Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 154 _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Medvide, Mary Beth. (2021). Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning: A Proposed Direction Forward. Global Education Review, 8 (2-3), 154-167. Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning: A Proposed Direction Forward Mary Beth Medvide Suffolk University (USA) Abstract Work-based learning programs in the United States are designed to prepare adolescents for their first jobs and to develop the soft skills to be successful in in the classroom or the workplace. Historically these programs have neglected how work, education, and training in the local context are connected to issues on national and international stages. While research and theory has generally supported this structure for WBL, the nature of work has changed substantially in the 21st century. Contemporary models of WBL are informed by scholarly literature on globalization, but this is does not fully capture the realities young people face. Glocalization fits with existing WBL efforts and provides a conceptual framework to modernize how students are prepared to transition from high school into the workforce or post-secondary education. This manuscript will review the current state of WBL, discuss the benefits of a glocal perspective, and make program recommendations. Keywords Work-based learning; school-to-work transitions; glocality; glocal citizenship Introduction Work-based learning (WBL) for school- age youth in the United States has long been viewed as a vehicle to introduce students to the world of work, develop career interests, and foster academic engagement. Historically, WBL has taken many forms directed at youth who will transition directly into the workforce or will enter post-secondary education (Kenny, 2013). Each shift in WBL has been accompanied by new strategies to maximize student success and changing conceptual underpinnings to ground program development (Welsh, Appana, Anderson, & Zierold, 2014). Contemporary iterations of WBL are informed by globalization and shifts in the 21st century labor market (Kenny et al., 2019a). While this is a necessary step to successfully prepare students for an uncertain world of work, it is insufficient in capturing the skills and knowledge needed for young people to find meaningful work and achieve wellbeing. A glocal perspective extends the current knowledge base on WBL and marks the next evolution in how high schools can prepare students for the dynamic economic and social conditions that await them after graduation. Work-Based Learning for School-Age Youth in the United States WBL for school-age youth in the United States encompasses a range of programs, such as internships, job shadowing, and apprenticeships, that are meant to integrate young people into work settings under adult supervision. This integration is strategically positioned alongside traditional curriculum to provide students with opportunities to explore Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 155 155 career interests while working towards their academic goals (Bailey, Hughes, & Moore, 2004; Solberg, Howard, Blustein, & Close, 2002). In some cases, WBL programs include a classroom component where students consolidate learning on the job site and explore career options, but this is not commonplace (Welsh et al., 2014). Although WBL components are established curriculum in many countries, this is not the case in the United States where many young people may not be introduced to the world of work through formalized programs within secondary education (Medvide, Kozan, Blustein, & Kenny, 2019; Pavlova, Lee, & Maclean, 2017). WBL is meant to help students to find connections between their academic performance now and the attainment of their career goals in the future. Additionally, WBL can foster skill development in specific vocational domains, often labeled as hard skills, and soft skills that transcend the requirements any one internship or job (Deluca et al., 2015). The development of soft skills in a work setting can also be utilized in the classroom to demonstrate flexibility, open-mindedness, and empathy (Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond, 2013). These benefits can extend to post-secondary education and enhance preparedness and academic motivation (Kenny, Catraio, Bempechat, Minor, Olle, Blustein, & Seltzer, 2016). Large-scale studies in the United States show mixed outcomes for the effects of WBL programs on academic achievement and attainment. Trends suggest WBL programs can make students more knowledgeable about work and foster career exploration, but involvement in WBL may also create an opportunity cost where students do not have sufficient time to dedicate to their classes (Bradby & Dykman, 2003; Visher, Bhandari, & Medrich, 2004).These studies defined WBL broadly to include internships, externships, apprenticeships, and co-ops with varying required time commitments, which may explain the contradictory findings. Additionally, these studies focused primarily on outcomes, such as graduation rates and high school GPA among participants without also accounting for what internship, curriculum, and supervisory characteristics help students to be successful (Deluca et al., 2015). The outcome data therefore provided limited insight into how students can effectively utilize WBL to develop career interests or what curriculum components are necessary to maximize successful skill development (Welsh et al., 2014). Studies smaller in scope have generally demonstrated a link between participation in WBL and positive academic and vocational outcomes in the United States, although this research is limited in its predictive capabilities due to correlational designs (Deluca et al., 2015). Additionally, few longitudinal studies exist to determine if the initial benefits of participation in WBL can be sustained after a transition to post-secondary education or the workforce (Kenny et al., 2016). Qualitative studies have focused on specific populations, such as racial and ethnicity minority youth and youth with learning disabilities, that are at higher risk for school disengagement and drop-out (Deluca et al., 2015; Medvide & Kenny, 2020). These studies supplement quantitative studies focused on specific academic and career outcomes by exploring processes that support students’ engagement and learning (Medvide & Kenny, 2020). For example, Kenny and colleagues (2016) found that participants in a WBL program at an urban Catholic high school benefited from the development of hard skills, fostering of soft skills, and mentorship from workplace supervisors. Alumni of this program were appreciative of skill development and 156 Global Education Review 8 (2-3) commitment of the adults in the workplace to help them achieve their vocational goals (Kenny et al., 2016). The delivery of curriculum focused on skill development when coupled with support from adults in WBL programs can be a protective factor for at-risk youth. This can help these youth to stay engaged in school and develop future orientation for their work lives (Deluca et al., 2015). Traditional Work-Based Learning Models in the United States WBL for high school students in the United States has historically centered on strategies and programs to integrate high school into the workplace to develop skills necessary for a successful transition into the workforce as young adults (Welsh et al., 2014). In the 1980s and 1990s this often took the form of preparing young people to enter directly into the workforce if they did not plan to enroll in post-secondary education or training programs (Kenny, 2013). These programs fostered hard skills and were designed to maximize the students’ likelihood of success in initial employment (Deluca et al., 2015). This skill development was not typically accompanied by developmental considerations, such as the need for career exploration at this age, or a view of work as a task across the lifespan (Solberg et al., 2002). Economic and social influences of the 1980s and early 1990s, such as the publication of The Forgotten Half (William T. Grant Foundation, 1988) and A Nation at Risk (1983), were catalysts for policy initiatives on school-to-work transitions and WBL during this time (Kenny, 2013; Welsh et al, 2014). The implementation of these programs did not focus on helping young people to develop awareness of the issues raised in these reports or their impact on the likelihood of earning a livable wage throughout their working lives (Bailey et al., 2004; Kenny, 2013). WBL programs in the United States later grew to include college-bound youth and took a more developmental perspective by focusing on vocational identity, work salience, and career exploration in adolescence (Kenny, 2013). Super’s (1957; 1990) developmental career theory often anchored these programs and provided a structure for exploration of work and non-work roles within families, peer relationships, and the local community (Solberg et al., 2002). Super (1957; 1990) recognized individuals as community members and citizens, but societal factors that influence self-concept and create barriers to a meaningful work life were largely absent WBL models of the latter half of the 20th century. During this time, shifts in the labor market that could impact the likelihood of finding stable, fulfilling work continued to be acknowledged by researchers as a justification for WBL programs in the United States, but structured curricula largely emphasized individual development, goal- setting, and work-related skills without also linking the vocational tasks of adolescence to a larger social or economic issues within the United States and across the globe (Kenny, Blustein, Liang, Klein, & Etchie, 2019b). 21st Century Models and the Changing World of Work The 21st century is characterized by a changing world of work and growing economic instability in the United States and abroad. This has fostered concerns that models of WBL from the 20th century are no longer adequate to prepare young people for post-secondary education or the workforce (Kenny et al., 2019b). While developmental perspectives on adolescent career exploration are still influential in WBL, programs also pivoted to recognize contemporary economic and social conditions (DeLuca et al., 2015). Globalization and Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 157 157 technological advancements have profoundly impacted the availability of jobs, particularly among young people with few workplace skills or any advanced training (Blustein Olle, Connors- Kellgren, Diameonti, 2016; Medvide, et al.,2019). The stakes for unskilled workers have never been greater, and unemployment rates among young people with no post-secondary education or training are exceedingly high compared to estimates for other segments of the working population worldwide (International Labor Organization [ILO], 2017). This creates a social and moral imperative for secondary education in the United States to prepare students for work on a global scale and to help young people to understand domestic and global factors that influence their ability to find stable and safe employment (Lechner, Tomasik, & Silbereisen, 2016). WBL programs emphasize 21st century skills and critical thinking in the immediate environment (Rogers Chapman & Darling Hammond. 2013), but these skills alone are not sufficient for helping students to think about work beyond the job options in their local communities. Therefore, the social and moral imperative identified by Lechner and colleagues (2016) can go unrecognized. Blustein and colleagues (2016) suggested the rise of precarious work and limited access to decent work has fundamentally altered vocational options available to young people across the globe. Precarious work is defined as temporary and unstable positions that lack benefits, such as health insurance and pensions, and financial stability. In some cases, this type of work can be appealing because flexibility is maximized, but it is often the case that precarious work heightens the stress on individual workers and their families. Precarious work has been linked to globalization and the influx of short-term job options within technology and service sectors of the labor market (Kenny et al., 2019b). Decent work includes access to stable employment and a work environment that is safe, empowering, and free of discrimination (ILO, 2017). The absence of decent work includes jobs that do not pay a livable wage or work settings where workers’ rights are routinely violated. This may include precarious work; however, the absence of decent work is also apparent in stable jobs where workers experience mistreatment, prejudice, and discrimination (Blustein et al., 2016). While post-secondary education and training do not ensure access to decent work, young people who transition directly into the workforce from high school are at increased vulnerability to be without decent, stable work that is safe and pays a livable wage (ILO, 2017; Lechner et al., 2016). The rise of precarious work and the myriad consequences of not obtaining decent work are vital considerations for WBL programs in the 21st century. WBL in the United States must educate young people about the vocational options available to them, especially if they choose to transition directly into the workforce without additional education or training (Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond, 2013). Classroom-based activities and mentorship from workplace supervisors aid in this process, and ongoing community partnerships can insure consistency in access to information across WBL participants (Deluca et al., 2015). These partnerships also help high schools to be more cognizant of economic challenges and opportunities within the communities where students may eventually work (Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond, 2013). Additionally, once young people become aware of the economic and social conditions that undergird available vocational and educational choices, WBL must help young people to maintain their motivation to reach their vocational goals and overcome challenges that might arise (Kenny et al., 2019b). 158 Global Education Review 8 (2-3) WBL models in the 20th century often utilized Super’s (1957; 1990) developmental career theory as a framework to support career exploration and foster vocational identity (Solberg et al., 2002). Super’s (1957; 1980) work remains influential, but contemporary WBL models have begun to infuse other theoretical perspectives that are better equipped to address changing economic and social conditions in the United States, including issues surrounding precarious work and lack of access to decent work. Life design (Savickas et al., 2009) and the psychology of working theory (Blustein, 2006; 2013) have emerged as 21st century frameworks that hold promise for helping young people to develop a vocational identity, explore the world of work, and become awareness of barriers to a meaningful work life. Life design draws upon constructionist principles and narrative strategies to emphasize cohesiveness and continuity of the career narrative (Savickas et al., 2009). This is particularly important in today’s work climate where linear career trajectories are no longer the norm, and workers are often faced with uncertainty about their career possibilities (Kenny et al., 2019b). Successful career decision- making requires adaptability in thinking about the self and work options. Adaptability encompasses not only typical vocational tasks and milestones but also effective responses to unexpected work and life challenges (Savickas et al., 2009). For adolescent populations, interventions based upon the life design paradigm emphasize adaptability as a cornerstone of career preparation alongside more traditional emphases on vocational skills and personality traits (Medvide et al., 2019). Studies in European countries where apprenticeships and other forms of WBL are commonplace show benefits for young people who participate life design interventions related to career preparation and adaptability (citations needed). Blustein’s (2006; 2013) work diverges from the life design paradigm (Savickas et al., 2009) in its emphasis on the social and political conditions and the centrality of work to psychological wellbeing. The Psychology of Working theory (Blustein, 2006; 2013) also utilizes consciousness-raising to help individuals gain awareness of societal conditions that support or undermine their work lives and wellbeing. When coupled with the focus on decent work and precarious work (Blustein et al., 2016), particularly among vulnerable populations, this creates a framework that can help young people to develop critical awareness of social oppression and barriers to achieving a meaningful work life. Kenny and colleagues (2019b) suggest this marks a shift in WBL to recognize the role of contextual affordances more fully on goal setting and career exploration among young people. The Psychology of Working theory (Blustein, 2006; 2013) has also formed the basis for research on how WBL can foster a sense of meaning and purpose among young people. Through participation in WBL and support from workplace mentors, young people can develop a sense of connection to their communities and cultivate skill sets to make contributions to those communities and perhaps even society (Kenny et al., 2019a). Among marginalized youth this has the potential to combat the sense of alienation and isolation they may experience in their daily lives and hopelessness about the future (Blustein, 2013; Medvide & Kenny, 2020). This means that WBL can help young people to become critically aware of societal inequalities and maintain a sense of possibility for their academic and vocational futures (Deluca et al. 2015). This is a unique contribution of the Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 159 159 Psychology of Working theory (Blustein, 2006; 2013) that supplements the relational emphases of life design (Savickas et al., 2009) through a more explicit framing of socially constructed barriers and the impact of societal inequality on youth development (Medvide et al., 2019). Like Super (1957; 1990) before them, these career perspectives emphasize the interconnectedness of work and non-work roles in people’s lives and value relationships as sources of support and information about careers. Kenny and colleagues (2019a) suggest this is especially important for youth whose families lack the social and cultural capital needed to navigate school-to-work transitions and entrance into post-secondary education. These frameworks are also better aligned with the nature of work in the 21st century, particularly the rise of precarious work, right to decent work, and the effects of globalization (Blustein, 2013; Savickas et al., 2009). These perspectives offer timely guidance on curriculum development for WBL programs among students whose work futures will be impacted by shifting labor markets where safe, secure work is no longer a mandate (Medvide et al., 2019). Limitations of WBL Models in the United States The shift in contemporary WBL in the United States towards a more holistic view of youth development reflects shifts in the career literature as a whole and the infusion of concepts from positive youth development (Kenny et al., 2019a). It also reflects attempts by scholars to recognize shifting economic and social conditions that impact transitions into post- secondary education and the workforce and career options across the lifespan (Lechner et al., 2016). These shifts help WBL to be more responsive to the needs of youth in the 21st century and to better reflect the economic and social realities for young workers (Medvide et al., 2019). These strengths notwithstanding, there are notable limitations to these models that create an incomplete approach to young people’s career development and transition into the workforce. Research on WBL in the United States and the youth transitions into the labor market is increasingly concerned with globalization, access to decent work, and precarious working conditions that are likely to impact for young people entering the workforce (Lechner et al., 2016; Medvide et al., 2019). This raises questions of how WBL programs can provide structured support and resources to youth before they need to transition into to a workforce that is impacted by local markets and global forces (DeLuca et al., 2015). These supports and resources are often categorized as networking opportunities within local communities and skill development to navigate an uncertain labor market (Medvide et al., 2019). What is missing from many WBL programs is an explicit focus on the links between what is occurring in local communities and larger domestic and global forces that impact the types of work available to youth and the stability of any employment once it is secured (Kenny et al., 2019b). For example, scholars have begun to discuss the impact of globalization, access to decent work, and precarious work on young people’s vocational prospects (e.g., Blustein et al., 2016), but recommendations for best practices often focus on maximizing experiences in the immediate environment and preparing students for the next steps in their local context, such as securing full- time employment upon graduation (Medvide et al., 2019). Currently and historically, WBL has focused on how to integrate youth into the local 160 Global Education Review 8 (2-3) communities to complete internships, develop mentoring relationships, and network with potential employers (Deluca et al., 2015; Solberg et al., 2002). Contemporary WBL programs also help young people to develop a sense of purpose through personally meaningful goals that can help them to remain motivated in the face of adversity. This may also include consciousness- raising regarding inequities within workplaces, communities, and societies (Kenny et al., 2019a), but there is little discussion of how to talk to young people about globalization or its impact on the vocational options available to them. It also shortchanges opportunities to develop meaning and purpose by seeing the self as connected to other cultures and issues on a global scale. Glocalizatoin and a New Framework for WBL in the United States Glocalization captures the balance between the economic conditions, preferences, and values within local contexts with universalizing tendencies of global markets. (Robertson, 1995). It is a conceptually distinct term from globalization and emerged as both an alternative and a critique. Glocalization overcomes the limits of globalization and its focus on homogenized values and preferences across global markets (Dumitrescu & Vinerean, 2010). The standardization of products and services that is a hallmark feature of globalization can potentially unify diverse communities and customer bases, but it also runs the risk of negating diversity and the specific needs of some communities (Lui & Li, 2019). Glocalization does not preclude the delivery of a uniform product or service across communities. It does, however, emphasize greater flexibility through the customization of products and services to reflect localized needs, preferences, and values (Dumitrescu & Vinerean, 2010; Robertson, 1995). Although the term was originally connected to business and sociology, glocalization has recently permeated discussions within education. This means educators should strive to recognize the needs of their local communities while also being cognizant of how global realities, such as mass migration, economic recessions, and political conflicts, are impacting students (Lui & Li, 2019). For teachers and administrators, this is represented in pedagogical choices and curricula that reflect local values and cultural norms and a deep appreciation of how these local contexts are nested within a larger global framework (Patel & Lynch, 2013). The goals connecting the local and global emphasizes skills to be successful across these contexts and fostering awareness of interconnectivity among markets, communities, and cultural values (Tichnor-Wagner, 2017). Glocalization within education is also tied to citizenship and a revisioning of civic engagement beyond involvement in one’s immediate community or view of the self as a global citizen. A glocal perspective recognizes the role of the individual within the local community and explicitly ties action, belief systems, and knowledge production within these local contexts to an array of issues and needs globally (Tichnor-Wagnor, 2017). This is an improvement over emphases in higher education on global citizenship that encourage awareness of global issues at the expense also exploring localized forms of knowledge and culture (Lui & Li (2019). Much like discussions of globalization in the business sector (Dumitrescu & Vinerean, 2010), emphases on global citizenship in education create a risk of homogenizing students’ experiences (Patel & Lynch, 2013). It also creates a risk of portraying cultural Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 161 161 differences superficially through the emphasis on universal experiences and potentially minimizes social injustices and accountability to others (Lui & Li, 2019). Oomen (2015) provided examples of glocal citizenship related to science and technology within post-secondary education in the United States, such as strategies to reduce pollution or create sustainable food sources within communities. Action within the local community is a desirable outcome for students because this will consolidate learning and to provide a sense of agency that meaningful change is possible. Action globally is ideal, although this may be more challenging for students to achieve in the short-term (Tichnor- Wagnor, 2017). It can, however, be a long-term goal once students have developed the knowledge and skills through initial involvement in local community endeavors (Oomen, 2015). Discussions of the glocal citizenship in higher education in the United States connect to questions of social justice, responsibility, and diversity. Patel and Lynch (2013) described the formation of a third cultural space that emerges from the interactions of local cultures on a global scale. Awareness of this third cultural space is a starting point that helps students to recognize the connections between the cultural values of the local context and universal values that transcend boundaries, language, and individual experience. Work towards acceptance of others, acknowledgement of cultural histories, and responsibilities for one’s own values and actions also undergird glocal citizenship within secondary education settings (Oomen, 2015; Tichnor-Wagnor, 2017). Engaging in the third cultural space also requires recognizing similarities, differences, and power differentials among groups. In secondary education within the United States, glocal citizenship has been used to introduce students to critical social issues and help them to explore their cultural identities and experiences with power and privilege (Matthews, 2016). Using inquiry-based learning, students are tasked with identifying problems in their local community or across the globe that have relevance to them. This is coupled with discussions about cultural differences, respect for diversity, and responsibility to others (Tichnor-Wagnor, 2017). Students receive support from their teachers as they learn about social issues, and they are given autonomy to form their own opinions and express their ideas. This emphasis on student voice is important for creating an authentic learning environment that maximizes student participation and knowledge production (Matthews, 2016; Tichnor-Wagnor, 2017). The adoption of glocalization within education systems in the United States holds significant promise for WBL since the shift in doing so has opened discussions about social responsibility, sustainability, justice, and diversity. This is consistent with dialogues already driving contemporary models of WBL that emphasize conscious-raising and positive youth involvement (e.g., Kenny et al., 2019b). It is also consistent with literature on WBL and school-to-work transitions that discusses the impact of globalization, access to decent work, and precarious work on the job prospects for young people (Blustein et al., 2016; Medvide et al. 2019). WBL programs have yet to formally introduce glocalization and glocal citizenship into curriculum development, but extant research and theoretical frameworks, as the psychology of working theory, have laid the groundwork to do so. Even though Blustein (2006; 2013) does not explicitly identify his work as a glocal perspective, the central tenets of 162 Global Education Review 8 (2-3) this theory align with work in education on glocalization (e.g., Oomen, 2015; Patel & Lynch, 2013). Similarly, the meaning-making processes that undergird the life design paradigm (Savickas et al., 2009) can be integrated into scholarship on glocal citizen to provide a lens for understanding how young people prepare for future careers that will inevitably be impacted by interconnected networks of local and global communities, products, and values. Recommendations for WBL Programs in the United States WBL can successfully infuse glocalization into programs and create glocal citizens in the workplace by integrating ideas from secondary and post-secondary education within the United States. This will build upon the strengths of existing WBL programs that have shifted to account for the contemporary world of work in the 21st century and better prepare youth for transitions to post-secondary education or the workforce (Kenny et al., 2019b). It will also ensure that WBL programs continue to be responsive not just to current economic conditions but social and political factors that impact vocational decision-making and career exploration among youth. The following recommendations can be implemented into WBL programs to create a glocal perspective. Classroom Instruction on Glocalization and Glocal Citizenship Classroom instruction is an accompaniment to some WBL programs, but it is not the norm (Welsh et al., 2014). It is already a recommendation for WBL programs to include a classroom component to assist with goal setting and career exploration (Kenny 2013), and establish curricula already exist (Solberg et al., 2002). These curricula, such as Tools for Tomorrow (Kenny, Bower, Perry, Blustein, & Amtzis, 2004), which emphasize career exploration and vocational identity development, can be modified to have a more glocal focus while maintaining the original attention to self-exploration and work salience. A glocal focus would help students to become aware of work-related issues, such as access to decent work and the rise of precarious work, within their communities and across the globe and assist them in drawing connections among the local, national, and global issues. Access to decent work, for example, is a global issue that has been championed by the United Nations as a fundamental human right (ILO, 2017) and is central to work conditions within students’ local communities. Therefore, access to decent work transcends to cultural norms of students’ immediate environments while also reflecting the work conditions of local communities where they may explore possible careers and eventually transition into the workforce. Furthermore, national and international policies are necessary to make decent work a mandate for all individuals (Blustein et al., 2016). A glocal focus on a human rights issue such as access to decent work can also tie students’ individual career development to academic subjects taught in their high schools, such as social studies, history, and economics. Authentic Inquiry-Based Learning in the Classroom and Workplace Classroom instruction that introduces glocal citizenship should be accompanied by opportunities for students to apply their learning and to explore their career interests in the workplace. Students should be encouraged to identity local or global problems of interest to them and develop strategies to address them Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 163 163 that integrate classroom instruction with their career interests. WBL field sites can connect students to workplace mentors who can share ways their education and training can be instrumental in solving problems of personal relevance to the students. These mentors can also help students to draw connections between what they are currently learning in school and the education and training needed to achieve their career goals. These interactions between students and mentors enhance the authenticity of inquiry-based learning and creates an audience outside of the classroom for the students’ ideas. This may strengthen academic motivation, foster career exploration, and build a sense of agency that change locally and globally is possible. The glocal focus for inquiry- based learning in WBL is consistent with existing recommendations in the United States (Rogers-Chapman & Darling-Hammond) and the shift within WBL to include consciousness- raising as an integral component (Kenny et al., 2019b). In the case of access to decent work, students could work with community organizers, lawyers, or local government officials to advocate for policy changes that enhance work conditions and protections for vulnerable workers. The knowledge gained from activism at the local level can inform learning about policies at national and international levels and efforts elsewhere to create safe and empowering work conditions for all workers. It also has the potential to inform career interests and foster work salience by connecting classroom learning to real-world applications of knowledge and creating a path forward to realize career goals. Community-Partnerships Formal partnerships among high schools, local business, and community organizations will enhance the caliber of learning and support available to students. It will also assist with curriculum development that is reflective of skills needed for glocal citizenship and a successful transition into the workforce. In the case of access to decent work, these partnerships provide students with access to the perspectives of multiple stakeholders with distinct skills sets and knowledge to advocate for safe work conditions and humane treatment of workers. Teachers, workplace mentors, and community leaders can collaborate to develop a responsive WBL experience that captures authentic problems facing communities and ways in which various stakeholders work towards solutions. This enhances the likelihood students will benefit from in-class instruction and inquiry-based learning at a field site by creating a sense of purpose for youth in WBL programs beyond skill development that has traditionally been the goal for students. Fostering purpose among youth has emerged in the 21st century as a vital component of WBL, particularly among marginalized adolescents. Although not explicitly discussed from a glocal perspective in existing literature (e.g., Kenny et al., 2019a), this emphasis aligns with work on glocal citizenship in traditional classroom settings on social justice and cultural diversity (c.f., Patel & Lynch, 2013). Partnerships between schools and communities are already recommended (Kenny, 2013), and a glocal perspective will provide a shared vision for learning outcomes and authentic assessments that help students to draw meaningful connections between local and global issues as they explore possible careers and develop the necessary skills for post-secondary education and the workforce. A Direction Forward Contemporary WBL programs in the United States have taken many positive steps towards recognizing the impact of globalization, 164 Global Education Review 8 (2-3) access to decent work, and the rise of precarious work on the job prospects of young people. This is crucial for successful transitions into the workforce or post-secondary education (Medvide et al., 2019). Emergent frameworks now view WBL as vital for consciousness-raising and building a sense of purpose as well (Kenny et al., 2019a). Despite these strengths and the concerted efforts to make WBL more responsive to the realities facing young people, there is still room for improvement. By taking a glocal perspective, WBL can bridge connections between what students experience in their communities, schools, and workplaces with global factors that impact their job prospects and opportunities for a meaningful work life. This represents the next evolution in WBL and a direction forward for future generations of young people as they explore careers, forge a vocational identity, and prepare for an uncertain job market. Glocal Perspectives on Work-Based Learning 165 165 References Bailey, T. R., Hughes, K. L., & Moore, D. T. (2004). Working knowledge: Work-based learning and educational reform. New York, NY: Routledge. Blustein, D. L. (2006). The psychology of working: A new perspective for career development, counseling, and public policy. New York, NY: Routledge. Blustein, D. L. (Ed.) (2013). 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