condition of society towards income grade in prambanan, klaten regency ayu fatonah1, fitria febri setiyani2, hafiz winardany3, samidu4, bagas anindra murdiansyah5, fitri nur aini6 1,2,3,4,5,6department of geography education, muhammadiyah university of surakarta email : ayufatonah06@gmail.com received: 25 june 2018/revised: 18 july 2018/accepted: 20 july 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract health is the most important aspect of the human being life. a good health will affect other aspects, one of which will affect the economic aspect of the income earned by individuals.the purpose of this research is to know the correlation between the health condition and income of society in prambanan sub-district. this research uses quantitative descriptive research, with the research variables such as health data and income data. the sample in this study amounted to 2,235 respondents from 16 villages in prambanan subdistrict, klaten. the data collection method used in this research are an interview, observation,and questionnaire with the data analysis technique is a quantitative descriptive analysis which is nonstatistical analysis with a frequency table. the results show that there is not a significant correlation between health and income. pereng village has an average of "high" income with the population average monthly income> rp. 1.500.000,00 of 52.04% but has a health condition in the "medium" level.randusarivillage has a health condition in the "medium" level whereas randusari village has average "low" income with a population withanaverage income per month <rp. 500.000,00 for 44,44%. keywords: health conditions, income 1. introduction inequality and equity are commonly discussed in discussing economic growth and development. according to seers, economic development is ideal if three main goals are achieved: increased capita income, decreasing inequality, and poverty reduction (lutfi muta'ali, 2015: 142). based on bps data, the phenomenon of poverty and inequality in indonesia has a percentage of 7% yearly, which makes one of the few countries able to achieve relatively high growth rate (sudarlan, 2015). soetatwo hadiwigeno and a. pakpahan stated that the poverty and inequality of income distribution are caused by inequality in natural resources, human resources, and infrastructures, including accessibility so that people have limits in making choices that hamper their development (lutfi muta'ali, 2015: 142). sukirno stated that the growth and economic development of the region are not always followed by equality of economic development and even distribution of income (lutfi https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi 53 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 muta'ali, 2015: 153). the high rate of economic growth is not followed by improvements in the distribution of income, so the pattern of inequality in indonesia is not much decreased. the achievement of high economic growth achieved by various regions does not guarantee the creation of equal distribution of income among individuals, and often economic growth is followed by inequality in development. the most obvious inequality is the income aspect that gives rise to the rich and the poor (mauliddiyah, 2014 in handika, 2017). research conducted by budiantoro hartono showing that inequality of economic development between regions in central java province is calculated using index williamson during the period 1981-2005 shows the inequality increases. calculation based on theil entropy noted that as large provinces in indonesia classified into classes of high economic inequality (based on the value of the median of 34 provinces – to).based on research done by abdi susilo (2017), the results of the calculation of the index showed the level of income inequality williamson averaged 0.6 then district/town in central java province are included in the categories is quite high because the index the above figure shows williamson 0.5. it is in line with the research conducted by hendika alviana (2017) which shows the county is klaten regency had a rate of growth with an average of 11.37% is included in the category of being. in the period of the year 1999-2009 observations are analyzed by using the index and the theil entropy williamson, then can be noted that the level of inequality that occurred in klaten regency has a value smaller or the more equitable and stable (andi, 2012).in the year 2015 index williamson klaten 0.045 figures showedthat income inequality results in klaten regency arelow so that the construction of the area can be said to be evenly because iw is approaching 0 (abdi, 2017). the results of the susenas year 2015, ratio of income distribution gini inhabitants in klaten regency recorded of 0.35 which is included in levels of inequality are (bps, 2016). this reflects that the average income of a resident of klaten received from different income groups still evenly. revenue generated by the population will affect some aspects of people's lives, one of which, namely the aspects of health in the community. based on research conducted by ismail m (2013), shows that there is significant influence between the income levels of families with nutritional status on toddlers. instead, health will be one of the factors that affect the level of income generated by an individual. ananta and hatmadjdi stated that the high low quality of human resources will be determined by the status of the health, education and income level per capita (karma wisana, 2001). at the level of individuals or families, health is a foundation for work productivity and capacity for learning in all schools because 54 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 of physical and mental health can make someone more energetic, powerful, productive so that it can earn higher (arum, 2009). one of the indicators in describing the condition of public health can be seen from the figures for life expectancy. life expectancy in klaten regency showed figures amounted to 76.59 years in 2016, this figure has increased compared to the year 2015 of 76.55 years (hdi of klaten, 2016). health problems in klaten the most dominant among others: demam berdarah dengue (dbd) and diarrhea (health profil of klaten regency, 2016). prambanan sub-district is one sub-district in klaten regency were vulnerable to health problems, such as demam berdarah dengue (dbd). demam berdarah dengue (dbd) happened in prambanan in 2017 i.e. as many as 105 cases in 16 villages in kecamatan prambanan (achmad fadhilah, 2017). given the prambanan sub-district is one of the tourist destinations then the health problems will affect the condition of society in prambanan. based on the background, the author is interested in conducting research with the title "spatial studyhealth condition of society towards income grade inprambanan, klaten regency". 2. the methods this research was held in the district of prambanan sub-district is one contained in klaten regency, central java. this research was conducted in 16 villages in the sub-district of prambanan, there are cucukan, kemudo, brajan, joho, sanggarahan, kebondalem lor, bugisan, tlogo, kotesan, randusari, sengon, taji, kokosan, geneng, pereng, and kebondalem kidul. table 1 population and sample of the study village population sample cucukan 1.066 139 kemudo 1.609 208 brajan 944 123 joho 1.511 142 sanggrahan 1.253 169 tlogo 1.770 136 bugisan 1.216 154 kebondalem lor 2.395 180 kotesan 697 132 randusari 1.514 110 sengon 1.715 115 taji 1.009 126 kokosan 894 123 geneng 1.029 157 pereng 836 99 kebondalem kidul 1.471 122 sum 20.929 2235 source: researcher, 2018 55 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 the number of samples taken is the head oftheresearchfamilyin prambanan with 2235 samples from 20,929 population. determination of the number of samples by using the formula of solvin. the smallest amount of sample that is 99 samples contained in the pereng village and the largest that is 208 samples contained in the kemudo village. retrieval technique of sampling with random sampling. type of this research is quantitative descriptive research with data in the form of variable data onthehealthcondition and the revenue data found in prambanan. health data are used i.e. regularity in health checks, the frequency of checks, the utilization of health clinics, septictank,and water resource ownership. engineering data collection using the quisoner i.e. the data in the form of health conditions and people's income in prambanan additionally data collecting was done through interviews and observations.the method of this research is quantitative descriptive analysis with primary data about the condition and health of the revenue taken in the field. quantitative descriptive data analysis is the analysis of data in a manner described or describe the data that has been collected (febriyana, et al, 2017). presentation of data through tables, graphs, pie charts and percentage. data about the health and income obtained by way of finding the mean of each village that located in kecamatan prambanan which was later modified in the form of a percentage. the scale of the public health conditions in prambanan can be seen in table 2.2. tabel 2. level of public health in kecamatan prambanan no level score 1 low 0 – 33,33 2 medium 33,34 – 66,67 3 high 66,68 – 100 source:researcher, 2018 3. results and discussion to know the relationship between public health conditions and community income, researcher use 5 indicators, that is : 3.1 income and continuity of health check based on figure 3.1, it can be seen that randusari village has a low-income level,mostof the people in randusari village have income < rp.500.000,00 however,the regularity of health check conducted by the community included in the medium level.this shows that people in randusari village already have a good level of health-related understanding of health check.randusari village community in conducting health check 56 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 included in medium level because of accessibility to health center easy and society utilize health center in addition to treatment also to conduct routine health check. figure 1. graph of average income prambanan sub-district source:researcher, 2018 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 average income < rp 500.000,00 rp 500.000,00 rp 1.000.000,00 rp 1.00.000,00 rp 1.500.000,00 > rp 1.500.000,00 57 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 figure 2. graph of health check of prambanan sub-district source:researcher, 2018 table 3. level continuity health check no level score village 1 low 0 – 33,33 brajan, joho, tlogo, bugisan 2 medium 33,34 – 66,67 cucukan, kemudo, sanggrahan, kebondalem lor, kotesan, randusari, sengon, taji, kokosan, geneng, pereng dan kebondalem kidul 3 high 66,68 – 100 source: researcher, 2018 pereng village is a village that has a high-income level because the majority of the people have average income monthly more than rp.1.500.000,00 but in terms of health check pereng village included in the medium level.the percentage of health check between randusari village and pereng village have not significantly different.the distance between the village and local government clinic is not far away, the majority of 48.20 35.41 29.27 31.69 35.50 21.52 20.58 38.89 50.76 47.27 40.87 64.29 54.47 44.59 47.47 46.72 continuity of health check 58 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 pereng villagecommunity utilize local government clinic or hospitals when the people do medication and just a few people who do a regular health check. based on figure 3.2, taji village is the village that has the highest percentage among other villages.taji village is a village whose majority community routinely performs health check so that taji villagecommunity already have a good level of understanding about health, where the majority of taji village are people with average monthly income less than rp.500.000,00.this shows that there is no relationship between one of the indicators of the health condition of the community i.e. continuity of health check with the income levels of people in prambanan, klaten sub-district. these results are in accordance with research conducted by yuhendri (2013), that shows that there is no relationship between economic growth with public health conditions in west sumatra. 3.2 income and frequency of health check based on figure 3.3,pereng village has a frequency in performing the health check as the major is doing 1-2 times in one year.pereng village is a village whose majority of the community has an average income in one month that is more than rp.1.500.000,00.based on figure 3.1,randusari village is a village where the majority of people have low income and frequency of public health check as big as 1-2 times a year.pereng and randusari village share the same frequency of health check 1-2 times per year,but pereng village has a lower percentage compared to randusari village.this shows that pereng village health level is lower than randusari village, so that majority of randusari village communitydo not understand in maintaining health.based on that explanation may be aware that there is no relationship between the frequencyof health check with the income level in the society. this research fits with research conducted by syamsurijal (2008) with the result that the health condition of the bad influence towards increasing income per-capita in south sumatra. 59 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 figure 3. frequency of health check source: researcher,2018 3.3 income and utilization of health center based on figure 3.1 pereng village is a village whose majority of the community has a high-income level and randusari village is the village that most of the people have a low-income level. 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 cucukan kemudo brajan joho sanggarahan tlogo bugisan kebondalem lor kotesan randusari sengon taji kokosan geneng pereng kebondalem kidul frequency of health check frequency of health check > 6 times frequency of health check 5-6 times frequency of health check 3-4 times frequency of health check 1-2 times 60 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 figure 3.4 graph of utilization level of health center of prambanan sub-district source: researcher,2018 table 4. level of health center utilization no level score village 1 low 0 – 33,33 2 medium 33,34 – 66,67 tlogo, bugisan, sengon 3 high 66,68 100 cucukan, kemudo, brajan, joho, sanggrahan, kebondalem lor, kotesan, randusari, , taji, kokosan, geneng, pereng dan kebondalem kidul source: researcher,2018 the randusari and pereng villages in utilizing health center are at a high level,but the utilization of the health center in randusari village is higher than that of perengvillage.the percentage difference between the utilization rate between randusari village and pereng village is 4.24%. this can know that randusari community whose community mostly have low income is fewer rp.500.000,00 prefer to take advantage ofthehealth center more affordable compared to the cost in hospital or clinic. 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 health center except health center 61 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 table 5. utilization rate other than health center no level score village 1 low 0 – 33,33 kotesan 2 medium 33,34 – 66,67 kemudo, brajan, sanggrahan, tlogo, bugisan, randusari, sengon, taji, pereng 3 high 66,68 100 cucukan, joho, kebondalem lor, kokosan, geneng, dan kebondalem kidul source: researcher,2018 pereng villagecommunity in utilizing health facilities in addition to health centers such as clinics or hospital are included in a high level,while for the randusari village included in the medium level.this shows that the majority of pereng village community have high income is more than rp.1,500.000,00 also take advantage of health facilities such as clinics or hospitals in a high level because the people have a high income as well.this shows that there is no relationship between the utilization of health center with the income levels of people in prambanan, klaten sub-district. these results are in accordance with research conducted by yuhendri (2013) that shows that there is no relationship between economic growth with public health conditions in west sumatra. 3.4 income and ownership septictank based on figure 3.1, it can be seen that randusari village has a low-income level,most of the people in randusari village have income <rp.500.000,00 however,90% of people have their own septictank and are included in the high level.this demonstrates that people in randusarivillage already have a good level of health-related understanding.pereng village is a village that has high-income level because the majority of the people have average income monthly more than rp.1.500.000,00 with the income the majority of the people have septictank own only 2.20% of people who do not have septictank own.this shows that people in pereng village have a high awareness of the importance of maintaining environmental health and personal health.the percentage of ownership of septictank in randusari village and pereng village has a difference that is not too far that is equal to 7.98%, pereng village is higher than randusari village.this is 62 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 proportional to the average income in pereng village which is higher than randusari village.based on that explanation may be aware that there is no relationship between ownership of septic tank which is one indicator that is used to find out the condition of public health with income levels in the community prambanan. this research fits with research conducted by syamsurijal (2008) with the result that the health condition of the bad influence towards increasing income per-capita in south sumatra. figure 3.5 graph of ownership septictank source: researcher,2018 3.5 income and water resources based on figure 3.6, both randusari villagehas the lowest average income and pereng village which has the highest average income equally utilizes the well water used in daily life.this shows that the need for understanding to the community about the water resources that are suitable for use because not all well water is suitable for use is mainly used as drinking water.this shows that there is no relationship between community health condition with an indicator of use of water sources with the people's income level in prambanan, klaten. these results are in accordance with research conducted by yuhendri 99.28 98.56 99.19 99.30 83.43 72.93 64.48 93.33 89.39 90.00 93.91 88.89 99.19 98.09 97.98 100.00 ownership septictank 63 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 (2013) that shows that there is no relationship between economic growth with public health conditions in west sumatra figure 3.6 graph of prambanan sub-district water resources source: researcher,2018 based on figure 3.7and 3.8 can be known the level of public health andincome in prambanan, klaten.joho village, kebondalem lor village,and geneng village are a village has a high level of health conditions while kotesan village and tlogo village are a village which is included in the low categories. the lowest average income in the prambanan sub-district is in randusari village, while pereng village is a village that has average income communities included in the categories high 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 water resources water resources "pam" water water resources well water water resources the others 64 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 figure 3.7map of level health conditions source: researcher,2018 figure 3.8map of level income source: researcher,2018 65 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 4. conclusion pereng village is a village with high average income,but the health condition in pereng village is included in the medium category.randusari village is a village with low average income, but randusari village health condition is included in the medium category.thus, it can be concluded that there is no relationship between income and health because high income is not necessarily the condition or condition in the region is high. references alviana, hendika. 2017. the development of the economic potential of the local areas to reduce the gap in growth between subdistrict in sukoharjo regency years 20102015. [article scientific publications]. surakarta: muhammadiyah university of surakarta atmawikarta, arum. (2009). "a health investment for economic development". bappenas: director of community health and nutrition bps klaten regency. (2016). human development index klaten 2016. klaten regency and klaten: bps/bps-statistics of klaten regency. bps klaten regency. (2016). sub prambanan in number 2016. klaten regency and klaten: bps/bps-statistics of klaten regency. fadhilah, achmad. spatial analysis of the level of insecurity dengue feverfor priority handling system using geographical infromasiprambanan sub-district klaten regency. analysis of the spatial level, 295-305. hartono, budiantoro. (2008). analysis of the imbalance of economic development in the province of central java. [thesis]. semarang: university of diponegoro klaten regency. (2015). community health profile klaten 2015. head of department: klaten regency. ismail m. (2013).the influence of family income level, education level of the mother and the mother's employment status for nutritional status in the district of darul makmur, nagan raya regency [thesis]. university of teuku umar. muta'ali, lutfi. 2015. the regional analysis techniques for planning regions, spatial, and environment. yogyakarta: faculty of geography gadjah mada university, publisher. 66 ayu fatonah, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 52-66 putra, andi nepiertanta. (2012). economic growth imbalances between klaten regency in central java province year 1999 – 2009 [thesis]. yogyakarta: atma jaya university of yogyakarta sudarlan. (2015). economic growth, inequality,and poverty in indonesia. journal exists, vol 11 (1), 3036-3213 susilo, abdi. (2017). analysis of economic growth and inequality of income distribution between the central java regency [thesis]. surakarta: muhammadiyah university of surakarta. syamsurijal. (2008). the influence of the level of health of the revenue capita growth rate against in south sumatra. journal of economics and development policy, vo1 6 (1), 1-9. wisana, i dewa gede karma. (january 2001). health as an investment. journal of economics and the development of indonesia, vol. 1 (1), 42-51. yuhendri. (2013). influence the quality of education, health,and investment towards growth of west sumatra[article publication]. padang: state university of padang yuliartika, febriyana niken., larasati, dheya amalia., sehan, septia mahadeka putri., okctaviana, angel., alfredo, septian briantama., (2017). study of the level of knowledge of early warning systems individual and household in the face of devastating earthquake in wonogiri. presented at the national seminar on geography ums 2017, surakarta, central java, may 22, 2017 146 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 146-162 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.7808 doi : investigated the implementation of map literacy learning model nuansa bayu segara1, enok maryani2, nana supriatna3, mamat ruhimat4 1faculty of teacher training and education, swadaya gunung djati university (unswagati) cirebon, indonesia 2,4department of geography education, indonesia university of education, bandung, indonesia 3department of social science education, indonesia university of education, bandung, indonesia email : nuansasegara88@gmail.com received: 10 june 2018/revised: 17 july 2018/accepted: 18 august 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract this article presents the results of the first implementation of map literacy learning model in middle school classes this is the preliminary test. the implementation of this learning model will gain optimal results when it is conducted by following all the component of the model such as the syntax, theoretical framework, social system, teachers' roles, and support system. after the model implementation has been completed, the results showed that there was significantly different in students' spatial thinking skills before and after the treatment. however, the implementation also revealed that the model has some technical issues and thus to be improved. in a social system revision, the teacher has to be flexibly provide scaffolding every time he/she sees that the students need it. teacher's book is significantly important to help a teacher lead the learning process. after improvement of the model has been completed, then it is ready to be implemented in the main field testing stage. keywords: map literacy, social studies learning, spatial thinking 1. introduction social studies in schools requires innovations tailored to millennial needs. the digital literacy era directs humans to be able to understand information in various forms. graphs, diagrams, timelines, and maps are a means of delivering information that is considered efficient in disseminating data. ips has the opportunity to facilitate learners to learn the skills needed this century. social studies learning is an integrated multidisciplinary learning to prepare learners to be competitive citizens (brophy & alleman, 2009; ncss, 2016). learners are prepared to have various skills aiding them in carrying out daily activities. thatrequired skill is spatial thinking. over the last decade, spatial thinking has become an intriguing and intensively studied topic. there is a development of the term from spatial thinking into geospatial thinking (huynh & sharpe, 2013; ishikawa, 2012; verma, 2014). geospatial thinking focuses on spatial skills associated with the earth's surface as https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi mailto:nuansasegara88@gmail.com 147 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 space. conceptually, this skill is very appropriate to be taught in social studies education. spatial thinking is very important because it is needed in various activities and daily mobility, workplace and science (national reseach council, 2006). this skill is important to be mastered by students early on, because it will make it easier for them to travel, to understand the space in mall, market, game room, tourist attraction, therefore preventing them from getting lost. work in the current era also increasingly requires spatial thinking, such as architects, scientists, geologists, engineers, surveyors, etc. in addition, the development of science also requires spatial thinking, such as astronomy, geology, geography or even social science research (logan, 2012; logan, at al., 2010). the spatial thinking concept referred to in this article is the knowledge, skills and cognitive operations associated with the use of spatial concepts, the representation of tools and reasoning processes in a geographic context. (huynh & sharpe, 2013; national reseach council, 2006). spatial thinking is an integral part of everyday activities, human, natural objects, man-made objects exist in one unity of space, the interaction between humans requires an understanding of location, distance, spatial patterns, clues and other space concepts (national reseach council, 2006). the development of spatial thinking can be done through increasing the map literacy. this skill becomes one of the competencies that must be achieved in the social studies curriculum in indonesia, this learning has the opportunity to explore students' skills in reading, interpreting, analyzing and using maps. the social studies curriculum in indonesia as an interdisciplinary study (geography, sociology, history, economics) has the opportunity to develop spatial thinking skills. the learning requires comprehensive innovation and can be utilized practically in an effort to develop that skill. the very possibility of innovation required and appropriate to the nation's culture is to develop a cooperative learning model. this is consistent with several recommendations, spatial thinking and map literacy development based on cognitive social developmentlearning theory, which is presented in cooperative learning (adeyemi & cishe, 2015; gauvain, 1993; verma, 2014; wiegand, 2006 ). the recommendations and views of these scientists form the basis for developing a model of map literacy learning based on vygotsky's cognitive social learning theory. the result of requirement analysis strongly supports the development of learning model that utilizes the map as media and learning resources, social studies teachers in cirebon city still find it difficult to make integrated social studies learning based on four disciplines of social sciences (geography, economy, history, and sociology) to become the main core in social studies curriculum in indonesia. teachers need an social studies learning 148 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 platform that is able to integrate content from social science disciplines. by using maps will be ideal and optimal if integrated into a social science or multidiscipline (bednarz, at al., 2006; hribar, 2015). social studies teachers in cirebon city have 77,6% confidence that learning by using a map as media and learning resource can make social studies more integrated. they are convinced that map literacy will accommodate content derived from social studies classes. other results of the analysis reinforce that map literacy learning model needed is described as follows: 1) the majority of social studies teachers mostly usediscussion or cooperative learning method in the classroom; 2) the majority of teachers stated, that learners are very positive ona discussion or cooperative learning model. these results exhibit that learning-oriented towards cognitive development through social interaction is very relevant to be developed. for that, it is appropriate that the map literacy learning model is based on vygotsky's grand-cognitive theory. socio-cultural cognitive development vygotsky is the part of constructivism educational approach. in constructivism, student collaborative, small group works, social interaction between students and teacher or peer learner are accentuated (durmuş, 2016). the main focus of this research is to ensure that map literacy learning model and its components such as syntax, social systems, teacher roles and support systems (joyce, at al., 1978) are implemented optimally. to identify the deficiencies or weaknesses in the learning model so that it can be improved or refined. learning process technique will also be a concern because it is possible that there is a difference in teacher’s perception regarding model implementation procedure. in addition, to determine whether the map literacy learning modelis able to achieve instructional impact, namely to develop spatial thinking skills. 2. the methods 2.1 experiment design the preliminary test uses a one-group pretest-posttest design pre-experimental procedure in three steps (gall, at al., 2003): 1) administration of a pretest measuring the dependent variable; 2) implementation of the experimental treatment (independent variable) for participants: and 3) administration of a pretest measuring the dependent variable. the effects of the experimental treatment are determined by comparing the pretest and posttest scores. treatment will be done three times. each completed treatment will be evaluated and improved. so teachers participating in this test will get input and criticism after the treatment, 149 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 as one of the main focuses of this preliminaryexperiment is to refine the map literacy model to be ready for a wider test. 2.2 sample the test was conducted in one of state junior high school cirebon, indonesia. schools are chosen because of the learners characteristic that matches the criteria required for examination. because in general, this school is not a pre-eminent school. being in the suburbs, this school belongs to the middle class. the population in this test is all students of state junior high school cirebon. samples were taken purposively taking into account learners characteristics.class vii-f with the number of 34 students were selected. according to teachers who carry out the test, learners characteristic in this class tend to be passive and not enthusiastic when teachers innovate in the learning process. at first, the teacher hesitated to choose this class as a test subject, but because it was convinced that the criteria fit perfectly with the needs of the test, the teacher finally agreed. 2.3 data analysis worksheet are designed for active learners to work out group (task) challenges. the results of the learners' performance during the learning process were analyzed through descriptive statistics. furthermore, data analysis techniques are performed to see the improvement of spatial thinking skills by testing the n-gain. a paired t-test was performed to test the effect of the model to improve spatial thinking skills. prior to that, there will be a pre-requisite test of normality and homogeneity. test normality was conducted usingshapiro-wilktest and homogeneity by doing levine test. 3. results and discussion 3.1 map literacy learning model the map literacy learning model is a product developed in this study. model development was conducted because ips learning in indonesia requires an applicative and practical platform for classroom practice. model design is based on a deep literature review of spatial thinking skills developed in the classroom and adapts to social studies learning needs that are factually identified through need assessment. the learning model is a series of learning activities pattern designed to achieve certain goals. map literacy study is designed to achieve the specific goal of spatial thinking skills development. a learning pattern that 150 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 focuses on map usage in social studies learning is structured systematically into a map literacy learning model, defined as, "the sequence of learning activities in social studies learning is consistent and focused on using and utilizing maps as media and learning resources designed to develop spatial thinking skills." model syntax consists of four steps, namely: primitive literacy, orientation, association, and reflection. the primitive literacy is the first stage in this model. at this stage, students will actively observe the map. the basic question that guides students in this stage is "what's seen?". they will identify the location, symbol, place identity, magnitude on the map. the stages are expected to maximize the literacy capability of the map and the concept of space. then they interpret the spatial information on the map and match it to the symbol contained in the legend. the second stage is "orientation", students will be given direction about the purpose and use of maps in learning. after learning the purpose of learning and the use of maps, students are asked to perform tasks that are appropriate for that purpose. assignments are related to the development of cognitive processes associated with the concept of space on the map. the third is the "association" stage, where students develop interactive thinking processes. students will be given a difficult task, and provide an opportunity to complete it in groups. exploration of cognitive development will occur through the social interaction that occurs during this stage. the social system formed in this model is the development of knowledge through social interaction, thus creating a learning environment. the role of teachers is very important as a facilitator, mediator, tutor, and motivator during the process of learning model implementation. teachers will be instrumental during the learning process. the teacher's most important role is to provide scaffolding to students in need. although the implementation of learning is done in groups, students will still need scaffolding from teachers to achieve learning objectives. in addition, teachers play a role in maintaining zpd learners. this is necessary so that students continue to maintain a sense of curiosity and have the motivation to learn, therefore creating better cognitive development. bringing tasks that need to be solved together encourage better development of students' thinking skills (cohen, at al., 2010). zpd based on the collaboration of social interaction with teachers will be better than what can be achieved alone (abbasnasab, at al., 2012; fani & ghaemi, 2011). through map literacy learning model, social studies learning will become powerful. so in the learning activity, learners will actively use the map in social studies learning. the map used exhibits the location around the student's residence, with the process, makes it 151 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 possible to realize active, integrated, value-based, meaningful and challenging social studies learning, therefore powerful learning is realized. the development of map literacy skills will be very significant in the implementation of this model. this means that learners will be able and accustomed to read, interpret, analyze, draw and use the map actively. supported on the assumption that the literacy of the map will improve one's spatial thinking ability (bednarz et al., 2006; uttal, 2000), it is most relevant if the instructional objective of this model is to develop spatial thinking skills. 3.2 model treatment model implementation was planned to be completed in three meetings. basic competencies in the three meetings are "understanding the concept of space (location, distribution, potential, climate, earth form, geology, flora, and fauna) and inter-space interaction in indonesia and its impact on human life in economic, social, and education ". this is adapted to the instructional objectives in this research namely spatial thinking skills. the material discussed and the learning objectives of each meeting will be different. obviously, that goal will be aligned with indicators of spatial thinking skills, namely: the concept of space; tools of representation, and reasoning process (national reseach council, 2006). treatment was conducted three times, with the hope that learners will gradually build and develop those skills through learning map literacy. the first treatment aimed to build an understanding of map concept, as well as improving the basic literacy skills such as reading, interpreting and analyzing maps. the second meeting focuses on the introduction of the contour line to understand the altitude of a place on the map. the third meeting is the development of map analysis skills and their relationship to spatial information. each meeting is reflected together with the model teacher. the goal is to find the best implementation of the map literacy learning model, as well as to receive input and criticism from the teacher for the basic refinement of the model under test. the first treatment did still experience a number of deficiencies in the implementation. teachers revealed several obstacles encountered during the preliminary test process, namely: • teachers are still confused in carrying out the stages in the map literacy learning model. • the map media used was not printed well, therefore learners have difficulties in working on the challenges that teachers provide through the worksheet. 152 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 • learners are very slow in performing the task given by the teacher, therefore not all the steps of map literacy learning was achieved. researchers conducted theoretical and practical studies on learning models related to the development of the map literacy model. the main focus is the adjustment of the vygotsky theory (the main theory of developing a map literacy model) with technical learning in the classroom. the most important conclusion of these search results is improvements in the social system of the map literacy learning model. at the first meeting, students are asked to work individually, but they are difficult and ultimately unable to solve the challenge, for which the social system needs to be changed, that is by asking learners to establish social interaction organized by a leader and do direct scaffolding in the first stage of learning. scaffolding conducted in the learning process is done by the leader to its members, or fellow group members and teachers to learners. scaffolding is done to help learners gain meta cognition maximally (joyce, at al., 2009). the form of scaffolding provided is to help in accordance with what the learners need or to observe the will and effort of the learners and provide light help if the student is in doubt, the teacher will give encouragement. teachers will continue to provide motivation and encouragement to learners to train their skills in map literacy. teachers should continue to provide encouragement and motivation for students to collaborate in solving the challenges provided. learners need to be constantly reminded to form a learning community in the process of learning map literacy. teachers will conduct personal a worksheet to all learners in the classroom to continuously provide the necessary assistance and encouragement. the proximal development zone will also continue to be monitored by teachers and group leaders. learners will continue to get challenges in the form of tasks available on the worksheet. teachers will continue to encourage learners to rise to higher levels in map literacy learning. challenges from one stage to another are increasingly difficult and there is a need for cooperation between them, hence creating a learning society. the following is the formulation of constraints and improvement plans that will be made in the second preliminary test. 153 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 table 1. the first meeting model test improvement plan no first preliminary test constraints second preliminary test improvement plant 1 apperception caused the learners to be not prepared teachers explore learners' knowledge more contextually, such as asking for interesting locations, tour activity activities, and other activities that require maps. or 2 incomplete learning model syntax due to time constraint teacher brings learners into a challenging game (tasks). teachers manage time effectively at each learning step. teachers condition learners effectively in the process of group formation. 3 slow and incomplete student work execution in every learning step. tasks were conducted in groups, led by a group leader to manage the discussion process. teachers provide scaffolding (assistance) in assignments at every learning step. teachers provide direction for learners to optimize the "difficulty notes" column in the worksheet. teachers remind the learners to be quicker and more focused on the task. 4 first worksheet design is less communicative. improved worksheet format in the first task. the map media is further clarified and eliminated the map elements causing difficulty on the learners part. after formulating improvement plans in the next learning process, researchers and teachers discuss the formulation. researchers reveal what improvements need to be done so that the process of learning the literacy model goes well and achieves the learning objectives. the planned improvements comprised almost all components of the learning model, such as the syntax implementation process, the built social system, the role of the teacher, and the support system. the teacher wisely reflects on the shortcomings that exist in the learning process in the first test and is ready to improve in accordance with the reform plans that have been formulated. the researcher reflects and evaluates the implementation of the second test. there following are several improvement needs to be undertaken at the third meeting related to, apperception, social system (group leader determination), syntax (challenge review did regularly and accommodate all learners), support system (use of column note difficulties on worksheet needs to be optimized and monitored). the following are details on improvement plan that will be made in the thirdtest. improved plans are then submitted to teachers for study. the teacher openly accepted the improved plan. preparation is then done by teachers to continuously improve the quality of map literacy learning in various aspects, both technical and non-technical. teachers who have been assessed on learners’ 154 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 performance will know who or which group needs more help and which ones already have the independence in learning. table 2. second test model improvement plan no second preliminary test constraint third preliminary test improvement plan 1 apperception regarding lesson context is not relevant to students daily activity. apperception is expected to be more contextual and associated with the participants' daily activities. learners are reminded of materials learned during the previous meeting. 2 the group leader has not played an active role in assisting members experiencing difficulty the teacher determines group leader according to his / her abilities.teachers motivate and counsel to establish cooperation and help each other in the learning process. 3 the "difficulty note" column is not yet optimally used. the teacher emphasizes how important the difficulty note is used.teachers monitor the use of difficulty notes in the learning process. 4 the material notes that suggest the study’s main purpose are not optimal. the teacher reminds the completeness of the learner's notes in the worksheet.monitoring is done by group members. 5 the absence of a review of joint tasks between learners and teachers before study period ends teachers and learners conducted the review on task item during the reflection process. the shortcomings that exist in the implementation of the third meeting model are taken into notes. researchers formulated solution afterward. improvements that need to be done at the fourth meeting is only a technical implementation on learning process to improve learning quality. in general, the implementation of learning in the last two meetings exhibits a positive trend almost in the overall model structure, such as the social system, the role of an optimal teacher, complete syntax, and support systems. the main goal of improvement at the fourth meeting is to increase the participation of learners in the association process. through the process of association, the learners will develop the knowledge and ability to think on a higher level. interactions built between group members are also expected to form a learning community. learners will be familiar with the process of asking, expressing opinion and argument, as well as seeking answers together. through such a process their abilities in map literacy and spatial thinking ability will flourish. after the formulation of the improvement plan is completed, the researcher sends the formula to the teacher. teacher asks a few examples of learning types. the researcher gives an explanation to the teacher of the technique model practiced in the implementation of the fourth test. teachers and researchers make the necessary preparations for the implementation of the test, after all, is completed, then the process of conducting fourth test learning model begins. 155 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 table 3. third test model improvement plan no third preliminary test constraint fourth preliminary test improvement plan 1 discussion process has not run optimally, some groups help each other by giving a direct answer, not teaching each other. teachers remind learners to work together with each other instead of providing answers directly.teachers continue to motivate learners to continue to help each other and communicate at each stage of learning. 2 learners do not know the learning stage. at the second meeting, the teacher has written step by step learning model. it should be rewritten at the fourth meeting. 3 at the "association" stage the teacher has not involved each group to actively give an opinion, exhibiting their work result. when re-discussing conducted tasks teachers appoint the group in turns of their work and ask the whole group whether there are similarities and differences in their work. model implementation at the fourth meeting runs as expected. the entire syntax is very well passed. significant improvement is exhibited in the interaction between learners. some of the group members who were passive in previous discussions began to exhibit courage to argue and define attitudes in answering group tasks. teachers already understand the role in the implementation of this model. the role of the facilitator is clear in helping learners to understand the built knowledge. teachers acts as a facilitator during discussion process as reflection stage took place. implementation of map literacy learning processwas conducted in four meetings. the second meeting is the repetition of the first meeting. during this process, learners work on the challenges provided through the worksheet. learners work result is one of observers’ assessment factor in this research. 3.3 learning process achievement maps literacy learning process was conducted in groups. performance assessed is done individually whereas for the description exhibitted in this discussion was based on the group work. this performance achievement is the accumulation of correct answers from the worksheet done by learners during the learning process. the following are achievements of the learning process in the three meetings conducted in a preliminary test of the learning model. 156 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 table 4. learners performance achievementduring learning process group achievement process (%) treatment 1 treatment 2 treatment 3 ∑ 1 48,72 69,23 85,42 67,79 2 53,85 70,77 92,71 72,44 3 65,38 68,27 88,54 74,06 4 72,31 57,69 89,17 73,06 5 56,73 67,95 91,67 72,12 6 61,54 73,08 78,88 71,17 7 53,85 48,08 83,33 61,75 ∑ 58,91 65,01 87,10 70,34 source: research result 2017 the average performance outcomes of the learning process undertaken on tests confined to three meetings exhibit an increasing trend. the first meeting, the accumulative performance achievement class only reached 58.91%. the second meeting was the improvement of the learner's performance during the map literacy learning process with the achievement of 65.01%. the increase occurred again in the third meeting with the achievement of the learners' performance at 87.10%. average achievement during the implementation was 70.34%. this means that the learners in the test subject class during the test process successfully worked out 70.34% of all challenges provided correctly. considering performance results that improved at each meeting, very directly proportional to the interaction built-in groups. the group interaction in each meeting has increased, as seen from the higher class participation from the first meeting until the third meeting. leaders who become facilitators in the discussion process are also quite instrumental in building social interaction. in general, the interaction formed to build knowledge is going according to plan. there are only two groups with low social interaction. based on the observations of teachers and researchers there are two weaknesses when the group conducts discussions. first, the group leader took a less active role in motivating group members to think in solving the challenge. second, group members do have capabilities that are under the leader, work progresses slowly, even though they seem to be trying to solve it. special notes that need attention in implementing the literacy learning model in the classroom are thoroughly possible to form a social interaction that makes learners feel comfortable in the process of knowledge building. learners should be comfortable, unencumbered with the tasks assigned, therefore, the teacher should act as a facilitator, 157 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 motivator, and good evaluator during the learning process. learners should be in good condition to learn, so have a passion, high curiosity, and totality in solving the challenges given. 3.4 spatial thinking skills development this preliminary testing is focused on developing the implementation and technical model of learning literacy map, but it is also important to know how the readiness of lita learning model in improving spatial thinking skills become the dependent variable in this study. pretest and posttest conducted before and after implementation of the map literacy learning model. pre and post test contains same problem in the form of an objective test consisting of 18 multiple choice questions. the following is the acquisition of pre and post test of spatial thinking skills during the preliminary test in class. figure 1. comparison of pre and post spatial thinking skills value the graph exhibits the results of spatial thinking skills before and after a preliminary test. in general, there is an increase between pre-test and post-test. on the average pre-test 6,07 with the highest score is 10 points, while the average in the post-test of 8,73 with the highest score of 14 points.a trend appears in the figure is that there is an increase in the result of preand post-test geospatial thinking skills. several learners are actually maintaining their result but there are also who experience deterioration, however; the result is not really small compared to the number of students experiencing improvement 158 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 difference analysis of preand post-treatment geospatial thinking skills will be performed through statistical calculation. however, it should be preceded by data normality test using shapiro-wilk calculation. the result of preand post-test result reveals that the data does meet the criteria to be normal. according to the normality test, then it decides that preand post-test difference analysis is performed using parametric statistics (paired t-test) table 5. the result of normality test shapiro-wilk sig conclusion pretest 0,938 0,080 non-significant posttest 0,983 0,883 non-significant source: research result 2017 the value of n-gain is 0.21, which means that the learners’ improvement of spatial thinking in the test class is preliminary to the middle category. overall learners have improved in geospatial thinking skills after implementing the learning process through the map literacy model. table 6. average pretest-posttest, n-gain, t, significancy conclusion pretest posttest n-gain z p-value conclusion 6,07 8,73 0,211 -3,885 0,000 significantly different source: research result 2017 t test is performed to know the difference result between preand post-preliminary test geospatial thinking skills. the result reveals that there is a significant difference at pre and post-treatment. map literacy model has an ability to facilitate students to develop their geospatial thinking skills. this model shows that the learning focuses on spatial knowledge development and spatial concept conducted through map literacy, i.e. reading, describing, analyzing, and drawing a map. those skills are accommodated through syntax. the students build spatial skills through an activity arranged within map literacy activity. this research does not only focus on geospatial thinking test results but also gives a bigger emphasis on investigation of the lacks of map literacy learning model in its application, both technically and also considering the performance of model components. identification is conducted based on the research observation, students respond to the process of model application, and evaluation from a teacher practicing this model in a classroom. according to the investigation result, it is expected to give an input that can be considered to refine this map literacy model. 159 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 there are several findings that will be used as a basis for developing learning models. the preliminary test process strongly supports the theory used, as well as the use of the principles of the learning model is directly proportional to the learning process and the results in this study. the following are some findings that can be identified in the implementation of map literacy learning model, as well as improvements made based on the findings of conducted preliminary test. the syntax is essential in a process of map literacy model performance. this has been arranged to improve spatial thinking skills, three first steps are: primitive literacy, orientation, and an association is a stage where a student gets a challenge designed to build his/her knowledge of the spatial concept, tool usage and spatial problem-solving. the obstacles faced relate to the syntax are at the first meeting the syntax is not over, the reason is that the students are categorized into slow-learners. asa (1951) has a facility to overcome this problem, this kind of student cannot be forced to learn a map so that they have to pass through a continuing process and needs to relate to mapping concepts with their daily experiences. for that matter, an appreciation to do has to be truly meaningful or contextual with students’ environment, so that they are interested in and able to associate map and their environment. the social system of this research is built on vygotsky theory. the learning process with their small group is very efficient to develop students’ knowledge on a map. the students have to feel comfortable in a learning process, they have to consider their friends are people who are able to help, motivate and increase learning quality. they will also cooperative to do the assignment by discussing, debating, arguing so the task given will be finished. it is revealed that social interaction-oriented map learning is more effective than individual oriented (adeyemi&cishe, 2015; leinhardt, at al., 1998; saekhow, 2015). this model will defend small group working focusing on zpd development through scaffolding between students and teacher. the teacher has an essential role in the process of map literacy learning. the students truly need others’ help to pass their zpd. the teacher is the best one to give scaffolding when students need it. the scaffolding given will be saved in a memory and will be recalled if they need to understand their environment in the future (churcher, at al., 2014). for that matter, teacher’s role in the implementation of this role is important, and they need to understand how big the role of students thinking development. learning with literacy model has a principle to do. powerful social studies (ncss, 2016) is a concept developing principles within map literacy learning model. map use as 160 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 learning resources has to be meaningful, concept explanation, principle, logical argument, and high generalization from various foundations will be truly hard given to the young learners (brophy&alleman, 2009). therefore, map literacy learning model will build required knowledge like content factual, personal experience, and daily activity relationship with the student through a map. key, bradley & bradley (2010) says that “literacy is a natural component of social studies, and the social studies teacher is the key to successful literacy studies development in the field”. map literacy is an inseparable part of social studies learning, and teacher’s role is essential to enhance social studies leaning quality through map literacy. it is required high competence of teacher in practicing technology innovation in social studies learning so that the development of learning model can enhance teacher skill in practicing innovative findings in the education field, especially social studies. model development. according to the literature search, theory reinforcement and input from teachers and students participating in the preliminary test, so that it is decided to revise map literacy learning model. following is the table describing the findings of model trial and model revision as a stage in map literacy. 4. conclusion map literacy learning model can technically be implemented well. although in each treatment is still needed technical improvements. model components such as syntax, teacher roles, social systems, modeling principles and support systems need to be thoroughly and in accordance with the theory. implementation result of map literacy learning modelexhibits a positive tendency. there is an improvement in spatial thinking skills between before and after the implementation of the map literacy learning model. this means that this model successfully achieved the instructional objectives in the implementation process. based on the observations and results of this study, the map literacy learning model was redeveloped by improving some of the deficiencies in the model, particularly in the components of social systems, teacher roles, and systems, supporters. the model in this study is still not perfect, as further development, this model will be refined based on the findings during the limited trial process. some of the things that will be done in the advanced model development is arranging teacher’s handbook for technical implementation of the model, refining map as the media used, increasing teachers’ role understanding to the model comprehensively, and improving the quality of student worksheet to be easier to understand, work and help learners build their knowledge. all of 161 nuansa bayu segara, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 146-162 that must be in accordance with the theoretical basis which becomes the basis for vygotsky’s socio-cultural development. after the model has been refined, it will experience an operational field testing, then the model is refined, and the last is performingmain field testing. references abbasnasab, s., rashid, m., & saad, m. 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(2006). learning and teaching with maps. london and new york: routledge taylor & francis group. retrieved from http://cataleg.udg.edu/record=b1373859~s10*cat ©2018 department of geography education, university of jember 11 geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 vol. 3 no. 2 (2018), 11-26 , august, 2018 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi doi : 10.19184/geosi.v3i2.7896 the carrying capacity on ecosystem services of land use change at border entikong robby irsan1*, luthfi muta’ali2, sudrajat3 1 doctoral program of environmental science, gadjah mada university, indonesia 2, 3faculty of geography, gadjah mada university, indonesia *)corresponding author (e-mail: beetreecyber110683@gmail.com) received: 29 june 2018/revised: 17 july 2018/accepted: 30 july 2018/published online: 28 august 2018 abstract entikong region is located in sanggau regency, west kalimantan province, indonesia, which is directly adjacent to malaysia. land use in the border area, which is massive and irregular, results in environmental degradation, deculturization, and lack of living standards of the community. high population growth in the border areas leads to excessive use of natural resources, and used land is not appropriately allocated. the land has limited function, and if the demand for the land is greater than the carrying capacity, there will be an imbalance that results in land degradation and its environment. the purpose of this study is to identify the type and extent of land function switch, analyze provider services as part of the land support capacity ecosystem services, and identify the accuracy of image interpretation. the results showed that the increasing area of massive land use comes from a mixed plantation in 2017 increased by 60.6% of the total area of entikong district. degradation occurs in primary forest land use component which is only 18.6% of entikong's total area in 2017. this indicates that the use of mixed plantation land acquires the protected forest, with many palm, rubber, and pepper. similarly, the percentage of accuracy test from the interpretation result reaches 83.33% from 42 sample points in accordance with the real conditions. the value of clean water ecosystem service providers in 2011 was 0.36 and was 0.33 in 2017. then within the period of almost 7 years, it is decreased by 0.03. thus, the ecosystem service index of clean water providers has a value less than 1, it means the function of the area as a provider of clean water is very small. similarly, the provider ecosystem services index for foodstuffs, the value of food ecosystem services index in 2011 was 0.32 and was 0.31 in 2017, then within the nearly 7-year period, it is decreased by 0.01. the ecosystem services index as a food supply provider for the entikong border area is very low (less than 1) which means the carrying capacity of the environment is not good enough for supplying food needs in entikong. this indicates that there is a reduction in the availability of environmental services, and if it continues, then environmental assets declines sharply and services derived from nature will be lost or will be expensive in the near future. thus, optimization and revitalization of land use are necessary by applying various policies related to development in the border area in entikong district. keywords: borders, land use, ecosystem provider services. 1. introduction entikong is located in sanggau regency, west kalimantan province, indonesia, and directly adjacent to malaysia (sarawak) which has different characteristics (in the economic 12 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 sector, institutional, zoning, and informal sector roles) both internally and externally. the lack of socialization about land use in the border area causes the degradation of natural resources and poor environmental quality, which is the cause of a low standard of living welfare. when the demand for resources goes beyond what nature can provide on an ongoing basis, it is called an ecological exploitation, and if carrying capacity declines, it is called overpopulation (rustiadi and saefulhakim, 2011). one of the efforts taken to reduce the impact is by doing a fairly comprehensive evaluation of the effect of a land use activity on the quality and quantity of the existing environment. as a physical representation, improvement,and conversion of land that deviates from the designated land use. one of them is the use of plantation land (oil palm, rubber, and pepper) will have an impact on environmental degradation and declining availability of environmental services. if this continues, the environmental assets will decline sharply and the free environmental services will be lost or become expensive in the near future. ecosystem services are categorized into four; provision services, arrangement, culture, and support (riqqi, 2014). regional environmental services index value is a weighted index of each component of ecosystem services. technically, the calculations are performed by several components in ecosystem services such as ecosystem services components that support clean water and food (muta’ali, 2015). based on the background that the researchers have conveyed the main purpose of this research are: (1) identify the extent and type of land use in entikong. (2) analyzing the level of accuracy of land use interpretation in entikong. (3) analyze the value of ecosystem services index from each variable of land use in entikong. 2. the methods the research was conducted in west kalimantan province, at entikong border, sanggau regency, and directly adjacent to malaysia (sarawak). these data are grouped into primary and secondary data in 2011-2017. primary data consists of landsat image in 2011 and 2017. secondary data consists of maps of entikong district administration obtained from the regional development planning board in west kalimantan province, sanggau regency. the equipment used is global positioning system (gps), a set of computers with arcview gis software, and office 2007. 2.1 analysis of land use map the source of land use maps is the result of digital interpretation of etm landsat imagery in 2011 and landsat 8 oli in 2017. the process of digital interpretation is carried out 13 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 with the help of the program envi 4.5. etm landsat image 2011 and landsat 8 oli 2017 have low-resolution images with spatial resolution of 30 x 30 m. this image is obtained from the usgs website. the image used has been undergone radiometric and geometry correction. the process of remote sensing data analysis starts from geometric correction of the image with topography map scale 1: 25.000. furthermore, the land use is described manually by visual interpretation techniques. the characteristic of the object used to recognize an object is called image interpretation (saripin, 2003).the analysis of land use switch is carried out by comparing land use map in 2011 with land use map in 2017, in order to see the land use switch that happened from 2007 until 2017. the result of landsat and earth map interpretation in 2007 and 2017 later are being overlayed to produce land use switch maps. the land use map of entikong in 2011 can be seen in figure 1 and 2 below: figure 1.land use map in 2011 (the result of etm landsat imagery) 14 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 figure 2. land use map in 2017 (the result of etm landsat imagery) 2.2 analysis of land use switch land use switch is presented in percentage with the following equation: v = n2 n1 / n ...... .. (1) information: v = rate of land use switch n2 = area of land use in the second year n = total area (hamidy, 2003) 15 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 2.3 accuracy test of image interpretation the next step is determining the land use class used in the classification process. the land use class used in this study is based on land use classification by sandy, 1977, which distinguishes between rural and urban land use. on a mapping scale of 1: 50,000 land use is divided into 10 classes with several subcategories (purwadhi, 2008). the interpretation results need to be checked using field survey method. the sampling method used is purposive sampling. the interpretation result is considered accurate if the percentage of conformity interpretation is more than 80% (saripin, 2003). this method is used in the digital analysis of remote sensing data using a computer, but can also be used in the manual analysis or visual remote sensing data by converting pixels into square plots or widths for each class of interpretation results. table 1. interpretation accuracy test interpretation data a b c d amount omission comission mapping accuracy a 25 5 10 3 43 18/43 = 42% 7/43 = 16% 25 / (25 + 18 + 7) = 50% b 2 50 6 5 63 13/63 = 42% 11/63 = 17% 50 / (50 + 13 + 11) = 68% c 3 4 60 5 72 12/72 = 42% 18/72 = 25% 60 / (60 + 12 + 18) = 67% d 2 2 2 100 106 6/106 = 42% 13/106 = 12% 100 / (100 + 6 + 13) = 84% total 36 61 78 113 284 source: (saripin, 2003) accuracy of all interpretation results = 25 + 50 + 60 + 100 284 2.4 analysis of clean water supply services index of clean water supply service (jpl ab), has a range of values between 0 (minimum) to 1 (maximum). therefore, if the value is closer to 1, it means the function of the area as a provider of clean water is getting better. the formula is: pje ab = ∑ (lgl 1 x α 1 + lgl 2 x α 2 + lgl n x α n ) ………… .. (1) lw information: pje ab = clean water ecosystem service provider lgl 1 = the extent of land use type 1 (ha) lw = total extent of the area (ha) α 1 = coefficient of water services for land use 1 ( table 2 ) 16 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 here is the coefficient table of the value of water supply services : table 2. the coefficient table of the value of water supply services ecosystem services land use primary forest secondary forest mixed garden plantation settlement farm field shrubs body of water field clean water supply service 0,516 0,516 0,280 0,237 0,129 0,215 0,172 0,559 0,237 source: ecosystem services index value (riqqi, 2014) 2.5 analysis of food supply service the food service provider index (jpl bp), has a value range between 0 (minimum) to 1 (maximum). therefore, if the value is closer to 1, it means the better the function of the area as a food provider is getting better. the formula is: pje bp = ∑ (lgl 1 x β 1 + lgl 2 x β 2 + lgl n x β n ) ………... ( 2 ) lw information: pje bp = ecosystem service provider for food supply lgl 1 = the extent of land use type 1 (ha) lw = total extent of the area (ha) β 1 = coefficient of food ecosystem services for land use 1 (table 3) here is the coefficient table of the value of food supplier services : table 3. the coefficient table of the value of food supplier services ecosystem services land use primary forest secondary forest mix garden plantation settlement farm field shrubs body of water field food supplier services 0,289 0,289 0,357 0,391 0,034 0,476 0,102 0,238 0,357 source: ecosystem services index value (riqqi, 2014) 2.6 research variable the classification system used is based on the sni cover classification and land use in 2010 from badan standarisasi nasional (bsn) here is the table: 17 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 table 4. land use classification no classification information 1 primary forest the forests that have a dense structure of plants that make the sunlight cannot touch the ground. 2 secondary forest forests that have experienced a succession 3 plantation land used for agriculture with harvest time of approximately two years 4 mixed garden the types of garden that have high levels of density, overgrown by various types of forest plants and agricultural crops. 5 settlement land used as a residence 6 shrubs dryland which is overgrown with heterogeneous natural vegetation, dominated by bushes and grasses whose existence is not managed by humans. source:(national standardization department, 2010) 3. results and discussion 3.1 land use switch/change in 2011 and 2017 table 5. changes in land use of each village in 2011 – 2017 no village the extent of land use in every village in entikong border 2011 2017 (ha) primary forest secondary forest mixed garden plantation settlement shrubs total (ha) 2011 2017 2011 2017 2011 2017 2011 2017 2011 2017 2011 2017 2011 2017 1 entikong 10.60 0,00 1926.76 1941.8 4 14253. 91 12142.90 0 2.21 287,56 774. 91 0 1617 .14 1647 8.83 16479 ,01 2 nekan 4832.87 1899.1 0 338.30 338.30 1473.4 4 4267.31 879.46 910. 12 23.15 132, 38 0 0 7547 .21 7547. 21 3 palapasang 2927.71 2927.7 1 1815.61 1450.8 3 6200.4 5 6500.22 0 0 33,00 98,0 0 0 0 1097 6.77 10976 .76 4 semanget 1272.70 1256,4 0 1652,08 1097.1 5910,9 9 4827.61 0 445. 946 42.32 111. 16 0 1139 .9 8878 .09 8878. 09 5 suruh tembawang 8394.47 5703.8 8 691,42 228,54 8097,9 0 10558.80 0 2,03 26,00 93.4 203 1800 .42 2423 .35 1901 0.21 19010 .03 changes 17438.34 11787. 10 6424.16 5056.6 1 35936. 69 38296.85 879.46 1360 .31 412.03 1209 .86 1800 .42 5180 .37 62891.10 -5651,24 -1367.55 2360.15 480,86 797.83 3379.9 4 source: land use analysis results 2011 -2017 there are 6 types of land use in entikong sub-district in 2011; primary forest, secondary forest, mixed garden, plantation, settlements, and shrubs. the extent or width of each type of land use is: primary forest 174,38 km2 (27,72%), secondary forest 64,24 km2 (10,25%), mixed garden 359,56 km2 (57,17%) , plantation 8.79 km2 (1.40%), settlement 4.12 km2 (0.56%), and shrubs 18 km2 (2.90%). 18 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 from the table above, it can be observed that the most dominant land use in entikong sub-district in 2011 is mixed garden which covers 57.17% of all parts of the area and is distributed almost evenly in entikong district, while the smallest type of land use is settlements covering 0.56%, or less than 1% spread in every village in entikong district with an area of 3.53 km2 from all parts of sanggau, west kalimantan province. there are 6 types of land use in entikong sub-district in 2017: primary forest, secondary forest, mixed garden, plantation, settlements, and shrubs. the extent or width of each type of land use is: primary forest 117.87 km2 (18.74%), secondary forest 50.56 km2 (8.05%), mixed garden 382.96 km2 (61.05% ), the plantation 13.6 km2 (2.16%), the settlement 12.09 km2 (1.77%), and shrubs of 51.8 km2 (8.23%). 3.2 land use changes in 2011 and 2017 the results of the interpretation conducted on landsat image in 2017 is the classification of land use in entikong sub-district into 6 types; primary forest, secondary forest, mixed plantation, plantation, settlement, and shrub. the percentage has shown an increase and decrease in the extent and type of land use. massive land conversion occurs in plantation areas where forest land is used by communities for oil palm, rubber and pepper plantations. here are the charts showing the land use switch: figure3. the analysis of land use switch result -10000 -5000 0 5000 primary forest secondary forest mix garden plantation settlement shrubs 18 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 from the table above, it can be observed that the most dominant land use in entikong sub-district in 2011 is mixed garden which covers 57.17% of all parts of the area and is distributed almost evenly in entikong district, while the smallest type of land use is settlements covering 0.56%, or less than 1% spread in every village in entikong district with an area of 3.53 km2 from all parts of sanggau, west kalimantan province. there are 6 types of land use in entikong sub-district in 2017: primary forest, secondary forest, mixed garden, plantation, settlements, and shrubs. the extent or width of each type of land use is: primary forest 117.87 km2 (18.74%), secondary forest 50.56 km2 (8.05%), mixed garden 382.96 km2 (61.05% ), the plantation 13.6 km2 (2.16%), the settlement 12.09 km2 (1.77%), and shrubs of 51.8 km2 (8.23%). 3.2 land use changes in 2011 and 2017 the results of the interpretation conducted on landsat image in 2017 is the classification of land use in entikong sub-district into 6 types; primary forest, secondary forest, mixed plantation, plantation, settlement, and shrub. the percentage has shown an increase and decrease in the extent and type of land use. massive land conversion occurs in plantation areas where forest land is used by communities for oil palm, rubber and pepper plantations. here are the charts showing the land use switch: figure3. the analysis of land use switch result 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 land use change year 2011 2017 change (ha) 2017 (ha) 2011 (ha) 18 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 from the table above, it can be observed that the most dominant land use in entikong sub-district in 2011 is mixed garden which covers 57.17% of all parts of the area and is distributed almost evenly in entikong district, while the smallest type of land use is settlements covering 0.56%, or less than 1% spread in every village in entikong district with an area of 3.53 km2 from all parts of sanggau, west kalimantan province. there are 6 types of land use in entikong sub-district in 2017: primary forest, secondary forest, mixed garden, plantation, settlements, and shrubs. the extent or width of each type of land use is: primary forest 117.87 km2 (18.74%), secondary forest 50.56 km2 (8.05%), mixed garden 382.96 km2 (61.05% ), the plantation 13.6 km2 (2.16%), the settlement 12.09 km2 (1.77%), and shrubs of 51.8 km2 (8.23%). 3.2 land use changes in 2011 and 2017 the results of the interpretation conducted on landsat image in 2017 is the classification of land use in entikong sub-district into 6 types; primary forest, secondary forest, mixed plantation, plantation, settlement, and shrub. the percentage has shown an increase and decrease in the extent and type of land use. massive land conversion occurs in plantation areas where forest land is used by communities for oil palm, rubber and pepper plantations. here are the charts showing the land use switch: figure3. the analysis of land use switch result 35000 40000 45000 19 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 3.3 the accuracy of interpretation test results to know the accuracy and appropriateness of the result, remote sensing image interpretation is also done. the level of interpretation accuracy is reliable or interpretation of results is necessary or not for further analysis. here is the image of test of land use accuracy: figure 4. sample maps of test point for land use accuracy (by landsat image etm) land use map is the result of digital interpretation of landsat image etm conducted in 2011 and landsat 8 oli in 2017. the process of digital interpretation is done using the envi 4.5 program. image landsat etm 2011 and landsat 8 oli 2017 are low-resolution images with spatial resolution of 30 x 30 m. this image is obtained from the usgs website. the image used has been corrected by radiometric correction and geometry correction. the image is then classified using the maximum likelihood method. the result of visual interpretation of land use validation test with field data is 42 points. the result of calculation of accuracy test using 20 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 configs matrix, the result of digital land cover interpretation is validation test with field data that is 42 points. here are the results of the calculation of accuracy test using the confius matrix: table 6: the result of land covering test data interpretation field data land covering a b c d e f total sample appropriate a 7 7 7 b 4 1 2 7 4 c 6 1 7 6 d 1 6 7 6 e 7 7 7 f 2 5 7 5 sample amount 7 5 7 11 7 5 42 35 (source: the result of data processing and field inspection, 2017) information: a = primary forest b = mixed garden c = shrubs d = secondary forest e = settlement f = plantation accuracy percentage = the appropriate number of samples x 100 ………… (3) the total number of samples = 35/42 x 100 = 83,33% 3.4 analysis of foodstuff supply ecosystem services in entikong district in 2011 and 2017 regional environmental services index value is a weighted index of each component of ecosystem services. the following is the calculation of food ecosystem services provider in 2011 and 2017. based on the value of food supplier ecosystem services index in 2011 in the amount of 0.32 and in the year 2017 in the amount of 0.31, then in the period of almost 7 years, it is decreased by 0,01. obviously, this is not good because the ecosystem service index as a food supply provider for the entikong border area is very low, it has a value of less than 1. the lower (near 0) means the environmental carrying capacity is not too good to supply entikong border food needs. here are the analysis results of coefficient results of food supply ecosystem service providers: 21 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 figure 5: analysis results of coefficient results of food supply ecosystem service providers figure 6: analysis results of foodstuff supply ecosystem services 3.5 analysis of clean water ecosystem services in entikong sub district year 2011 and 2017 the value of the regional service environment index is the value of the area index of each component of the ecosystem services. with the value of clean water ecosystem services index in 2011 in the amount of 0.36 and in the year 2017 in the amount of 0.33, then in the period of almost 7 years, it is decreased by 0.03. this is not good for the environment because the ecosystem service index as a provider of clean water for entikong border area is very low because it has a value less than 1. the lower (near 0) then the environmental carrying capacity 0 2000 primary forest secondary forest mix garden plantation settlement shrubs coefficient of food ecosystem services 0,305 0,31 0,315 0,32 0,325 pjebp food ecosystem services 21 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 figure 5: analysis results of coefficient results of food supply ecosystem service providers figure 6: analysis results of foodstuff supply ecosystem services 3.5 analysis of clean water ecosystem services in entikong sub district year 2011 and 2017 the value of the regional service environment index is the value of the area index of each component of the ecosystem services. with the value of clean water ecosystem services index in 2011 in the amount of 0.36 and in the year 2017 in the amount of 0.33, then in the period of almost 7 years, it is decreased by 0.03. this is not good for the environment because the ecosystem service index as a provider of clean water for entikong border area is very low because it has a value less than 1. the lower (near 0) then the environmental carrying capacity 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 coefficient of food ecosystem services 2017 2011 2011 2017 pjebp food ecosystem services 21 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 figure 5: analysis results of coefficient results of food supply ecosystem service providers figure 6: analysis results of foodstuff supply ecosystem services 3.5 analysis of clean water ecosystem services in entikong sub district year 2011 and 2017 the value of the regional service environment index is the value of the area index of each component of the ecosystem services. with the value of clean water ecosystem services index in 2011 in the amount of 0.36 and in the year 2017 in the amount of 0.33, then in the period of almost 7 years, it is decreased by 0.03. this is not good for the environment because the ecosystem service index as a provider of clean water for entikong border area is very low because it has a value less than 1. the lower (near 0) then the environmental carrying capacity 12000 14000 16000 coefficient of food ecosystem services 2017 pjebp food ecosystem services 22 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 is not very good, means the function of the area in water supply services is bad. the following is the calculation of water supply ecosystem services in 2011 and 2017: figure 7: the result of clean water ecosystem services coefficient analysis figure 8: the result of clean water ecosystem services analysis research information on land carrying capacity and land use switch have been widely practiced. examines spatial planning derived from the support based on water resource capacity (asdak & salim, 2006). this research is descriptive and does not discuss thoroughly and in detail about water resources management. the results of this study are ecosystem approaches that place production sub-subsystems, consumption sub-systems, and distribution sub-systems in the context of interconnection among components in the overall water resource management system. subsequent research, (viska, 2012) assessed the carrying capacity through an ecological footprint approach which is a study of the carrying capacity to assess the 0 primary forest secondary forest mix garden plantation settlement shrubs coefficient of clean water ecosystem 0,3 0,32 0,34 0,36 0,38 pjebp clean water ecosystem 22 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 is not very good, means the function of the area in water supply services is bad. the following is the calculation of water supply ecosystem services in 2011 and 2017: figure 7: the result of clean water ecosystem services coefficient analysis figure 8: the result of clean water ecosystem services analysis research information on land carrying capacity and land use switch have been widely practiced. examines spatial planning derived from the support based on water resource capacity (asdak & salim, 2006). this research is descriptive and does not discuss thoroughly and in detail about water resources management. the results of this study are ecosystem approaches that place production sub-subsystems, consumption sub-systems, and distribution sub-systems in the context of interconnection among components in the overall water resource management system. subsequent research, (viska, 2012) assessed the carrying capacity through an ecological footprint approach which is a study of the carrying capacity to assess the 2000 4000 6000 8000 coefficient of clean water ecosystem 2017 2011 2011 2017 pjebp clean water ecosystem 22 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 is not very good, means the function of the area in water supply services is bad. the following is the calculation of water supply ecosystem services in 2011 and 2017: figure 7: the result of clean water ecosystem services coefficient analysis figure 8: the result of clean water ecosystem services analysis research information on land carrying capacity and land use switch have been widely practiced. examines spatial planning derived from the support based on water resource capacity (asdak & salim, 2006). this research is descriptive and does not discuss thoroughly and in detail about water resources management. the results of this study are ecosystem approaches that place production sub-subsystems, consumption sub-systems, and distribution sub-systems in the context of interconnection among components in the overall water resource management system. subsequent research, (viska, 2012) assessed the carrying capacity through an ecological footprint approach which is a study of the carrying capacity to assess the 10000 12000 coefficient of clean water ecosystem 2017 pjebp clean water ecosystem 23 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 environmental carrying capacity of an area toward its natural resource consumption level. the results of this study found the carrying capacity of each type of ecological land use in batu city malang where the agricultural land surplus demand of 827.54 gha and supply of 3,458.4 gha, forest land has a demand deficit of 49,081 gha and supply of 3,271 gha. in addition, carbon sinks have a demand of 212,648 gha with biocapacity land assumed by forest land. the objective of the analysis is that forest land can be developed and maintained as a consequence of the deficit condition experienced by each component. further research (ghozali, 2013), examines the supporting components of land use optimization in gresik regency. the method used is through an ecological footprint approach where it can measure the level of natural resource consumption and the ability of the land to provide for consumption needs. the results showed that the highest percentage of biocapacity in agricultural land was 53.92%. however, the biocapacity is not proportional to ecological footprint consumption of 1.63 million gha due to high population and activity. this reinforces the unbalance condition of environmental carrying capacity in gresik regency with the ecological deficit. research results of varika (2015) states the environmental carrying capacity of the recreational ecosystem and ecotourism services based on land use and landscape aspects using remote sensing i.e. landsat 7 image etm + and 8 oli. the results showed that the distribution of the most dominant provision of ecotourism service index lies in the use of building land. further research admadhani, hajil, & susanawati (2013) examines the status of environmental carrying capacity based on monthly water availability and water demand in bojonegoro regency. the method used is quantitative analysis through comparison between the calculation of water availability and demand. the calculation result of the environmental carrying capacity status is in the exceeded category (overshoot). my research studies are related to the carrying capacity of service providers,especially in ecosystems. the research related to water and land ecosystem services has never been done, although the research is still within the scope of carrying capacity, the approach used is different from previous research. what makes this research distinguishes from previous research is that this research is tested with the accuracy of interpretation, and approach used is the approach of ecosystem services for food providers and water supply. in addition, the location of research is located on the border of indonesia-malaysia, especially entikong makes it different from previous research. from table 5 above, it can be observed that the most dominant land use in entikong district in 2017 is mixed garden type, covering 61.05% of all areas and distributed almost evenly in entikong district, while the smallest type of land use is settlement, which covers 24 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 1.77%, spreading in every village in entikong district with an area of 11.11 km2 from all parts of the district. another case with primary forest depreciates by 5,651.24 ha within 6 years, i.e. from 2011 to 2017. this indicates that there is overlapping of inappropriate and unbalanced land use. furthermore, in the table, the interpretation test results of 83.33% of the 42 samples from the point taken indicates the suitability between the sample map within the field. in figure 6, the value of food supply ecosystem services index in 2011 is in the amount of 0.32 and in 2017 is in the amount of 0.31, then in almost 7 years period, it is decreased by 0.01. this is not good because the ecosystem service index as a food supply provider for the border area in entikong sub-district is very low and has a value of less than 1. similarly, the value of clean water ecosystem services index in 2011 is 0.36 and in 2017 is 0.33, then in the nearly 7-year period, it is decreased by 0.03 (see figure 8). this is not good because the ecosystem service index as a clean water provider for the entikong district border area is very low because it has a value of less than 1 and indicates that the relationship between the availability of ecosystem services and the environmental capacity is exceeded (overshoot), the value of ecosystem services clean water provider index is a resource management tool that can measure how much human resources the population needs, to produce the resources consumed. rustiadi and saefulhakim (2011) says that if the demand for availability exceeds and nature cannot provide a continuous need is called an ecological overshoot. 4. cloncusion research study on overlay method, interpretation test, and method of carrying capacity of ecosystem services of water supply providers and foodstuffs used serves to see how far the availability and carrying capacity. natural and environmental resources produce two products in the form of goods and services. services products are also called environmental services, i.e. benefits derived from non-natural goods but environmental functions such as water systems, climate, clean water, biodiversity, beauty, coolness and so on (muta’ali, 2015). the findings in this study are related to land use change with the availability of ecosystem services, especially in border areas that have high population levels. the value of environmental balance between availability and demand must be observed because of the very limited carrying capacity of the environment in the next few years. the relationship between land use switch analysis over a 2 year period was obtained from landsat etm image overlay in 2011 and landsat 8 oli in 2017. the digital interpretation process was conducted with the help of the envi 4.5 program. landsat etm image 2011 and landsat 8 oli 2017 are low-resolution images with spatial resolution of 30 x 30 m. this image is obtained from the usgs website. the image used has 25 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 been done radiometric correction and geometry correction. the image is then classified using the maximum likelihood method. the result of visual interpretation of land use validation test with field data that is as much as 42 point. the result of calculation of accuracy test using confius matrix. the result of digital land cover interpretation is validation test with field data that is as much as 42 point. the image used has been corrected by radiometric correction and geometry correction. the image is then classified using the maximum likelihood method. the result of visual interpretation of land use validation test with field data is 42 points. the result of calculation of accuracy test using confius matrix, the result of digital land cover interpretation is validation test with field data that is 42 points. here are the results of the calculation of accuracy test using confius matrix. the value of environmental balance between availability and demand must be observed because of the very limited carrying capacity of the environment in the next few years. the relationship between land use switch analysis over a 2 year period was obtained from landsat etm image overlay in 2011 and landsat 8 oli in 2017. the digital interpretation process was conducted with the help of the envi 4.5 program. landsat etm image 2011 and landsat 8 oli 2017 are low-resolution images with spatial resolution of 30 x 30 m. this image is obtained from the usgs website. the image used has been done radiometric correction and geometry correction. the image is then classified using the maximum likelihood method. the result of visual interpretation of land use validation test with field data that is as much as 42 point. the result of calculation of accuracy test using confius matrix. the result of digital land cover interpretation is validation test with field data in the amount of 42 points. furthermore, referring to the coefficient of clean water service providers and providers of foodstuffs, ecosystem services assessment index is done. if the index value is closer to 1, it means the better the region functions in providing the environment sercive. on the other hand, if the index value is below 1, it means that the area function to support the needs of human populations will be reduced or not good for environmental functions. this is the particular thing differentiates this study and the previous studies, where prior research has emphasized more on ecosystems. the research location is in the border area of the republic of indonesia and malaysia, makes this research is highly recommended for the stakeholders to produce policies related to border areas, especially in the field of environmental science, and improve alternative land use in accordance with its allocation in aligning and balance out the availability of resources and the environment. 26 roby irsan, et al / geosi vol. 3 no. 2 (2018) 11-26 acknowledgments i am thanking mr. luthfi muta'ali, and dr. sudrajat for providing willingness and time in research consultation, as well as prayer and support from his beloved wife yulfitri and beloved son ahsin rifa in completing this research. references admadhani, d. n., hajil, a. h. s., & susanawati, l. d. (2013). analysis of water supply and water demand for carrying capacity assessment ( case study of malang ). journal of natural resources and environment. asdak, c., & salim, h. (2006). water resource capacity as a spatial planning consideration. journal of environmental engineering p3tl-bppt. ernan rustiadi, sunsus saefulhakim, d. r. p. (2011). planning and regional development. restpent press. ghozali. (2013). referral of land use utilization through ecological footprint in gresik regency. territory and environment, 1 no.1, 67–78. hamidy, z. (2003). land cover change, composition, and life type in suakaidupan cikepuh. faculty of forestry, ipb. muta’ali, l. (2015). regional analysis techniques for regional planning, spatial planning, and environment (februari). yogyakarta: faculty of geography ugm. national standardization department. (2010). classification of land cover. purwadhi. (2008). introduction remote sensing imagery interpretation. semarang: lapan. riqqi, a. (2014). design concept techniques determination of supporting capacity and capacity of the national environment and islands / islands and provinces. bali: klh. saripin, i. (2003). identify land use using landsat tm imagery. agricultural engineering bulletin. varika. (2015). monitoring of ecosystem service-based ecotourism (recreation and ecotourism) capacity in 2000 and 2015 using landsat image in badung regency, bali. viska. (2012). land use direction in batu city based on ecological ecosystem approach. pomits technique, 1 no.1, 1–6. 61 https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.36694 research article emergency response demand and supply: a gis-based network analysis for fire station’s service coverage delineation in kano metropolis, nigeria sulaiman yunus1* , julius afolabi falola1, ibrahim musa jaro2 1department of geography, bayero university, pmb 3011, gwarzo road, kano, nigeria 2department of geography, ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria *corresponding author, email address : syunus.geog@buk.edu.ng introduction fire has posed a substantial hazard to humans, the built and natural environment, frequently resulting in bodily and psychological damage, economic losses, pollution, and death (yao et al., 2018). there were around 3.5 fires per 1000 inhabitants in the 31 countries studied in 2015 by iafrs, resulting in 18,454 fatalities and more than 44,000 injuries (brushlinsky et al., 2017). the "urban sdg" focuses on creating inclusive, secure, resilient, and sustainable communities, cities, and other human settlements. the goal is to protect those that are vulnerable by 2030, while abstract inadequate fire emergency response infrastructure and a lack of defined service coverage remain key barriers to timely fire disaster response. this study is applied research which employed geospatial techniques and aimed at examining fire disaster emergency response demand and supply relationships with the view to delineating service coverage and locating more facilities for optimum coverage in kano metropolis. locations of the existing fire stations and fire incidents (2009-2019) were gathered through gps surveying. network data set were generated. nearest neighbor and network analysis (origindestination, service coverage and location-allocation) were conducted to determine emergency response demand and supply relationships, service coverage area delineation and identifying best site for allocating new facilities within the metropolis respectively. it was found that no clearly defined service coverage exist as emergency response supply takes more than 4-8 times the nfpa travel standard, and with a great deal of overlapping response patterns. new service coverage areas were proposed and best sites for 8 firefighting facilities identified for optimum coverage. it is concluded that emergency fire disaster response demand and supply relationships within kano metropolis is imbalanced, with extensive recurrent demand especially within the core area served by overstretched and inefficient response supply. this, therefore, implies continuous exposure of lives and properties to the menace of fire disaster in kano metropolis. keywords : fire facilities; location-allocation; response demand; response supply; service coverage article info received : 27 december 2022 revised : 6 march 2023 accepted : 10 march 2023 published : 18 april 2023 . geosfera indonesia p-issn 2598-9723, e-issn 2614-8528 available online at : https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi vol. 8 no. 1, april 2023, 61-82 © 2023 by geosfera indonesia and department of geography education, university of jember. this is an open access article under the cc-by-sa license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.19184/geosi.v8i1.36694 mailto:syunus.geog@buk.edu.ng https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1056-4232 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/geosi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ 62 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 also drastically decreasing fatalities, vulnerable people, and economic damages caused by disasters (including fire outbreaks) as a percentage of the global gross domestic product. as a result, governments offer fire response and rescue services as a fundamental public service to protect citizens' lives, property, and the built and natural environment from disasters like fires. proper resources allocation for prevention of fire and impact mitigation is essential for effective and dependable fire disaster management. additionally, a significant issue is the geographic distribution of fire stations and the service coverage areas that are linked with them because it is essential for rapid emergency response. most emergency response systems for fire disaster measure their effectiveness by how long it takes them to respond. the spatial distribution of demand and supply points within a network system influences response time (shahparvari et al. 2020). a fire station's service coverage area is its responsibility zone or region, which is often determined based on demand and/or other specific factors. each fire station has a unique coverage area that varies according to its location, street, residential density, landuse patterns, and other factors in the district (adamu & yunus, 2017). furthermore, it is widely accepted that demand for emergency response services and the distribution of fire stations influences the sites for constructing new ones (kanoun et al., 2010 ; murray, 2015). challenges relating to fire disaster response demand and supply analysis, service coverage demarcation, and fire station siting (location allocation analysis) have been thoroughly investigated in numerous cities around the world using methodologies which integrate geographical information systems (gis) with other methods (yao et al., 2018). some of the studies include, chevalier et al. (2012) ; aktaş et al. (2013); xin & huang (2013); church & li (2016); dong et al. (2018), nyimbili & erden (2020); ceyhan et al. (2012) ; wuschke et al. (2013) ; kiran et al. 2018; kiran & corcoran (2017); zhibang et al. (2018); wang et al. (2021); mao et al. (2020); chen et al. (2018) found that techniques like the p-median problem (pmp) was used to reduce the overall travel distance and time between fire stations and dangerous areas, hence improving access to locations where services are required. long-established methods for determining service coverage include the location set covering problem (lscp), the threshold coverage model (tcm), and the maximal covering location problem (mclp) (murray & tong, 2009; murray, 2013). despite the fact that a variety of techniques were employed, the use of gis allows for actual road network distance, which offers a more accurate travel time estimation than mare buffer distances (catay, 2011; oppong et al., 2017; han et al., 2021; yu et al., 2020); and spatial analytics, which provide a robust graphical approach representing space that enables the system of fire stations to optimally service their (chhetri et al., 2017). unfortunately, none of these techniques were applied to the response to an urban fire disaster in the city of kano. the nfpa response standards comprise of three defined time limitations which affect how fire and emergency medical services are delivered. nfpa 1710 proposes a 4-minute response time to help extinguish fires before they reach flashover, which occurs when the ambient temperature reaches between 825of and 1,000of between 4 to 10 minutes of initial ignition (esri, 2007). a postflashover fire spreads and burns hotter than a flashover fire, hindering search and rescue operations across the rest of the building and requiring the dispatch of more firefighters to put out the fire. although, nfpa (2010) and esri (2007) have proposed fire emergency response times based on the nature and behavior of fires while taking flash-over time into account, there has never been a universally prescribed cut-off. this is because different fire agencies have different cut-off distances that are influenced by variations in urban settings and available resources. for instance, a 5-minute impedance cut-off was suggested in tehran, iran, and istanbul, turkey, by bolouri et al. (2018) and aktas et al. (2013), respectively. four minutes cut-off distance was used by algharib (2011) in delineating the service coverage of fire stations in kuwait and kumasi, ghana, respectively. however, in sfax, tunisia, famagusta, cyprus, and padang, indonesia, kanoun et al. (2010), kazemi et al. (2013), and bahri (2016) employed an impedance cut-off of roughly 10 minutes. erkut et al. (2001) and ayuba et al. (2016) considered flashover time/nfpa standard of 4 minutes’ drive, fire station locations, speed limits (km/hr), fire incident concentration, population density, and travel 63 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 distances (minutes). other elements, such as the city's population density, function, fire intensity, topography, and so on, may be considered in different areas depending on their unique characteristics. urban planners, researchers, disaster managers, and other stakeholders are very concerned about the recurrent fire disasters in the homes and markets of nigerian towns (nema, 2006; oladokun & ishola, 2010). kano metropolis is not an exception to the damage this catastrophe has caused to nearly all landuse types, at varying intensities both spatially and temporally. this has led to an ever-increasing risk as well as the loss of many lives, injuries, and property that have cost billions of naira. studies on the subject have been carried out in various locations of nigeria, utilizing a variety of methodologies and methods (adamu & yunus, 2016; oladokun et al., 2012; oladokun & emanuel, 2014; adekunle et al., 2016; ogundele et al., 2013; dogondaji et al., 2017). however, none of the prior studies especially in kano metropolis have considered emergency response demand and supply relationships, service coverage delineation and location-allocation of new firefighting facilities for optimal coverage. isa et al. (2016) attempted to define and propose service coverage areas for existing fire stations using buffer distances. in this study, due to the current challenges of fire disaster emergency response in the city, and with high recurrent fire disaster rate, three key issues are of interest: emergency response demand and supply relationships, service coverage area delineation and allocation of new facilities. therefore, the objectives of this study are to; examine the spatial distribution pattern of historical fire incidents (response demand points from 2009-2019) and existing fire stations, determine the existing spatial service coverage (response supply coverage) of fire stationsbased on the historic incidents, measure the existing emergency response demand and supply travel distances, redefine and delineate standard service coverage based on nfpa, and finally propose new facility locations for optimum fire emergency response demand and supply throughout the metropolis. conceptual model of fire disaster emergency response demand and supply relationships increasing fire disaster emergencies are driving extraordinary demand for effective response supply. frequent fire disaster on various land uses within the kano metropolis necessitated the need for efficient response system for fire disaster risk reduction. response demand is simply the requirement for specialized assistance and services after a fire disaster to lessen the effects of an outbreak. on the other hand, response supply is the most spectacular phase of a fire disaster management and risk control (ejikeme et al. 2012). it is the action that takes place instantly during and immediately after a fire disaster, which, if for any reason (technical or non-technical) delayed or prolonged, can surpass the power of responders and raise the enormity of an event. an indicator of how well an emergency response system is working is how quickly supplies are provided (ganeshkumar & remesh, 2010). fire disaster response supply comprised of series of activities defined by time which commences when responders start their travel to the location of the emergency and ends immediately when they reach to the incident point (nfpa, 2003). when there is a need for emergency response, many different aspects, such as the availability and sufficiency of firefighters and equipment, knowledge, resources, and technological know-how, affect the type and quality of the supply. the response demand and supply conceptual model sees time as central to determining the nature of the interaction between the response demand and supply relationships. many factors such as access/travel distance, service coverage among others is embedded in time, and seen as the determinant of the efficiency of the relationships. however, when there is over response demand in the presence of inadequate personnel/apparatus, absence of service coverage area, technical problems among others, then there will be under response supply which translates to increased risk and exposure to the effect of fire disaster. figure 1 depicts the systematic relationships between emergency response demand and supply on one hand and implication of over emergency response demand. 64 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 figure 1. conceptual model of fire disaster emergency response demand and supply relationships methods this research is an applied one which employed geospatial approach integrating quantitative and geospatial data types. figure 2 describes and presents the various data kinds, sources, tools, and procedures for data gathering and analysis. figure 2. flowchart of methodology 65 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 study area kano is positioned between latitudes 110 50' n and 120 10' n, and longitudes 80 25' e and 80 40' e. it comprised of eight local government units including fagge, dala, kano municipal, gwale, tarauni and nassarawa). additionally, portions of kumbotso and ungoggo forms part of kano metropolitan area (maigari, 2016). the metropolis is around 499 km2 in size, with much of the urban area stretching outward from the region's center (figure 3). figure 3. kano metropolis by 2018, kano metropolis is expected to have a population of 4, 331, 790, making it one of the west african subcontinent's urban centers with the highest economic and demographic growth (npc, 2013). good management is challenging due to the ongoing intensification of human activities, which worsens the environment and raises the danger of multiple tragedies (barau et al., 2015; yunus & falola, 2022). the expansion of the metropolis has been credited factors including natural growth, immigration, the existence of educational institutions, the proximity of businesses and large markets, and the fact that it serves as the state capital (ayila et al. 2014). throughout the city, there is a wide range in the density of residential units. there are about 7,000 people living there every square kilometer. the six major lgas (dala, municipal, nassarawa, gwale, fagge, and trauni) make up much of the urbanized area with population density of about 19, 000 persons per square kilometer over an area of roughly 145 square kilometers. according to reports, this region experiences the greatest fire outbreaks because of its high population density, intense socioeconomic activity, high demand, and consumption of a variety of energy sources throughout the year. kano metropolis is susceptible to numerous calamities, both natural and man-made which has caused loss of lives, properties, and harm to the environment. while some strikes immediately, others take time to develop. some of the disasters include flooding, dam collapsing/failure, collapsing of buildings, traffic and aviation accidents, explosions, riots, and fire disaster affecting commercial, residential, and industrial landuses. urban fires are a serious problem in the city, where they frequently result in fatalities, serious injuries, and the damage of valuable property 66 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 worth billions of naira. addressing frequent recurrence of fire disasters in especially highly populated areas of the metropolis remain a major challenge to urban planners, researchers, and other stakeholders. consequently, the current research is being carried out. data types and sources the daily records of each of the existing fire disaster emergency response stations within the metropolis were used to compile a fire disaster incident record (2009-2019) that included incident attributes such as date and time of occurrence, address, landuses affected, estimated damages (counts of structures/materials and monetary value), cause or trigger, turn-out and arrival time, duration of response exercise, and number of lives lost, among others. because more than 80% of the existing fire stations were available (excluding danladi nasidi station) and the records were more readily available, accessible, consistent, legible (to some extent), and adequate, this period's incidents records were chosen (table 1). a total of 4335 events were recorded and used to determine the existing response demand and supply pattern within the metropolis, and to also propose an updated one based on standards. the incidents' absolute location attributes (longitude and latitude) were acquired via gps surveying in accordance with the addresses provided by the fire department's incident records. similarly, the eleven (11) existing fire stations' location attributes (latitude and longitude) were also acquired. road network data (vector format) with defined topology were extracted via on-screen digitization from a world view satellite image (2018) with a spatial resolution of 30 cm received from kano geographic information system department (kangis). this allowed for the mapping of the spatial pattern of existing response demand and supply relationships and fire stations to enable delineating service coverage areas for each of the stations and allocation of more fire stations in places with deficiency of emergency response. table 1. distribution and counts of historical fire incidents responded to by the existing fire stations within kano metropolis (2009-2019) stations year(s) 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 total % bompai 32 23 31 34 17 13 26 26 17 38 13 270 6.2 danladi nasidi na na na na na na na na na 10 19 29 1 government house 3 7 13 36 7 13 13 14 11 3 18 138 3 gwale na na na na na na na na na na na 0 0 headquarters 246 84 98 80 87 66 296 204 199 233 157 1751 40 house of assembly na 29 67 14 2 68 73 na 12 20 71 356 8 jakara 39 16 9 16 34 112 86 60 70 44 8 494 11 kurna 32 28 45 61 28 69 11 3 51 21 17 366 8 rijiyar zaki 35 17 70 40 1 37 4 49 41 40 9 343 8 sabon gari 11 6 4 5 12 22 18 21 11 na na 110 3 sharada 4 30 1 na 8 na 69 70 150 137 9 478 11 annual total 402 240 338 286 196 400 596 447 562 546 321 4335 100.0 67 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 data collection instruments, techniques and sampling methods among the main data collection methods employed are the review of fire event records, gps and electronic surveying, and geospatial data capture via on-screen digitization of road network data from world view satellite image (2018) to enable network analysis. to gather field data, a global positioning system (gps) device was employed (gps garmin 86i). all the city's existing fire stations were purposefully selected since, in addition to housing professionals, they are legally responsible for fighting fires to protect people's lives and property. in addition, incidents from january 2009 to september 2019 were chosen to enable depicting the true nature of the problem and the analysis' findings to be generalized. data analysis data analytics used in this study included nearest neighbor and network analyses (service coverage and location allocation). in nearest neighbor analysis, a nearest neighbor index was determined from the mean distance between each event location and its closest neighboring point. the analysis returns the observed and expected average distance, the z-score, nearest neighbor ratio and p-value. the statistical significance metrics indicate whether the null hypothesis should be accepted or rejected. however, the size of the research zone has a significant impact on the statistical significance of this approach. the null hypothesis for average nearest neighbor asserts that "incidents or objects are randomly distributed." however, the nearest neighbor index is determined via the ratio between the observed and expected mean distances. the mean distance between neighbors is the anticipated distance in a fictitious random distribution. the pattern clusters when the index is less than one. however, if the index is more than 1, there is a propensity for dispersion. the spatial distribution of two crucial components in this scenario was determined using nearest neighborhood analysis (nna). the first is the distribution pattern of response demand locations (fire catastrophe events) inside the study region, and the second is the number of fire stations already in use in the city. origin-destination analysis, which generates a matrix from many origins to multiple destinations, was used to determine emergency response demand and supply patterns as well as efficiency level, with respect to distance traveled and spatial coverage by each of the stations over the previous ten years. the returned matrix data includes the travel distance and time between each origin (in this case, fire stations) and each destination (incident location). the least amount of time (mins) or distance (km) required to travel from each origin to each destination is also taken into consideration while ranking the destinations that each origin connects to in ascending order. for each origin-destination pair, the optimum street route is found, and the trip times and lengths are saved as properties of the output routes. even though straight lines are utilized for performance reasons, they never record straight-line distance but rather transit time and distance along the street network. due to various inconsistencies, overlaps, and overstretching in the current response supply pattern, it was determined that none of the fire stations in the city have a well-defined service coverage area for the past ten years. without any sort of guiding concept, they have been randomly responding to emergency demand points, which has led to the overall response system's inefficiencies. it is therefore required to redefine the service coverage considering the features of the city and in comparison, to an accepted benchmark (the nfpa standard in this case). according to nfpa 1710, (2010), a city's total response time for a fire emergency should not exceed 4 minutes (240 seconds). this is due to the behavioral pattern of fire from the beginning to the end of its development stages. it is expected to be extinguished before it reaches the flashover stage, which usually occurs within 4-10 minutes from the ignition time. however, the longer the fire is allowed to burn, the more difficult it is to put out. studies have established that fires advance 68 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 and grow to become more difficult to extinguish every 17 seconds. this as a result leads to the suggestion that each station within the metropolis should have a designated service area that can be accessed within 240 seconds (nfpa standard) to allow for fire extinguishment within 4-10 minutes as also proposed by esri, (2007). to achieve this, network analyst tool, and specifically service area analysis (arcgis 10.8v) was used to redefine and delineate new service coverage areas to enable emergency response supplies from the demand points by each of the 11 existing fire stations within 4 minutes. this was conducted using the criteria described in table 2. table 2. service coverage delineation and location-allocation criteria sn criteria description 1. existing fire stations spatial distribution of the 11 existing fire stations in kano metropolis 2. fire incident points spatial pattern of fire incident points/response demand points (2009-2019) 3. road network data road network shapefile with a well-defined topological relationship 4. road classes/categories primary, secondary, and tertiary roads 5. road lengths defined distance (in km) of all road categories 6. permissible speed limits speed limits of 70km/hr, 50km/hr and 30km/hr respectively as determined by the federal road safety corps (frsc). 7. road distances road distance (computed from length and speed) per category based on permissible speed limit 8. 4 minutes drive service coverage distance travel delineation based on nfpa 1710 (2010) the service coverage analysis enables detecting areas fully covered and those with response deficit. however, site allocation study was carried out utilizing the network analyst of the arcgis 10.8 v environment to enable optimal coverage throughout the city. the aim of this analysis is to determine the best places for a few fire stations to serve as many city residents as possible. results and discussion distribution pattern of fire incident locations (response demand points) and fire stations in kano metropolis the results indicated a nearest neighbor index of 0.179, showing a clustered pattern of fire incident distribution (with an expected mean distance from each fire incident of 1004.52 meters and an observed mean distance of 180.02 meters). unlike the findings of chen & yang (2018) who found more clustering of fire incidents within industrial and commercial areas in southern taiwan, in this study, dominance and clustering of occurrences is on residential landuse, which accounted for around 72 percent of all fire incidents, (figure 4). this finding implies that fire outbreaks occur sporadically at intervals of about 180m from an incident location in all directions, especially within the city core. this is similar to the findings of isa et al. (2016) and zhang et al. (2018) who identified incident concentration zones within the core areas of their study. this calls for immediate intervention. in contrast to the distribution of fire occurrences within the metropolis, fire stations are widely spaced, with a nearest neighbor index of 1.69, resulting from an observed and expected mean distances of 3642.2 and 2150.7 meters respectively. this makes it difficult for existing fire stations to meet the ever-increasing emergency response demand, necessitating the placement of additional stations to ensure optimal coverage. on the contrary, while most studies use nna to identify urban fire clusters, ceyhan et al. (2012) employed exploratory and inferential methods for 69 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 spatio-temporal analysis of fire clustering in parts of ankara, turkey. moreover, diggle’s d-function was proposed for detecting residential fire clusters over time. figure 4. distribution of fire stations and fire incident locations (response demand points) in kano metropolis from 2009 to 2019 with respect to the total number of demand points (4335) within the study period and the existing fire station, ratio analysis revealed that each station is expected to service around 394 demand points, regardless of distance coverage. however, because of many factors including lack of clearly defined service coverage area, fire incidence frequency, landues among others, there were variations in terms of the total incidents responded to and the spatial coverage areas. for efficiency, distance coverage is critical for rapid response, it must be considered when choosing the number of demand locations to be covered by each station. other considerations include the number of firefighters, fire engines, extinguishers, fire suits, helmets among others. delineation of the existing service coverage based on historical incident response by the existing stations (2009-2019) total fire incidents attended to by each of the stations (between 2009 and 2019) were mapped and used to delineate the spatial extent of the service coverage and the response demand and supply pattern by each of the existing fire station (figures 5-9). the number and distribution pattern of incidents responded to were found to be uneven among the existing fire stations (table 1), likewise their spatial coverage. according to the findings, the station at the headquarter responded to about 40% of all fire incidents with a spatial coverage of about 95%. this is followed by jakara and sharada stations who responded to about 11% each of the incidents and with spatial coverages of about 50% and 93% of the total built-up area with the city respectively (figure 6), with a great deal of overlap. the house of assembly and government house stations responded to roughly about 8% and 3% respectively, and with spatial coverage areas of more than 80% and 75% of the metropolis' entire area with nearly 95% of the latter located within the former (figure 7). bompai and rijiyar zaki stations are complementary in that the latter covers the territory from the city's south western outskirts to the city center, while the former covers the area from the city's north-eastern 70 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 outskirts to the center, with a significant overlap in the center. these two stations, despite their vast service scope, are more systematically positioned than the others, but also over-stretched with a great deal of overlap into the areas of the headquarter, kurna, government house, house of assembly stations (figure 8). due to the lack of a functioning fire truck and other station infrastructure, the gwale station was inactive throughout the study period. finally, the danladi nasidi station which was recently launched (2018) only responded to roughly 0.6% of overall events (table 1). figures 5 and 6. showing the current service coverage areas of hq and sabon gari along with jakara and sharada stations including their respective overlaps figures 7 and 8. illustrate the current service coverage areas of the governor's house and the house of assembly, along with rijiyar zaki and bompai stations including their respective overlaps. 71 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 others include kurna and headquarters stations, which have significant overlap of about one-third of kurna covered by headquarter station (figure 9). this obviously indicates serious confusion, lack of consistency and misunderstanding of the system, all of which contributed to inefficiency in response, particularly in terms of travel distance. the results clearly depicts that none of the existing fire stations have a clearly defined and exclusive service coverage area, signifying that all stations have equal chances of responding to any incident in all parts of the metropolis. as a result, some stations are overburdened, while others are underused. figure 9. overlap of existing fire service coverage in kurna and hq stations table 2 presented the extents of prevailing service coverage and overlapping between pair of stations within the metropolis. from the result for example, the hq and sg stations (figure 5) covers spatial extents of about 145km2 and 28.7km2 respectively, with an overlap of about 25.1km2. this signifies that about 89% of the service coverage area of sg is contained within that of hq. secondly, jkr and shd stations covers service areas of about 24.9km2 and 172.7km2 respectively. this pair also have an overlap of about 24.2km2 accounting for about 98% of the service area of jkr station. in other words, the service area of jkr almost totally contained within that of shd. this clearly depicts the level of redundancy within the prevailing response system. only the service coverage areas between rz and bp, krn and dnsd stations has an insignificant overlap of about 0.03km2 and 0km2 respectively. although most studies use geospatial methods for service coverage delineation, yu et al. (2020) proposed a novel constrained voronoi diagram for fire service area delimitation using datasets comprising street network and historical fire incidents. emergency response demand and supply distance travel patterns (2009-2019) based on the current situation, it takes the firefighters more than 4-8 times the esri (2007) and nfpa (2010) recommended travel distance standard of 4 minutes to attend to most of the fire incident situations within the metropolis. this, however, is unhealthy, and has and continuing to result to loss of numerous lives, injuries, and property destruction. because the longer the time it takes to respond to a fire disaster, the more the risk level and the greater the magnitude of the consequence (yunus, 2019). to clearly understand the response demand and supply situations that 72 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 existed within the last decade, all the fire incidents responded to by each station along with the actual travel distances in minutes and kilometers were revisited and computed to determine those that were in accordance with the recommended travel distance (4 minutes), and those beyond. this is to enable proposing and delineating a more realistic service areas to avoid unnecessary overlapping and overstretching of the stations for optimal response coverage within the metropolis. figures 10-13 depicts the emergency response demand pattern and supply relationships in terms of physical and time distances covered by each of the station to respond to each of the incident points. for easy understanding, time distance was categorized into three ranges starting from the minimum distance range (0-4 minutes) which is within the standard, to the maximum distances (above 20 minutes) which is about 4-8 times the standard. figure 10 and 11. emergency response demand and supply distance range: (a) krn, jkr, bp and gh stations (b) rz, sg and dnsd stations from figure 10, about 39% of the incidents responded to by krn, jkr, bp and gh stations were reached within 0-4 minutes’ drive, 45% within 4-8 minutes and about 16% responded to within 8-21 minutes. this by implication signifies that more than 60% of the total incidents demand points were not responded to within the recommended time. this has significantly contributed to the resultant consequences experienced during the study period. however, on the other hand, only about 40% of the response demand points were serves within 4 minutes time thereby reducing the magnitude and people and properties exposure to fire risks within the area. figure 10 depicts about 41% of the incident points responded to by rz, sg and dnsd stations were within the recommended standard (0-5 minutes). however, 44% falls within response range of 5-9 minutes, and 15% within the range of 9-20 minutes. many factors might account for the late response which also determined the magnitude of the incidents. 73 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 figure 12 and 13. emergency response demand and supply distance range: (a) hq station (b) shd and ha stations the hq station (figure 12), about 35% of the incidents were responded to very late (within 9-20 minutes). however, most of the incident responded to (about 47%) falls within the range of 04 minutes. in the case of shd and ha stations, about 26% of the incidents were responded to within 17-33 minutes’ drive (which is about 8 times the recommended distance). from table 3, based on the previous distance coverage (time and length) by each of the station, the station at the headquarter responded to the highest number of incidents (1751) and has the highest distance coverage of about 2492.3 km and 3139.5 minutes. however, on the other hand, the least incident responded to, and distance coverage (in km and minutes) is by danladi nasidi station, which responded to only 29 incidents with a travel coverage of about 145.3km and 179.9 minutes. table 3. response distance coverage and overlaps by the existing stations (2009-2019) sn station no of emergency response demand and supply points service coverage (km2) distance coverage (km) time coverage (mins) overlap coverage (km2) 1 headquarters 1751 145 2492.3 3139.5 25.1 2 sabon gari 110 28.7 229.5 326.6 3 jakara 494 24.9 863.4 1168.9 24.2 4 sharada 478 172.7 3391 4667.7 5 government house 138 106.6 571.9 718.9 80.8 6 house of assembly 356 145.7 1900 2388.4 7 rijiyar zaki 343 68.3 811.8 1098.2 0.03 8 bompai 270 77.3 824.5 1258.1 9 kurna 366 72.7 1042.6 1462.9 0 10 danladi nasidi 29 63 145.3 179.9 11 kurna 72.7 1042.6 1462.9 58.7 12 headquarters 145 2492.3 3139.5 74 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 service coverage area redefinition and delineation based 4-minutes’ drive (nfpa standard) a four-minute travel threshold based on nfpa, (2010) and esri, (2007) was employed to determine the response service coverage for each existing fire station (figure 14) as conducted by oppong et al. (2017). this is to enable determining responsibility jurisdiction for the stations, and to estimate the expected gravity of emergency response demand and supply, and respective distance coverage. however, in this case, overlaps were not included in the service coverage delineation criteria to avoid redundancies as existed in the previous response system. figure 14 and table 3 shows that approximately 79 percent of total demand points (3411 demand points) are now accessible within a 4-minute drive of existing fire stations. however, just roughly 21% (924 points) of the total falls outside of the specified range. to achieve optimum coverage, this necessitates the need to position additional fire stations/facilities in strategic areas within the metropolis. figure 14. proposed service coverage areas accessible within four minutes’ drive from all directions it is critical to note that in this case, with the newly proposed 4 minutes service coverage areas, the number of demand points and the supply distance coverage (minutes) of current fire stations changes depending on the demand points' closeness to the stations. from table 4, jakara stations have the most demand sites (1635) within 4 minutes of driving in all directions, with a response supply distance coverage of roughly 2757.73 minutes. the stations at the headquarters, sabon gari, and kurna come in second, third and fourth with 322, 258 and 237 demand points, and response supply distances of 588.8, 502.6 and 549 minutes respectively. due to the low risk of fire disaster because of low population density, the stations’ location on the outskirts of the city for example danladi nasidi has the fewest demand points (about 35) and total response supply distance coverage of about 107.88 minutes. with this service coverage area, the existing stations can serve about 79% of the total incidents. however, about 21% remained unserved. 75 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 table 4. number of response demand points serviceable by the existing fire stations within a 4-minute drive. sn name serviceable demand points total distance (minutes) 1 gwale 224 440.13 2 jakara 1635 2757.73 3 kurna 237 549.45 4 headquarters 322 588.82 5 government house 136 281.58 6 house of assembly 170 383.72 7 sharada 48 140.45 8 bompai 144 385.35 9 sabon gari 258 502.64 10 rijiyar zaki 202 412.91 11 danladi nasidi 35 107.88 total served areas 3411 (79%) 6550.66 total unserved areas 924 (21%) location allocation of fire stations/facilities for maximum response coverage because of the proportion of the unserved points within a reasonable distance drive, location-allocation analysis was undertaken to discover best sites to position more stations for optimum coverage within the metropolis, to alleviate demand strain on most of the stations within 4 minutes’ drive. to determine the best sites, the analysis considers flashover time (4 minutes), demand points, fire station locations, road type and speed limits (km2), fire incident concentration, and travel distances of 4 minutes apart from turn-out time (60 seconds). to locate new facilities, the analytic properties were set to optimize coverage, and a cut-off value of 4 minutes distance (based on nfpa and esri, 2007 standard) was used. figure 15 shows the analysis' findings, which show places that are fully served as well as potential new locations for new response facilities to provide optimal response coverage. figure 15. proposed new facility locations and their respective service coverage areas 76 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 because the demand factor within 4 minutes’ drive was deemed more vital in selecting the service coverage zones, the central section of the metropolis has been fully covered. and only those stations in the city center have a higher number of demand points than those on the periphery of the city. this is owing to the dense population and high frequency of fires in the city center. however, the existing stations only partially covered areas such as hotoro, dorayi karama, yankaba, unguwar dabai, zaria road, eastern and western byepass, sharada, and dandinshe, among others. the results of the location-allocation analysis suggested eight (8) areas where extra fire emergency response facilities should be located for optimum coverage. table 5 shows the prospective sites' locations and characteristics. in a related study, dong et al. (2018) used locationallocation analysis to recommend the site of four new fire stations in high-risk areas and major city routes. table 5. proposed fire stations/facilities locations based on location-allocation analysis s/n street address latitude longitude status 1 mil-tara, along katsina road 8.453 12.07 required 2 eastern bye-pass road 8.586 11.996 required 3 western bye-pass road 8.583 11.952 required 4 sheikh ja’afar road, dorayi karama 8.481 11.965 required 5 sharada road 8.519 11.951 required 6 zaria road, adjacent to sa’adatu rimi college 8.55 11.922 required 7 brigade axis 8.572 12.043 required 8 unguwar dandinshi 8.475 12.022 required however, according to table 6, adding more stations to address response demand has not only relieved pressure on existing stations, but will also enhanced response coverage throughout the metropolis. based on the foregoing, additional 18% of the demand points which were unserved by the existing stations are now accessible by the proposed stations within the required time, thereby making the total of 96%. the remaining unserved places that account for about 3% are usually low-density locations that often requires emergency response occasionally. these locations can be accommodated in the future as demand increases. table 6 presents the number of expected demand points to be served by the proposed fire stations. table 6. response demand and supply points accessible by the proposed fire stations within 4 minutes’ drive sn station name station status count of present demand total minutes (present) 1 mil-tara, along katsina road proposed 117 288.83 2 eastern bye-pass road proposed 121 17.71 3 western bye-pass road proposed 102 48.90 4 sheikh ja’afar road, dorayi karama proposed 112 222.44 77 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 sn station name station status count of present demand total minutes (present) 5 sharada road proposed 103 131.49 6 zaria road, adjacent to sa’adatu rimi college proposed 89 81.67 7 brigade axis proposed 82 152.93 8 unguwar dandinshi proposed 74 177.43 754 (18%) based on the current response demand and supply pattern, the existing and proposed fire stations will be adequate to efficiently fulfill the increasing need for fire disaster response within the metropolis. conclusion it is concluded that emergency fire disaster response demand and supply relationships within kano metropolis is imbalanced, with extensive recurrent demand especially within the core area served by overstretched and inefficient response supply. one of the primary issues impeding the efficiency of the metropolis's response system is the lack of clearly defined service coverage zones by existing fire stations. most of the fire stations are spatially overstretched, while others are left redundant due to great deal of overlaps. depending on the incident concentration, the number of response demand points accessible by existing fire stations within a 4-minute drive varies dramatically, putting pressure on certain stations and easing pressure on others. as a result, new stations are required to improve the response system's coverage and efficiency. the study recommended that fire stations should rigorously adhere to the service coverage regions indicated by demand points and response supply coverage within a four-minute drive. this is to avoid redundancy and unsystematic responses and station overstretching. also, the government should put into consideration positioning new fire stations/facilities in the proposed locations as soon as possible to ensure optimal response coverage throughout the metropolis. acknowledgments the authors sincerely thank the staff of department of geography, bayero university kano for their constructive criticisms and support. declarations conflict of interest the authors declare that in the research and preparation of this article, there are no conflict of interests related to certain organizations, institutions, and individuals or groups. ethical approval on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that the paper satisfies ethical standards conditions, no human participants, or animals are involved in the research. 78 sulaiman yunus et al. / geosfera indonesia 8 (1), 2023, 61-82 informed consent on behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that no human participants are involved in the research and, therefore, informed consent is not required by them. data availability data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. references adamu, y. and yunus, s. 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