26 Global Education Review 6(1) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC by 4.0), permitting all use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the license is provided, and you indicate if changes were made. Citation: Rohrmann, Tim (2019). The role of male caretakers and pre-school teachers for father involvement in ECEC. Global Education Review, 6 (1), 26-39. The Role of Male Caretakers and Pre-school Teachers for Father Involvement in ECEC Tim Rohrmann Hildesheim University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Germany Abstract The relevance of men in the lives of children is nowadays widely accepted. This overview paper discusses the links between debates on father involvement in the family and strategies for more male professionals in ECEC by focusing on what role male EC workers can have for the involvement of fathers in the work of ECEC centres and pre-schools. Based on a critical gender perspective, the paper gives a broad overview of international debates on the issue, presents empirical evidence, and connects these results to the realms of practice. Arguments for a specific role for male ECEC professionals in approaching and supporting fathers are presented and critically discussed. It is concluded that the inclusion of male professionals in the ECEC work force can contribute to building good relationships with parents and especially fathers. However, gen- der sensitivity is crucial to overcome gender stereotypes in ECEC as well as in the wider society. Keywords Fathers, Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC), Gender equality, Men, Male workers in ECEC Male Caretakers and Pre-school Teachers „Children need men!“ This rallying cry is a com- mon argument for father involvement in the fam- ily as well as in the context of strategies for more men in ECEC. In what way are these two issues linked? The connection between father involve- ment and men in ECEC was already present in European debates on men and childcare more than two decades ago. However, little is known about the role of male workers for cooperation with fathers. This paper intends to connect the debates on male involvement in the two fields of family and ECEC by focusing on relations of male EC professionals with fathers. Male Involvement in Early Child- hood The relevance of fathers for children’s develop- ment in the early years is widely accepted nowa- days. There is growing consciousness in societies that fathers are important for their children’s de- velopment, and many fathers are present in the lives of their children from early on. However, re- cent cross-cultural research shows that enthusi- asm for active fathering varies between societies, _______________________________ Corresponding Author: Prof. Dr. Tim Rohrmann Hildesheim University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Ger- many Email: tim.rohrmann@hawk.de mailto:tim.rohrmann@hawk.de mailto:tim.rohrmann@hawk.de Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 27 and fathers are highly diverse also within their societies (Shwalb, Shwalb & Lamb, 2013). On the other hand, Roopnarine (2013) highlights cross- cultural similarities and universal key principles of how fathers are relevant for children’s devel- opment and family life. Shwalb and Shwalb (2014) summarize that the Western-style idea of active and involved fathers has reached global at- tention, “although the extent of this infiltration and men’s responses to these influences varies” (p. 15), depending on contextual factors in differ- ent societies. The situation in institutional day care and early education does not mirror these changes. While the importance of fathers’ involvement for the development of children is widely accepted, institutional care for children remains a female- dominated field worldwide, with a proportion of less than 3% men in the ECEC work force in most countries. This has been debated for decades in at least some countries of the Western hemi- sphere, and recently there is growing interest in the issue across the world (Rohrmann & Emilsen, 2015). Although cultural factors affect attitudes towards men in childcare and experiences of male ECEC workers, research shows astonishing similarities between different cultural contexts (Rohrmann, 2015; Xu, 2018). Connections between male involvement in the family and in educational contexts have been discussed for a while now. In 2008, a special is- sue of Early Childhood Development and Care focused on „Men in Caring, Parenting, and Teaching“ (Evans & Jones, 2008), including re- search on the situation of male workers in ECEC as well as programmes for the inclusion of fa- thers in early childhood institutions. Honig (2008) summarizes that „research on fathering and research on men employed in work with young children in centres and in elementary schools emphasises the importance of positive male engagement with young children for their optimal development“ (p. 665). However, she also points out that the relationship between male involvement and children’s development is complex, and traditional views on the role of men and women in family and society bar the way to more participation of men in childcare and early education. A closer look reveals that arguments for the inclusion of men are varied and some- times contradictory. The debate on men in education is based on two theoretical understandings of the role of men and women in the lives of children which can be seen as opposite or at least conflicting: the idea that men and women are fundamentally dif- ferent, and the assumption that men and women are equally capable of caring for and educating children. This issue has been debated in research and in wider society for decades and it is not the aim of this paper to discuss this in depth. How- ever, it must be kept in mind that attitudes to- wards men and women are deeply rooted in gen- dered cultural traditions. Even if there is re- search evidence showing that „it is quite clear that responsive sensitive parenting skills can be learned and that parenting is not an innate skill“, as Warin (2018, p. 63) summarizes, the idea that raising children is a „women’s task“ persists in many countries worldwide, especially when it comes to very young children. Enhancing the contribution of men in the lives of their children is seen as an important task by experts and policy makers around the world (Levtov et al., 2015). In this context, many approaches and tools have been developed to en- gage fathers and promote their involvement in the family. Working with fathers has become an important part of professional work with men in education and psychology. This paper focuses on the role of male professionals in ECEC for involv- ing fathers. Beginning with an overview on poli- cies for more male involvement, and on contra- dictory arguments for more men in ECEC, it pre- sents research evidence on relations between male workers and fathers, and discusses the role of men as professionals in the context of diversity in ECEC. It must be mentioned that, in this article, the term “fathers“ comprises „social fathers“, in- cluding stepfathers and new partners of single mothers, grandfathers, godfathers or other men 28 Global Education Review 6(1) who take responsibility for children in new types of families. Regarding the diversity of systems of EC provision in different countries, qualified caretakers and preschool teachers are subsumed under the term „EC professional“. Policies and Strategies for Male In- volvement in Family and ECEC In the 1990s of the past century, a working group of the European Commission started to debate the involvement of men in the care and education of infants, focusing on fathers as well as on male professionals in ECEC (European Commission network, 1993; Jensen, 1996). The working group put forward strategies for involving fathers and suggested increasing the proportion of male workers in ECEC to 20% (European Commission network, 1996). Since then, attitudes on the in- volvement of fathers in the lives of young chil- dren have changed substantially due to research results on the relevance of fathers for children’s development (Aigner, 2001, Fatherhood Insti- tute, 2000, Lamb, 2010, Walter, 2002), as well as to policy developments supporting fathers’ rights and fathers’ involvement in the family in many countries worldwide. Nowadays the popu- lar statement „children need men“ (Aigner & Po- scheschnik, 2015) is applied to the role of the fa- ther in the family as well as to the inclusion of men in educational institutions. The importance of male „father-figures“ is emphasized especially with regard to the increasing number of children growing up in single-mother homes, be they boys or girls; although research results on a presumed dysfunctionality of single-mother families are controversial (Golombok, 2000). At the same time, there have been public debates about the need for more men in educational institutions, especially in the context of a perceived „boys’ cri- sis“ in schools (Foster et al., 2001, Hurrelmann, 2012, Skelton, 2001). Even if there is little evidence for the as- sumption that more male teachers lead to better results of children in school, many researchers and policy makers are in favour of more men in EC (albeit for different reasons). However, this did not lead to a substantial rise in the propor- tion of male workers and teachers. Although Eu- ropean institutions repeatedly stated a need for more men in the field of ECEC (OECD, 2006; European commission, 2011), the number of male workers remained low in most countries. This situation began to change in the past dec- ade, as the issue of men in ECEC is discussed worldwide, and campaigns for a better gender balance show some results, at least in some coun- tries (Peeters, Emilsen & Rohrmann, 2015, Rohrmann, 2019). To understand the success of campaigns for more men in ECEC in the Nordic countries and in Germany, it is necessary to assess atti- tudes and legal frameworks regarding male in- volvement in childhood in these countries. In the Nordic countries especially, there is a broad con- sensus in society about the importance of men taking part in children’s lives. Gender equality is enshrined in laws, regulations and curricula, and ECEC provision is seen as an important contribu- tion to the goal of a gender equal society (Peeters et al., 2015). As a part of this, legislation about parental leave supports fathers’ involvement in family life. Sweden and Norway introduced a pe- riod of fathers’ leave not transferable to mothers more than a decade ago, resulting in a much higher share of parental leave taken by fathers. Similar strategies were adopted in Ger- many in 2006, when new legislation introduced two „fathers’ months“ within the parental leave. Since then, the proportion of men taking at least a short period of parental leave has increased sig- nificantly, from less than 2% before the reform to more than 35% in 2015 (Statistisches Bun- desamt, 2009-2017). A recent report states that 80% of the population support state-funded strategies for father involvement, and research provides significant results for even a short pe- riod of fathers’ leave on the quality of father- child-relations (BMFSFJ, 2017). One of the ef- fects of active engagement of fathers is that they are more often present in kindergarten. This is Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 29 especially relevant in the transition of very young children to ECEC provision when fathers take pa- rental leave while mothers return to work. Strategies for more father involvement and for men in ECEC are often brought forward by responsible ministries and national agencies in the context of gender equality. Partly due to large state-funded campaigns there are now 9.1% male workers in ECEC in Norway and 6.2% in Ger- many. Denmark has also been successful in pro- moting a better gender balance in ECEC institu- tions, although in all mentioned countries the proportion of male workers is still below 10% (Peeters et al., 2015; Rohrmann, 2019; Wohlge- muth, 2016). In other countries, the proportion of male EC workers remains low, but, in the past few years, there has been a growing interest in the issue, and several countries have started pub- lic campaigns and projects for a better gender balance. In Turkey, interestingly, the number of male pre-school teachers increased substantially to 5.8% in the context of the expansion of the whole system of pre-school over the last decade (Sak, 2018). This unexpected fact leads to the conclusion that the involvement of men in ECEC education might be part of a transformation pro- cess in modern societies, which can either be re- strained or supported by national and local stakeholders, but it must be understood in the context of a change of attitudes towards gender roles in the wider society. Why More Men? Expectations and Contradictions There are many and diverse arguments for inclu- sion of men in the EC work force (Rohrmann 2016a, 2019). One of the most common argu- ments is that men should serve as role models for boys (Brownhill, 2014, 2015; Wright & Brown- hill, 2019). Another widespread assumption is that men can bring in something „new“ to ECEC, for example by introducing more „masculine“ ac- tivities like playing football or using the work- bench with children (Wohlgemuth, 2016). On the other hand, it is expected that men will perform the same tasks and duties as their female coun- terparts, maybe even focus on activities tradi- tionally perceived as „female“, to show that car- ing for children is not just a „female“ role (Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012). Clearly such diverse projec- tions are based on different understandings of gender, ranging from a bipolar concept of mascu- linity and femininity to concepts of gender equal- ity, or even deconstructive approaches to gender. In practice, it is a difficult task for male EC professionals to balance contradictory expecta- tions. Some men tend to find a „male niche“ to assert themselves as men in a field dominated by women, while others resist and openly confront stereotyped attributions (Tennhoff et al., 2015, Warin, 2015). It might not be surprising, there- fore, that some studies show that in gender- mixed teams, traditional gendered assignments of tasks and activities can be reinforced even if this is not intended at all (Cremers, Krabel & Calmbach, 2012; Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012). However, according to recent studies, male and female EC professionals do not differ signifi- cantly regarding interactional quality and profes- sional behaviour towards children (Brandes et al., 2015, van Polanen et al., 2017). At the same time, research indicates that gender differences can be relevant in specific aspects of ECEC. Brandes et al. (2015) show that men and women react differently in the way they perceive and re- act to children’s play interests. Sandseter (2014) reports that men are more relaxed regarding wild and risky play of children. Clearly men are gener- ally more willing to engage in rough and tumble play with children, especially boys; this is true for fathers as well as for male EC workers (Flanders et al., 2009; Pellegrini & Smith, 1998; Richartz, 2015; Storli & Sandseter, 2017). Against this backdrop it could be assumed that male EC professionals might be relevant for fathers as well. Do fathers need male counter- parts in ECEC institutions? The growing partici- pation of fathers in family life, and their presence in kindergartens, is indeed one the arguments mentioned in discourses about a demand for more men in ECEC (Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012; 30 Global Education Review 6(1) Rohrmann, 2016a, 2016b; Warin, 2018). Reports from the field confirm that male workers can be important contact persons for fathers in everyday interactions, and even more for specific activities for fathers (Rohrmann, 2013). Some men place a main focus of their professional work on collabo- ration with fathers, e.g. organize evening talks with fathers or activities for fathers and children. On the other hand, there are male workers who do not engage with fathers, and not every father feels a bond with a male worker just because he is a man. What do we know about relations be- tween fathers and male EC professionals? Research Results on Fathers and Male Workers in ECEC Several studies verify that male EC workers are appreciated by most parents (Cremers et al., 2012; Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012; Rolfe, 2005; Lyons, Quinn and Sumsion, 2004; Sak et al., 2019). Even in countries where traditional gen- der roles are prevalent in society and male work- ers are rare in ECEC, positive reactions of par- ents are documented (Akman et al., 2014; Ho & Lam, 2014; Rentzou, 2011; Toth, 2009; Tsigra, 2016). However, these studies usually do not dif- ferentiate mothers’ and fathers’ attitudes towards male workers, and the role of male professionals specifically for fathers is rarely discussed. While there are several studies examining fathers’ atti- tudes towards ECEC and their involvement in EC centres (Anderson et al., 2015; Palm & Fagan, 2008), only a few studies focus on the relevance of male workers for collaboration with fathers. In the UK, an exploratory study of Lloyd, O’Brien and Lewis (2003) in the context of the „Sure Start“ programme revealed that only few programmes focused on the involvement of fa- thers and, as one of their recommendations, the authors stated a need for male workers. A US survey on fathers’ involvement in Early Child- hood programs (MFFN, 2011) built on the recog- nition of increasing participation of fathers in all areas of their children’s upbringing, including early childhood education and care. Despite this interest, several barriers and obstacles remain for better participation of fathers in everyday life in kindergarten. The report states that a vast ma- jority of EC professionals (91.6%) agreed that participation of fathers is „very important“, and fathers were invited to many meetings and activi- ties in kindergarten. However, the actual partici- pation of fathers was much lower, compared to the interest expressed in the survey. As the main reason, professionals (83.7%) and fathers (84.0%) mentioned a lack of time and conflicting meeting dates. However, 43.2% of professionals and 37.9% fathers agreed that a lack of male staff is a reason for the poor involvement of men. In- terestingly, 26.4% of teachers stated that „reluc- tance by mothers to get fathers more involved“ (p. 10) limits the work of EC programs to involve fathers. The authors conclude that a lack of male staff is an important reason for the poor involve- ment of fathers in EC, besides the fundamental problem of the limited time resources of fathers. More male staff, and males qualifying on pro- grams specifically for fathers, are seen as key fac- tors for better involvement: „The presence of male staff members and volunteers provides a cue that this is a male friendly environment where other males are welcome and expected“ (MFFN, 2011, p. 16). Research from Germany, Austria and New Zealand confirms that many fathers react posi- tively towards male staff (Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012; Cremers et al., 2012). As a male worker in Austria put it: „Fathers appreciate that there is also a man present – that it’s not only a women’s club, if I’m allowed to say so. ‘Cause that’s where men are very, very sceptical“ (Schauer, 2012, p. 324). Both sides appreciate being able to speak to a person of the same sex, and both EC profes- sionals and fathers feel respected as a man and as carers for children. In Germany, 56% of pro- vider managers agreed that male EC profession- als are important for collaboration with fathers, while agreement was less among centre leaders (40%) and parents (31%). In a New Zealand sur- vey among EC services and teacher educators, Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 31 85% believed that involvement of fathers and other men would increase with more male pro- fessionals in the centres (Farquhar, 2012). An in- terviewee stated: „When the Dads see him, they go straight to him. They stay longer and chat, and they watch him with the kids and just get in- volved a whole lot more. Before we had a male teacher they used to drop their kids off and run“ (Farquhar, 2012, p. 9). Successful involvement of fathers some- times appears to be related to specific character- istics of individual male workers. Warin (2007) reports an example of a centre that involved men by engaging a local musician to set up a fathers’ band recording nursery rhymes, and songs. Simi- larly, Potter and Carpenter (2008) mention that the success of a local Sure Start programme for engaging fathers in ECEC was partly due to „the high level of skill and persistence demonstrated by a dedicated Fathers Worker“ (p. 761). On the other hand, there are fathers who are reluctant to accept men working in ECEC, especially when it comes to the care of very young children. This is especially true for fathers who are used to letting their wives do the caring in the family. They may feel confused by a man who naturally does things they themselves would never do at home. Research on relations between mothers and male EC professionals provides diverse re- sults. Sak et al. (2015) found that Turkish female pre-school teachers had better relations with par- ents than their male colleagues and argue that this is related to cultural factors: „In Turkey, it is mostly mothers who become involved in school activities, and they may prefer to interact with fe- male teachers“ (p. 336f.). On the contrary, stud- ies from Germany and Austria show that male EC professionals can be important for mothers, es- pecially single mothers, as they appreciate having a male person to talk to (Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012; BVZ 2006). Aigner and Rohrmann (2012) note that male workers report very good relation- ships with mothers, who like to stay and talk with them, speaking openly about their thoughts and feelings. Some mothers seem to find it easier to talk to a male professional rather than a female. This might be connected to the idea that men working in EC institutions could serve as „father substitutes“ for children of single mothers. The authors found that most male professionals as well as mothers criticized such notions and pointed out the professional character of the re- lationship between parents and EC professionals. However, some young men welcomed the idea: „Those who live with [single] mothers, they need male role models, and this is something we as male workers can fulfil well“ (Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012, p. 427). Statements like these clearly show that male workers need to reflect on their role towards children as well as towards mothers and fathers. Collaboration with Fathers from Migrant Backgrounds in Western Societies Although there is limited research evidence avail- able on this issue, some authors from European countries highlight the relevance of male EC pro- fessionals for fathers from migrant backgrounds. Some practitioners’ experience is that these fa- thers are more open towards male colleagues, and that better contact with them can ease the work of their female colleagues as well. An Aus- trian centre manager summarized her experi- ences with fathers from Turkish migrant back- ground: „Yes, I really recognize that they prefer to go to him [the male colleague], they like to talk to him, whereas I had problems because in Turk- ish families, it’s the men who do the talking, and then they have problems with women, and it’s easier [since we have a male colleague]. And it’s more men who come to parent’s meetings” (Aigner & Rohrmann, 2012, p. 324). Other prac- titioners report that it is difficult for some men to accept female EC professionals as having author- ity. Active interactions with a male co-worker can ease the situation, with the aim of explaining a gender-equal understanding of professionalism in ECEC to these fathers, thus strengthening the position of their female co-workers as well. A German centre leader summarized experiences with a male colleague who himself had a Turkish 32 Global Education Review 6(1) background: „Naturally this really was an oppor- tunity for many Turkish fathers to come here and get something off their chest or say something or get into a discussion with him. They knew there was someone who understood their language, and so on. And what’s more he was also a man. They were sometimes surprised. Because, in practice, he was on our side (…) But this built al- ready some brigdes“ (Cremers et al., 2012, p. 52). Such statements mirror practical experi- ences, but also assumptions that in migrant fami- lies, traditional notions of gender are widespread and dominant. This is partly true, although in modern societies, families from migrant back- grounds are much more diverse (Jantz, 2013). There are „new“ fathers with migrant back- ground, as well as German fathers with very tra- ditional attitudes towards fathers’ roles (Tunç, 2013). Moreover, the understanding of the role and relevance of ECEC varies from community to community. However, in many cultures world- wide, roles and tasks of men and women in fam- ily and society tend to be much more separated when compared to the model of shared responsi- bility dominant in some Western countries. This means that some parents with a migrant back- ground might feel uncomfortable discussing pri- vate issues in „public“ with a member of the op- posite sex, while others might find it strange to talk about intimate details of childcare with a man at all. In addition, the cultural background of EC professionals is relevant for their ability to understand and to transform cultural attitudes towards gender issues. The results reported above match with re- search on parents’ attitudes from Turkey. Sak et al. (2015) note that it is mostly mothers who are involved in pre-school activities, and they there- fore prefer to talk to female counterparts in the centre, while male pre-school teachers are per- ceived as authority figures, similar to the role of the father in the family. Different perceptions of the roles of men and women in the family, as well as in ECEC, might cause misunderstandings and conflicting expectations between parents and professionals. Finally, men working in ECEC can be role models for fathers seeking new vocational orien- tations. It is a common phenomenon that women reconsider their vocational choice when they have children, and start a new career in ECEC af- ter a period of parental leave. The above-men- tioned New Zealand report states that more in- volvement of men in everyday life in kindergar- ten can inspire fathers as well to consider ECEC as a possible career choice (Farquhar, 2012). Based on similar experiences in the UK, Warin (2018) pleads for recruitment strategies targeted at men who are fathers. Working with Fathers as a Task for Male EC Professionals As mentioned above, men working in ECEC are often struggling to find their role in a female- dominated environment. Working with fathers is an important task in the context of collaboration with parents, and engaging in this field can pro- vide male workers with a positive role in the cen- tre’s work. This includes activities for fathers and children, such as outdoor trips or play after- noons, but as well meetings with groups of fa- thers where they can exchange experiences and discuss educational topics and their role as fa- thers, including personal reflection. In this con- text, some projects for more men in ECEC in Germany have focused on qualifying male practi- tioners for working with fathers (Haas & Rams, 2016; Marquardt & Hessel, 2013). Surveys from Germany show that in support groups for male EC professionals (which play an important role in retaining and qualifying men in the field of ECEC), working with fathers is a regular topic (Rohrmann, 2013). However, male practitioners do not agree on the relevance of their gender for working with fathers, as the following quotations illustrate. One male EC professional stated: „In my view, practitioners’ gender is very important. (…) Of Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 33 course, men are diverse – but gender as a cate- gory dominates perceptions“ (Koordina- tionsstelle, 2013, p. 58, translation T.R.). The in- terviewee viewed male practitioners as „door openers“ for fathers, and pointed to their „double role“ as competitors and role models in relation to fathers. Another interviewee stated the oppo- site: „Our experience is that gender is less rele- vant (…) First of all, the professionalism of prac- titioners has to be taken into consideration. Prac- titioners need to be able to meet fathers (and, of course, mothers) on an equal level, and with em- pathy“ (Koordinationsstelle, 2013, p. 60, transla- tion T.R.). These examples show the broad range of attitudes towards the role of men working in ECEC, which are connected closely to different understandings of gender, as well as the individ- ual self-concepts of men who chose caring for and educating children as profession. Discussion Male EC professionals are at the crossroads of two debates regarding their relationship to fa- therhood. Firstly, the relevance of men in ECEC is debated against the backdrop of a lack of fa- thers in families. Secondly, working with fathers is seen as an important task for male EC profes- sionals based on the idea that being the same sex makes it easier to connect. Although these two expectations are contrary, both share an underly- ing assumption of a biological polarity between men and women, which is a simplification and not in line with a current understanding of gen- der. Although there are similarities between male workers and fathers, it is necessary to reflect on gender-specific assumptions, to respect individ- ual differences, and to develop an approach of learning experiences that resists the idea of „in- nate“ personality traits of men and women. Warin (2018) insists that responsivity and sensi- tive parenting skills can be learned and are not based on sex differences. This is true for fathers as well as for EC professionals, and is an im- portant argument for the involvement of men, both in the family and in ECEC. On the other hand, existing differences between men and women, including the body and its physical pres- ence, should not be underestimated, especially when seen as a starting point for gender reflexiv- ity and the development of a gender equal society (Peeters et al., 2015). Accepting differences opens up for new perspectives, and is fundamen- tal for an inclusive conceptualization of ECEC. Conclusions It can be summarized that gender-reflexive male professionals can play an important role for in- volving fathers in ECEC institutions. This does not mean that men absolutely need male coun- terparts in ECEC staff. All-female teams can do excellent work in involving fathers, while men on the staff are by no means a guarantee of better collaboration with fathers. However, research ev- idence, as well as practical experience, shows that men can enrich cooperation with fathers (in- cluding „social fathers“) in ECEC institutions in many ways. The first impression. Having men in the team counteracts the impression of kindergarten as a „feminine“ place, and can indicate that men and women are equally commonplace and wel- come. Male contact persons for fathers. Male practitioners can play an important role as same- sex counterparts for fathers. At least for some fa- thers, this may facilitate conversations and pro- fessional communication. Mixed teams also al- low for consultation with parents in „mixed dou- ble“ conversations; this is especially important when parenting conflicts between mothers and fathers are tackled. Male role models with regard to interac- tions with children. Male practitioners can serve as role model for fathers, showing them how to care for and interact with young children. Many fathers wish to build better relations with their children when compared to their experience with their own fathers. Especially in the early years they often feel insecure on how to realize this, and are open to suggestions and new ideas. Contacts for migrant fathers. In some mi- grant families it is not common for men and 34 Global Education Review 6(1) women to discuss educational issues together. For these fathers, it might be easier to have a male professional in ECEC centres as a contact person. Cultural-sensitive and gender-sensitive approaches need to be combined in order to bridge cultural differences. Contacts for separated fathers. In debates on single parents, there is little attention paid to the situation of fathers who do not have custody and do not live with their children but would, nevertheless, like to take part in their children’s lives. This may cause uncertainty in ECEC staff, especially when the relationship between the par- ents is conflicted along gendered boundaries. De- spite this, ECEC institutions can be a place where both parents are welcome, with a male worker being the father’s contact person. Team leader for activities for fathers. While activities for and with fathers and children can easily be initiated and conducted by female colleagues, meetings and discussion groups for fathers might benefit from being led by man. A male professional can offer a „secure space“ for men, and he himself can participate in such ac- tivities as a person who has reflected on his own masculine identity. This might be relevant for discussions on parenting styles, about specific problems of men regarding work-family-balance, or an exchange about experiences with their own fathers. Role model for new vocational orienta- tions. Finally, male EC professionals can inspire fathers who are in search for new vocational ori- entations and might be interested in working with children. Fathers interested in such a pro- spect could participate in everyday life in the cen- tre, in voluntary work around the centre’s activi- ties, or even, as a first step into a new vocational career, as assistants or freelance staff for specific activities. Limitations and Implications for Future Research and Policy Development Although this paper clearly shows that cultural factors play an important role in gender relations in families, as well as in relationships between fa- thers and EC professionals, it must be kept in mind that the presented evidence derives from a few projects in a few countries. Further research is needed to identify specific cultural factors that are relevant for attitudes towards the involve- ment of men in the lives of children. To avoid simplifying generalizations, it is necessary to fo- cus the cultural diversity of fathers between, as well as within, societies. Measures for a better gender balance must take into account that atti- tudes towards men in ECEC vary due to the di- verse cultural backgrounds of families. Another limitation of the study is the rela- tively broad use of the term „involvement of fa- thers in ECEC“. As Janssen & Vandenbroeck (2018, p. 813) show, there are “subtle yet mean- ingful differences” in concepts of educational partnering across countries. Research on fathers’ involvement in ECEC must be contextualized with regard to different orientations towards pa- rental involvement. On the other hand, concepts of working with families in ECEC institutions need to include perspectives of men – in the fam- ily as well as in gender-mixed teams. To conclude with, working with fathers needs a cultural-sensitive approach combined with gender sensitivity, and this is true as well for research on this issue. Keeping this in mind, the inclusion of gender-sensitive male professionals in the ECEC work force is a tool for promoting change in gender relations in the wider society, not least by building good relationships with par- ents and especially fathers. To conclude, gender- mixed teams are an opportunity for more diver- sity, and more diversity is a good starting point for good collaboration with both fathers and mothers alike. References Aigner, J. C. (2001). Der ferne Vater: Zur Psychoanalyse von Vatererfahrung, männlicher Entwicklung und negativem Ödipuskomplex. Gießen: Psychosozial- Verlag. Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 35 Aigner, J. C., & Poscheschnik, G. (Eds.). (2015). Kinder brauchen Männer: Psychoanalytische, sozialpädagogische und erziehungswissenschaftliche Perspektiven. Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag. Aigner, J. C., & Rohrmann, T. (Eds.). (2012). Elementar: Männer in der pädagogischen Arbeit mit Kindern. Opladen: Barbara Budrich. Akman, B., Taskin, N., Ozden, Z., Okyay, O., & Cortu, F. (2014). Parents’ views on the ap- pointment of male teachers in Turkish pre- schools. Education as Change, 18(1), 21– 32. doi: 10.1080/16823206.2013.847009 Anderson, S., Aller, T. B., Piercy, K. W., & Roggman, L. A. (2015). ‘Helping us find our own selves’: Exploring father-role con- struction and early childhood programme engagement. Early Child Development and Care, 185, 360–376. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2014.924112 BMFSFJ Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend. (2017). Familienreport 2017: Leistungen, Wirkungen, Trends. Berlin. Retrieved from https://www.bmfsfj.de/blob/119524/f5172 8a14e3c91c3d8ea657bb01bbab0/familien- report-2017-data.pdf Brandes, H., Andrae, M., Roeseler, W., & Schneider-Andrich, P. (2015). Does gender make a difference?: Results of the German tandem-study on the pedagogical activity of female and male ECE workers. Euro- pean Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 23(3), 315–327. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2015.1043806 Brownhill, S. (2014). ‘Build me a male role model!’: A critical exploration of the per- ceived qualities/characteristics of men in the early years (0–8) in England. Gender and Education, 26, 246–261. doi: 10.1080/09540253.2014.901723 Brownhill, S. (2015). The ‘brave’ man in the early years (0-8): Defining the ‘role model’. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 23(3), 370–379. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2015.1043811 BVZ Beratungs- und Verwaltungszentrum e.V., & Kress, B. (2006). Mehr Männer in die pädagogische Arbeit! Dokumentation der Fachtagung vom 24. Juni 2006 in Frankfurt am Main. Frankfurt a.M. Retrieved from http://www.balancing- consult.de/doku_fachtagung.pdf Cremers, M., Krabel, J., & Calmbach, M. (2012). Male Educators in Kitas. A Study on the Situation of Men in Early Childhood Edu- cation. Berlin: Federal Ministry for Familiy Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. European Commission. (2011). Early Childhood Education and Care: Providing all our children with the best start for the world of tomorrow. Communication from the commission. Brussels. European Commission Network on Childcare. (1993). Men as carers: Report on an inter- national seminar, Ravenna, Italy, May 21- 22, 1993. Brussels. European Commission Network on Childcare. (1996). Quality targets in services for young children. Brussels. Evans, R., & Jones, D. (2008). Men in caring, parenting and teaching: exploring men’s roles with young children. Early Child De- velopment and Care, 178, 659–664. doi: 10.1080/03004430802351998 Farquhar, S. (2012). Time for men to be invited into Early Childhood teaching. The Find- ings of a National Survey of Early Child- hood Education Services and Teacher Ed- ucators. New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.childforum.com/policy-is- sues/surveys-and-ece-sector-a-family- data/787-are-men-wanted-in-ece-why- what-action-should-be-taken-a-2012-sur- vey-of-ece-services-and-teacher-educa- tors.html Fatherhood Institute. (2013). Fathers’ impact on their children’s learning and achievement. FI Research summary. London. Retrieved 36 Global Education Review 6(1) from http://www.fatherhoodinsti- tute.org/2013/fatherhood-institute-re- search-summary-fathers-and-their-chil- drens-education/ Flanders, J. L., Leo, V., Paquette, D., Pihl, R. O., & Séguin, J. R. (2009). Rough-and-Tumble Play and the Regulation of Aggression: An observational study of father–child play dyads. Aggressive Behavior, 35, 285–295. doi: 10.1002/ab.20309 Foster, V., Kimmel, M., & Skelton, C. (2001). 'What about the boys?' An overview over the debates. In W. Martino & B. Meyenn (Eds.), What about the boys? Issues of masculinity in schools (pp. 1–23). Oxford: Open University Press. Golombok, S. (2000). Parenting: What really counts? London: Routledge. Haas, J., & Rams, J. (2016). Herzlich willkommen! – Väter erobern die Kita: Wie man Väter in der Kita fördern kann. In A. Eickhorst, A. Röhrbein, & J. Schweitzer (Eds.), "Wir freuen uns, dass Sie da sind!": Beratung und Therapie mit Vätern (pp. 152–161). Heidelberg: Carl Auer. Ho, D., & Lam, H. (2014). A study of male partic- ipation in early childhood education. Inter- national Journal of Educational Manage- ment, 28, 498–509. doi: 10.1108/IJEM- 02-2013-0024 Honig, A. S. (2008). Supporting men as fathers, caregivers, and educators. Early Child De- velopment and Care, 178, 665–687. doi: 10.1080/03004430802352020 Hurrelmann, K., & Schultz, T. (Eds.). (2012). Jungen als Bildungsverlierer: Brauchen wir eine Männerquote in Kitas und Schulen? Weinheim: Beltz. Janssen, J., & Vandenbroeck, M. (2018). (De)constructing parental involvement in early childhood curricular frameworks. Eu- ropean Early Childhood Education Re- search Journal, 26, 813–832. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2018.1533703 Jantz, O. (2013). Väter(-arbeit) – Heterogenität als Prinzip. In Koordinationsstelle „Männer in Kitas“, Vielfältige Väterarbeit in Kindertagesstätten: Handreichung für die Praxis (pp. 9–14). Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.koordination-maenner- inkitas.de/uploads/me- dia/04_Broschuere_Vaeter- arbeit_Handout.pdf Jensen, J. J. (1996). Men as workers in childcare services: A discussion paper. London. Re- trieved from European Commission Net- work on Childcare website: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED40308 0.pdf Koordinationsstelle „Männer in Kitas“. (2013). Vielfältige Väterarbeit in Kindertagesstätten: Handreichung für die Praxis. Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.koordination-maennerink- itas.de/uploads/me- dia/04_Broschuere_Vaeter- arbeit_Handout.pdf Lamb, M. E. (2010). The role of the father in child development (5th ed.). Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/allti- tles/docDetail.action?docID=10375606 Levtov, R., van der Gaag, N., Greene, M., Kaufman, M., & Barker, G. (2015). State of the world’s fathers: A MenCare advocacy publication. Washington, DC. Retrieved from Promundo, Rutgers, Save the Chil- dren, Sonke Gender Justice, and the MenEngage website: https://men- care.org/resources/state-worlds-fathers/ Lloyd, N., O'Brien, M., & Lewis, C. (2003). Fa- thers in Sure Start: The National evalua- tion of Sure Start (NESS). London. Re- trieved from https://core.ac.uk/down- load/pdf/70727.pdf Lyons, M., Quinn, A., & Sumsion, J. (2004). Gen- der, the labour market, the workplace and policy in children’s services: Parent, staff Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 37 and student attitudes. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 30(1), 6–13. Marquardt, C., & Hessel, R. (2013). Das Vater- Kind-Training. In Koordinationsstelle „Männer in Kitas“, Vielfältige Väterarbeit in Kindertagesstätten: Handreichung für die Praxis (pp. 49–50). Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.koordination-maenner- inkitas.de/uploads/me- dia/04_Broschuere_Vaeter- arbeit_Handout.pdf MFFN Minnesota Fathers & Families Network. (2011). Linking fathers: Father involve- ment in early childhood programs. Early Childhood Sector Analysis. Plymouth, MN. Retrieved from http://www.mnfathers.org/Re- sources/Documents/Early Childhood Sec- tor Analysis Final 09-2011.pdf OECD. (2006). Starting Strong II. Early child- hood education and care policy. Paris. Palm, G., & Fagan, J. (2008). Father involvement in early childhood programs: Review of the literature. Early Child Development and Care, 178, 745–759. doi: 10.1080/03004430802352137 Peeters, J., Rohrmann, T., & Emilsen, K. (2015). Gender balance in ECEC: Why is there so little progress? European Early Childhood Research Journal, 23(3), 302–314. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2015.1043805 Pellegrini, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (1998). Physical activity play: The nature and function of a neglected aspect of play. Child Develop- ment, 69, 577–598. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 8624.1998.tb06226.x Potter, C., & Carpenter, J. (2008). ‘Something in it for dads’: Getting fathers involved with Sure Start. Early Child Development and Care, 178, 761–772. doi: 10.1080/03004430802352152 Rentzou, K. (2011). Greek parents’ perceptions of male early childhood educators. Early Years, 31, 135–147. doi: 10.1080/09575146.2010.530247 Richartz, A. (2015). Raufen und Toben – Was Spielkämpfen ist und wozu es dient. In C. Blomberg & N. Neuber (Eds.), Männliche Selbstvergewisserung im Sport: Beiträge zur geschlechtssensiblen Förderung von Jungen (pp. 165–184). Wiesbaden: Springer VS. Rohrmann, T. (2013). Arbeitskreise für männliche Fachkräfte in Kindertagesstätten: Bestandsaufnahme, Strategien und Impulse. Handreichung für die Praxis. Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.koordination- maennerinkitas.de/uploads/media/05_Br oschuere_Fachkraefte.pdf Rohrmann, T. (2015). Männer in der Elementarpädagogik: Ein internationales Thema. In J. C. Aigner & G. Poscheschnik (Eds.), Kinder brauchen Männer: Psychoanalytische, sozialpädagogische und erziehungswissenschaftliche Perspektiven (pp. 37–59). Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag. Rohrmann, T. (2016a). Männliche Fachkräfte in Kitas - Wozu? In W. Weegmann & J. Senger (Eds.), Männer in Kindertagesstätten: Theorien - Konzepte - Praxisbeispiele (pp. 55–64). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Rohrmann, T. (2016b). Men and women as pro- fessionals in early childhood education. An issue of inclusion? La Nouvelle Revue De l’Adaptation Et De La Scolarisation, n° 73 (Avril 2016), 201–219. Rohrmann, T. (2019, submitted). Men as pro- moters of change in ECEC? An interna- tional overview. Early Years, 39. Rohrmann, T., & Emilsen, K. (2015). Special Is- sue: Gender balance in the ECEC work force. Editorial. European Early Child- hood Education Research Journal, 23, 295–301. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2015.1043804 Rolfe, H. (2005). Men in childcare: EOC Report No. 35. Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission. Retrieved from URL: 38 Global Education Review 6(1) http://www.eoc.org.uk/cseng/re- search/men in childcarewp 35 full re- port.pdf Roopnarine, J. (2015). Fathers across cultures. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Sak, R. (2015). Comparison of self-efficacy be- tween male and female pre-service early childhood teachers. Early Child Develop- ment and Care, 185, 1629–1640. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2015.1014353 Sak, R. (2018). Gender differences in turkish early childhood teachers’ job satisfaction, job burnout and organizational cynicism. Early Childhood Education Journal, 46, 643–653. doi: 10.1007/s10643-018-0895- 9 Sak, R., Rohrmann, T., Şahin Sak, İ. T., & Schauer, G. (2019). Parents’ views on male ECEC workers: A cross-country compari- son. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 27. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2018.1556535 Sak, R., Şahin Sak, İ. T., & Yerlikaya, İ. (2015). Behavior management strategies: Beliefs and practices of male and female early childhood teachers. European Early Child- hood Education Research Journal, 23, 328–339. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2015.1043807 Sandseter, E. B. H. (2014). Early childhood edu- cation and care practitioners' perceptions of children's risky play: Examining the in- fluence of personality and gender. Early Child Development and Care, 184, 434– 449. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2013.794797 Schauer, G. (2012). Eltern und männliche Kindergartenpädagogen. In J. C. Aigner & T. Rohrmann (Eds.), Elementar: Männer in der pädagogischen Arbeit mit Kindern (pp. 317–326). Opladen: Barbara Budrich. Shwalb, D. W., & Shwalb, B. J. (2014). Father- hood in Brazil, Bangladesh, Russia, Japan, and Australia. Online Readings in Psychol- ogy and Culture, 6(3). doi: 10.9707/2307- 0919.1125 Shwalb, D. W., Shwalb, B. J., & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.). (2013). Fathers in cultural context. New York, NY: Routledge. Skelton, C. (2001). Schooling the boys: Mascu- linities and primary education. Educating boys, learning gender. Buckingham: Open University Press. Statistisches Bundesamt. (2009-2017). Statistiken zum Elterngeld: Beendete Leistungsbezüge. Berlin. Retrieved from https://www.desta- tis.de/DE/Publikationen/Thematisch/Sozi ales/Elterngeld/ElterngeldGebur- tenVj.html Storli, R., & Sandseter, E. B. (2017). Gender mat- ters: Male and female ECEC practitioners’ perceptions and practices regarding chil- dren's rough-and-tumble play (R&T). Eu- ropean Early Childhood Education Re- search Journal, 838–853. doi: 10.1080/1350293X.2017.1380881 Tannock, M. T. (2008). Understanding the value of children’s rough-and-tumble play. The Early Childhood Educator, spring 2008. Retrieved from http://www.ecebc.ca/re- sources/journal/2008spring/03.html Tennhoff, W., Nentwich, J., Schaelin, S., & Vogt, F. (2015). Doing gender and professional- ism: Exploring the intersectionalities of gender and professionalization in Early Childhood Education. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 23(3), 340–350. Toth, A. (2009). Men as nursery school teachers (Unpublished BA thesis). University of Bu- dapest, Institute of Sociology and Social Policy, Budapest. Tsigra, M. (2016). Parents’ views on male EC ed- ucators in Greek pre-schools. Paper pre- sented on the 4th SIG Gender Balance Re- search Conference, 31.8.2016, Dublin, Ire- land. Retrieved from http://www.sig- gender.eu/forschung/2016_re- search/Tsigra_2016_SIG_parents_views. pdf Role of male caretakers/teachers for father involvement 39 Tunç, M. (2013). Engagierte Väter in der Migrationsgesellschaft. Gleich und anders!? In Vielfältige Väterarbeit in Kindertagesstätten: Handreichung für die Praxis (pp. 14–20). Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.koordination-maennerink- itas.de/uploads/me- dia/04_Broschuere_Vaeter- arbeit_Handout.pdf Van Polanen, M., Colonnesi, C., Fukkink, R. G., & Tavecchio, L. W.C. (2017). Is caregiver gen- der important for boys and girls? Gender specific child–caregiver interactions and attachment relationships. Early Education and Development, 28, 559–571. doi: 10.1080/10409289.2016.1258928 Walter, H. (2002). Männer als Väter: Sozialwissenschaftliche Theorie und Empirie. Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag. Warin, J. (2007). Joined-up services for young children and their families: Papering over the cracks or re-constructing the founda- tions? Children & Society, 21, 87-97. doi: 10.1111/j.1099-0860.2006.00036.x Warin, J. (2015). Pioneers, professionals, play- maits, protectors, ‘poofs’ and ‘paedos’: Swedish male pre-school teachers’ con- structions of their identities. In S. Brown- hill, J. Warin, & I. Wernersson (Eds.), Men, masculinities and teaching in early childhood education: International per- spectives on gender and care (pp. 95– 105). London: Routledge. Warin, J. (2018). Men in Early Childhood Edu- cation and Care: Gender balance and flex- ibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wohlgemuth, U. G. (2016). (More) men in early childhood education and care: An uphill down dale endeavour. Lyčių Studijos Ir Tyrimai (Gender Studies and Research), 2015(13), 40–54. Retrieved from http://su.lt/images/leidiniai/Lyciu_studi- jos/03_Ula.pdf Wright, D., & Brownhill, S. (2019). Men in the early years: Building a gender-balanced workforce. London: Jessica Kingsley Pub- lishers. Xu, Y. (2018). A cross-cultural analysis of gen- der and practitioner-child interactions in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings in Scotland, Hong Kong, and Mainland China. PhD thesis, Univer- sity of Glasgow, Scotland. Retrieved from https://theses.gla.ac.uk/30595/ About the Author Dr. Tim Rohrmann is professor of early child- hood education at University for Applied Sci- ences and Arts, Hildesheim, Germany. He has fo- cused on gender issues in gender issues in chil- dren’s development and education in research, practice and policy since 1995, and is currently convenor of an international research network on gender balance in the ECEC work force.