





































 Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 
Volume.15, Number 10; October-2024; 

ISSN: 2837-3707 | Impact Factor: 7.80 

https://zapjournals.com/Journals/index.php/gjear  

Published By: Zendo Academic Publishing 

 

 

pg. 9 

RETHINKING STRAIN THEORY: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF ITS 

APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING 

SCHOOL VIOLENCE 

 
1Makanjuola Seyi Joseph, 2Bankole Sunday Adelowo, 3Ogunbiyi Oluwadare Deji, Ph. D. 

and 3Ogedengbe Ayotunde 

E-mail: makanjuolaseyi@gmail.com / bankoleadelowo23@gmail.com / oluwadarebest@gmail.com / 

ayotundeogedengbe@gmail.com 

 

Article Info  Abstract 

Keywords: Strain theory, 

review, implications, school 

violence 

 

DOI 

10.5281/zenodo.13928896 

 This review critically examines strain theory, a prominent sociological 

framework for understanding deviance and violence. We discussed an 

overview of strain theory and defined school violence. The theoretical 

framework section explains strain theory, its application to school 

violence, and the factors contributing to strain in schools. The impact 

of strain theory on school violence is examined in the following 

section, which discusses the link between strain and aggressive 

behavior, the role of strain in the development of violent tendencies, 

and the effects of strain on academic performance and social 

relationships. This section also includes case studies illustrating the 

connection between strain and school violence. Finally, the article 

concludes with prevention and intervention strategies, emphasizing the 

importance of early identification and intervention, the implementation 

of supportive programs and resources, collaboration between schools, 

families, and communities for prevention, and evaluating prevention 

strategies and their effectiveness. 
 

 

1. Introduction  

Schools are created as secure and nurturing environments where students can study, grow, and prosper. However, 

incidences of school violence undermine this ideal, impacting not only the immediate victims but also the entire 

school climate and academic performance. Violence in schools is a critical issue that has garnered significant 

attention in educational settings around the world. It is a pressing concern that significantly affects the learning 

environment and the well-being of students, teachers, and staff in educational settings. School violence 

encompasses various behaviors, including bullying, victimization, and physical altercations. The prevalence of 

school violence raises concerns for educators, students, parents, and communities at large. The consequences of 

 
1 Ayede Grammar School. Ayede-Ekiti, Nigeria 
2 Federal Government Girl’s College, Efon-Alaye, Ekiti, Nigeria 
3 Department of Educational Leadership Studies, School of Graduate Studies, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 

Canada 

https://zapjournals.com/Journals/index.php/gjear
mailto:makanjuolaseyi@gmail.com
mailto:bankoleadelowo23@gmail.com
mailto:oluwadarebest@gmail.com
mailto:makanjuolaseyi@gmail.com


Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) Vol. 15 (10) 

 

pg. 10 

school violence can be severe, leading to physical and psychological harm to both students and educators and 

hindering the educational process. To completely address this issue, exploring the causes and mechanisms of 

school violence is essential. This literature review will examine the application of strain theory to better 

understand the underpinnings of school violence. 

Creating secure and supportive learning environments in schools is primarily the responsibility of educators. 

School violence has numerous adverse consequences, including physical and emotional harm to students, 

academic performance decline, and overall deterioration of the learning environment. To address and prevent 

school violence, educators must comprehend the root causes and risk factors associated with these behaviors. 

They can develop strategies, interventions, and policies to effectively address school violence and create a safer 

educational space. This literature review focuses on applying strain theory to understand the underlying causes 

and mechanisms of school violence. Strain theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how various 

stressors, challenges, and strains in students’ lives may contribute to violence within educational institutions. By 

exploring this connection, this review sheds light on the dynamics of school violence and provide educators with 

insights into potential preventive and intervention strategies. 

Strain Theory 

Strain theory was initially developed by Robert K. Merton and later expanded upon by Robert Agnew, provides 

a useful framework for comprehending the reasons behind violence in schools. It posits that individuals 

experience strain or stress when they perceive a disjunction between their societal goals and the means available 

to achieve them. Strain theory posits that societal expectations and pressures can lead to deviation and violence. 

Although influential, the theory has faced critique and requires reevaluation in the context of school violence. 

This strain, in turn, can lead to negative emotions and deviant behaviors. In the context of school violence, strain 

theory can be used to understand the fundamental causes of different violent and aggressive behaviors among 

students. Strain theory is formulated based on foundational concepts that help us understand its core principles, 

which are as follows:  

1. Anomie and Strain: At the heart of strain theory lies the concept of anomie, which describes a state of 

normlessness. In this context, individuals must be more consistent in their aspirations, culturally accepted goals, 

and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When applied to school violence, this disconnection becomes 

evident when students encounter obstacles hindering their academic success, like economic disparities, limited 

access to educational resources, or discrimination (Agnew, 1992). 

2. Negative Emotions: Strain theory underscores that individuals who experience disconnection and strain 

are prone to develop negative emotions. These emotions encompass a spectrum of anger, frustration, and 

resentment. These negative feelings motivate individuals to seek alternative ways to alleviate their strain. This 

can result in deviant behaviors, such as school violence (James et al., 2014). 

3. Strains Leading to Delinquency: Strain theory further posits that individuals enduring prolonged or 

intense strains may turn to delinquent or criminal activities to cope with their negative emotions. In the context 

of school, students under strain may resort to violence, bullying, or other forms of aggressive behavior as a means 

of releasing their pent-up frustration or asserting themselves (Higgins et al., 2010). 

Strain theory offers a valuable framework for comprehending the complexities of school violence, with its core 

components shedding light on the phenomenon. This theory’s heart is perceived injustice, where individuals 

experience a profound sense of unfair treatment or mistreatment. When applied to the context of school violence, 

this finding implies that students may perceive various forms of unfairness in the school environment. This 

perception of injustice is a source of strain that significantly contributes to the emergence of violent behaviors.  



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) Vol. 15 (10) 

 

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James et al. (2014) delves into this critical link, exploring how perceived injustice has become enmeshed in school 

violence. 

Another pivotal aspect is the role of negative emotions. Strain theory underscores "\res that individuals grappling 

with strain tend to experience various negative emotions, including anger, frustration, and resentment. In the 

context of school violence, these negative emotions can serve as triggers that motivate individuals to engage in 

aggressive or violent behaviors. Moon et al. (2010) on "General Strain Theory and School Bullying" underscores 

the crucial role that negative emotions play in school bullying, which is a notable form of school violence. 

Finally, strain theory posits that individuals may resort to delinquent or criminal activities when confronted with 

prolonged or intense strains as a coping mechanism. Within the school setting, these strains manifest as behaviors 

such as bullying, physical violence, and other forms of school violence. Higgins et al. (2010) explored the intricate 

relationship between strain, peer rejection, and delinquent behaviors, all of which are closely associated with 

school violence. Strain theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding school violence's root 

causes and dynamics. The foundational concepts of strain theory, which include perceived injustices, negative 

emotions, and strains leading to delinquency, offer insights into the motivations and factors contributing to school 

violence. Applying strain theory to school violence provides a deeper understanding of this complex issue. This 

provides a basis for developing effective strategies and interventions to prevent and address school violence. 

School Violence 

The term "school violence" describes acts of violence that occur in schools. This includes acts of violence on 

school grounds, during school-related outings and excursions, and while traveling to and from school. Although 

it can be committed by professors, staff members, or other students, student-on-student violence is the most 

frequent type. In other words, anything that contains a direct or indirect threat qualifies as school violence; it can 

be verbal, sexual, physical, or both, and it can be committed with or without the use of weapons. School violence 

occurs when someone intentionally hurts someone or behaves in a way that makes someone feel threatened.  

The types of School Violence  

Based on existing international surveys on violence at schools, UNESCO (2020) defined the following types of 

school violence:  

1. Physical violence is defined as any type of aggressive behavior intended to cause harm committed by 

classmates, teachers, or school staff. 

2. Psychological violence is defined as verbal and emotional abuse that includes isolating, rejecting, ignoring, 

insulting, spreading rumors, fabricating lies, name-calling, ridiculing, humiliation, and threats, as well as 

psychological punishment. 

3. Sexual violence includes sexual intimidation, sexual harassment, unwanted touching, sexual coercion, and rape, 

and it is committed by a teacher, school personnel, or a student or classmate.  

4. Bullying is characterized as a pattern rather than isolated episodes, with intentional and aggressive behavior 

directed at a victim regularly. It can occur in a variety of forms: physical bullying (beating, kicking, property 

destruction), psychological (teasing, insulting, threatening), or relational (rumor spreading and exclusion from a 

group). 

5. Cyberbullying is defined as posting or transmitting messages, photographs, or videos with the intent of 

harassing, threatening, or targeting another person using a variety of media and social media platforms. Spreading 

rumors, posting false information, sending nasty messages, making embarrassing comments or images, or 

blocking someone from online networks or other forms of communication are all examples of cyberbullying. 

 



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Causes of School Violence 

There is often no simple, straight forward reason why someone engages in school violence. A child may have 

been bullied or rejected by a peer, perhaps under much academic pressure, or perhaps enacting something they 

have seen at home, on TV, or in their neighborhood. These are a few risk factors that may increase a child’s 

likelihood of engaging in violent behavior in schools, according to Ehiri et al. (2017). 

➢ Inadequate academic achievement   

➢ Violence in the past   

➢ problems related to mental health  

➢ experiencing or witnessing violence  

➢ Use of tobacco, drugs, or alcohol dysfunctional lifestyles within the family   

➢ Abuse or violence at home   

➢ Possession of firearms by peers with criminal records   

➢ The community’s high crime rate or poverty. 

The trauma of school violence can lead to significant psychological anguish. Adults may also find it difficult to 

deal with trauma; however, if a person whose brain is still developing experiences trauma, particularly if it occurs 

over an extended period, their brain may go into survival mode, which may have an impact on their long-term 

health, attention, and emotional regulation. It can therefore be said that anybody affected by school violence, 

especially children, may experience trauma. When children watch or experience classroom violence, they may 

experience long-term adverse effects on their physical and mental health, making prevention efforts crucial. 

2. Empirical Evidence of Strain Theory and School Violence 

Understanding and addressing school violence requires a comprehensive examination of various factors, 

including opportunities for victimization and the school's role as a potential "hot spot" for criminal activities. 

While initially developed as a framework for comprehending criminal behavior, strain theory has proven 

instrumental in shedding light on school-based violence, including traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and other 

forms of aggressive behavior among students.  

Moon et al. (2010) explored the application of strain theory to school bullying in South Korea. The researchers 

found that students experiencing strain, such as academic pressure and perceived injustice, were more likely to 

engage in bullying behaviors. This study highlights the role of negative emotions and perceived unfairness in the 

context of school violence, emphasizing that strain can lead to bullying as a coping mechanism.  

Patchin and Hinduja (2011) examined traditional and cyberbullying through the lens of strain theory. The study 

revealed that strains such as peer rejection and academic pressure were linked to various forms of bullying among 

youth. The findings underscore the importance of considering strain factors when understanding school violence, 

including new forms of bullying facilitated by technology.  

Higgins et al. (2010) explored the connection between peer rejection and delinquent or criminal behavior, 

emphasizing the role of strain theory in understanding the factors contributing to delinquency and crime, which 

are often intertwined with school violence. The findings suggest that peer rejection can be a significant source of 

strain, leading to various delinquent behaviors, including school violence. 

James et al. (2014) examined the role of perceived injustice as a strain factor that contributes to school violence. 

The study found that perceived injustices, such as unfair treatment by teachers or peers, were associated with 

violent behaviors among students. The implications of this study highlight the importance of addressing perceived 

injustices to prevent school violence.  

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-makes-some-teens-behave-violently-2610459
https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940
https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940


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Paez (2016) extended the scope of strain theory to cyberbullying and revealed how strain experienced in online 

interactions can manifest as harmful behaviors. The study emphasized that strains in the digital realm, such as 

online harassment and cyberbullying, contribute to the overall landscape of school violence.  

Yang et al. (2019) examined the role of strains, such as academic pressure and family problems, in generating 

negative emotions and bullying behaviors among school-aged children. The study emphasized that negative 

emotions resulting from strain were linked to aggressive behaviors, reinforcing the importance of addressing 

strain to prevent school violence.  

Button (2019) conducted a qualitative study focused on LGB youth’s experiences with victimization and risky 

behaviors through the lens of strain theory. The results show the notable impediments confronted by LGB youth, 

including strains related to discrimination and victimization that may lead to risky behaviors, including violence. 

These studies reveal several common themes and patterns. They consistently underscored the significance of 

perceived injustices as a central source of strain, with students experiencing academic pressure, peer rejection, 

and discriminatory treatment being more likely to engage in various forms of school violence. Negative emotions 

arising from this strain act as mediating factors that motivate aggressive behaviors. These negative emotions and 

perceived injustices together contribute to bullying, whether traditional or cyberbullying, as a coping mechanism. 

The impact of strain on peer relations is evident, as peer rejection emerges as a notable source of strain, leading 

to delinquent or violent behaviors often involving peers.  

The studies also highlight the adaptability of strain theory to contemporary issues, emphasizing the role of digital 

strains in online harassment and cyberbullying. Additionally, marginalized groups, such as LGB youth, face 

unique challenges related to discrimination and victimization that may lead to risky behaviors and violence. These 

common themes collectively emphasize the importance of addressing perceived injustices, negative emotions, 

and strains to effectively prevent and mitigate school violence, incorporating both traditional and modern forms 

of aggression among students. 

3. Critique and Gaps in Literature 

These studies offer insightful information about the application of strain theory to school violence, shedding light 

on the role of perceived injustices, negative emotions, and strains in various forms of violence within educational 

settings. However, acknowledging some limitations and critiques within these studies is essential. They include: 

First, many studies in this collection rely on self-reported surveys or questionnaires to gather student data. This 

methodology may introduce response biases because students may under-report or over-report their experiences 

of strain, perceived injustices, and involvement in school violence due to social desirability or recall bias. 

Furthermore, some studies did not consider the broader ecological factors that influence school violence, such as 

community characteristics, school policies, and socioeconomic disparities. A more comprehensive understanding 

of the multifaceted nature of school violence would benefit from considering these broader contextual factors. 

Another limitation to consider is the potential for omitted-variable bias. Although strain theory offers valuable 

insights, it does not account for all relevant variables contributing to school violence. Focusing on individual-

level factors, like strains and perceived injustices, may overlook structural and systemic issues, including school 

culture, neighborhood violence, and family dynamics, which play substantial roles in shaping students' behaviors. 

Therefore, future research should adopt a more holistic approach by considering the broader factors that may 

interact with or mediate the relationship between strain and school violence. 

Although the studies in this collection make valuable contributions to understanding school violence through the 

lens of strain theory, several gaps in the existing literature warrant further research. Many cross-sectional studies 

have provided a snapshot of the relationship between strain and school violence at a specific time. A longitudinal 



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analysis that tracks students over an extended period can offer insights into how strains and perceived injustices 

may accumulate and impact students’ behavior over time. This will afford a better understanding of the temporal 

dynamics of school violence. 

In addition, these studies often focus on individual strains and perceived injustices. However, they may not 

adequately address how various identities, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status, 

intersect to create unique strain and school violence experiences. Future research should explore how these 

intersecting identities influence the relationship between strain and violence while acknowledging that different 

groups of students may face distinct challenges. 

Further, the studies in the collection cover various cultural and regional contexts. Further research is required to 

explore how cultural and contextual factors influence the applicability of strain theory to school violence. The 

extent to which this theory holds in diverse cultural settings and the influence of cultural norms and values on 

students’ strain experiences should be reviewed. Although these studies provide insights into the factors 

underlying school violence, there is a need for research that evaluates the effectiveness of preventive interventions 

informed by strain theory. Understanding which interventions can successfully reduce school violence is crucial 

for educators and policymakers seeking to create safer learning environments. 

The reviewed studies encompass various school settings and cultural contexts, including South Korea, the United 

States, and other international settings. The applicability of strain theory to different environments is an essential 

consideration. The findings suggest that strain theory's core principles, including perceived injustices, negative 

emotions, and strains leading to delinquency, are relevant in various cultural contexts and school settings. 

However, the specific stressors and strains experienced by students may vary according to cultural and regional 

factors. For example, academic pressures in some Asian countries may be particularly pronounced, leading to 

unique strains that contribute to school violence. Cultural norms and values influence students’ perceptions of 

injustices and react to strains. Therefore, it is crucial to consider the cultural context when applying strain theory 

to school violence. Educators and researchers should be attentive to students’ challenges in different cultural 

settings and should tailor interventions accordingly. 
 

4. Implications for School Violence       

The insights gained from applying strain theory to school violence offer educators and school policies valuable 

guidance. Teachers can create more effective preventive and remedial measures for school violence by 

understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms of this problem. Early identification of at-risk students 

becomes possible when educators recognize signs of strain and perceived injustices, enabling timely interventions 

that address the root causes of potentially violent behaviors. Additionally, schools can foster supportive and 

inclusive environments by implementing anti-bullying programs and promoting positive peer relationships to 

reduce strains and perceived injustices. By developing targeted interventions and teaching students healthy coping 

mechanisms, educators empower students to manage their emotions constructively and avoid resorting to violence 

as a means of release. 

Furthermore, promoting inclusivity and equity ensures that all students have equal access to resources and are 

treated fairly, addressing strains related to discrimination, bullying and academic pressure. By understanding how 

strains can lead to cyberbullying, schools can implement comprehensive prevention programs to address such 

strains. Tailoring strategies to the cultural context recognizes the influence of cultural norms and values on 

students’ experiences, thus leading to more effective approaches in diverse settings. Collaboration with parents 

and communities in prevention and intervention efforts maximizes the impact of these strategies, and regular 

assessment of the effectiveness of interventions ensures ongoing improvements. Equipping educators with 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) Vol. 15 (10) 

 

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professional development opportunities enhances their ability to apply strain theory and effectively address strains 

and perceived injustices in educational settings, ultimately creating safer and more conducive learning 

environments and benefiting all student’s well-being and academic success. 

5.  Conclusion  

Strain theory provides a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of school violence. This study 

highlights the role of strain in eliciting negative emotions and deviant behaviors among students and sheds light 

on the underlying causes of such violence. Educators and administrators can leverage this understanding to 

proactively develop safer and more supportive learning environments. By applying the principles of strain theory, 

evidence-based strategies for preventing and managing school violence can be developed. This has the potential 

to enhance student outcomes and foster a more conducive learning atmosphere.  

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