




































 Global Journal of Education and Allied  

Research (GJEAR) 
Volume.15, Number 3; March-2024; 

ISSN: 2837-3707 | Impact Factor: 7.80 

https://zapjournals.com/Journals/index.php/gjear  

Published By: Zendo Academic Publishing 

 

 

pg. 36 
 

MOBILE MAVERICKS: A TWENTY-YEAR RETROSPECTIVE ON 

ADVANCEMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 

 

 
Mei Ling Chen Wang 
Faculty of Foreign Studies, Beijing Language and Culture University, Beijing, China, 100083 

 

Article Info  Abstract 

Keywords: Mobile-assisted 
language learning, MALL, 
language education, electronic 
devices, language acquisition. 

 

DOI 

10.5281/zenodo.11121211 

 Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has gained significant 

attention as electronic devices like computers, tablets, and smartphones 

have become integral to our daily lives. These devices offer a wealth 

of intelligent applications that can enhance language learning and 

teaching experiences. Unlike traditional language learning and 

computer-assisted language learning (CALL), MALL represents an 

independent mode of language learning that leverages advancements 

in mobile technology and theories of mobile learning (M-learning). 

Despite its potential, MALL faces various challenges, including learner 

reluctance, low satisfaction levels, frequent interruptions, ineffective 

learning strategies, and limited communication opportunities. To 

address these issues and enhance the effectiveness of MALL, increased 

engagement within mobile-assisted classrooms is necessary. 

This paper provides an in-depth exploration of MALL, delving into its 

development, research trends, and associated challenges. By gaining a 

comprehensive understanding of MALL, educators and learners can 

optimize language performance, foster greater interest in language 

acquisition, and establish a solid foundation for language teaching and 

research endeavors. 
 

 

 

Introduction  

Electronic devices involving computers, tablets, and smartphones were widely used in our daily life and played a 

great role in language learning and teaching. All kinds of intelligent applications simply downloaded in your 

smartphones were easily used. As mobile technology improved, mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) mode 

had been independent from traditional language learning and computerassisted language learning (CALL) which 

had started an educational reform based on previous outcomes of CALL, second language acquisition theory and 

mobile learning (M-learning) theories.[1]  

However, there were many challenges in MALL, such as learners’ unwillingness to learn, poor learning 

satisfaction, serious learning interruptions, poor learning strategies, insufficient communication, etc. Therefore, 

it was necessary to increase the participation in mobile-assisted classrooms and improve the efficiency of MALL. 

An in-depth understanding of the development, research trends, and problems of MALL would help learner to 

improve their language performance, strengthen their interests, and provide scientific basis and guidance for 

teaching and research activities.[2]  

https://zapjournals.com/Journals/index.php/gjear


Global Research Journal of Management and Social Sciences (GRJMSS) Vol. 15 (3) 

 

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Therefore, the author searched relevant research findings and found that the research of MALL showed an upward 

trend in different fields and disciplines, aiming to conclude the research status quo and trends of the research on 

MALL at home and abroad from 2000 to 2022, to find the existing problems, and to make efforts for further 

development of language teaching and practices of MALL in China. Following research questions guided the 

study:  

①What were the trends of researches on MALL?  

②What perceptions did learners have toward MALL?  

③What were the existing problems on the researches of MALL?  

1. Theoretical Backgrounds   

Before the analysis of literature, we needed to introduce the theoretical basis, definition and features of MALL to 

make it more clear for subsequent analysis.  

1.1. Theoretical Basis  

Through the analysis of the theories used in MALL researches, it revealed that the theories about MALL mainly 

included social and cultural theory, second language acquisition theory, multimedia learning theory and mobile 

learning related theory.  

Socio-cultural theory was more widely applied, emphasizing that learning was the process of constructing 

knowledge in social communication activities, rather than simply transferring knowledge through minds.[3] As an 

important medium, language helped learners construct knowledge and experience from social communication, 

and aided individuals internalize and develop constructed knowledge from the cognitive level while mobile 

devices acted as intermediary tools in this process.   

Many papers mentioned second language acquisition broadly without building a strong correlation with MALL 

researches, and seldom cited Krashen’s input and output hypotheses.[4] In some researches, the double-decoding 

theory and cognitive load theory in multimedia learning theory were also combined with MALL to jointly explore 

vocabulary learning design.[4] To make a broad classification, Duman et al. , in his research on trends of MALL 

from 2000 to 2012, divided the theoretical frameworks into three categories including learning approaches 

(47.82%), multimedia design and learning approaches (11.59%), and technology-oriented approaches (10.14%), 

but the real MALL studies followed theoretical framework that was highly agreed with their topic, who provided 

us a good review of the development of theoretical basis.[5]  

1.2. Definition of MALL  

Mobile-assisted language learning came with the popularity of mobile devices and developed in recent years, so 

it was difficult to define it in an aggregable way. Kukulska-Hulme and Shield defined MALL as formal or 

informal learning style with portable electronics including smartphones, Ipad, tablets, etc.), which happened 

anywhere, anytime by anybody and any devices.[1] MALL was currently defined from technology-oriented and 

learner-oriented approaches. The former viewed MALL as a method of language learning through the use of 

mobile devices while the latter regarded it as a pan-learning method featured with learner-mobility and content-

mobility.  

1.3. Features of MALL  

MALL was characterized by individuality, social interaction, and continuity and scientific management, which 

could enhance the interest of language learners through augmented reality (AR), virtual reality, and text-to-speech 

communication which were fairly vivid and real.[6]  

1.3.1. Individuality   

Mobile devices were personal stuff and users had the right to choose their interested apps and the way to use 

them.[7] Since there were no limitations on time and space, learners adapted themselves to different situations and 

diversify their learning patterns by combining formal and informal learning. More importantly, they can learn at 

their own speed and schedule their learning tasks by themselves.[8]  

1.3.2. Social Interaction  

Mobile devices made traditional classrooms no longer limited by time and space, and the interaction between 

students and teachers, students and students became more diverse. Classroom group collaboration, 

communication, and discussion were carried out either synchronously or asynchronously.[9] Mobile devices not 

only enhanced the efficiency of group learning, but also provided the quality of interaction.[10] Learning and 

teaching activities used to be only carried out in face-to-face scenarios, but now they were extended online, even 



Global Research Journal of Management and Social Sciences (GRJMSS) Vol. 15 (3) 

 

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accompanied with various attracting activities like gamified learning. For example, students use language apps, 

like Hujiang English which was mainly used for vocabulary learning, to interact or compete with classmates under 

the supervision of teachers; various word and speaking tests in language learning applications (APPs) drawn a 

great attention from learners, enhancing the interactivity and enjoyment by completing shared language learning 

tasks, communicating online and obtaining feedbacks timely. 2.3.3. Continuity and Scientific Management  

The development and popularization of mobile learning not only allowed learning to happen anytime, anywhere 

in fragmented time, but also made learning content designed more continuous and scientific.[5] We registered a 

private account through the mobile phone number, which would be logged in and used on other mobile devices. 

In the process of mobile learning, learners actively download English learning apps mainly including vocabulary 

and spoken practices with rich content and a huge body of data. Language learners opened these apps anytime, 

anywhere, and started learning and interactive communication repeatedly, so as to achieve the purpose of one-

time investment and unlimited enjoyment.   

Learners had many opportunities to access language learning resources on mobile devices. In the process of 

traditional teaching and learning, whether personal learning or examination tests were difficult to be measured 

and analyzed quantitatively, and the learning data needed to be manually recorded and counted which was time-

consuming and laborious. Through the mobile learning platform, learners could intuitively and accurately see 

their daily learning data and the platform automatically kick off statistics analysis. Based on analysis of learning 

data, learning management became more convenient and scientific.  

2. Materials and Methods   

The review was conducted to extensively examine past studies on MALL. Its major target was to provide a 

reference as extensive as possible and to hope that was useful for any interested reader. To achieve this aim, the 

following methods were used to locate and select studies for the main citation of this review.  

Firstly, the online databases, Web of Science and CNKI, were used to search for the relevant studies ranging from 

2000 to 2022. The main key word,“MALL” and “M-learning” guided the search. Since a variety of disciplines 

had done researches on this topic, we must refine the Web of Science and CNKI categories, thus linguistics and 

language linguistics in Web of Science and in CNKI were selected for the study MALL over two decades. Once 

an item was located via electronic search, the abstract was perused.  

After a rough screening, we checked the abstract of these publications. If the abstract looked promising, then the 

item was obtained. Another complementary method involved close examination of the references of the selected 

articles for citations of additional relevant studies. The criteria of selecting previous studies as the main citation 

of this study were: 1) the paper included had to be published in a peer reviewed journal in edited collections; 2) 

master’s or doctoral dissertations and short reports were excluded; 3) the paper had to focus explicitly or implicitly 

on mobile learning; 4) the paper had to provide a sufficient description of data and data analysis from which the 

results were concluded. Based on these criteria, 15 publications were found to be suitable for inclusion as the 

main citations (see Table 1).  

Table 1. Foci and major findings of main citations in MALL study  

N  Authors  Foci  Major findings  

1  Kukulska-

Hulme  

and Shield 

(2008)[1]  

To examine how mobile 

devices can assist learners’ 

listening and speaking 

activities.  

Students using mobile 

devices made more 

contributions in listening 

and speaking classes.  

2  Kukulska-

Hulme  

(2009)[6]  

To discuss whether mobile 

devices alter language learning.  

Mobile devices brought 

benefits and some learning 

choices for learners.    

3  Godwin-Jones  

(2011)[7]  

To find out the state and 

development of language 

learning apps and mobile 

devices they use.  

iPhone and Android 

provided many supporting 

language learning apps for 

all languages or specific 

language.  



Global Research Journal of Management and Social Sciences (GRJMSS) Vol. 15 (3) 

 

pg. 39 
 

4  Cheon et al. 

(2012 

)[8]  To explore college students’ 

perceptions and attitudes 

toward MALL.  

Students hold a positive 

attitude toward the mobile-

assisted mode.  

5  Yang 

(2012)[4]  

 To investigate vocabulary 

learning modes through the use 

of mobile devices.  

There were four vocabulary 

modes via messages, 

database, portable devices, 

and interactive 

communication.  

6  Kondo  et  

(2012)[11]  

al.  To find out whether MALL can 

facilitate self regulated 

learning.  

MALL encouraged learners 

to self-study without 

teachers’ interruption.  

7  Duman  et 

 al.  

(2015)[5]  

To trace the development of 

mobile assisted language 

learning (MALL) in recent 

years.  

Vocabulary teaching with 

mobile devices remained 

very popular, and a great 

body of researches failed to 

study from any theoretical 

framework.  

8  Dashtestani 

(2016)[12]  

To investigate students’ use of 

mobile devices and their 

attitudes toward MALL.  

Students were positive 

toward MALL but they 

mainly used mobile devices 

for nonacademic activities.  

9 

 

   

Sung et al. 

(2015)[9]  

Effects of learning language 

with mobile devices.  

MALL generated more 

learning achievement to 

students.  

10  Gangaiamaran 

 and  

Pasupathi 

(2017)[13]  

To classify language apps 

according to the different levels 

of learners.  

Listening skills were better 

acquired through using 

language apps.  

11  Loewen  et 

 al.  

(2019)[14]  

To explore the effectiveness of 

large-scale L2 learning apps, 

such as Duolingo.  

More time they spent on 

Duolingo, the more learning 

achievements they gained.  

12  Chen  and 

 Jia  

(2020)[15]  

To conclude the status quo, 

trends and problems of MALL 

in China.  

Various themes were 

investigated and most 

researches employed 

quantitative and non-

empirical methods.  

13  Xi et 

al.(2020)[16]  

The characteristics and 

mechanism of multiple 

intelligence on the acceptance 

and engagement of mobile 

foreign language learning.  

Mobile foreign language 

learning effectively 

promoted learners’ 

linguistic and musical 

intelligence.  

14  Zeng et al. 

(2020)[17]  

To compare effects between 

one-way peer feedback and 

conversational peer feedback 

on spoken output of second 

language in MALL 

environments.  

Conversational feedback 

promotes the accuracy of 

spoken output.  

15  Burston 

 and  

Giannakou 

(2022)[18]  

To overview the language 

learning outcomes with meta-

analysis.  

There were more positive 

language learning 

conclusions than negative 

one.  



Global Research Journal of Management and Social Sciences (GRJMSS) Vol. 15 (3) 

 

pg. 40 
 

It was worth mentioning that the included research resources were limited to the author’s own ability. The author 

could only reach the resources within his own scope. There may be other publications out of the author’s reach.  

3. Discussion  

After the collection and analysis of a large number of literatures from CNKI and Web of Science, the paper used 

descriptive methods to analyze these researches objectively and reasonably, and concluded three major topics 

which were presented below in order, which were language skills involving listening, speaking, writing, 

vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, etc., effectiveness of MALL and perceptions toward MALL, and language 

learning apps. There were some overlapping and disagreement with this classification since different disciplines, 

theories and technologies were entwined with each other to complicate MALL researches.  

3.1. Language skills  

Regarding the study of language skills, there was a difference in the research direction at home and abroad. Chen 

and Jia, through quantitative research, concluded that among the researches on language skills in China, the 

number of studies on comprehensive language skills was ranking the first, followed by speaking and listening 

then the vocabulary skills.[15] In terms of the speaking skills, conversational feedback in a mobile-assisted 

language learning environment could promote the accuracy of spoken output.[17] In terms of vocabulary skills, 

Yang referred to the previous studies and concluded four vocabulary modes through different ways.[4]  

However, the most concerned MALL researches about language skills were vocabulary skills in foreign studies, 

followed by listening skills and pronunciation.[5] It was worth noting that learners acquired their listening skills 

more easily by using mobile devices. Combining the domestics and foreign studies, we found that MALL 

researches about grammar, writing skills, and phonetics were neglected over these twenty years.   

3.2. Effectiveness of MALL and perceptions toward MALL  

A large number of studies focused on effectiveness of MALL and explored learners’ perceptions toward MALL. 

The use of mobile devices had a moderate effect on language learning,[9] and domestic studies had also proved 

that mobile learning had a positive effect on language learning, and on the enhancement of language skills.[15] 

Also, Burston and Giannakou found there were more positive effects than negative one by analyzing literature 

about MALL over two decades.[18]Students assisted by mobile devices performed better in spoken classes that 

those who did not, then Kukulska-Hulme proved that mobile devices exerted a great positive impact on language 

learning which offered more choices for learners to suit their own habits and actual situation.[6] Besides these 

linguistic effects, learning assisted with mobile devices promoted the development of non-linguistic ability. By 

investigating students’ selfregulated ability, Kondo discovered that mobile devices aroused students interests and 

promoted their self-study even when teachers were not around them and MALL also played a positive role in 

students’ musical intelligence.[11]   

Undeniably, every emergence of technology cut two ways in society and schools. MALL mode depending on the 

mobile devices distracted students easily with shallow communication, inadequate teacher training, and 

incomplete feedback.[9] The majority of students who were interested in mobile learning often engaged in non-

academical activities with their devices.[2] Though students had a positive attitude toward MALL, a great effort 

needed to be made to increase their interests by utilizing available meaningful information, building a user-

accepted M-learning system, and improving faculty’s  

instruction.[8]  

3.3. Language learning apps  

Researches about language learning apps were popular these days with the growing number of Apps for all 

languages, specific language or certain language skills thus the themes about language apps are ranging from 

specific language apps to design of a language app.  

In terms of specific language apps, Duolingo, as one of the most popular apps, helped students to practice their 

speaking skills. Loewen et al. argued that students made more academical gains as they spend more time in 

Duolingo.[14] In terms of the design of an app. Liu aimed to improve students’ listening and speaking skills by 

creating an app called HELLO with handheld augmented reality which stored with numerous authentic language 

materials to help students to develop targeted language skills, proving that students gain more achievements by 

employing this app.[19]  

Godwin-Jones reviewed the development of language apps on mobile devices such as IOS, Android, and Web, 

and proposed to enhance the mobility, the function of emerging mobile devices since mobile devices featured 



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individuality and customization.[7] Gangaiamaran and Pasupathi collected all kinds of language apps in app store, 

classified these apps into three categories from primary to secondary and tertiary learners respectively, and labeled 

each app with name, suitable device, trained language skills, and paid or unpaid, who suggested that off-line apps 

should be promoted to help students in poor areas access to the learning resources and we need to conduct more 

teacher training on MALL and assist them to overcome the challenges in employing mobile-assisted language 

teaching.[13]  

4. Conclusion   

Through the collection and analysis of literature, the paper displayed relevant articles and discussed three popular 

themes about MALL including language skills, effects of MALL and perceptions toward MALL, and language 

apps. This study only analyzed and discussed papers based on Web of Science and CNKI, so the number of papers 

was insufficient, and the listed papers were selected with personal thought and justification without following 

strict criteria. It was necessary to enlarge the number of papers, to enrich the themes of the research, and to conduct 

more comprehensive and detailed analysis in the future. Based on these discussions on MALL, the author put 

forward some existing problems and implicated the future development of MALL to provide a reference for the 

later researchers.  

Firstly, there was no complete theoretical system about MALL. Since MALL, as an assistant of language teaching, 

developed for a short time, many studies tended to refer to previous theories and few explored new theories to 

complete the theoretical system of MALL.[5] Considering MALL combining the mobile devices and language 

teaching system, it was featured with diversity and complexity whose researches were extended to a wide range 

of fields and disciplines making it harder to form a unified theoretical foundation. In addition, the theoretical basis 

of MALL altered as the form and content of mobile devices altered so it was necessary to follow the trace of time 

and to add new theories and improve the old one.   

Secondly, the themes about language skills were not widely ranged. From the review of the studies on language 

skills of MALL at home and abroad, researches on one language skill were insufficient while there are many 

comprehensive studies. Also, there were few researches on phonetics, grammar which needed to be more observed 

and carried out more exploration.    

Finally, teachers-oriented study needed to be implemented. Currently, scholars were more likely to investigate 

from the students’ perspectives because of its availability to the experimental data and a great number of students. 

MALL, as an assisted instructor, needed to be implemented by teachers and students together. More researches 

on MALL needed to be directed to study from teachers’ perceptions which had a long way to go.  

As artificial intelligence technologies such as text recognition, speech recognition, natural language processing, 

and data annotation evolved, language learning supported by artificial intelligence technology will be a new 

research field waiting to be explored. Language learners’ linguistic and nolinguistic skills will change 

dramatically in form and content with the help of intelligent applications. Researchers need to keep up with the 

change of technologies, learn to understand emerging science and technology, and effectively combine it with 

language learning to promote the vigorous study of language learning.   

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