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The Use of Communication
Strategies in the Beginner EFL
Classroom1
Carmen A. Rodríguez Cervantes and Ruth Roux Rodriguez2*
Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, México
Abstract
When language learners do not know how to say a word in English, they can
communicate effectively by using their hands, imitating sounds, inventing
new words, or describing what they mean. These ways of communicating
are communication strategies (CSs). EFL teachers are not always aware of
the importance of teaching communication strategies to their students or, if
they are aware, they do not explicitly train their students to use them. They
do not use these strategies themselves to serve as a model to their students.
Very often, what we have observed is that teachers abandon the message or
switch to the first language to avoid communication problems in the classroom.
This study investigated the communication strategies used by two EFL teachers
and their beginner level students; and the potential factors that influence the
communication strategies they use in class. Data came from three sources: (1)
audio-recordings of naturally occurring classroom interactions; (2) interviews
with the teachers; and (3) observation notes taken in six class sessions. Data
from the interaction transcripts were examined using Faerch and Kasper’s
(1983) taxonomy of communication strategies. Results indicated that the
communication strategy most frequently used in both groups was language
switch. However, while the teacher who seemed more involved with students
used clarification request, comprehension check and asking for confirmation;
the teacher who appeared more distant from students used comprehension check
and repetition. Class size, seating arrangements and learning activity types were
also some of the factors that influenced the communication strategies used.
Key words: Communication strategies, classroom interaction, teaching
English as a foreign language
Resumen
Cuando quienes aprenden ingles no saben cómo decir una palabra, pueden usar
sus manos, imitar sonidos, inventar palabras o describir lo que quieren decir para
1 Received: August 4th,2012 / Accepted: August 15th, 2012
2 Email: rrouxr@uat.edu.mx
Gist Education and LEarninG rEsEarch JournaL. issn 1692-5777.
no. 6, novEmbEr 2012. pp. 111-128
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no interrumpir la comunicación. Estas formas de comunicarse son estrategias de
comunicación (EC). Los docentes de inglés como lengua extranjera no siempre
están consientes de la importancia de enseñarles estrategias de comunicación a
sus alumnos, o bien no les dan preparación explicita para utilizarlas. A menudo
lo que observamos es que los docentes abandonan el mensaje que querían
comunicar o utilizan la primera lengua para evitar problemas de comunicación.
Este estudio examinó las estrategias de comunicación empeladas por dos
docentes de inglés como lengua extranjera con sus estudiantes de nivel básico;
y los factores que influyen en las estrategias de comunicación que se utilizan.
La información se recolectó de tres fuentes: (1) grabaciones de interacciones
naturales en el aula; (2) entrevistas con los docentes; y (3) observaciones
registradas en seis sesiones de clase. Las transcripciones de las interacciones se
examinaron mediante la taxonomía de estrategias de comunicación de Faerch y
Kasper (1983). Los resultados indicaron que la estrategia utilizada con mayor
frecuencia en ambos grupos fue cambio a la primera lengua. Sin embargo,
mientras que el docente que parecía estar más involucrado con los estudiantes
utilizó también solicitud de aclaración, comprobación de comprensión y pedir
confirmación; el docente que parecía estar más distante de los alumnos utilizó
principalmente comprobación de comprensión y repetición. El tamaño del
grupo, la disposición de los asientos y el tipo de actividades de aprendizaje
son también algunos de los factores que influyeron en las estrategias de
comunicación que se empelaron.
Palabras clave: Estrategias de comunicación, interacción en el aula,
enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera
Resumo
Quando os que aprendem inglês não sabem como dizer uma palavra, podem usar
suas mãos, imitar sons, inventar palavras ou descrever o que querem dizer para
não interromper a comunicação. Estas formas de comunicar-se são estratégias de
comunicação (EC). Os docentes de inglês como língua estrangeira não sempre
estão conscientes da importância de ensinar-lhes estratégias de comunicação
aos seus alunos, ou bem não lhes dão preparação explicita para utilizá-las. Com
frequência o que observamos é que os docentes abandonam a mensagem que
queriam comunicar ou utilizam a primeira língua para evitar problemas de
comunicação. Este estudo examinou as estratégias de comunicação empregadas
por dois docentes de inglês como língua estrangeira com seus estudantes de
nível básico; e os fatores que influem nas estratégias de comunicação que se
utilizam. A informação se recolheu de três fontes: (1) gravações de interações
naturais na aula; (2) entrevistas com os docentes; e (3) observações registradas
em seis sessões de classe. As transcrições das interações se examinaram
mediante a taxonomia de estratégias de comunicação de Faerch e Kasper (1983).
Os resultados indicaram que a estratégia utilizada com maior frequência em
ambos grupos foi câmbio à primeira língua. Entretanto, enquanto o docente que
parecia estar mais envolvido com os estudantes utilizou também solicitação de
esclarecimento, comprobação de compreensão e pedir confirmação; o docente
que parecia estar mais distante dos alunos utilizou principalmente comprovação
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de compreensão e repetição. O tamanho do grupo, a disposição dos registros
e o tipo de atividades de aprendizagem são também alguns dos fatores que
influíram nas estratégias de comunicação que se empregaram.
Palavras chave: Estratégias de comunicação, interação na aula, ensino
do inglês como língua estrangeira.
Introduction
The use of communication strategies in the foreign language classroom has been studied in the United States and Great Britain since the 1980’s and more recently in some Arab countries
(Rababah, 2003; 2005). Communication strategies are attempts to
bridge the gap between the linguistic knowledge of the second-language
learner and the linguistic knowledge of his or her interlocutor in real
communication situations. Studies have found that communication
strategies, unconsciously used in the first language, do not automatically
transfer to the second language. Actually, communication strategies
need to be explicitly taught for students to improve their accuracy and
fluency (Dörnyei, 1995).
Studies on classroom interaction and in the teaching and use of
communication strategies by foreign language learners are scarce in
Mexico. Moreover, teachers are not always aware of the importance
of teaching communication strategies to their students or, if they are
aware, they do not explicitly train their students to use them. They do
not use these strategies themselves to serve as a model to their students.
Most often, what I have observed is that language teachers abandon
the message or switch to the first language to avoid communication
problems in the classroom.
To contribute to the knowledge on the use of communication
strategies in the foreign language classroom and provide
recommendations for language teachers and language teacher
educators, this study investigated the communication strategies used by
two teachers in a beginner EFL classroom. The study does not intend to
bring about generalizable results, but to illustrate how communication
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strategies are used in a specific learning context and how a taxonomy of
communication strategies can help interpret teacher-student interaction.
Literature Review
This section presents the literature consulted on communication
strategies, as well as the studies considered as a basis for the current
study.
The Notion of Communication Strategies
The notion of communication strategies, thus, refers to a mutual
attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations in which
they do not share the requisite meaning structures. In other words,
communication strategies are attempts to bridge the gap between the
linguistic knowledge of the second-language learner and the linguistic
knowledge of his or her interlocutor in real communication situations.
Approximation, mime, and circumlocution may be used to bridge this
gap. Message abandonment and avoidance may be used where the gap
is perceived as unbridgeable.
A broader definition of CSs was proposed by Faerch and Kasper
(1984), who emphasized the planning and execution of speech
production. These authors affirmed that to solve communication
problems, a learner does not only cooperate with his or her interlocutor,
but also finds a solution without the help of others. This view led to
further research concentrating on learners’ internal mental activities,
such as CS use for solving lexical problems (Poulisse, 1987).
Faerch and Kasper (1984) affirm that there are two types of
CSs: Achievement strategies and reduction strategies. Achievement
strategies allow learners to have an alternative plan to achieve reaching
an original goal using the resources that are available. Reduction
strategies are used by learners to avoid solving a communication
problem and allow them to give up on conveying an original message.
Achievement strategies consist of compensatory strategies and retrieval
strategies. Compensatory strategies include codeswitching, interlingual
transfer, interlanguage–based strategies, cooperative strategies, and
nonlinguistic strategies. Retrieval strategies are used when learners
have difficulties in retrieving specific interlanguage items. Reduction
strategies consist of formal reduction strategies (using a reduced system
to avoid producing non-fluent or incorrect utterances) and function
reduction strategies (giving up on sending a message or avoiding a
specific topic).
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CSs allow learners to continue in the conversation, which provides
them with opportunities to hear more input and produce new utterances.
Consequently, the use of CSs can have a significant learning effect for
EFL learners. For this reason, CSs should be considered as a subset of
learning strategies, which contain both skills for learning a language
and applications of them in real communication contexts.
The Teachability of Communication Strategies
Researchers agreed that the strategic competence that speakers
develop in their first language could be freely transferable to their second
language use (Bongaerts & Poulisse, 1989; Kellerman, Ammerlaan,
Bongaerts, & Poulisse, 1990). This meant that most adult language
learners already have a repertoire of communicative strategies that they
use in L1, regardless of their level of L2 proficiency. Kellerman (1991),
for example, affirmed that if the cognitive processes are familiar from
the L1, there was no point in teaching these strategies, and concluded
“there is no justification for providing’ training in compensatory
strategies in the classroom. Teach the learners more language and let
the strategies look after themselves” (p. 158).
Hungarian researcher Dornyei (1995), at present professor of
psycholinguistics at the University of Nottingham, not only suggested
that communication strategies needed to be taught, but he also provided
procedures for strategy straining. The six strategy training procedures
that he proposed were the following:
1. Raising learner awareness about the nature and communicative
potential of communication strategies by making learners conscious
of strategies already in their repertoire, sensitizing them to the
appropriate situations where these could be useful, and making
them realize that these strategies could actually work.
2. Encouraging students to be willing to take risks and use
communicative strategies or, in other words, to manipulate available
language without being afraid of making errors.
3. Providing L2 models of the use of certain communication strategies
through demonstrations, listening materials and videos, and getting
learners to identify, categorize, and evaluate strategies used by native
speakers or other L2 speakers. Conversations between the students
and native speakers can be recorded on video, and after viewing
their own recordings, students can analyze their own strategy use.
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4. Highlighting cross-cultural differences in communication strategy
use because in some languages particular communication strategies
may be seen as indications of bad style.
5. Teaching communication strategies directly by presenting linguistic
devices to verbalize them.
6. Providing opportunities for practice in strategy use is necessary
because communication strategies can only fulfill their function as
immediate first aid devices if their use has reached an automatic
stage.
The problem is that many teacher education or teaching training
programs do not include communication strategy knowledge to make
teachers aware of the importance of communication strategies in
language learning. Other programs do include communication strategy
training contents; however, teachers do not make use of this knowledge
in their everyday practice. This study sets out to investigate if two
language teachers possess this knowledge and the ways in which they
actually communicate with their students in their courses. Specifically,
the study is guided by three research questions:
1. How do participants use communication strategies in the EFL
classroom?
2. What is the perception of the participants of the use of communication
strategies in the EFL classroom?
3. What factors influence communication strategies used by the
participants?
Methods
Participants
The participants of this study were students and teachers from
two beginner-level English classes. The composition of the classes
were mixed; some were high-school students, others were university
students; still others were employed adults. One of the classes had 27
students while the other class had 23 students enrolled in the course.
Students’ attendance had great variation throughout the data collections
process. The ages of students were in the range of 18 to 60, although
the majority was between 18 and 20 years old.
The two teachers participating in this research were males. The
teacher of Group 1 was 52 years old and had 28 years of teaching
experience. He learned English in the United States and had certifications
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for English language and English teaching. For the purposes of this
study, the pseudonym Pablo is used hereafter. Teacher of Group 2 was
28 years old and had three years of teaching experience. He learned
English in his hometown and studied an undergraduate degree in
engineering. He had taken the Teaching Knowledge Test (TKT) with a
Band 2 certification. At the time of the study, he was close to obtaining
the In-service Certification for English Language Teachers (ICELT) by
Cambridge. In this paper the pseudonym Leo is used to refer to him.
Context
This study took place in the Language Center of a Mexican public
university in the northeast of the country. The aim of the Center is
providing foreign language courses and training courses for English
teachers. It serves more than 5,000 students per year. The classes are
given by 59 language teachers. The center offers beginner, intermediate
and advanced English, French and German courses. The study was
carried out in two beginning-level English classes.
Data Sources
Data for this study came from: (1) transcriptions of audio-
recordings of classroom interactions of two English language teachers
and their beginner-level students; (2) interviews with 2 teachers; and
observation notes taken during six class sessions. Classroom interactions
were recorded without previous preparation of students or teachers.
The purpose was to identify and quantify the communication strategies
they spontaneously used in the classroom. The interviews were held to
obtain information from the two teachers about their backgrounds, their
years of teaching experience, and their knowledge of communication
strategies. Observation notes were taken of the students’ and teachers’
behaviors while communicating in six distinct classes, three per teacher.
Data Analysis
Once classroom interactions were audio-recorded and transcribed,
the framework by Faerch and Kasper (1983) was adopted to code
the communication strategies used. The framework was selected
because the categories seemed clearly explained and appropriate for
the characteristics of the language data collected (Rababah, 2002).. A
frequency form was designed to classify the communication strategies
that occurred during the two hours of each class. The Teacher-Student
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and Student-Teacher interactions once coded were counted to calculate
percentages.
Table 1. Communication Strategies Taxonomy (Færch & Kasper. 1983)
The interviews and the observation notes were examined using
content analysis. A qualitative content analysis is a research method
for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through
the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes
or patterns (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). It is an approach of empirical
analysis of texts considering their context of communication (Mayring,
2000). This analysis goes beyond counting the words; it is rather focused
on the examination of meaning occurring within a particular context.
Findings
As Table 1 shows, for session 1, Pablo had a total of 15 students
attending the class; while Leo had 22 students. For session 2, 12
students attended Pablo’s class while 23 students attended Leo´s class.
On the third data collection session, 13 students came to Pablo’s class
in Group 1 and 19 students came to Leo´s class in Group 2.
Table 2. Students attendance per session
Group 1 had a large classroom and student attendance was scarce;
of a total of 23 students registered for the class, 15 (65%) was the
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highest number of students attending. Group 2, on the other hand, had
a smaller classroom with more student attendance; the total number of
students registered in the class was 27 and 23 (85%) was the highest
number of students attending. Students in Group 1 gathered in small
teams spread around the classroom. Students in Group 2 were always
crowded in a small room.
According to the observation notes, Pablo sat behind the desk
the whole class, staying distant from the students. He rarely went from
table to table to check students’ work. Leo, on the other hand, had a
crowded classroom. He rarely sat behind the desk. He was always
walking around the classroom, checking on the student´s work and
talking to them.
Types of Communication Strategies Used
As Table 1 shows, of the total of communication strategies used
by both groups, 25% were language switch; 17% clarification request;
12% comprehension check; 12% asking confirmation; 10% translation;
9% repetition; 5% paraphrase; 4% code-based confirmation check;
3% other reformulation; 2% meaning replacement; and 1% mime.
Restructuring, generalization, and approximation were communication
strategies never used by the participants.
Table 3. Strategies used in Group 1 and Group 1
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Considering the communication strategies used by each group,
Table 1 also shows that Group 1, taught by Pablo, used language
switch (21%); comprehension check (16%); repetition (14%); asking
confirmation (12%); paraphrase (10%); confirmation request (8%);
meaning replacement (5%); other replacement (5%); translation
(5%); code-based confirmation check (3%); and restructuring (1%).
Generalization, approximation and mime communication strategies
were not used by Group 1.
Group 2, taught by Leo, on the other hand, used language
switch (25%); clarification request (19%); asking confirmation (12%);
translation (12%); comprehension check (11%); repetition (7%); code-
based confirmation check (4%); other reformulation (3%); paraphrase
(2%); meaning replacement (2%); mime (2%); and approximation (1%).
Group 2 did not use restructuring and generalization communication
strategies.
The following excerpt of one of the teacher-student interactions
illustrates how the participants used language switch. In this case,
Pablo asked the student a punctuation related question: Where does the
comma go? The following statement was generated from the question
asked:
T: Perfect, la coma donde va? antes o después?
S: Antes
T: Before, o sea aquí…
S: Del nice? T:
T: Antes del but…
The above example shows how Pablo switched from English to
Spanish, to ask a question, and to obtain the correct answer from the
student. He first asked in Spanish to obtain an answer from the student;
then he replied providing the term in English. The student replied with
another question in Spanish and then the teacher provided the correct
answer.
The second communication strategy most frequently used by both
groups was clarification request. The following segment of teacher-
student talk exemplifies how clarification request was used. The
students had to do a workbook exercise and Pablo was going over the
answers with them.
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T: Cecilia, read number one…
S:this lap top is more versatile …
T: more what?
S: more versatile mine
T:yes, complete
S: versatile mine
T: than mine, hay que agregar el that después del comparativo, this laptop
is more versatile than mine…ok? Now Brenda number two…
S: your furniture is more nice than you neighbor´s furniture
T: nicer
S:nice, nice than you neighbor’s furniture
T: nicer than
S:nicer
T: you say nice you say nice, nicer…nice!
S: Shopping online is easier than going to the store…
T: correct, how do you say it?
S: Easier
T: Easier!
As the extract above shows, Pablo asked the students the question:
more what? A student replied with the correct answer and he made the
student repeat the correct answer.
The following example of the use of clarification request was
recorded in Pablo’s class. This use of clarification requests was very
common in simple and easy questions.
T: Many, cuando es contable
S: qué? Contable?
T: one, two three
The segment demonstrates how the teacher states something,
and to ensure she understood, the student asks again receiving a more
specific answer.
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The following segment again exemplifies the use of the asking for
confirmation strategy. This occurred in a context in which the teacher
was asking the students something so that they would reply with the
word they were going to be using in an exercise.
T: Bueno what word do you see in the three, qué palabra ven en las tres?
What is the word that we are going to use in the three….
S: Should…
T:should…yes? We are going to use recommendations, recommendations...
sorry with should, yes? Here we are going to use should or shouldn’t…
The teacher made the questions with the purpose of making the
students understand the word should which they would be working with
in the lesson. A student replied “should”, asking for Leo’s confirmation.
Leo replied affirming that the answer provided was indeed correct.
Comprehension check was a strategy mostly used by teachers to verify
that students had understood. The following fragment happened in a
context in which students were doing a listening exercise.
T: did you understand all the conversation? Or only one part? Did you
understand all the conversation? Yes?
S: Yes!
T: it talks about clothing…yes
S: teacher, how do you say dir dirty?
T: dirty...d-i-r-t-y…dirty is that it is not clean, imagine is not eh…many
black parts in a shirt…yes, that’s dirty yes it’s that is not clean yes? It’s
the contrary word for clean…
The extract above illustrates how Leo asked the students questions
to check their listening comprehension.
According to the classroom interaction transcripts and the
observation notes, the communication strategies were mostly employed
by Group 1 and Group 2 when:
- They needed to know how to say a word
- They had doubts about the lesson
- The teacher asked them questions
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When students needed to know how to say a word, they would
usually ask the teacher in Spanish. Very rarely did they use English for
that purpose. When students had doubts about the lesson, again, they
would mostly ask the teacher their questions in their L1. The teacher
would usually repeat the same sentence in English and then translate
it to Spanish so that the student would understand. Teachers generally
encouraged students to repeat the sentences in English to give them
opportunities for practice.
On the other hand, when students asked the teacher the meaning
of a word, the teachers would not give the exact meaning of the word
to the students. Teachers would rather give them an example of how the
word was used to encourage them to figure out the meaning.
Students used communication strategies most frequently when
the teacher asked questions, either personal or related to the lesson.
Students immediately replied; however, in some occasions they replied
in Spanish. They replied with doubts, mispronouncing the word and
even with a sentence that was not structured correctly. The teacher
answered with the correct pronunciation of the word and the correct
structure of the sentence, to serve as a model for the student.
Perceptions of Teachers of the Use of Communication Strategies in
the EFL Classroom
To examine the perceptions of the two teachers on the use of
communication strategies in the classroom, an interview was held with
each one of them. The teachers were also asked about the different
communication strategies that they thought they could use when
communicating with students. Pablo reported that the communication
strategies that he used in the classroom included providing students
with alternative ways of expressing in English. He said he used
paraphrasing and also positive and reinforcing comments to make
students confident in their use of English. Pablo reported that other
strategies that he used in the classroom were: encouraging students to
restructure their questions; and replying with complete sentences to
the questions asked by the students. Leo, on the other hand, reported
that he used paraphrasing to check the students’ understanding of the
meaning of words, and that he gave explanations of the meanings of
words. Both Pablo and Leo seemed to have declarative knowledge of
communication strategies, and they did not seem to use them in their
language teaching. In other words, their procedural knowledge was
needed. Also, neither of them used group-work in their classrooms so
that students could use communication strategies among themselves.
Interaction was mostly teacher-fronted.
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Factors that Influence the Use of Communication Strategies
There seemed to be many factors that influenced the use of
communication strategies in the classroom. Some factors appeared to
have a negative influence and others, a positive influence. According
to the observation notes, Group 1 used the least number of strategies.
Students in Group 1 did not have a seating arrangement; they were
spread out in the classroom. As a consequence, students would only
talk to the same small group of classmates close to them. They did
not have opportunities to move around the classroom to interact with
different classmates.
Another factor that did not encourage the use of communication
strategies in Group 1 was that the class did not seem to be interactive.
Observation notes indicate that students did not appear to be motivated
to talk. When working in groups, students talked in Spanish, using
English only when Pablo got close to them. Students could have had
more opportunities to practice or communicate in the classroom if
Pablo had provided them with challenging activities. Students were
always focused on their books in the three sessions observed.
Group 2 used more communication strategies. According to
the observation notes students in this class sat closer. They had the
opportunity to talk to each other and to Leo, who was frequently
walking around the classroom, asking questions related to the lesson
and even personal questions, to encourage communication. In this
group there was hardly a silent moment. Leo was always interacting
with the students. Due to this, students were not afraid to ask any
type of question or information. Leo used a variety of activities that
encouraged teacher-student interaction. However, student-student
interaction rarely happened.
Conclusions
The current research examined the use of communication
strategies in the beginner EFL classroom. To collect data, six class
sessions with two different teachers were recorded and transcribed.
Transcriptions were coded using Faerch and Kasper’s (1983) taxonomy
of communication strategies. Results revealed that considering both
groups, the communication strategies most frequently used were
language switch, clarification request, comprehension check, and
asking for confirmation.
Results by teacher, however, indicate that while in Pablo’s
class language switch, comprehension check and repetitions were
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more frequently used. In Leo’s class, language switch, clarification
request, comprehension check, and asking for confirmation were the
communication strategies most frequently used. However, both of
these classes were teacher-fronted. The lack of use of other strategies
was perhaps because teachers never used significant activities such as
collaborative tasks or group work. Group work can encourage the use
of communication strategies. Not having students interact with each
other influenced the way communication strategies were used in both
of the classrooms examined. The lack of interaction among students
led to having only teacher-student and student-teacher interaction.
Most importantly, during interactions students did not make an effort
to using the foreign language as a source when facing communication
problems. They switched to Spanish, which is the easiest way to keep
communication flowing, but the less convenient way for language
learning.
Results of the study indicate that students used their native
language most of the class time. Considering that it is hardly possible
that they use English in their everyday life, teachers should make
all efforts to help them use English in the classroom. Other than the
classroom, students do not have other places and opportunities to use
the foreign language they are learning. Teachers therefore, should be
knowledgeable and capable of eliciting English use from students.
Dörnyei (1995) suggests that communication strategies need to
be taught and he also suggests procedures for strategy training. Dörnyei
argues that teachers should raise students’ awareness, encourage them
to take risks, and provide them with models and opportunities to use
communication strategies. Data from both, students and teachers in this
study, indicate that neither the students nor the teachers were aware that
they could use communication strategies to facilitate their teaching and
learning. Not using these strategies in the classroom makes it even less
likely that they use them in real life situations to solve communicative
disruptions and enhance interaction in the foreign language (Doryei &
Scott, 1997; Faerch & Kasper, 1983a; Tarone, 1980).
Recommendations
The academic departments of language centers should provide new
teachers with teacher training programs that include communication
strategy use in the classroom. This would prepare EFL teachers to help
students solve communication problems even from the beginner level
class and improve their fluency. Students would get used to finding ways
to solve their communication problems without turning to their first
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language. Academic departments should also give more attention to the
composition of class groups. Mixing students with different needs and
interests (high-school, university and non-traditional students), makes
it very difficult for teachers to plan lessons and materials.
Language center administration departments should plan
language classes to hold a manageable number of students in order to
give them more opportunities for interaction. Language classes with
12 to 15 students give more chances for students to participate in pairs,
small groups and whole-class interaction. Also, classroom size should
be considered by language center administrations. Classrooms should
be big enough for teachers and students to move around easily.
Language teachers should change seating arrangements frequently
to get students to know each other better and to foster communication.
By planning the seating arrangement in accordance with the activities
and tasks to carry out for each language learning objective, teachers
would facilitate communication among students.
Language teachers should also give variety to their classes by
planning different kinds of activities for different purposes. Activities
should also focus on the development of different types of abilities
and not only on textbook exercises. Textbooks can be very useful for
foreign language learning, but students also need other activities to be
able to practice different real-life language competencies. Teachers
should also design and adapt more materials to the lesson that is being
taught to attract their attention and facilitate their learning.
Teachers should also be encouraged to resort less to language
switch and to use other communication strategies that are more
favorable to language learning. This would help students find more ways
to communicate with the teachers and other students instead of using
language switch as the only way to overcome their communication
difficulties.
Students, on the other hand, can improve their knowledge and
their practice of communication strategies attending classes regularly.
Some of the classes in which data was collected for this study did
not have most of the students present in the classroom. Also, English
should be required from them at all times in class. These issues should
be considered in the class and school regulations.
These recommendations are expected to improve language
teaching and learning, and particularly to increase the use of
communication strategies in the classroom, especially in the beginner
levels. The active cooperation of language center departments,
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teachers and students should contribute to a better language education
that prepares learners for real-life situations. It is also expected that
this study encourages other applied linguistics students to continue
researching the teaching, learning and use of communication strategies
in different contexts.
References
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Authors
* Carmen A. Rodríguez Cervantes has a B.A in Applied
Linguistics from Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, México.
* Ruth Roux holds a Ph.D in Second Language Acquisition /
Instructional Technology from the University of South Florida.
She teaches in the B.A in Applied Linguistics at Universidad
Autónoma de Tamaulipas. Her research interests include
language, education and culture.
Email: rrouxr@uat.edu.mx
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