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Received August 16, 2023, accepted November 18 2023, date of publication December 6, 2023

Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: 
challenges and achievements in a changing political context

By Rodrigo Mijares

Simón Bolívar University, Research and Development Foundation, Health Technology Management Unit (UGTS-USB), Caracas, Venezuela

ABSTRACT

This article summarizes the evolution of clinical engineering in Venezuela and its interaction with the political environment 
and health policies.
Method: The study consists of a comprehensive review of publications from the Health Technologies Management Unit of Simón 
Bolívar University throughout 1992-2023, organized into three thematic areas: Technological and Environmental; Relationship 
with Public Health Policies; and Influence of the Political System.
Conclusions: The early history of clinical engineering in Venezuela stands out for its impact on training and technological man-
agement to ensure quality and efficiency in the Venezuelan healthcare system. In the first area, it demonstrated the potential for 
improvement in medical technologies, generating high expectations. The second area focuses on the relationship between tech-
nologies and health policies, emphasizing the need to align public policies and technological management. However, challenges 
identified include the lack of evaluation and selection of appropriate medical technologies and political influence in acquisitions. 
The third area addresses political influence on the quality of medical care, emphasizing the importance of considering political 
and technological aspects in decision-making.

Keywords – Clinical engineering, health technology, public policies, political systems.

Copyright © 2023. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY): Creative Commons - Attribu-
tion 4.0 International - CC BY 4.0. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) 
are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is 
permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

INTRODUCTION

Venezuela’s humanitarian crisis, the resurgence of 
vector-borne diseases, and the implications of contagion 
in the region are well known [1]. What is little known is 
the struggle of the Health Management Unit to improve 
medical technologies. Health Technologies are attached to 
the Research and Development Foundation of the Simón 
Bolívar University (UGTS-USB).

For the last 30 years, UGTS-USB has conducted clinical 
engineering research. In this article, we will share how 
these investigations have been enriched thanks to the 
interaction with other areas of knowledge in a context 
marked by the political situation in Venezuela, like many 
Latin American countries. However, we want to point out 
that this experience is in Venezuela. The desire is to make 
known a little-known reality.

Our contribution in this field is especially relevant due 
to the challenges we have faced when researching in a 
country that has gone from a fragile democracy (1992-
1999), authoritarianism (1999-2018), and finally, a dicta-
torship (2019 to the present). Initially, our focus focused 
exclusively on technology and the environment, aiming to 
develop technical capabilities and solve problems around 
clinical engineering. However, we soon realized that it was 
crucial to understand and consider the country’s political 
system to have any impact on society.

Therefore, we broadened our perspective and under-
stood that technologies originate through public health 
policy. In this way, our research took a new direction, 
incorporating health policy study, evaluation, and analysis.

This more holistic understanding allowed us to gener-
ate greater value in our research and, most importantly, 
better understand the results obtained for the national 
and international organizations requesting our work. By 
considering the country’s political context, we were able to 
interpret the results of our contributions more accurately 
and how these may or may not be accepted to contribute 
to improving the health system in a challenging environ-
ment, as is often the case in countries of Latin America.

METHODOLOGY

The study consists of an exhaustive review of UGTS-USB 
publications covering the period 1992-2023, categorizing 
them into three thematic areas:

a) Technological and Environmental Approach:

We focus on advancing technical capabilities in the 
field of clinical engineering. We explore how these capa-
bilities have delivered tangible results, particularly in a 
democratic context.

b) Intersection of Technologies and Public Health 
Policies:

This area delves into the integration of health technolo-
gies into public policies. Examines how this integration can 
influence the application and utilization of technologies, 
especially in a politically authoritarian system.

c) Influence of the Political System:

The third area focuses on analyzing how the political 
system, particularly a dictatorship, impacts the perfor-
mance of public policies.

Since the article is a narrative, Table Number 1 is pre-
sented to analyze the essential elements that characterize it.

Characters

Protagonist

The Health Technologies Management Unit 
(UGTS-USB), affiliated with the Research and 
Development Foundation of Simón Bolívar 
University, is the central figure in this narrative.

Antagonists

During the research period, governments 
emerged as the primary antagonists. In 
secondary roles, national institutions, private 
companies, organized social entities, and non-
governmental and international organizations 
that commissioned the research also feature, 
each playing a role that adds complexity to the 
narrative.

Setting

Place Venezuela, located in South America.

TABLE 1. Fundamental Elements of the Article Narrative.



Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

J Global Clinical Engineering Vol.6 Issue 1: 2023  38

Historical 
period 1992-2023

Political 
conditions

Fragile democracy (1992-1999), 
authoritarianism (1999-2018) and finally a 
dictatorship (2019 to present).

Social 
conditions 
of the 
protagonists

The decrease in university salaries in the last 
22 years in Venezuela reaches historic levels. 
At the end of 2001, a full-time professor had a 
salary equivalent to about $2,440. For January 
2023, the salary of a top-level and dedicated 
teacher is $26.14, calculated at the official rate 
of the Central Bank of Venezuela (BCV).

Mood

During the democratic period, hope, optimism, and 
confidence defined our days, even facing challenges. The 
transition to authoritarianism plunged us into a sense of 
“amazement” as we witnessed foreign professionals taking 
precedence over Venezuelans. In the dictatorship phase, 
tension gripped us. Regime sympathizers closely monitored 
the execution of projects with international organizations 
within hospitals. Aware that we could face disappearances 
or imprisonment upon completing our tasks, we lived under 
constant pressure. However, we keep the hope alive for a 
return to democracy in Venezuela and eagerly anticipate 
contributing to improving our healthcare system.

Theme

This article summarizes the evolution of clinical engineering 
in Venezuela and its interaction with the political 
environment and health policies.

Point of view

We opt for the first person, identifying ourselves with the 
acronym UGTS-USB. This approach immerses us in an 
intimate perspective, allowing us to explore the thoughts 
and emotions of the Management Unit throughout its 
research journey.

Conflicts

Inside the 
UGTS-USB

During the democratic era, internal 
harmony prevailed as we all belonged to 
the engineering field. However, resistance 
surfaced within the group with the onset of 
authoritarianism and the incorporation of 
areas related to public policies and knowledge 
of political systems. This juncture evolved 
into a phase of discussion and analysis, 
highlighting the imperative to address 
conflicts and integrate specialists in those 
areas.

External

In the democratic period, access to 
information was relatively straightforward. 
Yet, during authoritarianism, although 
we could gain entry to health institutions, 
formal requests for information often went 
unanswered. The challenge escalated during 
the dictatorship when we lacked access 
to public institutions and information. 
When access was finally secured during the 
dictatorship, it came through international 
organizations, with the commitment to 
maintaining information confidentiality—no 
direct or indirect disclosure to third parties 
without the prior written consent of the 
Contracting Party. The possession of sensitive 
information directly impacting the health of 
Venezuelans, coupled with the inability to 
disclose it, poses an ethical and moral conflict. 
Nevertheless, we maintain hope that these 
highly esteemed organizations will carry out 
effective work.

Style

We adopt a realistic approach reflected in the faithful and 
detailed representation of reality over time, as depicted 
in our published research. Our narrative authentically 
portrays everyday life and organizational dynamics. Before 
publication, many of our investigations underwent public 
discussions, hoping they would be subject to contradictions 
and debates, fostering a broadening of perspectives. 
However, our resource constraints and the necessity to meet 
established deadlines added an additional challenge to this 
process.

Source: table prepared by the researcher. Information 
on social conditions can be detailed in: Human Rights 
Observatory (2023), on its website.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The early history of clinical engineering in Venezuela 
is characterized by three fundamental milestones that 
have shaped its evolution. In the 1970s, a technical health 
training program known as “Hipólito Unanue” was estab-
lished, which impacted not only Venezuela but throughout 
Latin America, laying the foundations for the training of 
personnel in the management of technologies. In 1993, a 
survey conducted among engineers from the Foundation 
for the Maintenance of Medical Assistance Infrastructure 

https://www.uladdhh.org.ve/index.php/2023/01/18/sueldo-de-profesores-universitarios-en-venezuela-representa-el-1-de-lo-que-ganaban-en-2001/


39 J Global Clinical Engineering Vol.6 Issue 1: 2023

Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

(FIMA) revealed the pressing need for training in medi-
cal devices, underscoring the importance of continuous 
training in this constantly evolving field.2

However, the highlight was the introduction of clinical 
engineering in Venezuela in 1992 under the visionary 
guidance of Professor Luis Lara Estrella. His focus on 
technological management as an integral part of health 
care led to the creation of the Health Technology Manage-
ment Unit (UGTS), which became a fundamental pillar in 
optimizing technological aspects in health institutions. His 
definition of clinical engineering as integrating various 
engineering and management processes, seeking effi-
cient and effective technological management with high 
availability and satisfaction, reflected the holistic vision 
necessary to ensure quality and efficiency in medical care.3

These historical milestones marked the beginning of 
clinical engineering in Venezuela and underlined the crucial 
relevance of technical training in health. The combination 
of technical training and sound technological management 
became the cornerstone to ensure the quality, availability, 
and efficiency of medical infrastructure and devices used 
in the country’s health system.

RESULTS

a) The first area was technological and 
environmental.

In the first area, which spanned since 1996, the Venezu-
elan health system observed a push toward technological 
and environmental modernization. A notable milestone 
was the transformation of the JM de Los Ríos Children’s 
Hospital into an autonomous service as part of the de-
centralization of the health system. The newly assumed 
administration decided to work with the UGTS-USB to im-
prove the hospital’s technological capacity, which resulted 
in a significant increase in the hospital’s operational level, 
rising from 26% to 64% in just one year.4 The operational 
level refers to recovering installed technologies, which 
require corrective maintenance.

The fundamental points that generated this positive and 
encouraging result have to do with a) financing; b) politi-
cal decentralization; c) transparency, by having scrutiny 

by the press or any interested organization; and d) the 
link between the hospital authorities (public world), the 
university (knowledge), and the private world.

On the other hand, the European Community gener-
ously offered financing to continue the modernization 
process. However, the political dynamics changed under 
the new administration led by Mr. Hugo Chávez. The 
proposal to involve the Cuban government in the project 
caused disagreements and tensions, ultimately prevent-
ing this opportunity from materializing. This disruption 
negatively impacted the hospital’s ability to provide qual-
ity care to patients by limiting their access to technology 
and resources that would have significantly improved 
medical services.

To understand the decision of President Hugo Chávez, 
to create a new healthcare model in Venezuela, directed 
and inspired by Cuba; An investigation was carried out 
with another group of colleagues from the USB. One of 
the most important conclusions was that the quantitative 
data found did not allow for measuring the impact of the 
Cuban mission, expressed in the population’s improve-
ments in health conditions and the prevention of diseases.5

In 2001, an evaluation of the Ministry of Health’s main 
hospitals revealed a common deficiency in their techno-
logical management, highlighting recurring problems in 
key areas such as the electrical system, elevators, and air 
conditioning systems. This lack of adequate technology 
management posed significant challenges to providing 
an optimal healthcare environment.6

In 2019, evaluations were carried out in two hospitals 
in Caracas by the UGTS-USB, under the observation of in-
ternational organizations. Although the results were not 
published due to confidentiality requests, it can be noted 
that the hospital infrastructure experienced a deteriora-
tion concerning the evaluation narrated in the previous 
paragraph. This decline was exacerbated by a drinking 
water shortage and environmental sanitation deficiencies 
resulting from inadequate cleaning practices. Additionally, 
a worrying 23% rate of healthcare-associated infections 
was recorded. The work was presented to the country’s 
health authorities and international organizations.



Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

J Global Clinical Engineering Vol.6 Issue 1: 2023  40

In 2001, the Essential Public Health Functions (FESP) 
of the Ministry of Health of Venezuela were evaluated. 
“Guarantee and improvement of the quality of individual 
and collective health services” obtained the lowest score.7 
These results highlighted the importance of addressing 
technology management in health policy planning. These 
results prioritized our future work.

The UGTS-USB prioritized the creation of a protocol 
for the evaluation of medical devices, which, after its 
development, obtained approval from the Ministry of 
Health as official policy. However, despite these established 
regulations, devices purchased by public entities do not 
undergo evaluations before use, raising concerns about 
the effective implementation of such a policy.8 Likewise, 
it should be noted that the medical devices used and ac-
quired by Cuba were not subjected to evaluation either.

The UGTS-USB included the incorporation of the envi-
ronmental aspect in the studies. The disposal of hospital 
waste and mercury by dental personnel were evaluated. 
The findings pointed out deficiencies in waste management 
and potential health risks in the hospital environment, 
underlining the importance of addressing environmental 
aspects in the management of technologies.9-10

In 2013, a study carried out in collaboration with an oil 
company exposed the relationship between technologi-
cal management and health infrastructure by identifying 
damage to medical equipment due to fluctuations in the 
electrical supply. This example highlighted the systemic 
challenges in technology management and its impact on 
public service delivery.11

Finally, with the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic 
in 2020, the capacity for collaboration between health 
organizations (private clinics), private companies, and 
universities in creating essential medical devices was 
demonstrated. The response to the crisis led to the 
development of mechanical ventilators and protective 
equipment prototypes, evidencing the importance of 
clinical engineering in critical moments of public health. 
Although the work was presented to the Red Cross and 
communication was maintained with government enti-
ties, the expected viability was not achieved, highlighting 

possible challenges in promoting and accepting innova-
tions in the health system.12-13

These episodes highlight the evolution of clinical 
engineering in Venezuela over the decades, marked by 
technological advances, political challenges, and the im-
portance of technical training and effective management 
to ensure quality and efficiency in medical care.

b) The second phase includes the relationship 
between technologies and public health policies.

Research and health policies adopted by developed 
nations significantly influence public health strategies 
in developing nations. Typically, this process involves 
adaptation, collaboration, and consideration of local 
needs. Effective public policies in health must be based 
on scientific evidence, local context, and international 
collaboration.

Our first work on this topic took place in 2003, in col-
laboration with the Venezuelan Society of Cardiology, when 
the institutional performance of a Cardiology service was 
evaluated from 1990 to 2000. This analysis found that the 
service complied with 73% of the guidelines established 
by the American College of Cardiology and the American 
Heart Association (AHA).14 It should be noted that tech-
nological considerations were not addressed in this study.

In 2004, we developed a conceptual and methodological 
proposal in the context of a medical technology manage-
ment project sponsored by the Ministry of Health. The 
main objective was to establish coherence between public 
health policy and medical technology management.15

Subsequently, after a year of studying the health system 
in France at the University of Nancy, we wrote an article 
in 2005 to conceive a political-management model, sup-
ported by two specific experiences: a) the execution of 
projects in various health institutions in Venezuela and 
b) an in-depth analysis of the European health system, 
particularly the French system.16

Our approach is built on a series of crucial steps that 
allow for a more effective and sustainable intervention: 
defining objective morbidity and mortality, analyzing the 



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Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

If we focus on the technological aspect in the health 
area, although Venezuela has its own human resources, as 
a financial provider, it could be expected that its person-
nel would have a dominant position in the relationship. 
However, it is totally passive. Currently, due to the eco-
nomic situation that Venezuela is going through, experts 
warn of a notable technological lag in the field of medical 
technologies. More than 60% of medical equipment is 
estimated to be obsolete.20 No other situation could be 
expected because, in both authoritarian and dictatorial 
periods, the positions of the Venezuelan specialists who 
had decision-making were postulated, not because of 
their capacity but because of their ideological affinity.

Other specialists think that the Venezuelan govern-
ment found in Cuba great support to develop its regional 
political project, involving the military sphere to remain 
in power, avoid uprisings, and fight against internal op-
position and international pressure that advocates for a 
regime change in Venezuela.21

c) The third area will analyze how the political 
system influences the quality of medical care.

We are fully aware of the importance of considering 
political and technological aspects when making sound 
decisions. For a broader understanding, it is enriching to 
examine the work of Togerson.22

An illustrative example is evident in evaluating the 
quality of cardiology services in a hospital during the 
study period (1990-2009). In the first stage (1990-1999), 
a decline in the quality of care is observed, decreasing from 
73% to 58% in the second stage (1999-2009), influenced 
by two contrasting political systems.23

In the second stage, despite implementing improve-
ments in the environmental setting and acquiring medical 
devices (unfortunately, we lacked information on the entity 
responsible for these acquisitions and on the evaluation 
of the quality of these devices, in compliance with Health 
Oversight), a decrease in the quality of medical care was 
observed. The increase in coverage by 75%, without con-
ducting fundamental studies to structure the local care 
offering [16] effectively, resulted in a decline in quality. 
The results were shared with authorities and patients. In 

determinants of health, evaluating current public health 
policies, delimiting the geographic and local context, and 
selecting the relevant technologies. Without a doubt, it 
is imperative to have the participation of all the actors 
involved to carry out this work.

Delimiting the geographical and local context is essen-
tial due to the great differences in Venezuela. Our study 
considers data from various sources and finds relevant 
differences between territorial entities when designing 
national public policies based on evidence.17

Throughout our work in public health policies related 
to the cardiovascular system, we have observed a lack of 
evaluation and even less in selecting appropriate medical 
technologies. In this sense, it has been identified that the 
acquisitions of technologies after 1999 have been carried 
out through agreements with ideologically related allied 
nations. In many cases, they are selected by another coun-
try without due evaluation of their quality and relevance.

An example of acquisitions from ideologically related 
countries was observed in the adoption of radiotherapy 
and nuclear medicine rooms in 19 public centers through 
a bilateral agreement with Argentina in 2011. This agree-
ment revealed that numerous pieces of equipment lost 
their five-year maintenance guarantees because they were 
at customs. In addition, several regulations related to ra-
diotherapy and those of the Health Comptroller’s Office 
were not complied with. Unfortunately, the clause relating 
to the training of human resources was not adhered to.18

In October 2000, the Cuba-Venezuela Comprehensive 
Cooperation Agreement was established, a strategic 
mechanism that would impact both countries’ health, 
economy, education, sports, and culture. The relation-
ship between them is determined by two fundamental 
variables: politics and economics.

In the political sphere, both nations share a social-
ist ideology. However, economically they seek progress 
through cooperative advantages, through the exchange 
of goods and services according to their respective ca-
pabilities. Venezuela provides oil, while Cuba provides 
its human capital.19



Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

J Global Clinical Engineering Vol.6 Issue 1: 2023  42

2014, hospital authorities decided to revert to the same 
coverage they had in 1999, indicating a lack of prepared-
ness to manage a 75% increase in the population served 
in the second stage.

Likewise, we conducted a comparative analysis of the 
management status of the JM de Los Ríos Children’s Hos-
pital about its situation two decades ago (1996-2016). In 
1996, a significant improvement in operational capacity 
was evident, increasing from 26% to 64%. However, by 
2016, a reduction in operability was observed, falling 
below 25%. Additionally, unsanitary conditions were 
identified, such as contamination of freshwater sources.24 
It is worth mentioning that, in 1999, despite the European 
Community seeking collaboration on the technological 
improvement project alongside the USB, this initiative 
did not receive government approval.4

These unsanitary conditions, among other pieces of 
evidence, were used by the non-governmental organiza-
tion “Prepara Familia” to request the adoption of measures 
to protect the rights to life and personal integrity of the 
children hospitalized at the JM de Los Ríos Hospital. 
Consequently, in February 2018, the Inter-American Com-
mission on Human Rights (IACHR-OAS), in its Resolution 
8/2018, issued precautionary measure No. 1039-17, which 
was expanded in Resolution 43/2019 dated August 21, 
2019.25-26

In 2018, we shared our first experience with an or-
ganized civil society that had the desire to collaborate 
in improving the healthcare system in their municipal-
ity. UGTS-USB gathered information and transformed 
it into a “Social Agenda” aligned with the Constitution. 
Subsequently, this agenda was discussed with various 
regional social and political stakeholders.27 The regime 
rejected the support.

Later, with the support of an international agency 
(which we are prohibited from identifying), we managed to 
secure adequate funding to improve the living conditions 
of healthcare professionals in the locality. Subsequently, 
the Civil Association took the initiative to create its own 
spaces to provide medical care to the region’s citizens.

In 2021, two international organizations hired UGTS-
USB to conduct research to assess the situation of hospi-
tals. However, restrictions limiting the disclosure of the 
resulting information made it impossible to make the 
obtained results public. We do not want to speculate on 
the reasons for this limitation. Nevertheless, it is important 
to note that censorship impacts the discussion of issues 
concerning the problems in Venezuela in the context of 
a dictatorial government situation.

Finally, based on our experiences, we propose conduct-
ing “Longitudinal Analysis of the Intersection between 
the Political System, Public Policies and Technological 
Management in the Context of Health”, abbreviated as 
“policy-tech.” However, the challenges we face in this type 
of research are notable, especially regarding information 
acquisition.

Describing a political system seems like a relatively 
accessible task. When it comes to public policy, a review of 
medical records (when possible) reveals a loss of 47% of 
such records. However, collecting technological informa-
tion in a longitudinal analysis is the real challenge. Critical 
data such as annual inventory, operational status of the 
equipment, life history of the equipment, operation and 
maintenance manuals, experience evaluations of techni-
cal personnel, selection procedures, and contracting of 
service companies, among other fundamental aspects, 
are non-existent. The absence of this data represents a 
substantial obstacle to achieving a complete and accurate 
evaluation.

Exploring the works cited in our bibliography pro-
vides suggestions for addressing these challenges. For 
example, in public policy, we seek guidance from sta-
tistical experts. Regarding technological management, 
we condense our strategies into the following activities: 
identify colleagues or companies with experience in the 
institution, carry out systematic literature reviews, and 
establish dialogues with doctors, nurses, and technicians 
who manage these technologies. Notably, many of these 
institutions had been previously evaluated by the UGTS-
USB, which allowed comparisons to be made that would 
facilitate decision-making.



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Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

CONCLUSION

The health system is suffering degradation as a dic-
tatorship consolidates, resulting in a currently complex 
humanitarian crisis. While the general situation is widely 
recognized, the clinical engineering narrative is poorly 
understood.

Clinical engineering in Venezuela is characterized by 
three fundamental milestones: the establishment of the 
“Hipólito Unanue” technical health training program in 
the 1970s, laying the foundation for medical technology 
training throughout Latin America; the introduction of 
clinical engineering in 1992 under the visionary direction 
of Professor Luis Lara Estrella, focused on comprehensive 
technological management in health; and the evolution 
towards technological and environmental modernization 
of Venezuelan hospitals, although hindered by political 
challenges and inadequate management.

In the first realm, clinical engineering in Venezuela 
experienced notable technological advancements, politi-
cal challenges, and the constant need to adapt to ensure 
quality healthcare. Collaboration between the public 
and private sectors and efficient management emerge as 
crucial elements to overcome these challenges.

The second domain underscores the importance of 
coherence between health policies and technological 
management, the necessity of considering the local con-
text in policy formulation, and the challenges associated 
with technology acquisitions lacking proper evaluations. 
Additionally, the strategic relationship with Cuba has sig-
nificantly influenced the landscape of clinical engineering 
in Venezuela.

The third domain highlights how political changes 
can directly impact healthcare quality. Instances such 
as the decline in the quality of cardiology services, the 
management of JM de Los Ríos Children’s Hospital, and 
collaboration with civil society emphasize the complexity 
and challenges associated with the interaction between 
the political system and public health. The presence 
of censorship in a dictatorial context underscores the 
limitations in discussing and evaluating the healthcare 
situation in Venezuela.

Finally, the narrative underscores the imperative of 
overcoming challenges in the “policy-tech” research. 
However, the lack of essential data poses a substantial 
obstacle. Nevertheless, it is recommended that these 
challenges be addressed by exploring cited works in the 
bibliography. In the realm of public policies, seeking the 
expertise of statistical experts is suggested to overcome the 
loss of records. For technological management, concrete 
strategies are proposed, including locating colleagues or 
companies with experience in the healthcare institution, 
conducting systematic literature reviews, and engaging 
in direct dialogues with healthcare professionals.

The mention of previous evaluations by UGTS-USB 
provides valuable insights to facilitate future decisions. 
A proactive and collaborative approach is emphasized to 
tackle the inherent challenges in the proposed research.

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7. Mijares R, Lara L, Rincón E (2002). Evaluación del Des-
empaño de las Funciones Esenciales de Salud Pública: 
caso Venezuela. I Congreso Venezolano de Bioingeniería. 
Coro. Venezuela. Igualmente fue publicado en la I Edición 
del informativo del Consejo Regional de Ingeniería 
Biomédica para América Latina (CORAL) en la página 
electrónica http://www.proexcel.fiocruz.br/inalter-
aveis/Avaliacao%20em%20Saude/2.1.Evaluacion%20
desempeno%20MSDSvenezuela.pdf 

8. Mijares R, Utrera N, Sierra Z, González M, Lugo R, Rincón 
M, Mijares R. (2020). Quality Certification of Medical 
Devices in Venezuela: Process Developed by Simón 
Bolívar University, Caracas-Venezuela. J Global Clini-
cal Engineering. Vol.2 Issue 3, pp 8-14. https://www.
globalce.org/index.php/GlobalCE/article/view/83 

9. Mata Ana, Reyes Rosa, y Mijares Rodrigo. Título: Manejo 
de desechos hospitalarios en un hospital tipo IV de 
Caracas, Venezuela. Revista: Interciencia, Vol. 29 N0 
2, pág. 89 – 93. Febrero 2004. https://www.redalyc.
org/pdf/339/33908906.pdf 

10. Morales Fuentes Ivelin, Reyes Gil Rosa E, Alvarado 
José, Domínguez José, Mijares Rodrigo. Diagnóstico 

de la contaminación por mercurio en el personal de 
una unidad odontológica de Caracas, Venezuela. Acta 
Odontológica Venezolana. 2007 Sep; 45(3): 369-374. 
http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&p
id=S0001-63652007000300008 

11. Mijares R, L Hernández. (2013). “Aproximación a las 
condiciones de salud de un municipio petrolero de 
Venezuela” Rev. Salud Pública 15 (5): 743-752. https://
www.scielosp.org/pdf/rsap/2013.v15n5/743-752/es

12. Ventilador Mecánico, Prototipo desarrollado en la USB. 
Página web de FUNINDES USB: https://funindes.com/
productos/ventilador-mecanico/ 

13. Moreno, E. Pedraza, F. Morales, R. Mijares, R. Boccardo 
and M.A. García. (2020) Redesigning protective gear for 
health workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: level-
ing up the “aerosol box”. J Global Clinical Engineering 
Vol.3 Issue 1. file:///C:/Users/Rebeca/Downloads/
editor-in-chief,+Redesigning+protective+gear+for+he
alth+workers+during+the+COVID-19_final%20(1).pdf

14. Mijares Rodrigo. Evaluación del desempeño institucio-
nal del Servicio de Cardiología del Hospital Militar “Dr. 
Carlos Arvelo”. Revista: Avances Cardiológicos, Vol. 23 
(1), pág. 2 – 12. Año: 2003. https://pesquisa.bvsalud.
org/portal/resource/pt/lil-392249

15. Mijares Rodrigo, Lara Luis, Della Valle Patricia, Rincón 
Elena. Gestión Tecnológica en un Ministerio de Salud: 
Caso Venezuela. Revista: Sanidad Militar de México. 
Vol. 58 (6). Pp. 434-442. Nov-Dic: 2004. https://www.
imbiomed.com.mx/articulo.php?id=30273 

16. Mijares Rodrigo, y Elena Rincón (2005). Establecimiento 
de un modelo político gerencial en las instituciones 
de salud de los países en desarrollo: Caso Venezuela. 
Revista: Médica de la Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana 
de Colombia (Medicina UPB) 24 (2): 139-158. https://
revistas.upb.edu.co/index.php/medicina/article/
view/2435

17. Buitriago-Boret S, Marinez-Rivas R, Flores-Diaz J, Mi-
jares R, & Rincón, E. (2023). Using cluster analysis on 
municipal statistical data to configure public policies 
about Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Venezuela. 
https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.12604

http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?pid=S0798-40652013000400012&script=sci_abstract
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http://www.proexcel.fiocruz.br/inalteraveis/Avaliacao%20em%20Saude/2.1.Evaluacion%20desempeno%20MSDSvenezuela.pdf
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.12604


45 J Global Clinical Engineering Vol.6 Issue 1: 2023

Rodrigo Mijares: Clinical Engineering and health policies in Venezuela: challenges and achievements in a changing political context

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