global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 17 impact of education law on staff personnel governance in the secondary schools in nigeria rev.fr. barr onubuleze franklin kelechi (ph.d) and department of educational management, faculty of education, enugu state university of science and technology (esut) enugu, nigeria dr akpagu cletus i. ebonyi state college of education ikwo keywords: education law, education and staff personnel abstract the study investigated the education law and staff personnel governance on secondary school level in nigeria. two research questions were posed and two hypotheses formulated to guide the study. the hypotheses were tested at p>0.05 level of significance. survey research design was adopted for the study. the population of the study was made up of 120 urban and rural teachers in selected secondary schools in enugu state. a 10 item questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection. the reliability index of 0.79 was obtained for the instrument using cronbach alpha. mean with standard deviation was used to analyze data related to research questions. the results of data analysed revealed among others that education law has a great impact on staff personnel governance in secondary schools relating to the employment of teaching staff. one of the recommendations made was government in nigeria to ensure that there is no favouritism in the disbursement of funds in secondary schools in order to provide the needed infrastructural facilities introduction the school administration is different from that of enterprises due to its goal. however, like any other organization, the school needs means to run efficiently. these means are mainly of human, material, financial, legal and technological nature. the existence of these means is not enough in itself; there is a need to make a rational utilization and combination which fundamentally remains the responsibility of the staff personnel with a law as a backup (ogbonnaya, 2009). education law is a set of rules and regulations that guide the workings of an education system. many regions have detailed educational law systems, in order to create comprehensive educational policies for a specific nation. education law may deal with the creation and https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 18 funding of schools and school policy, teacher requirements and the rights of students. education law is also the portion of the law in a state, country or city that specifically governs educational bodies such as public and private schools and universities. various education laws cover every aspect of education and school systems (okeke, 2007). the author further posited that, the pursuit of education is seen by many as key to creating a productive citizenry. by instilling basic knowledge such as reading, writing, science and mathematics, schools help produce knowledgeable workers that are primed for work or for additional training in a specialized field. this, in turn, creates a more skilled workforce, which can benefit the economy and well-being of an entire nation. however, legal means of a secondary school are constituted of legal texts, rules and instructions to which are added contracts that the school signs with individuals. the respect of all legal means of the school contributes to the fulfillment of planned objectives. indeed, the strict application of all texts governing the school helps to prevent and resolve conflicts and problems which may occur. it is also a sign of the application of education general policy because the school legislation reflects this policy. the respect of this national policy is therefore translated into the application of these legal documents; which will allow our education system to achieve its mission by the help of staff personnel being guided by appropriate education law. for these reasons, many governments consider education to be a priority. education is an important tool for creating national awareness, positive change and development. the growth of a nation’s economy, politics and social values mostly depend on the quality and quantity of education the nation could offer its citizens. nigeria for example, advocates for the philosophy of education that could cater for the needs of her citizens. nwadialo (2004) noted that the rate of return to a nation from investment in education is greater than that from any form of investment. education in nigeria is overseen by the ministry of education. local authorities take responsibility for implementing state-controlled policy regarding public education and state schools. the education system is divided into kindergarten, primary education, secondary education and tertiary education. one of the educational levels where the government invests much is the secondary education level. the broad goal of nigerian secondary education as specified by the federal republic of nigeria (2013) is summed up to be; preparing students for useful living within the society and higher education. it has been observed by adebayo (2007) that achieving these objectives depends largely on the quality of staff personnel and their adherence to the laws guiding education. indeed, staff personnel today face a big challenge not only to know different tools of secondary school management but also to maintain the required professionalism to efficiently handle the available means. this goes further because some of them do not yet master the basic principles of school management or face problem of understanding which may hinder the efficiency of the general administration of the school. furthermore, the initial training of some of them does not allow them to acquire enough knowledge in school governance. the necessity of continuous training of nigerian secondary schools https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nigerian_federal_ministry_of_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/local_government_areas_of_nigeria https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/public_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/state_schools https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/state_schools https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kindergarten https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/primary_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/primary_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/secondary_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tertiary_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tertiary_education global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 19 managers finds its justification. no more explanation is needed to prove that the secondary school remains today one of the cornerstones of the development of the nigeria education system because it is at this level that the pupil acquires the requirements to improve intellectual flexibility (okeke, 2007). in addition, oboegbulem (2004) viewed staff personnel governance as the manpower or human resources management in an organization. oboegbulem pointed out that staff personnel refers to manpower activities of any organization which embraces recruitment of staff, staff maintenance, selection, induction, motivation, appraisal, developmental, discipline, training, compensations and evaluation of staff for education activities. in a school system, the overall goals of the personnel administration are to recruit adequate and qualified staff, develop and maintain the staff so that they would be willing to render effective and efficient educational services to the students. in secondary school setting, staff personnel governance forms an important responsibility of the school management in achieving the goals of the schools in particular and of education in general. therefore, education law adherence of secondary school governance has influenced the activities of staff personnel in different ways. it is observed that in areas of employment within education sector, staff personnel to a large extent determine who is to be taken and who is not to be employed. eze (2002) observed that in the distribution of infrastructural facilities to schools, the education law is paramount. therefore, this study sought to determine the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance in the secondary schools in nigeria. statement of the problem education law can be a vital factor that influences decisions in the management of secondary schools in various situations by the staff personnel. since the government has taken over the control and management of secondary schools, political issues, societal interest and environmental influences on the management of secondary schools have come to the fore. some secondary schools in nigeria are known to be doing well with experience teaching staff, good equipments and adequate infrastructure while others unfortunately suffer serious deprivations. although, there are a number of researches directed at the level of governance of staff personnel and its consequences in relation to educational policies and national development, none so far has been specific on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of the secondary school improvement. hence, the problem of this study is what are the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools in nigeria? research question the following research questions guided the study: i. what are the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff? ii. what are the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provision of infrastructural facilities? hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested at p<0.05; ho1: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural teachers on the https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 20 impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. ho2: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provisions of infrastructural facilities. research method survey research design was used for the study. the study covered some of the schools in enugu education zone. the education zone comprises thirty (30) schools spread out across three local government areas (lgas) namely: enugu east, enugu north and isiuzo. enugu education zone is one of the six education zones in enugu state which is in nigeria. the researcher purposively sampled ten secondary schools from the zone. the population of the study was made up of 120 teachers which were 60 urban teachers and 60 rural teachers. the instrument used for data collection was a researcher made structured questionnaire, which was validated by three experts in the faculty of education, esut. the instrument comprised 10 questionnaire items divided in clusters according to the two research questions. reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach alpha reliability estimate, at the end of which a reliability index of 0.79 was obtained. copies of the questionnaire were administered to all the teachers by the researcher. mean with standard deviation was use to analyse data related to research questions. the degree of agreed was determined by finding the mean of the values assigned to the options. in rating the computed mean scores that range from 2.50 and above was regarded as being agreed while the item that falls below 2.50 was regarded as disagree. the criterion mean of 2.50 was gotten by summing up the weighted options (4+3+2+1=10) and dividing it by total number of response options (4) as follows; 10/4=2.50. the t-test statistics was used to test the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significant. the decision rule for the hypothesis were that, hypothesis was not rejected when the tcalculated value is less than the critical table value, but rejected when the t-calculated value is greater than the critical table value. research question 1: what are the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff? https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 21 table 1: mean response scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. urban teachers rural teachers s/ n items x sd dec. x sd dec. 1 bias in the appointment of inexperienced personnel to carryout duties leads to inefficiency. 2.54 0.86 agree 2.66 0.87 agree 2 the issues of favouritism in the appointment of staff to work in the school system leads to conflict among staff personnel. 2.63 1.03 agree 2.81 0.95 agree 3 recruitment of unqualified teachers into secondary schools leads to low quality of teaching. 2.51 0.92 agree 2.60 0.90 agree 4 the teaching staff in my school are experts in their disciplines. 2.35 0.88 disagre e 2.27 1.15 agree 5 most of the teaching staff in my school teach subjects that they did not study in school. 2.67 0.79 agree 2.55 0.99 agree cluster mean 2.54 0.90 agree 2.58 0.97 agree data presented on table 1 show that the respondents agreed on items 1, 2, 3 and 5 but disagreed on item 4. the urban teachers mean ranged from 2.35 to 2.67 while that of rural teachers ranged from 2.27 to 2.66. in addition, they were cluster means of 2.54 and 2.58 for urban and rural teachers and standard deviations of 0.90 and 0.97 respectively. these imply that there is an impact of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. research question 2: what are the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provision of infrastructural facilities? https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 22 table 2: mean response scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provision of infrastructural facilities. urban teachers rural teachers s/n items x sd dec. x sd dec. 6 there are adequate classrooms in my school. 2.68 0.83 agree 2.62 1.00 agree 7 there is a standard laboratory. 2.56 0.94 agree 2.84 1.02 agree 8 staff personnel always provide seats in the various classrooms. 2.58 0.99 agree 2.68 0.97 agree 9 there is adequate sport equipment in our school. 2.78 1.02 agree 2.66 0.88 agree 10 there is standard science equipment in our school. 2.97 0.89 agree 2.91 0.89 agree cluster mean 2.71 0.93 agree 2.74 0.95 agree data presented on table 2 show that the respondents agreed on all the items. the urban teachers mean ranged from 2.56 to 2.97 while that of rural teachers mean ranged from 2.62 to 2.91. in addition, they were cluster means of 2.71 and 2.74 for urban and rural teachers and standard deviations of 0.93 and 0.95 respectively. these imply that there is an impact of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provision of infrastructural facilities. ho1: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. table 3: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision urban teachers 60 2.54 0.90 118 0.24 1.98 not rejected rural teachers 60 2.58 0.97 table 3 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 23 relating to employment of experience teaching staff. the result showed that the calculated tvalue (0.24) was less than the critical value (1.98). the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. ho2: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provisions of infrastructural facilities. table 4: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provisions of infrastructural facilities group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision urban teachers 60 2.71 0.93 118 0.18 1.98 not rejected rural teachers 60 2.74 0.95 table 4 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provisions of infrastructural facilities. the result showed that the calculated t-value (0.18) was less than the critical value (1.98). the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provisions of infrastructural facilities. summary of data analysis from the results of the data analysis, it was found out that: i. there is an impact of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff; ii. there is an impact of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provision of infrastructural facilities; iii. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff; and iv. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provisions of infrastructural facilities. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 24 discussion of findings the results of the data analysed clearly shared the position of the respondents with respect to the assessment of educating nigerian children amidst the challenges of insecurity in the country. the study in research question one revealed that there is an impact of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. in other words, it showed that both urban and rural teachers agreed that, the education law has a positive impact on the staff personnel governance relating to the employment of teaching staff. the finding is in line with the statements of ogunu (2006) that education law influences the appointment, promotion and transfer of teachers. the author further observed that in the school situation, staff personnel governance forms an important responsibility of the school administration in achieving the goals of the school in particular and in education in general. with reference to table 3 hypothesis 1, it shows that there was no significant difference between the mean scores of urban and rural teachers on the impacts of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to employment of experience teaching staff. the study in research question two revealed that there is an impact of education law on staff personnel governance of secondary schools relating to the provision of infrastructural facilities. the findings of this present study support ogbonnaya (2009) who stated that education law influences the provision of basic infrastructures in schools. ogbonnaya reported that there is quota system in the provision of science equipment that government determines where schools are cited. okeke (2009) also stated that education law influences the provision of sports equipment as federal government colleges and schools in the urban cities, particularly state capitals are more favoured than those in the rural areas. conclusion education is very important in every nation of the world but it is usually influenced in various ways and education law is one of the ways. the purpose of this study was to determine the impact of education law on staff personnel governance in secondary schools in nigeria. it is perceived that education law influences government interference in secondary education in staff-personnel governance and provision of basic infrastructures. recommendations of the study based on the findings of the study, the following were recommended: 1. the states governments should avoid quota system in the provision of facilities and equipments in schools. this is because these leads to differentials in the quality and quantity of schools. 2. government in nigeria should ensure that there is no favouritism in the disbursement of funds in secondary schools in order to provide the needed infrastructural facilities. references federal republic of nigeria, (frn), (2013). national policy on education. abuja: federal ministry of education. krahmann e. (2003), conceptualizing security governance. journal of the nordic international studies association vol. 38 no 1. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 4; april 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 25 oche, o. (2001) “democratization and the management of african security” in akindele, r. and ate, .b (eds) in nigerian journal of international affairs, vol.13, no.1, lagos, niia. okorie, i. (2011), “insecurity” consequences for investment and employment, “the punch, thursday, september 9, pp37-38. omede, w. (2012), national security and development in nigeria. african journal of business management. vol 6 no 23 schappiro, t. (2009) “who is a child”? ethics 109 in world bank economic review, vol. 17, no. 2. world bank. (2003). world development indicators. washington, d.c.: world bank. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 12; december-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 18 chromatographic insights: uplc-tuv analysis of glucosamine and chondroitin in dietary products 1dr. nguyen thi linh tran, 2prof. le minh duc, 3dr. pham khanh nguyen and 4prof. nguyen van hoang article info abstract keywords: osteoarthritis, glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate, joint health, symptom management. osteoarthritis (oa) is a prevalent chronic disease characterized by irreversible joint tissue damage, impacting cartilage, synovial membrane, and subchondral bone. this study explores the therapeutic potential of two compounds, glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate, in managing oa symptoms. glucosamine, a vital component of chitin and mucopolysaccharides, is known for its role in connective tissue and cartilage formation. the safety profile of glucosamine, as demonstrated by research from the u.s. national institutes of health (nih) and other sources, highlights its advantages over non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsaids), with significantly fewer side effects observed. furthermore, glucosamine does not interfere with glucose metabolism. chondroitin sulfate, a sulfated glycosaminoglycan, is widely used in oa patient management. its multifaceted effects on chondrocyte survival, modulation of cartilage matrix balance, and reduction of proinflammatory factors underscore its potential benefits. in subchondral bone osteoblasts, chondroitin sulfate contributes to enhanced opg/rankl ratio, indicative of improved bone health. this review consolidates evidence on the efficacy and safety of glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate in oa management, shedding light on their roles in mitigating joint degeneration and inflammation. these compounds offer promising avenues for oa treatment, warranting further research and clinical exploration. 1. introduction osteoarthritis is a chronic disease considered a global organ failure and characterized by irremediable damage to significant tissues of the joint, namely cartilage, synovial membrane, and subchondral bone. the disease 1,2,3,4 cantho university of medicine and pharmacy, 179 nguyen van cu street, an khanh ward, ninh kieu district, can tho city, vietnam https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 19 pathogenesis was observed, including articular cartilage loss, synovial membrane inflammation, and subchondral bone alteration (martel-pelletier, 2005). glucosamine, 2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucose, is an essential part of chitin and mucopolysaccharides. large complexes of negatively charged carbohydrate chains are incorporated into mucous secretions, connective tissue, ligaments, and cartilage. glucosamine is also a widely used compound for reducing symptoms of osteoarthritis. according to u.s. national institutes of health (nih) and other scientists' research, side effects of glucosamine were significantly less common than non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (nsaids), significantly less than onethird compared to ibuprofen (a commonly used of this group of drugs). its safety was proved to be acceptable under using conditions and does not affect glucose metabolism (anderson, 2005; stanley, 2004). chondroitin sulfate is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan which is a long, unbranched chain made from a repeating disaccharide structure of glucuronic acid and n-acetyl galactosamine residues. it is also one of the most widely used compounds in managing osteoarthritis patients. chondroitin sulfate has been shown to change the death process of a chondrocyte, improving the anabolic/catabolic balance of the extracellular cartilage matrix, reducing some proinflammatory and catabolic factors and, in subchondral bone osteoblasts, increasing the ratio of opg/ rankl (martel-pelletier, 2005). moreover, the long-term administration of oral cs is proved to be safe, well-tolerated, and fully indicated to control the pain symptoms and increase the mobility of knee osteoarthritis patients (uebelhart, 2008). ultraperformance liquid chromatography (uplc) has become one of the most frequently applied approaches in fast chromatographic separations (liang, 2010). hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (hilic) uses traditional polar stationary phases, commonly applied to determinate polar compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, biopharmaceuticals, organic contaminants in environmental samples, and food components in foods (redón, 2020). pre-column derivatization is an efficient method that produces stable and highly fluorescent derivatives for analysis, and the most commonly used derivatization reagent for this purpose is 9fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl chloride (fmoc-cl) (jámbor, 2009; molnár-perl, 2011). however, these methods all take a long time and have complex processing. there have been many methods to quantify glucosamine and chondroitin on different subjects by many techniques such as electrophoresis, high-performance liquid chromatography combined with different detectors (hplc-rid, uv, pda, fd), ms/ms) (harmita, 2017; huang, 2011; kosman, 2017). in the united states pharmacopoeia (usp, 40), glucosamine and chondroitin are quantified separately with two methods, pda probe highperformance liquid chromatography, and potentiometric titration, respectively. while in the british pharmacopoeia (bp, 2016), quantification of glucosamine and chondroitin by potentiometric titration (usp, 40). according to vietnam pharmacopoeia v (vmph, 2018), glucosamine is determined by liquid chromatography with uv probe, aminopropylsilyl silica gel column, but chondroitin still does not have a process for quantification. however, these methods all take a long time and have complex processing. therefore, this study aims to establish a quantitative and straightforward glucosamine chondroitin process, less time analysis, by uplc-tuv and precolumn derivatization with fmoc-cl. 2. materials and methods 2.1. chemicals and materials the reference samples of glucosamine hydrochloride (≥ 99%) and chondroitin sulfate (≥ 99%) were purchased from sigma (st. louis, mo, usa). fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl chloride derivatization reagents were purchased from sigma-aldrich (st. louis, mo, usa). methanol, acetonitrile, and hplc-grade water were acquired from honeywell (north carolina, usa). ammonium acetate, acid formic, sodium hydroxide, sodium borate was global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 20 purchased from merck (darmstadt, germany). the tablets contain two active ingredients: glucosamine and chondroitin. 2.2. instrumentation a uplc acquity h-class system (waters corporation, massachusetts, usa) equipped with a tuv detector. 2.3. methods according to qian et al. (2013) and the structures and polarities of analytes, chondroitin was quantified by hilic column, and glucosamine was determined by uplc-tuv with a c18 column after derivatization with 9fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl chloride (michel, 2004; qian, 2013). the chromatographic parameters, including elution solvents, mobile phase ratios, detective wavelengths, flow rates, and column temperatures, were investigated. meanwhile, the fmoc-cl derivatization conditions have optimized reaction temperatures (30 °c, 50 °c, and 70 °c). preparation of stock solutions. primary stock solutions of glucosamine and chondroitin are prepared with methanol at 1000 μg/ml. working solutions for analysis and validation are suitably diluted from stock solutions. preparation of reagent solutions. fmoc-cl is dissolved in acetonitrile at 1500 μg/ml. methods validation. according to ich guidelines, the proposed method was validated for selectivity, linearity, the limit of detection (lod), quantification (loq), precision, and accuracy. 3. results and discussion 3.1. methods development the high polarity of the determined compounds made it challenging to optimize chromatographic separation (huang, 2006; václavíková, 2015). on the other hand, the molecular weight of glucosamine and chondroitin is also a problem for hplc quantification. establishing and optimizing the analysis process, therefore, becomes much more necessary. according to government chemist (2012), chondroitin determination has several typical approaches, such as high-performance liquid (hplc) methods based on size exclusion and using amine column or ion exchange hplc. meanwhile, glucosamine also has been researched by an extensive range of methods like gas chromatography, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectral, and one of the most effective methods that have been reported is highperformance chromatography method involving derivatization with fmoc-cl (huang, 2006). 3.1.1. chondroitin quantification the survey results showed that aliquots of the process samples (10 μl) were injected into column-a beh hilic column (2.1 × 100 mm, 1.7 μm) with mobile phase, a 50:50 mixture of acetonitrile and 5 mm ammonium acetate (ph 8), was delivered at 0.25 ml/min and samples were detected at a wavelength of 255 nm. this mobile phase mixture brings back an exemplary chromatogram of chondroitin, which is an excellent and symmetrical peak. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 21 figure 1. chondroitin chromatogram (mobile phase: acetonitrile: 5 mm ammonium acetate (ph 8) (50:50)) figure 2. glucosamine chromatogram under optimal conditions 3.1.2. glucosamine determination the following factors were investigated: reaction temperature of derivatization, quantitative wavelength, and mobile phase ratio, respectively. depending on the stability of glucosamine-fmoc-cl over time and a result shown on the chromatogram, reaction temperature has been chosen. the maximum absorption peak of the derived glucosamine is 259 nm; conducting a survey, at 255 nm, the derived peak signal is good, with little background noise, so the quantitation wavelength is 255 nm. the chosen mobile phase was also accepted as a reasonable and symmetrical peak requirement. the optimal chromatographic conditions for glucosamine were selected based on the research of huang (2006), the investigation factor of derivatization and quantification has been chosen. the results showed the most potential condition is using the indirect method of pre-column derivatization by hydrolysis with alkaline agents and fmoccl reagent at the reaction temperature of 50 °c, quantified on the tuv probe uplc system with the acquity uplc beh c18 column (2.1 × 100mm, 1.7 μm); detection wavelength 255 nm; flow rate 0.25 ml/min; sample injection volume 10 μl. mobile phase a is acetonitrile; mobile phase b is water. the mobile phase ratio was adjusted according to the gradient elution program [time (minutes)/%a] as follows 0-2.5/35, 2.5-4/60. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 22 figure 3. chromatogram (1) reactive solvent, (2) unreacted glucosamine sample (3) sample solvent, (4) mobile phase sample 3.2. system suitability testing system suitability testing was assessed by analyzing six replicates of glucosamine fmoc-cl standard at 25 g/ml and chondroitin standard at 300 µg/ml. the results in table 1 show that the rsd% of the retention time and the peak area are both less than 2%. the chromatographic parameters are within the acceptable range: from 0.8 to 1.5 for asymmetry factor (as) and higher than 1.5 for resolution (rs). consequently, instrumentation quality is acceptable for research. table 1. system suitability testing tr s as rs k’ glucosamine mean 2.24 17437.5 1.45 3.8 1.49 rsd% 0.4 0.21 1.23 1.2 0.86 chondroitin mean 0.69 1400.2 1.39 2.5 0.75 rsd% 1.58 0.32 1.45 0.87 0.67 3.3. selectivity figure 3-5 shows that sample chromatograms had peaks of glucosamine-fmoc-cl and chondroitin with retention times equivalent to the prominent peaks in the standard chromatograms. no significant interference from mobile phase, solvent, underivatized glucosamine, and reaction solvent was observed at the retention time of analytes. the procedure for quantifying glucosamine and chondroitin meets the requirements for selectivity. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 23 figure 4. chromatogram of glucosamine-fmoc-cl in the standard sample (1), testing sample (2), and spiked sample (3) figure 5. chromatogram of mobile phase (1), solvent (2), testing sample (3), chondroitin standard sample (4), spiked sample (5) 3.4. linearity the investigation of linearity is over the concentration range of 10-100 µg/ml for glucosaminefmoc-cl and 50-1000 µg/ml for chondroitin. the correlation coefficients during the validation were 0.999 and 0.998, respectively. table 2. linearity of glucosamine-fmoc-cl and chondroitin linearity range (µg/ml) regression equations, r2 glucosamin fmoc-cl 10-100 y = 668.46x , r2 = 0.999 chondroitin 50-1000 y = 6.42x, r2 = 0.998 3.5. precision the method's precision was verified by evaluating the intra-day and inter-day precisions. the relative standard deviation (%rsd) was selected to measure precision. the intra-day precision was examined by analyzing six samples in a single day, while the inter-day precision was determined by analyzing six samples each day for three days. the precision results were shown in table 3, indicating that the overall intraand inter-day variations (%rsd) were less than 2% (1.50% and 0,79%, respectively). table 3. intra-day and inter-day precision of glucosaminefmoc-cl (n = 6) intra-day inter-day sample peak area (mau.s) content (mg) peak area (mau.s) content (mg) day 1 day 2 day 3 day 1 day 2 day 3 1 11948 491.653 11948 11651 11472 491.65 477.94 469.75 2 11657 478.256 11657 11439 11401 478.25 468.25 466.51 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 24 3 11586 475.140 11586 11526 11484 475.14 472.24 470.31 4 11429 467.662 11429 11541 11462 467.66 472.93 469.28 5 11634 477.321 11634 11554 11446 477.32 473.52 468.57 6 11539 472.959 11539 11521 11479 472.96 471.99 470.06 mean 11632.17 477.165 11542.72 473.01 rsd% 1.50 1.685 0.79 0.88 3.6. accuracy spiked samples evaluated the accuracy at three concentrations of 80, 100, 120 g/ml for glucosamine-fmoc-cl and chondroitin. each concentration was analyzed in duplicate three times. the mean recoveries of glucosaminefmoc-cl and chondroitin are 101.5% (rsd = 1.07%) and 100.59% (rsd = 0.34%), respectively, which meet the requirement of ich guidelines. the results are shown in table 4. the validation parameters followed the ich (2005) criteria, making this study potentially a widely used procedure for determining glucosamine and chondroitin. table 4. accuracy of glucosamine-fmoc-cl and chondroitin (n = 6) concentration μg/ml recovery (%) rsd % glucosaminefmoccl 80 100.67 2.7 100 101.78 0.25 120 102.05 0.19 chondroitin 80 100.57 0.32 100 100.05 0.59 120 101.15 0.11 3.7. application the quantitative procedure after good validation was applied to quantify glucosamine and chondroitin in two tablets containing glucosamine and chondroitin simultaneously. the quantitative results are presented in table 5, which shows that two samples do not meet the content requirement. this result brings back a reminder of the necessity to have the quantification process for the quality control of the functional foods sold in the market. table 5. application study producer content of analytes (%)* glucosamine chondroitin company a 99.7 ± 0.88 99.5 ± 1.18 company b 31.67 ± 0.28 79.9 ± 0.87 *: the mean values ± sd (n = 3) global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 25 4. conclusion a procedure for glucosamine quantification by pre-column derivatization with fmoc-cl reagent on uplc acquity h-class waters system tuv probe, with c18 (2.1 × 100 mm, 1.7 μm), mobile phase consisting of acn – water with gradient elution program and a process to quantify chondroitin by uplc/tuv system, with beh hilic column (2.1 × 100 mm, 1.7 μm), mobile phase consisting 50:50 acn – 5 mm ammonium acetate (ph 8) were researched. both procedures were validated according to ich guidelines to fully meet the requirements of a quantitative analytical procedure, including selectivity, linearity, accuracy, and precision. experiment for quantifying glucosamine and chondroitin in dietary supplements was proved to be a potential application and pharmaceuticals. acknowledgment an acknowledgements section is optional and may recognize those individuals who provided help during the research and preparation of the manuscript. conflict of interest. the authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. orcid id ngoc-van thi nguyen: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7397-4071 kim-ngan 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(2015). quality control of chondroitin sulphate used in dietary supplements. czech journal of food sciences, 33(2), 165-173. vietnam ministry of public health (vmph, 2018). vietnam pharmacopoeia v, medical publishing house, 454455. the use of social infrastructure in online adult education: theory and application global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 7; july-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 fostering social engagement in online learning: lessons from an adult esl program in florida 1emily grace thompson, 2benjamin michael carter article info abstract keywords: online education, social infrastructure, covid-19 pandemic, technology-based learning tools, adult esl program the covid-19 pandemic catalyzed a significant shift in education, highlighting the necessity of enriched social aspects within online learning environments. this study investigates the potential of the internet and related technology to function as effective social infrastructure in online education. during the pandemic, students encountered mental health challenges due to the abrupt transition from in-person to online learning, emphasizing the importance of social connections. this research applies bielaczyc's social infrastructure framework to an adult english as a second language (esl) program in walton county, florida, which swiftly adopted online learning amid the pandemic. the framework comprises four interconnected dimensions: cultural beliefs, practices, socio-techno-spatial relations, and interaction with the outside world. we explore the application of this framework to the online esl program, wherein zoom and the internet serve as the primary technology-based learning tools. by investigating how these dimensions operate collectively, the study sheds light on effective strategies to integrate technology-based learning tools while nurturing a conducive social infrastructure. this research contributes to the existing literature by offering a practical perspective on employing bielaczyc's framework in the context of pandemic-induced online education. 1. introduction the covid-19 pandemic harshly affected many areas including in-person and online education. although many educational institutions at all levels offered online learning programs prior to the covid-19 pandemic, the pandemic illuminated the need for an enhanced social component in online education [1,2]. during the pandemic, many students experienced mental health concerns such as depression and anxiety as a result of undergoing an abrupt transition from in-person learning to online learning and the loss of social contact this transition entailed 1 school of public affairs and administration, the university of kansas 2 school of public policy and administration, walden university https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 2 [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. these mental health concerns raise the question of whether and how the internet and related technology can also serve as an effective form of social infrastructure for students and instructors participating in online education. social infrastructure is generally defined as the physical places and organizations that shape the way people interact [11]. social infrastructure does not equate to social capital but instead consists of the physical conditions that determine whether social capital develops. social infrastructure may be discussed more specifically in relationship to education and technology.[12] find that online learning is not only a cognitive process but is also situated within a social context. [13] contend that technologies for learning have considerable social infrastructures. [14] defines social infrastructure as the social structures that support learning with a technologybased learning tool. bielaczyc developed the social infrastructure framework to make instructors’ decisions affecting social structures clear and to organize them into a methodical framework that highlights key classroom design elements. the framework explores dimensions of social infrastructure needed to integrate technology-based learning tools into classroom practice, because successful learning environments with technology-based learning tools extend beyond the tools themselves to include the design of social infrastructure. the four dimensions of the social infrastructure framework include the cultural beliefs dimension, practices dimension, socio-techno-spatial relations dimension, and interaction with the outside world dimension. although defined separately, the four dimensions of the framework operate interdependently [15]. this paper adds to the existing literature surrounding bielaczyc’s social infrastructure framework by applying the framework to an adult education program during the covid-19 pandemic. specifically, the purpose of this paper is to describe bielaczyc’s social infrastructure framework and to apply the framework to an adult english as a second language (esl) program in walton county, florida that was forced to quickly implement online learning because of the covid-19 pandemic. in this paper, we examine the internet and zoom more specifically as the technologybased learning tool used in the online esl program. in the first section of this paper, we describe the four dimensions of the social infrastructure framework. 2. the social infrastructure framework: theory 2.1. the cultural beliefs dimension the cultural beliefs dimension serves as the first element of the social infrastructure framework and refers to the mindset that shapes classroom life. when one designs an online adult education classroom, the framework calls for the consideration of four areas of cultural beliefs. the first area involves how learning and knowledge are conceptualized, and this conceptualization concerns how students and instructors view the process of learning. an appropriate online learning environment involves students as generators of knowledge rather than an environment where knowledge is considered fixed or owned by the instructor [16]. the second and third areas of cultural beliefs include consideration of how a student’s social identity is understood and consideration of how an instructor’s social identity is understood. the conceptualization of a student’s social identity refers to how students view themselves as learners as well as how they view other students in the class and others in their social network with regard to their own learning. for example, students might see other students as learning resources, team members, or competitors. an instructor’s social identity involves the way instructors view themselves and the way students view the role of instructors in the learning process. introducing a technology-based learning tool such as the internet into the classroom has been shown to move an instructor’s role from a central authority figure to a facilitator [17]. the fourth area of cultural beliefs involves how students and instructors view the purposes and uses of a particular technology-based learning tool which is the internet and zoom in the case of this paper. cultural beliefs concern questions about how students are meant to use the tool to carry out learning objectives. another question involves how the tool will fit into the overall workings of the classroom [18]. 2.2. the practices dimension the practices dimension of the social infrastructure framework involves the ways that instructors and students participate in both online and offline learning activities relating to the technologybased learning tool. when instructors explore this dimension of classroom design for online adult learners, they need to consider four areas global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 3 that include student activities, participant structures of students, participant structures of teachers, and coordinating on-tool and off-tool activities. in selecting student activities, instructors need to determine whether student activity selection will be left open to students or whether it will be semistructured or tightly controlled. when they design student participant structures, instructors need to decide if students will work individually or in groups and how the work will be organized. instructors also need to consider their own participant structures. for example, teachers might observe or intervene in student learning activities. teachers might also serve as a coach, role model, or discussion leader. finally, instructors need to coordinate on-tool activities that use the technology-based learning tool and off-tool learning activities that take place away from the tool. blending ontool and off-tool learning activities allows students to appreciate how what they are learning with the technologybased tool transfers to the real world. this type of blending also provides multiple forms for learning [19]. although participant structures in the online classroom vary, the social infrastructure framework’s practices dimension proves consistent with the claim that instructors serve as initiators of interpersonal or social processes in the classroom [20]. 2.3. the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension refers to how the organization of physical space and cyberspace support student interaction with the technology-based learning tool. this paper focuses on student-teachercyberspace configuration sand cyberspace-physical-space relations as the design considerations for this dimension. the student-teacher-cyberspace configurations design consideration proves relevant when students are able to interact online. instructors should consider whether students work separately or collaboratively in cyberspace, how student products are organized in cyberspace, and whether student online work is visible to all or whether students have private work areas in cyberspace. instructors also need to consider their own use of the technology-based learning tool and their own configuration in cyberspace. a question to be answered includes whether instructors should be online and use the learning tool themselves. the cyberspace-physical-space relations design consideration focuses on the ways that students’ physical world is brought into cyberspace and vice versa. aspects of students’ physical world may be brought into cyberspace for a number of reasons including giving students more ownership and deepening their relationship to their online work [21]. 2.4. the interaction with the “outside world” dimension the interaction with the outside world dimension involves how students interact, both online and offline, with people outside their immediate classroom context. key aspects of student interaction with the outside world include bringing in knowledge from the outside, extending the audience for student work, and interacting with others. instructors might bring in knowledge from the outside by having experts in a chosen field visit the virtual classroom. extending the audience for student work might involve students making virtual presentations to an outside audience. interacting with others involves students engaging in bidirectional interactions with the outside world such as virtually exchanging ideas with peers in other locations [22]. 3. the social infrastructure framework: application 3.1. background in this section, we describe the application of the social infrastructure framework to an online adult esl program in walton county, florida. the population in walton county is growing quickly, and the county is one of the top ten counties in the united states in percentage growth from 2017 to 2018 [23]. a faith-based organization operates walton county’s esl program to help immigrants obtain the language skills necessary to function in their new home and become citizens of the united states. walton county attracts students in the esl program due to the county’s economic opportunities. many immigrants, mostly spanish speaking, have come to walton county to take service sector jobs created by increased tourism and population growth. immigrants often learn about potential job opportunities in walton county from family members or friends already living there. prior to the covid-19 pandemic, the walton county esl program offered in-person classes on tuesday mornings and evenings. the esl program offered courses from beginning to advanced levels and placed students based on pre-enrollment assessments. the program scheduled and coordinated holidays, seasonal breaks, and summer vacation with the local school system calendar. once students completed the esl courses, they also were global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 4 offered a course to help them prepare for the united states citizenship examination. the logistics of the courses changed drastically with the covid-19 lockdown in mid-march 2020. by late summer 2020, the organizers of the walton county esl program began to make plans to resume instruction in the fall. the program leadership and a vast majority of the instructors preferred an online rather than in-person format due to continued threats from covid-19. with some limited assistance from a statewide faith-based esl coordinating organization, the walton county group decided to use zoom as the primary technology-based learning tool for online instruction. the remainder of this section will illustrate how the various dimensions of the social infrastructure framework outlined at the beginning of this paper have or have not guided the development of the program’s online esl instruction. 3.2. the cultural beliefs dimension the learning process for walton county’s esl program prior to the onset of covid-19 was conducted as part of a larger education and socialization process. the weekly in-person instruction began with food, songs, and fellowship. childcare services were provided, and class members were encouraged to bring their children. participants who had reached an advanced degree of knowledge in the program would often serve as mentors to new students. instructors designed learning activities to encourage interactions within individual classrooms in order for students to learn from one another. as a result, students served as generators of knowledge and learning resources for each other in the esl program’s in-person learning format. the first task in the esl program’s move to an online environment was to ensure that students would participate in the program. to this end, the walton county esl group developed an extensive outreach program to encourage student participation. the retention of existing students was given priority over the recruitment of new students. in addition, to enhance teachers’ use of the zoom learning tool in the online classroom, the sponsoring organization gave them zoom subscriptions and instruction in its use. it also encouraged teachers to attend statewide workshops on remote instruction via zoom. instructors encouraged students to view the purpose and use of the zoom learning tool as the means that would allow instruction to continue and friendships to flourish even in the absence of in-person contacts. despite these efforts, the abrupt move to online instruction negatively impacted the social identity of both students and teachers. students who previously viewed their instructors as knowledgeable friends and facilitators who helped with the learning process in the in-person program now saw them only as remote faces appearing via zoom on a computer screen or tablet device. in the walton county esl program’s online setting, instructors were deprived of the informal interactions with students that allow them to form strong personal relationships and tailor instruction to individual needs. in the case of this program, the introduction of technology threatened rather than enhanced the favorable social identities of both students and instructors that served as the foundation of the inperson esl program. 3.3. the practices dimension the internet and a few of the digital tools associated with it have allowed the adult esl classes to continue during the covid-19 pandemic. although zoom conferencing has been the primary technology-based learning tool, other learning tools such as email and whatsapp have proven to be valuable resources. prior to the pandemic, the esl program mainly used face-to-face contact as the means of outreach to potential students. during the pandemic, email allowed instructors and course organizers to contact potential students to inform them of available online esl opportunities. instructors and students also utilized whatsapp as a means of communication between instructional sessions. moving instruction from in-person classroom sessions to online zoom sessions required adjustments to student activities and the participant structures of students and instructors. prior to the pandemic much of the in-class instruction involved students interacting with one another and the instructor. instructors teaching via zoom had to adjust course materials to facilitate more individual work. the new format and materials have resulted in much less interaction between students. instructor interaction with students has become more formal and individually directed, and informal and spontaneous interactions with groups of students have greatly decreased. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 5 3.4. the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension the esl program’s initial move to online instruction occurred due to fears about the spread of the covid-19 virus. many of the students enrolled in the esl program were at high risk of contracting covid-19. consequently, one of the major motivations for moving to a virtual classroom was to separate students from one another and from the instructor. planning regarding the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension that might have accompanied a more traditional transition to remote learning did not happen due to the unique and time-sensitive nature of the transition required during the pandemic. the zoom platform, chosen as the preferred method of instructional delivery, did not allow for extensive online interactions among students in the program. traditional online learning management systems, such as blackboard, have features that allow groups of students to interact in a cyber-classroom setting. the zoom system allows some student interaction. however, instructors were not experts in utilizing it for sub-group interactions. therefore, most of the work in the zoom classroom involved individual interactions between the student and the instructor. 3.5. the interaction with the “outside world” dimension the desire to socially distance during the covid-19 pandemic served as the primary factor that led the esl program to transition to an online learning environment, and it severely limited any efforts to interact with the outside world in an offline setting. volunteers comprised the entire instructional staff for the esl program, and the logistical challenges in arranging outside interactions in the online classroom substantially limited these interactions. as a result, students did not engage in bidirectional interactions with the outside world in either an online or offline setting throughout their online esl education during the pandemic. 4. conclusion the purpose of this paper was to describe the social infrastructure framework and explore its application in the design and implementation of an online adult education program that abruptly transitioned to the use of zoom for instructional purposes. the framework was retroactively applied to an online adult esl program in walton county, florida that was forced to implement online learning due to the covid-19 pandemic. although it was more abrupt, the process of transitioning to an online learning environment in the adult esl program involved a trajectory of change for both students and instructors which is consistent with findings in the literature [24]. the walton county esl program case study also proved similar to some efforts at all levels of education forced to rapidly implement online learning as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. due to the pandemic, the esl program’s primary concern was to move online quickly without giving much forethought to the social infrastructure that would make technology based online learning efforts successful. the results and satisfaction levels of the program’s pandemic forced move to online learning are mixed at best. however, educators should not use the results of this sudden covid-19 induced move to online learning as a justification to discontinue future attempts to educate students remotely. in addition,[25] noted the significance of school administrators during the covid-19 pandemic, and [26] found that school principals’ use of digital technology during the pandemic was considered adequate according to teachers, indicating that effective leadership was important in implementing technology during the pandemic. in the case of the walton county esl program, there was not an identified leader driving the use of technology during the pandemic which may have also influenced this study’s results. in addition, abruptly designing an online adult education program during a pandemic is specific to a particular and hopefully rare time and place [27]. thoughtfully developing and designing online education programs based on a sound social infrastructure framework should improve the online learning experiences of adult education students 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(1945) the use of knowledge in society. american economic review, 35(4), 520-530. www.ijmsssr.org global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 3; march-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 16 analyzing the impact of interest rates, gdp growth, and profitability on stock returns in indonesia's property sector 1dr. i gusti nyoman rai, 2prof. ni luh made astini and 3dr. wayan gede putra article info abstract keywords: economic growth, monetary policy, stock returns, interest rates, gdp growth this study investigates the intricate relationship between economic growth, monetary policy, and financial indicators, primarily focusing on their impact on stock returns in the capital market. recognizing the complexity of stock returns as a pivotal aspect for investors and financial analysts, this research delves into the critical factors that shape these returns. utilizing data obtained from www.bi.go.id, this study examines the fluctuating trends in indonesia's average interest rates from 2011 to 2019, highlighting the profound influence of these rates on investment decisions. moreover, insights drawn from www.bps.go.id and www.idx.go.id elucidate the varying patterns in indonesia's gross domestic product (gdp) growth and return on equity (roe) of property sector companies during the same period. the analysis underscores that interest rates wield substantial attractiveness for investors, with fluctuations potentially impacting investment choices between stocks and other financial instruments. moreover, the study underscores the interplay between gdp growth, sales turnover, company profits, and subsequent stock price increments, emphasizing the significance of macroeconomic factors in determining stock returns. highlighting the role of financial reports, the research emphasizes the correlation between sound financial performance and positive company operations, corroborating how good financial indicators often coincide with successful operations. in navigating investment decisions, investors are urged to assess risks judiciously. the study suggests that a comprehensive analysis combining technical and fundamental assessments offers a robust approach to mitigate potential capital losses. this research contributes to a nuanced understanding of the intricate dynamics that underlie stock returns, providing investors with valuable insights for informed decision-making. 1faculty of economics and business, warmadewa university denpasar, bali-indonesia 2faculty of economics and business, warmadewa university denpasar, bali-indonesia 3affiliation: faculty of economics and business, warmadewa university denpasar, bali-indonesia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 17 preliminary economic growth, monetary policy and financial reports are a breath of fresh air for investors because these factors can project returns as expected. stock returns have always been a source of controversy in the capital market because it is an interesting phenomenon for investors and financial analysis. in order to get the desired stock return, investors must be more selective in choosing a company and pay attention to the supporting factors before investing their capital. based on data sourced from www.bi.go.id the data is processed by the author in 2021 the average interest rate of bank indonesia from 2011-2019 fluctuated, where the lowest interest rate occurred in 2017 at 4.56% and the highest interest rate occurred in 2014 at 7.54% according to adnyana (2017), it shows that interest rates are one of the attractions for investors to invest in the form of deposits or sbis so that investments in shares will be rivaled by an increase in interest rates which will cut company profits. based on data sourced from www.bps.go.id the data is processed by the author in 2021 the average growth of indonesia's gross domestic product from 2011-2019 has increased from year to year, but for growth there is fluctuation and tends to decrease every year, where the lowest gross domestic product growth rate occurred in 2019 which was 6 ,72% and the highest gross domestic product growth occurred in 2014 at 16.06%. according to wiranata (2021) with an increase in gross domestic product (gdp) it can reflect an increase in the scale of the company's sales turnover, an increase in the scale of sales turnover will lead to an increase in company profits which will have an impact on rising stock prices so as to increase stock returns. based on data sourced from www.idx.go.id the data is processed by the author in 2021 the average return on equity (roe) of property sector companies from 2011-2019 fluctuated, where the lowest average return on equity (roe) occurred in 2019 which was 2.59% and the average the highest return on equity (roe) occurred in 2013 at 12.06%. according to devi (2019) that a good financial report is a signal or a sign that the company has also been operating well. investors in making every investment decision try to minimize the various risks that arise. investors must decide what actions to take and what strategies to implement from changes in micro and macro conditions in order to keep getting the desired return (wiranata, 2021). the way that investors can use to avoid the risk of loss (capital loss) that may be experienced is to analyze both technically and fundamentally. technical analysis is stock analysis by looking at the behavior of investors in the capital market. while fundamental analysis is an analysis conducted by looking at valid data published by the company in the form of financial statements. this study uses a fundamental analysis of the external and internal aspects of the company. external aspects can be analyzed through monetary theory using the reference interest rate (bi rate) and through economic growth theory using gross domestic product (gdp) growth, while internal aspects can be analyzed using company profitability. based on the above background and the inconsistency of the results of previous research, the authors are interested in examining and studying more deeply about the effect of interest rates, gross domestic product (gdp), and profitability on stock returns by taking the research title "the effect of interest rates, growth gross domestic product (gdp) and profitability on stock returns of property companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange”. literature review (dsta) bank indonesia (2016) the bi rate as the reference interest rate is the policy interest rate that reflects the monetary policy stance or stance set by bank indonesia and announced to the public. mceachern (2015:146) in wiranata (2021) defines gross domestic product (gdp) as a measure of the market value of final goods and services produced by resources residing in a country for a certain period of time, usually one year. profitability is a ratio used to measure a company's ability to generate profits. one type of profitability ratio that can be used by investors in analyzing the company's financial statements is return on equity (roe). return on equity (roe) is a profitability ratio to assess the company's ability to generate profits from the investment of the company's shareholders expressed as a percentage (kasmir, 2018). stock return is the level of profit enjoyed by investors on an investment they make. in capital market theory, the rate of return received by an investor from shares traded in the capital market (shares of publicly traded companies) is usually termed return (alam, 2016). http://www.bi.go.id/ http://www.bi.go.id/ http://www.bps.go.id/ http://www.bps.go.id/ http://www.idx.go.id/ http://www.idx.go.id/ global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 18 previous research relevant to this study is as follows: adnyana et al (2017) with the title the effect of gross domestic product, rupiah/us dollar exchange rate, inflation, and interest rates (bi) on stock returns of registered property and real estate sub-sector services companies on the indonesia stock exchange in 20122017. afiyati and topowijono (2018) with the title the effect of inflation, bi rate, and exchange rate on stock returns in the study of food & beverages sub-sector companies listed on the idx. suriyani et al (2018) with the title the effect of interest rates, inflation and exchange rates on stock returns on the indonesian stock exchange. maulita (2019) with the title the effect of rupiah exchange rate, inflation, interest rates, and gross domestic product on stock returns in coal mining subsector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange. wiranata (2021) with the title the effect of gross domestic product, gold prices, and interest rates on stock returns in the banking sector on the indonesia stock exchange. devi and artini (2019) with the title the effect of roe, der, per, and exchange rate on stock returns. method this study uses quantitative research methods. this research was conducted on the indonesia stock exchange (idx) by accessing www.idx.co.id to obtain the necessary information about property sector companies as well as to obtain the company's annual financial reports, besides that there are also other secondary sources of required data that can be obtained. from the central statistics agency (bps), magic securities, bi rate / bi interest rate and osiris. data analysis techniques used by researchers to solve problems in problem formulation and test hypotheses using statistical analysis are multiple linear regression analysis, classical assumption test, simultaneous test (f test) and partial test (t test) results and discussion based on the values from the analysis of research data, the multiple linear regression equation becomes:y = 0.223 + -1.136 x1 + 2.537 x2 + 0.827 x3 + e from the equation above, it can be interpreted as follows: the constant value is -0.223%, which means that if the variables of interest rate, gross domestic product growth (gdp), and profitability (roe) are 0 then the stock return variable is -0.223%. the regression coefficient value for the interest rate of -1.136% is negative, then this indicates that every one percent increase in the interest rate will reduce stock returns by -1.136%. the regression coefficient value for gross domestic product of 2.537% is positive, this indicates that every one percent increase in gross domestic product will increase stock returns by 2.537%. the regression coefficient value for profitability (roe) of 0.827% is positive, table 1.multiple linear regression analysis test results based on the determinant test of the adjusted r square value of 0.105, it means that the variation in the stock return value of 10.5% is influenced by interest rates, growth of gross domestic product (gdp), and profitability (roe) while the remaining 89.5% is influenced by variables outside the model. so this model is quite weak in explaining the relationship between the variables in the model on stock returns. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 19 table 2.results of determination analysis (r2) the f test in this study was used to test whether or not there was a significant effect of the variable interest rate (x1), gross domestic product growth (x2), and profitability (roe) simultaneously on the dependent variable stock return (y), then the f test was carried out and obtained fcount = 11.770 compared to the value of ftable = 2.60. where fcount is greater than ftable. this means that at the level of = 5% all independent variables (x) simultaneously have a significant effect on the stock return variable (y) table 3.f . test results anovab a. predictors: (constant), roe, bi rate, pdb b. dependent variable: return saham the t-test in this study was conducted to determine the level of significance between the regression coefficients, so that it can be known partially or individually the effect of the interest rate variable (x1) on stock returns (y), the influence of the gross domestic product growth variable (x2) on stock returns (y). ), and the variable influence of profitability (roe) on stock returns (y). from the results of the t test, it was found that the value of tcount (x1) = -0.518 with a value of ttable = -1.660 then the value of tcount (x1) is greater than the value of ttable (left side test). this means that the partial effect of the interest rate (x1) on the company's stock return in the property sector is not a significant negative effect. so the second hypothesis (h2) is not supported. from the results of the t-test, it was found that the value of tcount (x2) = 3,522 with a value of ttable = 1,660 then the value of tcount (x2) is greater than the value of ttable (right side test). this means that the partial effect of gross domestic product growth (x2) on the company's stock return in the property sector is positive and significant. so that the third hypothesis (h3) is supported. from the results of the t test, it was found that the value of tcount (x2) = 3, 596 with a value of ttable = 1.660 then the value of tcount (x3) is greater than the value of ttable (right side test). this means that the partial effect of profitability influence growth (x3) on the company's stock return in the property sector is positive and significant. so that the fourth hypothesis (h4) is supported. model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression residual 3.238 3 1.079 11.770 .000a 24.849 271 .092 total 28.086 274 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 20 the results of testing the hypothesis of the effect of interest rates on stock returns in property sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange from 2011 to 2019 concluded that interest rates do not have a significant negative effect on stock returns of property sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange. the results of this study are in line with the results of research by ni kadeksuriyani et al (2018) which states that interest rates have no significant effect on stock returns but contradict the research results of putuwidya putra adnyana et al (2017) which states that interest rates have a significant negative effect on stock returns. in the author's opinion, high interest rates cause the price of raw materials to be expensive, the company will choose alternative financing that is cheaper and more efficient with a high selling price so that it will not affect the company's profitability on stock returns that will be received by investors. high interest rates do not affect investors in determining investment in property sector companies because investment decisions involve factors other than interest rates such as economic growth, fiscal and monetary policies to the psychology of investors themselves so that the existing theory is not always proven. the results of hypothesis testing the effect of gross domestic product (gdp) growth on stock returns in property sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange from 2011 to 2019 concluded that gross domestic product (gdp) growth has a positive and significant effect on stock returns in property sector companies that listed on the indonesia stock exchange. the results of this study are in line with the results of research by wiranata (2021) which states that gross domestic product (gdp) has a significant positive effect on stock returns. the results of this study indicate that the growth of gross domestic product (gdp) has a positive effect on stock returns, which means that if the growth of gross domestic product (gdp) increases, the stock return will also increase. in the author's opinion gross domestic product growth (gdp) is a measure of economic growth in a country, with an increase in gross domestic product (gdp) growth indicating an increase in the total production of goods and services of a country so that it will indirectly lead to an increase in the scale of the company's sales turnover. . increasing the scale of sales turnover will lead to an increase in company profits which will have an impact on rising stock prices so as to increase stock returns. on the other hand, a decrease in gross domestic product (gdp) growth will cause a decrease in people's purchasing power in real terms. this means a decrease in the ability of the public to invest their funds in the stock market which results in a decrease in transactions in the stock market. the results of testing the hypothesis of the effect of profitability (roe) on stock returns in property sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange from 2011 to 2019 concluded that profitability (roe) has a positive and significant effect on stock returns in property sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange. the results of this study are in line with the research results of devi and artini (2019) which state that there is a significant positive relationship between roe and stock returns. the results of the study state that profitability (roe) has a positive and significant effect on stock returns, which means that if profitability (roe) increases, stock returns will also increase. in the author's opinion, the effect of the profitability (roe) variable on stock prices is because roe is an important ratio for owners and shareholders because this ratio shows the company's ability to manage capital from shareholders to earn net income. the higher the roe means the better the company's performance in managing its capital to generate profits for shareholders. it can be said that the company can use the capital from shareholders effectively and efficiently to earn a profit. the higher the roe means the better the company's performance in managing its capital to generate profits for shareholders. it can be said that the company can use the capital from shareholders effectively and efficiently to earn a profit. the higher the roe means the better the company's performance in managing its capital to generate profits for shareholders. it can be said that the company can use the capital from shareholders effectively and efficiently to earn a profit. conclusion based on the research results that have been described, it can be concluded that simultaneously interest rates, gross domestic product (gdp) and profitability have a significant effect on stock returns in property sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange. partially the interest rate has no significant effect on stock global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 21 returns. partially gross domestic product (gdp) growth has a positive and significant effect on stock returns. partially, profitability (roe) has a positive and significant effect on stock returns in 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banking sector on the indonesia stock exchange.scientific journal of management research, 9(25). international journal of management sciences and business research, mar-2022 issn (2226-8235) vol-11, issue 3 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 5; may-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 optimizing financial resources in public higher education institutions in vietnam: challenges and remedies 1nguyen thi hoang minh, 2tran van anh and 3le bao quoc article info abstract keywords: financial management, public universities, colleges, financial autonomy, revenue collection, asset management effective financial management is crucial for public non-business units such as universities and colleges in vietnam to fulfill their educational objectives. this study addresses the challenges faced by these institutions in managing their financial resources and proposes solutions to enhance their efficiency. public universities and colleges operate under a financial management mechanism that grants them autonomy within state-prescribed limits. the management of financial resources in these institutions revolves around harmonizing the interests of learners, the state, society, and the school itself. the study focuses on two key issues within financial management. first, the mobilization of financial resources necessitates accurate determination of financial autonomy goals and proper revenue source utilization. mismanagement of tuition fees and other revenue streams can lead to financial waste and misuse. second, the study delves into the inefficient management and utilization of assets, exacerbated by the perception of assets as "common property." budget constraints result in inadequate maintenance and repair, impacting asset efficiency. to address these challenges, the study proposes solutions such as transparent financial management mechanisms, effective revenue collection methods, improved financial planning and budgeting, and enhanced accountability and sanctions for financial violations. by implementing these solutions, public universities and colleges can optimize their financial resources, meet development objectives, and better serve learners, the state, and society. introduction financial resources are monetary resources or property values that entities can exploit and use to achieve certain purposes. in vietnam, financial management in public non-business units, including public universities and colleges, still faces many challenges that have not met the development goals. the financial management mechanism for these units is understood as a mechanism whereby public administrative units are empowered to decide and be responsible for their own revenues and expenditures, but not exceeding the frame rate prescribed 1university of economics and business vietnam national university, hanoi 2university of economics and business vietnam national university, hanoi 3university of economics and business vietnam national university, hanoi https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 2 by the state. public universities and colleges in vietnam are non-business units with income operating in the field of education and training. they are level 3 estimating units, receiving state budget benefits through a level 1 estimating unit. quality colleges are responsible for managing the process of mobilizing, distributing, and using financial resources through planning, organizing the implementation of the plan, and checking and controlling the financial activities of the school according to the management mechanism of the state to ensure funding for the implementation of activities. the management of financial resources in quality colleges has the following main characteristics: firstly, the management of financial resources of a quality college is not for the sake of profit but towards the main goal of harmonizing the interests of learners, the interests of the state, the society, and the overall interests of the school. secondly, the funding source for the operation of a quality college depends on the quality of the output products as students are evaluated on such aspects as the brand of the school, training program, and quality of training. thirdly, financial resource management in quality colleges is decentralized. while quality colleges in vietnam have been granted financial autonomy by the state, there are still several issues that need to be addressed to improve the efficiency of financial management in these institutions. this study aims to provide perspectives and solutions to help improve financial management at public non-business units, particularly at public universities and colleges in vietnam. one of the key issues in financial management is the mobilization of financial resources. quality colleges need to accurately determine the goals of financial autonomy and properly mobilize revenue sources to make the most of their financial resources. however, many quality colleges collect excess fees, wrongly collect regulations, and collect unregulated revenues, which results in financial waste and misuse of funds. therefore, there is a need for proper regulation and assessment of tuition fees and other revenue sources to ensure that financial resources are used effectively. another issue in financial management is the inefficient management and use of assets. many departments and individuals still consider property as "common property," which leads to waste and loss of property. poor physical infrastructure due to budget constraints also increases maintenance and repair costs and reduces the efficiency of asset use. furthermore, the lack of sanctions for handling and attaching accountability to schools and functional agencies has resulted in inaccurate estimates and inconsistent budget preparation. to address these issues, this study proposes several solutions, including the establishment of a transparent and effective financial management mechanism, the development of effective revenue collection methods, the improvement of financial planning and budgeting, and the promotion of accountability and sanctions for financial violations. these solutions aim to help quality colleges in vietnam manage their financial resources more efficiently, achieve their development goals, and better serve the needs of learners, the state, and society as a whole. viewpoints and principles for financial management of the north region public colleges about the point of view firstly, educational development is the "top national policy" and "investment in education is investment in development", therefore, perfecting the financial management of public colleges in the north must ensure the leadership of the party, the management of the state, the responsibility of the head and the supervisory role of the people and society, in order to promote the realization of social progress and justice. second, as an inevitable and objective trend, the improvement of financial management for public colleges in the north must (i) be associated with the process of perfecting the public financial management mechanism. of vietnam in general, and (ii) in line with the socialist-oriented market economy, international integration and the trend of the fourth industrial revolution. third, ensure to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the state's management; promoting decentralization, assigning autonomy and self-responsibility to public colleges in the north (in terms of task performance, organizational structure, human resources and finance), in association with strengthening capacity of internal governance and state inspection, supervision of the people and society (in other words, ensuring autonomy, strengthening social responsibility, transparency of public colleges) establishing the northern region), in which the right to autonomy and self-responsibility for finance must be fully accounted for. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 3 fourth, consistently promote the socialization of training and scientific research services on the basis of appropriate application of market economic relations, ensuring effective promotion of the core role of public colleges. (including the northern regional public colleges); develop the market for training and scientific research services, and consider this an important breakthrough to promote socialization and attract investment resources to develop public colleges in the north. in principle firstly, timely arouse and mobilize financial resources in the society (including resources from the state budget and outside the state budget), ensuring to meet the investment needs for development of the national education system in general and other sectors. public colleges in the north in particular are strictly in accordance with the objectives, requirements and orientations of the state in each period. second, regulate the relationship with public colleges in the north through financial relationships, thereby creating a favorable environment to accelerate the implementation process and expand the autonomy of universities. in all aspects (financial; academic; organization, management, human resources; enrollment and training; scientific research; international cooperation). third, create a legal corridor to inspect and supervise the financial activities of public colleges in the northern region, ensuring compliance and efficiency in the management and use of public financial resources, making an important contribution to maintaining and improving the operational efficiency of the state apparatus. timely handling and adjusting for mistakes and inadequacies in financial management of schools (if any). fourth, encourage and promote the autonomy and self-responsibility of public colleges in the northern region in creating, distributing and using economically and efficiently invested financial resources. directly from the state budget and from outside the state budget in a sustainable way. high autonomy will also help universities to move (allocate) resources flexibly between faculties, disciplines, majors, training programs, scientific research, consulting services..., to quickly adapt to the changing environment. changing needs of learners and society, thereby improving the competitiveness of public colleges in the north. fifth, ensure financial resources to improve the quality of training and scientific research of public colleges in the north through reforming training programs, improving the quality of lecturers, strengthening facilities, invest in a diverse and rich system of learning materials to meet the needs of specialized/in-depth training and scientific research, strongly apply it in management activities, and expand international cooperation relations. sixth, improve the compliance, publicity and transparency of the northern public colleges in the observance of the state's public financial management regimes and policies, as well as accountability for the public sector. with society (internal governance capacity). 1. solutions for financial management of public colleges in the north area 1.1. group of solutions on management of mobilizing financial resources first, persevere and continue to accelerate the process of renovating the financial management mechanism for public colleges in the north. facing the increasing demand of society for basic and essential public non-business services, especially education and training, while the condition of resources from the state budget is limited, it has set an urgent need to continue to persevere and further accelerate the process of reforming the financial management mechanism for public colleges in order to: on the one hand improve the quality and efficiency of using state budget resources; on the other hand, making the most of society's resources to jointly promote the development of education and training is an inevitable trend in the current context of our country. in addition, the development of this non-business sector must be carried out in close relationship with other socio-economic reforms, such as: development of economic sectors; market development; international economic integration; strengthening democracy; promote people's participation; protecting the ecological environment,... aiming to accelerate the comprehensive and sustainable development of the country. on that basis, the development trend of the public career sector in general and public colleges in particular must really become a strong reform, ensuring conformity with the market economy institution, associated with the process of transforming the role and functions of the state in ensuring the provision of public non-business services, ensuring the autonomy and self-responsibility for public nonglobal research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 4 business units. and therefore, it is necessary to continue to accelerate and accelerate the process of giving autonomy and self-responsibility to public service providers in general and public colleges in the northern region in particular, in association with the needs of the public. social demand and according to the state mechanism of ordering and assigning tasks. to implement this solution, first of all, it is necessary to study and concretize the application of the method of making and allocating budget estimates according to output results, associated with the results and effectiveness of training, scientific research, etc. school. this is essentially the transformation of the state budget allocation mechanism from the state budget to the state-order mechanism, assigning tasks, associated with the quantity and quality of services, or shifting the mechanism of direct funding for schools to the state budget. direct support to beneficiaries. establish and apply a mechanism to purchase training and scientific research services from public colleges in the north, and gradually transform schools into an autonomous enterprise model, providing services under purchase/purchase contracts. sold (full cost accounting). promote the implementation of the mechanism of bidding to provide services from schools, to ensure effective use of existing resources, and at the same time enhance competitiveness, thereby continuously improving service quality, especially are basic and essential services such as education and training. investment from the state budget for public colleges in the north should continue to be increased on the basis of suitability with the state budget's capacity, and the restructuring of state budget expenditure in the field of education and training should be implemented. , in which the state budget should prioritize investment/support for schools with low income, which cannot guarantee to cover operating costs. at the same time, the state also needs to pay more attention to social policy beneficiaries, the poor through the implementation of direct financial support, so that they have the opportunity to participate in public services. from the market, gradually limiting the exemption or reduction of contribution obligations through public non-business units, especially services with high socialization capacity such as higher education. at the same time, continue to perfect the system of budget allocation norms and state budget expenditure norms, regimes and standards applied to public colleges on the basis of: limiting the number of hard norms/applying uniformly throughout the country, increase the number of normative frameworks and ceiling norms for ministries, branches and schools to apply to suit the actual situation and budgetary capacity of the ministries and branches (the governing body). ); ensure conformity with the method of making and allocating estimates according to output results and medium-term spending plans of the sector or field. second, the governing body needs to create an environment/encourage schools to provide adequate information on their school's income (including setting aside funds), to avoid creating a situation where schools have high incomes (especially when this source of income is obtained from the thrift implementation of expenditures for urban activities) and receives low-level state budget funding, this paradox should be overcome (especially when appraising, classifying or assessing the degree of financial autonomy). main of schools). accordingly, schools must have enough grounds to believe that a high or low income does not affect the state budget allocated to the school. therefore, the state budget allocation in the immediate period needs to continue to combine effectively the allocation according to the estimates (autonomy plan, norm standards...), with the signing of contracts with schools according to the application. order through bidding, competition, but first of all, scientific research tasks; training and fostering staff according to schemes and projects; training lao students;... third, continue to strengthen and improve trust between businesses and schools through improving the quality of teaching, scientific research and in-depth consulting services on the strengths of each school, industry, and major. train. accordingly, schools should soon study and establish a pr department public relations (a "soft" department with the participation of representatives of departments/departments/faculties under the direct direction of school leaders, or additional tasks for a specific unit of the university such as: international cooperation department/department; scientific management department/department ...) to act as the focal point to mobilize organizations and individuals to finance the implementation of the projects. scientific research topic has been appraised by the scientific council, submitted to the school leadership for approval, and included in the list of sponsors. in general, businesses do not believe in the ability to solve practical problems. this is partly due to the weakness of the general research and consulting capacity of the universities. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 5 besides organizing communication channels where the pr department plays an essential role, lecturers and professors of public colleges in the north need to be more proactive in communicating with businesses, create personal communication channels, create trust between specific people and specific jobs. for example, most of the world's leading conferences or journals place great importance on solutions to real-world problems, with factual data. studies with real data are often rated very high compared to studies that use “synthesized” or selfgenerated data. therefore, the motivation of lecturers and researchers is to find real problems with real data, while the motivation of businesses is to have a specific problem solved. and such a collaborative research program can start with a few students doing internships at businesses. this suggests that schools need to pay attention to the initiative of both students and instructors so that this student develops confidence, proving to businesses that a research project will have a direct impact to the profit of the company/enterprise. trust built through specific people, with specific jobs, will be able to develop sustainably. by doing this, universities will be more creative in designing operating models, building training programs closer to the community, creating research products more suitable for their business environment, operate like a business. fourth, actively participate and effectively participate in scientific research programs, projects and topics... from domestic and foreign funding and aid sources, thereby constantly improving the teaching staff's qualifications. members, as well as contribute to increasing revenue and affirming the university's research brand, which is first of all/and in current practice to strengthen the effective exploitation of revenue from scientific research activities through real contracts. carrying out the task of researching ministerial-level scientific topics of the governing ministry, with the managing agency of the task being the institute of strategy and financial policy. fifth, complete the set of regulations on revenue management. regulations on revenue management need to be implemented on the principle of transparency, on the basis of making the most of the school's existing resources and conditions and joint ventures and associations. diversifying resources, channels and methods of mobilization, especially focusing on mobilizing financial resources from training and scientific research activities, to offset the decrease in revenue from the state budget. in order to achieve this goal, in the coming time, public colleges in the north must pay attention to implementing: (i) orientation to focus on expanding enrollment of graduate students, high-quality classes, and related courses. international training links; (ii) expand and improve the quality of training and scientific research services; (iii) diversifying services, consulting, training support... to increase revenue; (iv) strengthen the mobilization of financial resources from foreign investment. sixth, actively develop projects on exploitation and use of existing assets from funds and mobilized sources for approval or submit to competent authorities for approval as a basis for organizing implementation according to regulations. approving the recommendation of synchronously implementing solutions to improve the management of mobilization of financial resources mentioned above, combined with the allocation, rational and effective use of available funds as presented at point 2. 3.3.2 below, the author believes that in the period of 2018-2020, the level of self-sufficiency in recurrent expenditures of public colleges in the north (besides the university of finance marketing has self-financed regular expenses. and investment spending) will be achieved at: academy of finance 97%; university of finance business administration 63%; university of finance accounting 63%, and it is expected that by 2025, it will reach the level: the academy of finance covers all recurrent expenses by itself (and initially accumulates to support investment spending); university of finance business administration 75%; university of finance accounting 70%. 1.2. group of solutions on management of allocation and use of financial resources firstly, the annual and medium-term (03-05 years) annual and medium-term financial state budget planning of public colleges in the northern region should be used as an important management tool, in order to coordinate, control and evaluate, analyze the current situation, as well as make appropriate and feasible plans in the next period. the development of a medium-term plan is an indispensable requirement for schools, and is considered as one of the ways to systematize the development of schools, which sets out financial and expenditure sources, costs. investment plan forecast. the preparation of a budget represents the optimal allocation to the objectives, presented through performance indicators, by emphasizing the relationship between resources and the intended results achieved and different solutions, there needs to be a clear framework for thinking systematically about resource management. and to achieve the above requirements, strengthening the entire machine, strengthening global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 6 the capacity of staff working in planning, finance and accounting work of the schools, increasing training and retraining to improve the qualifications of the staff. planning, finance and accounting is an important factor determining the effective implementation of the management and use of financial resources in public colleges in the north. second, reforming the method of allocating funds to increase the efficiency of management and use of funds through the restructuring of tx expenditures (personal payment and administrative management, spending on quality assurance elements), in order for finance to perform well the function of director (monitoring management activities) in the direction of: allocating and assigning estimates is the budget settlement step 1, and the adjustment of the annual estimate is the step 2 budget settlement; at the same time, adjust regulations on adjusting annual state budget revenue and expenditure estimates as currently (twice a year in june and october), down to one time in september every year in order to: ( i) place requirements and require step-by-step improvement in the quality of estimation work; (ii) ensure compliance with actual implementation (because: the adjustment of the estimate at the time of june every year is not really necessary, because of the reality of the state budget revenue and expenditure estimates of the schools at that time. this point has not had much change compared to the estimate assigned at the beginning of the year; the adjustment in october has put pressure on the units about the progress because they have to complete the appraisal, submit for approval for adjustment and check, approve the estimate in tabmis before november 15 according to the provisions of the state budget law). regularly review and adjust the structure between expenditure items in the tx expenditure, because this is the expenditure that still accounts for the largest proportion at public colleges, and also the most easily lead to negative expenditure. therefore, the urban expenditure structure of public colleges in the north in the coming time needs to be reviewed and arranged in the following direction: + gradually reduce the proportion of individual payment group in total urban spending to about 40% by 2020 (average in 2018 is 51.6%), and about 35% by 2025. + gradually reduce the proportion of other expenditure groups in the total urban expenditure to about 8% by 2020 (average in 2018 is 11.5%), and less than 5% by 2025. + maintain the proportion of administrative expenditure group (including asset repair and professional expenses) in total urban expenditure at 25-30% in the period of 2020-2025 (average of 2013 period). -2018 is 27.2%). + gradually increase the proportion of expenditure on renovation and repair of collaterals serving teaching, learning and scientific research activities of the school at 15-20% in the period of 2020-2025 (average of the period 2013-2018 is 15-20%). 10.2%). third, remove unnecessary controls in the spending of public colleges in the north, which is a compact form of contracting, creating a flexible and flexible mechanism for schools (setting up, allocating, assign cost estimates according to standards and norms; expenditures are decided by the unit to ensure publicity, transparency, and enhanced accountability). fourth, develop and complete a number of contracting policies and assign financial autonomy to large-scale northern regional public colleges (academy of finance, university of finance marketing). accordingly, it is necessary to study the financial decentralization of faculties as soon as possible based on the number of students and trainees of each faculty. on that basis, faculties are able to spend independently and be responsible for their own expenses according to the financial plan approved by the university leadership, thereby promoting the faculty to actively perform its responsibilities. assigned services and raise awareness of saving, managing and using assets and equipment effectively. along with that, the school needs to strengthen and perfect the regulations on financial accountability among all levels in the school, organize internal control activities and financial disclosure. this is an important basis to ensure improved efficiency, as well as transparency in the financial management of the school. fifth, perfecting the regulation on internal expenditure of public colleges in the north to suit the new operating mechanism, associated with the medium and long-term financial plan of the school, ensuring the ability to selfexamine the factors affecting the costs of the schools themselves, as well as the ability to reallocate revenue sources within the school, avoiding the construction of subjective regulations, leading to many practical problems. content spending is done according to the "reverse process", in which: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 7 it should be implemented on the principle of payment according to capacity and work efficiency to encourage and motivate officials and employees. centralize input control through mandatory spending items and norms. knowing how to effectively apply and use autonomy in decisions about expenditure levels, spending contents, budget allocation, management and use of school assets, will increase non-business revenues and expenditures. tx fees are used more economically (this is the goal of financial management in our country's public colleges today). to handle financial results, it is necessary to calculate the balance between additional expenditures on additional income and reinvestment in development of non-business activities through the non-business development fund; at the same time, it is also necessary to have a plan to mobilize and use this fund in the medium and long term in association with the goals and orientation of strengthening the school's facilities in each specific period. references anand rajaram, le minh tuan, kai kaiser, jay-hyung kim, and jonas frank (2014), the power of public investment management: transforming resources into assets for growth (the power of public investment management) : transforming resources into assets for growth), world bank, washington dc, usa. anand rajaram, le tuan minh, nataliya biletska and jim brumby (2010), a diagnostic framework for evaluating public investment management, world bank, washington, washington dc, usa. the central executive committee (2018), decision 145-qd/tw, dated 8/8/2018 of the politburo, chemistry xii on the functions, tasks, powers, organizational apparatus of the ho chi minh national people's congress minh, hanoi. bi as c. sanyal, micheala martin and susan d'antoni (translated by nguyen tri hung) (2013), management of lower secondary education volume 10, unesco/international institute for educational planning-paris publishing house, ho chi minh city national university, ho chi minh city. ministry of education and training (2008), developing a project on renovating the financial mechanism of education and training for the period 2008 2012, hanoi. ministry of finance (2003), circular no. 59/2003/tt-btc dated june 23, 2003 guiding the implementation of decree no. 60/2003/nd-cp dated june 6, 2003 of the government stipulating detailed guidance on the implementation of the state budget law, hanoi. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 7; july-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 12 knowledge empowerment through virtual learning: addressing premarital sex awareness among adolescents 1pratama widya putri and 2rahman akbar faridah article info abstract keywords: adolescent behavior, premarital sex, virtual education, reproductive health, sexual knowledge. the escalating prevalence of premarital sexual behavior among adolescents raises serious concerns necessitating effective interventions. this study examines the impact of virtual education on adolescent students' awareness of the risks associated with premarital sex and evaluates the efficacy of such education in enhancing comprehension of reproductive health issues. adolescents, being both potential sexual actors and victims of insufficient knowledge, require comprehensive guidance to avert dire consequences. the rise in premarital sexual activity is attributed to factors like peer associations, parental relationships, religious influences, and societal norms. the study aims to bridge the knowledge gap by delivering targeted virtual education, addressing the dearth of information on the psychological and physiological implications of sexual behavior. this research endeavors to mitigate the prevalence of premarital sexual behavior, minimizing undesirable outcomes such as sexually transmitted infections, unsafe abortions, and unwanted pregnancies. by assessing the effectiveness of virtual education in bolstering adolescents' understanding, this investigation contributes to designing tailored educational initiatives that can be incorporated into school curricula. ultimately, this approach endeavors to instill healthier sexual behaviors and foster better reproductive health outcomes. as virtual education emerges as a pivotal tool, its potential to reshape adolescents' attitudes towards premarital sex and reproductive health underscores its significance in shaping a more informed and responsible youth population. introduction. 1master public health faculty of medical, universitas prima indonesia 2 medan, north sumatera, indonesia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 13 adolescents are a significant population group, considered as productive human resources, and are vulnerable to risky behavior, according to the united nations (un) (andriyani and andriyani, 2018). one of the most concerning behaviors among adolescents is premarital sexual activity, which has been on the rise in recent years. sexual behavior arises from hormonal reactions and sexual organ maturation or the desire for sexual pleasure, starting from fantasizing to sexual intercourse (widiyanto, 2016). data from various studies shows that the prevalence of premarital sexual activity among adolescents is increasing globally. according to the center for disease control, 40% of adolescents in the united states have had premarital sex, and 10% have had more than four sexual partners (cdc, 2017). the global school health survey in 2015 indicated that 0.7% of girls and 4.5% of boys in indonesia had premarital sexual intercourse (kemenkes ri, 2019). the indonesian demographic and health survey in 2017 reported that 2% of female adolescents and 8% of male adolescents aged 15-24 years had sexual intercourse before marriage, with 11% experiencing unwanted pregnancies (azizah, 2018). moreover, based on data from the north sumatra provincial health office, there were 2,903 hiv cases and 4,306 aids cases in the 20 to 29-year age group, indicating early infection during adolescence (leandha, 2016). the impact of premarital sexual activity on adolescents is grave and includes unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortion practices, and sexually transmitted infections. each year, approximately 15 million adolescents aged 1519 give birth, 4 million have abortions, and almost 100 million contract sexually transmitted infections globally (purwoastuti and walyani, 2015). in indonesia, where sex is still considered taboo, abortions remain high, with an estimated 2.3 to 2.6 million people undergoing the procedure annually, and 30% of them are teenagers (purwoastuti and walyani, 2015). therefore, the dissemination of information about the dangers of premarital sexual behavior for adolescent reproductive health is crucial. many factors contribute to premarital sexual activity among adolescents, including the relationship between parents and adolescents, association with peers, religion, exposure to pornographic media, and values and norms in society (soetjiningsih, 2012). sex education is a crucial approach to providing knowledge about biological, psychological, and psychosocial changes resulting from human growth and development, as well as instilling morals, ethics, and commitment to prevent abuse of reproductive organs. reproductive health education can be seen as an attempt to provide knowledge about the function of sex, and hence, can also be called family life education (surtiretna, 2006). providing adolescents with information about sexual problems is critical, considering their active sexual potential, hormone-influenced sex drives, and insufficient knowledge about sexual activity (handbook of adolescent psychology, 1980). lack of proper knowledge and information on the impact of sexual behavior on mental and physical health can have severe consequences for adolescents, making it essential to educate them on the dangers of premarital sexual behavior (mu'tadin, 2013). in conclusion, the increasing prevalence of premarital sexual behavior among adolescents is a significant concern that needs to be addressed through effective education and dissemination of information. this study aims to analyze the impact of virtual education on adolescent students' knowledge levels regarding the dangers of premarital sex and to assess the effectiveness of virtual education in improving adolescent students' understanding of reproductive health issues. the findings of this study can provide insights for the development of targeted educational programs that can be included in school curricula to promote healthy sexual behavior and prevent the risks associated with premarital sex, such as unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortions, and sexually transmitted infections. by addressing the knowledge gap among adolescents through effective virtual education, this study can contribute to reducing the prevalence of premarital sexual behavior among adolescents and promote better reproductive health outcomes. literature review. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 14 2.1. definition of premarital sex free sex is sexual intercourse carried out by a man and a woman without a marriage bond. the phenomenon of promiscuity, especially related to the term pre-marital intercourse (premarital sex) is usually something that is very common, occurring in the midst of the construction of indonesian society. free sex behavior tends to be liked by young people, especially teenagers who are bio-psychologically growing towards the maturation process (desmita, 2012). 2.2. dangers of premarital sex the impact or danger of free sex, especially in adolescents, can be divided into physical hazards that can occur, namely being exposed to venereal diseases (sexually transmitted diseases/stds) and hiv/aids as well as the dangers of unwanted early pregnancy (depkes ri, 2012). according to wahyuningsih (2008), every action must have a reward, as well as every behavior there must be consequences and consequences arising from premarital sexual behavior, namely: 1. forcing the student out of school/campus, while mentally they are not ready to be burdened with this problem. 2. the possibility of irresponsible and dangerous abortions, because they feel panicked, confused in facing the risks of pregnancy and finally take the path of abortion. 3. experiences of sexuality too early often have consequences in adulthood. someone who often has premarital sex will often feel that sex is not something sacred anymore so that he will no longer be able to enjoy sexual intercourse as a sacred relationship but will feel that sex is only a tool to satisfy his lust. 4. having sex before marriage and changing partners often results in terrible consequences for the perpetrator, such as contracting various venereal diseases from mild to severe. similarly, sarwono (2009) suggests that premarital sexual behavior can cause various negative impacts on adolescents, including: 1) psychological impact psychological impacts of premarital sexual behavior on adolescents include feelings of anger, fear, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, guilt and sin. 2) physiological impact the physiological impacts of premarital sexual behavior include unwanted pregnancies and abortions. 3) social impact social impacts arising from sexual behavior carried out prematurely include being ostracized, dropping out of school for pregnant adolescent girls and changing the role of motherhood. not to mention the pressure from the community who criticizes and rejects the situation 4) physical impact another physical impact is the development of sexually transmitted diseases among adolescents, with the highest frequency of sexually transmitted diseases (stds) between the ages of 15-24 years. sexually transmitted infections can cause infertility and chronic pain and increase the risk of stds and hiv/aids. free sex is often associated with sexual behavior with a high risk of sexually transmitted infections (stis). stis are transmitted from one person to another through sexual activity, whether vaginal, oral, or anal. 2.3 aspects of sexual behavior jerslid (2005) (in jempormasse, 2015) suggests that aspects of sexual behavior are: 1. biological aspects this aspect includes physiological responses to sexual stimuli, reproduction, puberty, physical changes, and growth and development in general. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 15 2. psychological aspects. sex is a learning process that occurs in individuals to express sexual urges through feelings, attitudes, and thoughts about sexuality. 3. social aspect this aspect includes dating culture, interpersonal relationships, and all things about sexrelated to individuals' habits in their environment. 4. moral aspects. included in this aspect is answering right or wrong, should or should not, and whether or not a person's behavior is allowed. 2.4 forms and stages of premarital sexual behavior according to sarwono (2011), the forms of premarital sexual behavior are: 1. hugging and holding hands hugging and holding hands is hugging each other or grabbing someone into the arms of two wrapped around them. the behavior of holding hands is only limited to when going out together, holding hands, before reaching a level that is more than holding hands such as kissing and so on: liking or love. 2. kissing kissing is an act of sticking lips to cheeks, neck, or lips to lips to sticking the tongue so that they can cause mutual sexual stimulation. 3. fingering breasts touching the breast is holding with the palm on the breast because you want to feel something. 4. fingering the genitals touching the genitals connects with the palms of the hands on the genital area because they want to feel something. 5. having sex having sex is sexual contact or having sexual intercourse, which means that there is already an activity of inserting the male genitalia into the female genitalia. furthermore, sarwono (2011) states that the forms of sexual behavior vary from feelings of interest, courtship, kissing then to intercourse. this stage of sexual behavior includes: 1. kissing a kiss is done to cause sexual stimulation, such as on the lips accompanied by palpation on sensitive parts that can cause sexual stimulation. kissing with closed lips is a shared kiss. kissing with the mouth and lips open and using the tongue is called a french kiss. sometimes this kiss is also called a deep kiss/soul kiss. 2. necking necking is a term used to describe a kiss around the neck and a deeper hug. 3. petting the behavior of rubbing sensitive body parts, such as the breasts and genital organs. it's a step deeper than necking. this includes feeling and caressing the partner's body, including the arms, chest, breasts, legs, and sometimes the pubic area, either inside or outside clothing. 4. intercross the union of two people sexually carried out by a male and female partner is characterized by erecting a male penis entering the vagina for sexual satisfaction. 2.5 factors affecting premarital sexual behavior global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 16 according to santrock (2011), premarital sexual behavior carried out by adolescents is influenced by the phase of its development, which begins with the maturation of the physical (sexual) organs and the tendency to explore their sexuality. according to sugiyanto (2013), several factors that influence free sex behavior are: 1. the pornography industry. the wide circulation of pornographic material has a significant influence on the formation of student sexual behavior patterns. 2. individual knowledge about reproductive health. a lot of information about reproductive health is inaccurate to impact unhealthy and harmful sexual behavior patterns. 3. childhood experiences. the study results indicate that individuals who experienced terrible experiences during childhood will be trapped into sexual activity at a very young age and tend to have multiple sexual partners. 4. religious formation. students who have a wonderful religious life are more able to say 'no' to the temptation of free sex than those who ignore spiritual life. meanwhile, pratiwi (2004) says that several factors, namely cause premarital sexual behavior: 1. biological, namely, biological changes that occur during puberty and hormonal activation that can lead to sexual behavior. 2. parental influence lack of open communication between parents and adolescents on sexual issues can strengthen sexual behavior deviations. 3. peer influence the influence of peers makes adolescents tend to use peer norms compared to existing social models. 4. academic adolescents with low achievement and aspirations tend to exhibit sexual behavior more often than adolescents with good performance in school. 5. understanding understanding social life will make teenagers able to make decisions that will provide a sense of sexual behavior. adolescents can make the right decisions. based on the values they hold will display healthy sexual behavior. 6. sexual experience the more teenagers hear, see and experience sexual intercourse, the stronger the stimulus that drives the sexual behavior. 7. experience and appreciation of religious values adolescents who have a strong appreciation of religious values and good integrity also tend to display sexuality by the values they believe in, seeking satisfaction from productive behavior. 8. personality factor personality factors such as self-esteem, self-control, and responsibility will make adolescents able to take and make decisions. 9. knowledge of reproductive health adolescents who have a correct and proportional understanding of reproductive health tend to understand sexual behavior and alternative ways that can be used to channel sexual urges healthily and responsibly. the same thing was also stated by sarwono (2011) that the factors that influence premarital sexual behavior are: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 17 1. increased sexual libido hormonal changes increase the sexual desire (libido sexuality) of adolescents. this increase in sexual desire requires channeling certain forms of sexual behavior. 2. delaying the age of marriage the distribution could not be carried out immediately because of the delay in the age of marriage, both legally because of the law on marriage, which stipulates the age limit for marriage (at least 16 years for women and 19 years for men) or because social norms are increasingly demanding more and more requirements. higher for the wedding (education, work, mental preparation, etc.). 3. taboo prohibition while the age of marriage is postponed, religious norms remain in effect whereby a person is prohibited from having sex before marriage. the prohibition extends further to other behaviors such as kissing and masturbation. for teenagers who cannot restrain themselves, there will be a tendency to violate these prohibitions. 4. lack of information about sex the tendency of violations is increasing due to the dissemination of information and sexual stimulation through mass media. the existence of advanced technology (videocassette, photocopy, satellite, vcd, mobile phone, internet, and others) becomes unstoppable. teenagers who are in a period of curiosity and want to try will imitate what they see or hear from the mass media, mainly because they generally have never fully learned about sexual problems from their parents. method research. the method used in this study is the pre-experimental method. sugiono (2010) suggests that the results of preexperimental research are the dependent variable, not solely influenced by the independent variable. this can happen because there is no control variable, and the sample is not chosen at random. research design is a design of how research is carried out. the research design used in this study was a one group pretest posttest design. in this design, before the education treatment is given a pretest (initial test) and at the end of the education a posttest is given (final test). this design is used in accordance with the objectives to be achieved, namely wanting to know the level of student knowledge after education on the dangers of premarital sex is applied. the following is a research design table for one group pretest posttest design. this study uses a test instrument in the form of multiple choice so that the validity test used is a biserial point correlation technique. sudijono (2004) suggests that the point biserial correlation technique is one of the bivariate correlational analysis techniques commonly used to find the correlation between two variables: variable i is in the form of a continuum variable (for example: test scores) while variable ii is in the form of a discrete variable. pure (eg right or wrong candidate answers the test items). this biserial point correlation analysis technique can also be used to test the validity of the items that have been proposed in the test, where the test scores for each item are correlated with the total test scores. the calculated r value is compared with the r value in the product moment table with a significant level of 5%. items are said to be valid if rcount > rtable. reliability refers to an understanding that an instrument is reliable enough to be used as a data collection tool because the instrument is already good. the value of r11 obtained is consulted with the value of r in the product moment table with a significant level of 5%. if rcount > rtable, then the test item being tested is reliable. analyzed and result. based on the results of data processing, it is known that in the initial test (pretest) before being given education on the dangers of free premarital sex virtually, it was known that students who had high knowledge were 16 respondents (48.5%) where the most students answered correctly when given questions about the faced by global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 18 adolescents in terms of sexual behavior, forms of free sex behavior, social impacts arising from having premarital sex and what is meant by free sex, while low knowledge was obtained by 19 respondents (51.5%) where students who answered incorrectly the most when asked about the physical impact on women if they had premarital sex, which caused teenagers to have premarital sex, what is meant by sexuality and the benefits that we can get by studying sex education while in the final test (posttest) after given education on the dangers of free premarital sex virtually there was an increase in students' knowledge of the questions asked so that 28 respondents (80%) high knowledge was obtained where the most students answered correctly when asked questions about how to avoid free sex behavior, the physical impact on women if they had sex. premarital sex, the problems faced by adolescents in terms of their sexual behavior, what is meant by free sex and what causes adolescents to have premarital sex while low knowledge is obtained by 7 respondents (20%) where the most students answered incorrectly when given an explanation. questions about what to do if you find out that there are friends who engage in free sex behavior is to provide an understanding of the physical and psychological impacts of free sex, dating by touching such as holding hands is free sex behavior and forms of behavior in free sex. furthermore, based on the results of statistical tests, it shows that there is a difference in the level of student knowledge before education about the dangers of premarital free sex is given with after being given education where there is an increase in students' knowledge after being given education. this proves that the education given to students about the dangers of premarital free sex provides positive influence on students. this proof can be seen from the significance value obtained showing the value of p < = 0.05. the results of this study are in accordance with the opinion of djamba (2013) which states that premarital sexual behavior is a sexual activity carried out by individuals with other people before marriage and the opinion of darmasih (2011) which states that the factor that influences premarital sexual behavior in adolescents is the level of knowledge. students who have good knowledge can understand sexual behavior well, while students who have poor knowledge levels also have poor understanding of sexual behavior. based on this it proves that a person's behavior can be influenced by the level of knowledge where the knowledge possessed can be obtained in various ways, including through education. therefore, the dissemination of information about the dangers of premarital sexual behavior for adolescent reproductive health is still very much needed through education. notoatmodjo (2016) explains that education or also called education is all planned efforts to influence other people, whether individuals, groups or communities so that they do what is expected by education actors. likewise, mubarak and chayatin (2009) state that education is also called education is a dynamic process of behavior change, where the change is not just a process of transferring material or theory from one person to another and is not a set of procedures. based on the description above, it can be concluded as stated by sumiati (2009) that "sex education can provide knowledge about sexual mistakes and deviations so that individuals can protect themselves and fight exploitation that can interfere with physical and mental health and can shape attitudes and provide an understanding of sex in all situations." various manifestations. sex education for students can be done in various ways, including through counseling or learning by providing education according to the information needs of students. this is supported by the opinion of notoatmodjo (2016) which states that increasing knowledge is not absolutely obtained in formal education, but can also be obtained in nonformal education such as attending counseling to get new information and with new information about something it provides a new cognitive foundation for students. knowledge about it. conclusion global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 19 based on the results of 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febuary-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 18 golden years on the pavement: examining the quality of life, lived experiences, and hurdles of senior street vendors 1maria consuelo santos hernandez article info abstract keywords: elderly contributions, pre-colonial traditions, street vendors, urban supply chains, societal development. this abstract provides a concise overview of the research's scope, methods, key findings, and implications. it focuses on the significance of the elderly's contributions during the pre-colonial period and the importance of street vendors in urban supply chains. the study emphasizes the valuable role of the elderly in passing down traditions and their impact on various institutions. additionally, it highlights the essential role of street vendors, market traders, and porters in providing goods and services within urban environments. the abstract concludes by underlining the significance of acknowledging the contributions of both the elderly and street vendors for societal development. introduction during the pre-colonial period, the elderly became a source of wisdom; the traditions they kept and passed them were then adopted by younger generations and treating them as a good example. that’s why their contributions to enhancing the country’s institutions, such as government, family, education, and religion, must and cannot be ignored (carlos, 2019). women informal employment globalizing and organizing (wiego, 2020) stated that street vendors are one of the most important when it comes to the street; market traders and market porters provide necessary goods and services, especially they give easy access if people want to buy something or people are in a hurry. those who sell food, both fresh food, and prepared food, are an essential part of urban supply chains. they can give a lower price when it comes to their product. furthermore, the philippines was identified as one of the countries with an aging population aged sixty and above. and senior citizens tend to have higher rates of various diseases concerning medical conditions and comorbidities, as well as mental health issues like alzheimer's and other psychological illnesses for the elderly. they are less active compared to younger age groups. however, the government has various legislations and is implementing various social protection programs for senior citizens who are still old citizen street vendors in rizal turned to plant sellers (andrade, 2020). when enhanced community quarantine (ecq) started in march, the senior citizens lost their income from selling pork barbeque and chicken in the street of tanay public market. also, they have issues with their mental health because of their age. after a long time, street vendors for the past 15 years now 1jesus is lord colleges foundation, inc. – philippines https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 19 turn to selling ornamental plants on the roadside to survive, and as a result, senior citizens suffer from anxiety and depression, and some lose hope to live. according to the statement of villar, serrat, and pratt (2021), research on later-life generativity has facilitated a new view of senior persons that, far from the traditional images of the disabled possibility of dependency and weakness, recognize their capacities and the opportunity to continue growing while underlining their participation and contributions to families, communities and society. also, it was stated that erikson's theory about stagnation vs. generativity was thought that the stage of generativity, during which one organized a family and career, was extended all the steps. moreover, this study explores the experiences and challenges senior citizens’ street vendors face. thus, it aims to enlighten the needs of the filipino senior citizen community amidst the different struggles in the country. also, evaluate their current psychological well-being. working, such as philhealth, retirement benefits, and pensions through sss and gsis for senior citizens (reyes et al., 2019). thus, to survive the pandemic research questions this study will explore the lived experiences and challenges senior citizen street vendors face. this study sought to provide answers to the following questions: 1. what are the lived experiences of senior citizen street vendors? 2. what are the challenges faced by senior citizen street vendors? 3. what are the coping mechanisms of senior citizen street vendors? methodology this study employed heideggerian phenomenology to explore the participant's lived experiences. participants of the study this study comprised twenty (20) senior citizen vendors as its participants. thus, the participant in this study is a current resident of bulacan, philippines. instrument of the study the researchers utilized a structured interview guide that was planned to bring out the senior citizen street vendors' lived experiences and challenges during the covid-19 pandemic, and a panel of professionals validated it’s following validation, the interview was designed into three factors of the participants' lives that are attached in the following: (1) lived experiences as senior citizen street vendors; (2) challenges faced as senior citizen street vendors; and (3) coping strategies of senior citizen street vendors. data collection process in some situations, building an emotional connection between the researchers and the participants is necessary. in the middle of the covid-19 pandemic, rapport-building may be difficult. on the other hand, it was specified by developing a feeling of combined dependence among participants and providing support about their situations, terminology, and aesthetic settings. participants were presented with a consent form to ensure obedience to legal requirements. each participant got the interview forms copy, along with a consent form explaining the process and asking for permission to record and transcribe the full interview. it was decided that the interview guide would consist of fifteen (15) questions that may run up to thirty(30) minutes. the participants were instructed to voice any clarifications, problems, or confusing questions after the opening situations of the meeting as a result of any technical breaks that may occur. following a hard copy of the structured interview and extensive transcription, the analysis was conducted to make sense of the information acquired. the interview transcription contains the precise verbatim responses of each participant to any uncertainty about the data collection's contents. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 20 ethical considerations legal considerations have been made for every step in numerous investigations and research. one of the most crucial components of research ethics is informed participation. rules mandating informed consent have been issued to safeguard the human subjects participating in research. notifying potential research participants of the significant components of a study and what is included allows them to choose if they would like to participate. the participants must not be affected in any way by the interview procedure, whether on purpose or incidentally (gupta, 2013). the participants also have the option to withdraw from participating if any unexpected event may require them to do so. in compliance with the data privacy act of 2012 (dpa), officially known as republic act no. 10173, this study intends to safeguard participants' private and public information. input from participants will remain confidential and will not be used for other purposes outside the study. data analysis procedure this study utilized the interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa), developed on the modified van kaam technique made well-known by moustakas. this type of analysis is also suitable, especially in a study wherein the researchers examine detailed responses from the participants, including their lived experiences, challenges, and coping mechanisms. the transcripts of the interview, which contain participants' actual words or verbatim, will be carefully reviewed and analyzed. furthermore, data saturation will be met when no new information is found through data analysis; when that happens, it alerts researchers that they may need to stop collecting data (hancock et al., 2016). results and discussion this section presents the analysis of data gathered after following an intricate procedure. the following themes were identified in this research based on the data collected. it needs to expose the three pieces: (1) golden years, (2) socially connected, and (3) unknown journey. golden years no words can describe that selling in the streets was physically, mentally, and emotionally exhausting, mainly when none of the merchandise was sold. participants said that trading on the roads is only one of the ways for them and their families to survive daily—a strong body and resourcefulness to obtain the strength that can be used in their situation. avoiding having a good result from the hardships you are going through is never possible. according to the participants, despite their old age, they still have strong and healthy bodies. according to sepadi and nkosi (2022), the workplace of senior street vendors was exposed to many risks that may affect their health and well-being. non-enclosed stalls and frequent use of open fires were among the risk concerns. street vendors are vulnerable to gastrointestinal diseases and respiratory infections such as influenza and covid-19 due to a lack of water access, waste disposal facilities, and essential hygiene awareness and practices. because of open areas, senior vendors have an exposure to air pollutants, which increases the risk of respiratory and the lack of clean restrooms may cause urinary illnesses, which will result in a significant impact on reproductive health, especially of the female street vendors. the consciousness of lifestyle. the interviewer asked about how participants maintain their health as senior citizens, especially their selling on the street. most participants had the same answers as participant 11. she said she only eats vegetables and doesn't like to eat fatty foods. "umiiwas ako sa mga mamantikang pagkain tsaka noon pa man anak, gulay lang talaga ako mahilig. " many senior citizens struggling with poverty, also less economically active as a sector, and need more excellent health services and social pensions; however, a 68-year-old semi-retired nursing professor from global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 21 auburn, georgia, answered to the news that “i sound like one of those crazy miracle stories, but i was diagnosed with fibromyalgia for about 20 years, and i had much chronic pain, about six months into being vegan, i realized i no longer had pain.” once said being vegan diet had a positive impact on her health. that's why senior citizens decided to be vegan, due to the news article (grady journal, 2019). they were trained throughout their lifespan. the interviewer asked the participants about their health. most of the participants gave the same answers as participant 7. she said she felt no pain even though she was a vendor. "sa awa ng poong maykapal anak, wala. dahil bata palang batak na ako sa pagtatrabaho." according to articles on assisting hands (2021), senior citizens are indeed aging; seniors are adapting to changes and circumstances and want to continue contributing to society as a whole. moreover, the elders want to be an essential part of the communities they live in through the work and strength they have. some research evidence shows that many seniors remain productive and creative well into their golden years. vitality in the older population is inherent in them remaining valued members of their families, communities, households, and workplaces, especially on the streets. socially connected social connection for seniors is critical, as it plays a vital role in their physical, mental, and emotional health. senior citizens, especially street vendors, have a solid social network, and hey also have a better way of life (nursing home abuse center, 2021). psychological aspect. the interviewer asked the participants about the things that make them happy while selling if they have friends in their store, and how they help them with their problems while selling products in the streets. most of the participants gave the same answers as participant 2. she described that; "nako oo, marami! nalilibang ako, nawawala ang stress ko sa pagtitinda ko kase marami ako dito na nakaka kwentuhan tsaka kahit maghapon na nakaupo dito hindi ka nabuburyo, di tulad sa bahay malungkot." lack of human connection and loneliness shows in many research. it can be more harmful to one's health than obesity, high blood pressure, and smoking. moreover, in this era, humans live busy lives striving to maintain a balance at work, school, self-care, house chores, and family connections. the result of research revealed that social connection could lower depression and anxiety, especially for senior citizens; it regulates and helps to regulate the emotions of older adults; this kind of connection can higher self-esteem and empathy and, lastly, can improve the immune system of individuals (canadian mental health association, 2019). experiences in life while selling. when the interviewer asked the participants about their situation and asked if they had encountered any abuse from other people and what their expertise faced, some of them had the same answers as participant 14: "meron akong na experience na pinasok ang tinutulugan ko kasi nakatulog ako lahat ng i'd na importante natangay kase nasa bag yon pero buti lahat ng pera hindi nasama kase yung iba naipit ko sa ilalim ng hinahangaan ko nung oras nayon." according to garder and garger (2020), a 72-year-old street seller in harlem passed away tuesday night after confronting a suspect who had stolen a hat from his stall. near the street elderly victim was knocked to the ground amid a struggle with the robber, according to sources. the victim again fell to the ground shortly after wrestling with the attacker, and onlookers reportedly dialed 911. moreover, the police arrived at the exact time. and discovered the man on the street. authorities said that emergency medical services transported the man to harlem hospital and he was declared dead. the city medical examiner's office will determine the man's cause of death. also, authorities said the thief escaped and was still at large tuesday night. unknown journey global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 22 according to an article from emoha blogs (2020), many seniors undergo trial and error after retiring in quest of new meaning and purpose. this is a regular procedure that is essential for enjoyment in later life. it is possible to achieve this new way of living a fulfilling life through several activities, projects, and objectives, all of which have relative and individualized meanings and purposes. there are options available to any senior looking for meaning and purpose, even while what works for some seniors may only work for some. covid-19 is real! the interviewer asked the participants about their situation during a pandemic and how to find money to provide for their necessities during the lockdown. some of them have the same answers as participant 12: "wala, umaasa kami sa bigay lang ng mga anak namin. simula mag pandemic. kung ano ang inaabot nila yun lang." changes in everyday life were changed. with the covid-19 epidemic still in its early stages, this research offers new qualitative evidence on the coping mechanisms of senior citizens. the results can guide community and clinical interventions for older adults that use healthy coping tools like physical activity, routine modifications, and social support to enhance physical and mental health, promote social support and promote meaningful daily activities during stressful or traumatic times (finlay et al., 2021). conclusion based on the research findings, the following conclusion was discussed: these senior citizen street vendors still struggle with financial issues. the changes in their behaviors and the actions of senior citizens result in working on the street for the needs of their families. however, this goal affects their physical, emotional, and psychological health and rights as adults because of what they face and do on the streets to provide for the family's needs and expenses. however, it can be said that some senior citizens who are street vendors are healthy and strong because the elderly prefer to eat healthy food rather than fatty snacks. however, their mental state was unhealthy because of the problems they encountered in everyday life. furthermore, senior citizens who have been still exposed to the street for selling products are likely to exhibit illness, food shortage, lack of access to financial and health care support, especially mental health such as alzheimer's disease, depression, isolation, affective and anxiety disorders, dementia, and so on due to their surroundings. as their coping mechanism, these senior vendors tend to hold onto their dreams for their families and pray to keep fighting for their life's struggles. resting at home and chatting with fellow street vendors is also one of their coping mechanisms to avoid the stress they encounter. lack of ideas about their problems, assistance on how to cope with it, support from family and relatives, and health assistance, especially their mental health problems, are seen in this research. moreover, it is highly suggested that the government should enhance and strictly monitor the existing program that focuses on supporting mental and physical health issues and senior citizens' safety and financial needs. references abs-cbn kbyn: teleradyo (2022) abs-cbn news channel https://m.youtube.com/user/theabscbnnews?sub_confirmation=1 andrade, n., (december 12, 2020). to survive the pandemic, elderly s t re e t v e n d o r s i n p i l i l l a , r i z a l https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc3843313/ https://mb.com.ph › 2020/12/12 a s s i s t i n g h a nds ( 2 0 2 1 ) , https://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o f-seniors/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc3843313/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc3843313/ http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o http://www.assistinghands-il-wi.com/blog/what-are-the-strengths-o global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 23 broadway, j., & espinoza, r. 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(2013). exploring heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenology: a perfect fit for midwifery research. women and birth: journal of the australian c o l l e g e of m i d w i v e s , 2 6 ( 4 ) , 2 7 3 – 2 7 6 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2013.06.003 narumol n., ph.d. fighting poverty from the street: a survey of street food vendors in bangkok. bangkok international labour office, 2018 nasibu r., (2022), moving towards the social inclusion for street vendors in tanzania: current situation and perspectives international journal of research in business and social science (2147-4478) 11(2):296305 doi:10.20525/ijrbs.v11i2.1596 licensecc by 4.0. nelz, j., (2019) elderly street vendor cries after clearingo p e r a t i o n t e a m c o n f i s c a t e s he r c a rt https://newspapers.ph/2020/02/elderly-street-vendor-cries-clearing-o peration-teamconfiscates-cart/ http://www.google.com/amp/s/nypost.com/2020/10/06/elderly-nychttp://www.google.com/amp/s/nypost.com/2020/10/06/elderly-nychttp://www.google.com/amp/s/nypost.com/2020/10/06/elderly-nychttp://www.google.com/amp/s/nypost.com/2020/10/06/elderly-nychttp://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.themorning.lk/local-street-vendors-suffer-from-la http://www.ijcmph.com/index.php/ijcmph/article/view http://www.ijcmph.com/index.php/ijcmph/article/view http://www.ijcmph.com/index.php/ijcmph/article/view global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 25 nelz, j., (2019) poor elderly woman selling rags across the s t re e t b r e a k s n e t i z e n s ’ hearts https://philnews.ph/2019/10/05/poor-elderly-woman-selling-ragsacr oss-street/n u r s in g h o m e c e n t e r a b u s e ( 2 0 2 1 ) . workers work beyond the retirement age: a qualitative study. bmc p u b l i c h e a lt h 1 7 , 6 7 2 ( 2 0 1 7 ) . https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4675-z t h e b l a c k f i l i p i n o t v , ( 2 0 2 1 ) , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=quxhwbnosom the coalition of services of the elderly (2018) leave no senior citizens behind: csos, lawmakers call for passage of unthe c o a l i t i o n a l p e n s i o n s ys te m https://cose.org.ph/leave-nosenior-citizens-behind-csos-lawmakerscall-for-passage-of-universal-social-pension-system/ https://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/blog/social-connection-seniors/ torky, e., & heath, t. (2021). perception of street vendors and their effect on urban settings in portobello road, london. archnet-ijar: organization’s website to volunteer (2022), cpcollective.org international journal of architectural research. pain, j., (2015) interpretative phenomenological analysis as a useful van leeuwen, k. m., van loon, m. s., van nes, f. a., bosmans, j. methodology for research on the lived experience of pain: british e., de vet, h. c., ket, j. c., ... & ostelo, r. w. (2019). what does j o u r n a l o f p a i n . 9 ( 1 ) : the quality of life mean to older adults? a thematic synthesis. plos 41-42 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4616994/ one, 14(3), e0213263. reyes, c. m., arboneda, a. a., & asis, r. d. 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(2016). street vendors and cities. psychological experience of elderly loneliness from a societal environment and urbanization, 28(2), 359–374. perspective: a qualitative study of alienation between older people https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247816653898 and society. international journal of environmental research and public health, 14(7), 824 saurabh ram bihar lal shrivastava, s., r., shrivastava, p., s., & ramasamy, r.,(2013). health-care of elderly: determinants, needs http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=quxhwbnosom http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=quxhwbnosom http://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/blog/social-connection-s http://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/blog/social-connection-s http://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/blog/social-connection-s http://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/blog/social-connection-s http://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/blog/social-connection-s http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4616994/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4616994/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4616994/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4616994/ global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 33 assessment of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state rev.fr. barr onubuleze franklin kelechi (ph.d) and onyia basil c. ph.d. department of educational management, faculty of education, enugu state university of science and technology (esut) enugu, nigeria keywords: primary school, teacher work behaviour, female head teachers, administration, decision making, discipline abstract the study assessed work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. two research questions guided the study while two null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. a descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study. the population for the study was 160 respondents which comprised 36 female head teachers and 124 teachers. the researcher did not sample the population because it is manageable. the instrument for data collection was a researcher-developed questionnaire titled “work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers’ questionnaire (wbtafhtq)”. the questionnaire was validated by three research experts. the reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach alpha in which .79 was gotten for cluster a and .10 for cluster b with an overall reliability index of .80 which made the instrument highly reliable. mean and standard deviation were used for answering the research questions. t-test statistic was used for testing the hypotheses at .05 level of significance. the findings of the study revealed among others that teachers are involved in the decision-making process under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommended among others that workshops and seminars should be organized by the ministry of education for the female head teachers in order to avail them other critical areas in which teachers can be involved in decision making process. introduction education is the key instrument for human capital development as well as the basic tool for national development. it is the key upon which all aspects of national life rest. no nation can develop more than the quality of education it can provide (federal republic of nigeria (frn), 2013). aguba in agugu and bua (2019), defined https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 34 education as a virtue and the purpose of education is morality and usefulness to one’s society. whether it is traditional or western education, the purpose is the same; to equip the individual to progressively control his own affairs positively and contribute to societal development (agugu and bua, 2019). education is seen as an instrument for achieving socioeconomic and technological growth and development of any nation. it is said to be the most important weapon to produce a total person with the appropriate skills, knowledge, attitude and values required to live a fulfilled life (arogundade and belo, 2019). education at the primary school level which is the focus of this study is the education given to children aged 6-12 years (frn, 2013). primary education provides learning and educational activities typically designed to provide students with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge (eze, 2016). the federal republic of nigeria in her national policy on education stated the objectives of primary education to include: a. inculcate permanent literary, numeracy and the ability to communicate effectively; b. lay a sound basis for scientific, critical and reflective thinking; c. promote patriotism, fairness, understanding and national unity; d. instill social, moral norms and values in the child; e. develop in the child the ability to adapt to the changing environment; and f. provide opportunities for the child to develop life manipulative skills that will enable the child function effectively in the society within the limits of the child’s capability. in pursuance of the above goals, frn (2013) posed that primary education shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory. however, the primary education in nigeria is riddled with crises of various dimensions and magnitude such as indiscipline among the teachers, lateness to school by some teachers, not adhering to school rules and regulations (omoregie, 2015). the above mentioned challenges facing the primary education have affected the quality of instructional delivery and pupils’ academic performance (ajayi, 2015). ajayi (2015), further stated that these problems could be attributed to several factors including work behaviour of the teachers. the teachers are in charge of making sure that quality instruction is delivered to the students. teachers are those who take care of the educational needs of children in general classrooms, and provide instruction to the children in the schools (okeke in oluka, 2014). teachers are the most fundamental and crucial resources in education system at any level, this is because the strength of an educational system largely depends upon the quality and quantity of its teachers (agboola and offong, 2018). oyetunde (2012), stated that a teacher is a person who has undergone approved professional training in education at appropriate level capable of imparting knowledge, attitudes and skills to the learners. all these are geared towards achieving the stated objectives of the school, and primary education in general. the work of the teacher is of course very vital for the success of any educational enterprise. idowu (2017), opined that apart from the https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 35 learner, the teacher remains the most important single factor in any educational system. teachers are in charge of making sure that quality instruction is delivered to the students, hence the need for effective administration of primary education. administration is a social process concerned with identifying, maintaining, motivating, controlling and unifying formally and informally organized human and material resources within an integrate system designed specifically to achieve predetermined objectives. administration is generally defined as the process of working with and through others to efficiently accomplish organizational goals (aguba in okenwa and igbo, 2013). according to unachukwu (2014), administration is the process of mobilizing all factor resources for the achievement of pre-determined goals and objectives of education. school administration according to ukpong (2016), is the ability of teachers to utilize the scarce factor resources to influence students positively towards learning. in addition, school administration involves managing, administering the curriculum and teaching, discipline, examination and evaluation. nwankwo (2010), defined educational administration as the arrangement of human, material resources and programmes available for education and carefully using them systematically for the achievement of articulated educational objectives. the head of administration in primary schools is the head teacher. a head teacher is a teacher who is in charge of a school. head teachers are internal supervisors who help to guide the teachers towards effective teaching and learning which occur in each classroom (fisher in nwogbo, 2012). according to nwaham in chime (2015), a head teacher is viewed as the position occupied as well as task and responsibilities performed in the primary schools. head teachers develop and implement school development plan, keeps records both statutory and non-statutory in addition to leading teaching and learning in schools. the head teacher plays the role of an administrative and professional leader making her directly responsible for the control primary schools. in nigeria, leadership in almost every arena has been male dominated. according to momoh and obiweluzor (2015), women have to balance work and family responsibilities yet they have the same amount of time as their male counterparts. these have led to series of challenges which include poor instructional delivery, bad leadership style and indiscipline. however, the female head teacher as an administrator leads the primary school towards achieving its aims and objectives. the female head teachers’ administrative style might be significant factor of work behaviour of the teachers (ajayi, 2015). behaviour is the activity of living organisms. according to arguris and schon in asiegbu (2011), work behaviour is defined as all the actions, activities and reactions of members of organizations towards achievements of the organizational goals. human behaviour is the entire gamut of what people do including thinking and feeling (skinner in cautilli, 2015). human behaviour refers to the ranges of behaviour exhibited by humans and which are influenced by a culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics (mcinerney, 2015). nwachukwu and anyanwu (2016), posited that behaviour is any activity of an organism which is either overt or covert. they described overt behaviour as observable https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 36 behaviour while covert behaviour include human activities such as thinking, feeling and mental processes that can bring about reactions such as laughing and crying amongst others. in the context of this study a teacher’s work behaviour is referred to the behaviour of the teacher in the work place. teacher work behaviour under female head teachers’ administration will focus on commitment to school functions, discipline, adherence to school rules and regulations and instructional delivery. teacher commitment is an essential component for quality education. mowday (2015) defined commitment to school as teachers' belief and acceptance of the goals and values of the school and their strong desire to keep up involvement in the school. teacher commitment is defined as teachers' psychological attachment to the teaching profession, to professional institutions, and to colleagues, parents, and students (firestone and pennell, 2013). commitment provides teachers the love, desire and energy they need to perform better. committed teachers are thought to be more satisfied with teaching and always strive for accomplishing a good instruction (somech and bogler, 2014). a committed teacher is also one who is disciplined in the course of doing his job. discipline is another aspect of teacher work behaviour. onyali (2014) viewed discipline as the sum of educative efforts, including the teaching process, the process of character shaping, submission to rules and authority as well as the development of trust. discipline is an important component of human behaviour. discipline helps not only to regulate people’s reactions to various situations but also regulates human conducts and relations with others (ajibola and ali, 2014). a disciplined teacher is one that has established a goal and is willing to achieve that goal at the expense of his/her individuality. it is the assertion of will power over more base desires, and is usually understood to be synonymous with self-control (ajayi, 2015). when teachers are involved in decision making in the schools, they might be disciplined. decisions, according to duze (2011) are made towards solving immediate and remote problems all aimed at achieving set goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. effective schools do not come about magically. they are the result of careful planning and strategic decision-making. decision making is an essential element in the administration of educational organizations worldwide existing in most of the activities done by administrators, such as planning, constructing, and mentoring. the worries of the researcher in this study are based on the academic performance of primary school students and poor moral of teachers in the course of performing their duties. in enugu state, the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers is uncertain, hence the need for this study. primary education sector in enugu state as observed by the researcher has been faced with numerous challenges ranging from poor instructional delivery and indiscipline among others. these challenges have led to poor academic performance of students in primary education sector. stakeholders have blamed the teachers for not doing their jobs efficiently which has hampered the realization of the objectives of primary education in enugu state, nigeria. based on the above discourse, the researcher assessed the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 37 head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. statement of the problem one of the most serious problems tending to undermine the quality of primary education in nigeria is the unethical behaviour of teachers. over the years, there have been some influxes of ethical violations with administrators in the primary schools. the unethical behaviours of some teachers include lateness to school, poor instructional delivery, involvement in examination practice, indiscipline and becoming so erratic to school administrators and pupils. these problems could be attributed to several factors including of course the work behaviour of the teachers and leadership behaviour of the head teachers in schools. most teachers engage in act of indiscipline because they do not adhere to the school rules and regulations under the administration of female head teachers. head teachers are appointed to ensure quality, unity of purpose and efficiency in primary schools. female head teachers most of the times are unapproachable, autocratic, bossy, aggressive, rigid, too strict, harsh, easily irritated among others. it is not known how the teachers under such female head teachers react to these attributes, hence the need for this study. the problem of this study when put in a question form is therefore, “what is the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state? purpose of the study the general purpose of the study is to assess the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. specifically, the study seeks to: 1. determine the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of discipline; 2. ascertain the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of decision making. research questions the following research questions guided the study: 1. what is the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of discipline? 2. what is the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of decision making? hypotheses the following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at .05 level of significance: ho1: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of head teachers and teachers on the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of discipline. ho2: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of head teachers and teachers on the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of decision making. research method a descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study. according to nworgu https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 38 (2015) descriptive survey research design is used in preliminary and exploratory studies because it allows researcher(s) to gather information, summarize, present and interpret for the purpose of clarification. this study was conducted in enugu east local government authority. the population for the study was 160 respondents which comprised 36 female head teachers and 124 teachers. the researcher did not sample the population because it is manageable. the instrument for data collection was a researcher-developed questionnaire titled “work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers’ questionnaire (wbtafhtq)”. the questionnaire consisted of 10 items. the questionnaire was validated by three research experts. two of the experts were from the department of educational management, and one from measurement and evaluation unit, department of mathematics and computer education, all from faculty of education, enugu state university of science and technology (esut). the reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach alpha in which .79 was gotten for cluster a and .10 for cluster b with an overall reliability index of .80 which made the instrument highly reliable. a 4 point rating scale of strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d) and strongly disagree (sd) was used. the researcher was assisted by two research assistants in the administration and collection of data. in rating the computed mean, any mean scores from 2.50 and above was regarded to as “agree” while items that fell below 2.50 were regarded as “disagree”. the criterion mean of 2.50 was gotten by summing up the weighted options (4+3+2+1=10) and dividing it by total number of response options (4) as follows; 10/4=2.50. -test statistic method was used for testing the hypothesis at .05 level of significance. the decision rule for the hypothesis was that hypothesis was not significant when the t-calculated value was less than the critical table value, but significant when the t-calculated value was greater than or equal to the critical table value. data analysis and results presentation research question 1: what is the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of discipline? https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 39 table 1: mean ratings of female head teachers and teachers on work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers as regards discipline items female head teachers 36 teachers 124 s/n under the female teachers’ administration: mea n sd dec . mea n sd dec . 1. some teachers come to school late. 2.36 0.89 d 2.32 0.96 d 2. some teachers abuse alcohol and other drugs and substances in school. 2.36 0.96 d 2.31 0.90 d 3. some teachers disrespect fellow teachers and school administration. 2.31 0.90 d 2.34 0.84 d 4. some teachers lack lesson notes. 2.30 0.96 d 2.33 0.99 d 5. some teachers fail to mark students’ exercise books and tests. 2.31 0.95 d 2.33 0.89 d cluster mean 2.33 0.9 3 d 2.33 0.9 2 d table 1 shows the mean ratings and standard deviation of female head teachers and teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers as regards discipline. the female head teachers’ mean range from 2.30 to 2.36, while their teachers’ mean range from 2.31 to 2.34. they have cluster means of 2.33 and 2.33 as well as standard deviations of 0.93 and 0.92 respectively. the responses from both female head teachers and teachers revealed that teachers are not disciplined under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 40 research question 2: what is the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of decision making? table 2: mean ratings of female head teachers and teachers on work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of decision making items female head teachers 36 teachers 124 s/n under the female head teachers, teachers are involved in: mean sd dec. mean sd dec. 6. planning of school curriculum. 2.66 1.01 a 2.61 0.88 a 7. school budgeting. 2.58 0.95 a 2.66 0.91 a 8. students’ personnel administration. 2.77 0.89 a 2.50 1.01 a 9. procurement of school facilities. 2.51 0.91 a 2.59 0.85 a 10. admission process of students. 2.55 0.99 a 2.55 0.99 a cluster mean 2.61 0.95 a 2.58 0.93 a table 2 shows the mean ratings and standard deviation of female head teachers and teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of decision making. the female head teachers’ mean range from 2.51 to 2.77, while their teachers’ mean range from 2.50 to 2.66. they have cluster means of 2.61 and 2.58 as well as standard deviations of 0.95 and 0.93 respectively. the responses from both female head teachers and their teachers revealed that teachers are involved in the decision making process under the female head teachers’ administration in primary schools in enugu state. hypotheses ho1: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of head teachers and teachers on the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of discipline. table 3: summary of t-test analysis of the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of discipline group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision female head teachers 36 2.33 0.93 158 0.00 1.96 ho1 is not rejected teachers 124 2.33 0.92 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 41 table 3 shows that t-cal of 0.00 is less than the t-crit of 1.96 at .05 alpha level of significance with 158 degree of freedom. this means that there is no significance difference between the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of discipline. ho2: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of head teachers and teachers on the nature of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state in the aspect of decision making. table 4: summary of t-test analysis of the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of decision making group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision female head teachers 36 2.61 0.95 158 0.09 1.96 ho2 is not rejected teachers 124 2.58 0.93 table 4 shows that t-cal of 0.09 is less than the t-crit of 1.96 at .05 alpha level of significance with 158 degree of freedom. this means that there is no significance difference between the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of decision making. summary of data analyses from the results of data analyses, the following were found: 1. the responses from both female head teachers and teachers revealed that teachers are not disciplined under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. 2. both female head teachers and their teachers revealed that teachers are involved in the decision making process under the female head teachers’ administration in primary schools in enugu state. 3. there was no significance difference between the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of discipline. 4. there was no significance difference between the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of decision making. discussion of findings the finding of the study revealed that teachers are not well disciplined under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. the respondents stated that teachers under the female head teachers do not adhere to the laid https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 42 down rules the schools system. the finding is in line with oziambo (2013), who stated that teachers working under female head teachers tend not to be disciplined because most female head teachers tolerate any form of indiscipline. the null hypothesis tested revealed that there was no significance difference between the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of discipline. it was found in this study that the teachers under the female head teachers administration are involved in the decision making process in primary schools in enugu state. the findings revealed that teachers are involved in planning of school curriculum, school budgeting, students’ personnel administration, procurement of school facilities and admission process of students. this finding is in agreement with duze (2011) who stated that, the involvement of teachers in decision-making is very important because of their direct relationship with the students. this is an important aspect in that teachers, who are always with the students’ need to have a personal assessment in order to identify their areas of challenges and make proper recommendations to the head teachers. further finding revealed that there was no significance difference between the mean ratings of female head teachers and their teachers on the work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in the aspect of decision making. conclusions the study centered on the assessment of work behaviour of teachers under the administration of female head teachers in primary schools in enugu state. from the findings of the study, it is clear that female head teachers involve teachers in decision making process in the school. also, teachers were not well disciplined in the course of performing their duties. recommendations based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made by the researcher: 1. workshops and seminars should be organized by the ministry of education for the female head teachers in order to avail them other critical areas in which teachers can be involved in decision making process. 2. the state government should introduce an award that would promote excellence. this will help to promote the discipline among the teachers. references agboola, b.m. & offong, d.e. (2018). occupational incentives and teacher retention in private secondary schools in akwa ibom state, nigeria. journal of teacher education and educators, 7(3), 263-277. agugu, d.i. & bua, f.t. (2019). politics and its influence on staff employment in secondary schools in nigeria. benue state university journal of educational management, 2(1), 36-41. ajayi, a. (2015). educational administration. enugu fourth dimension publishing co. ltd. ajibola, a.l. & ali, a.h. (2014). disciplinary measures in nigerian senior secondary schools: issues and prospects. journal of research and method in education, 4(3), 1117. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; august 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 43 arogundade, b.b., & belo, f.a. (2019). quality assurance and internal efficiency of primary school teachers in ekiti state. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 10(2), 49-55. cautilli, j. (2015). brief report: application of proposed model of decreasing reinforcement intensity. international journal of behaviour. 1(1) 21 – 36. duze, c.o. (2011). falling standard in nigeria education: traceable to proper skill acquisition. educational research. 2(1), 803-808. federal republic of nigeria (2013). national policy on education. abuja: nerdc. nworgu, b.g. (2015). educational research: basic issues and methodology (third edition). nsukka, enugu: university trust publishers. nwachukwu, t.a. & anyanwu, f.n. (2016). problem behaviours of students in special schools. in u.m. nzewi (ed). the teachers: a book of reading. onitsha: fed. publishers. okenwa, g.n. & igbo, r.o. (2013). extent of community participation in the provision of school plant in the administration of public secondary schools in enugu state. journal of educational and social research, 3(4); 53-58. oluka, b.n. (2014). impacts of counselling on people with special educational needs. journal of research & method in education, 4(6), 97-100. omoregie, n. (2015) re-packing secondary education in nigeria in ekiti state ibadan: adose publications. oziambo, p.e. (2013). indiscipline among teachers: causes and influence on school administration in nigeria. retrieved from .eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed496281 on 21 august, 2014). somech, a., & bogler, r. (2014). antecedents and consequences of teacher organizational and professional commitment. educational administration quarterly, 38, 555-577. ukpong, n.n. (2016). principals’ management of internally generated funds to enhance public secondary schools’ financing for sustainable national development. international journal of education, learning and development, 7(5), 50-57. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear www.ijmsssr.org global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 1; january-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 modulation as a tool for transcultural communication: indonesian novel translation into english 1dr. amanda nurul farida article info abstract keywords: translation, modulation, semantic shifts, cultural background, equivalence translation between languages with distinct cultural backgrounds presents challenges due to differing perspectives and linguistic nuances. this study explores the application of modulation, a translation technique proposed by newmark (1988), to manage semantic shifts in the translation process. using the indonesian novel "lelaki harimau" by kurniawan (2014) and its english translation "man tiger" (kurniawan, 2015) as a case study, this research examines the prevalence and types of semantic shifts introduced by modulation. the novel's distinctive usage of uncommon terms and altered expressions in both languages prompts an in-depth analysis of how the translator reconciles these linguistic disparities. this investigation reveals that not only syntactic but also semantic shifts are essential for conveying the original message effectively to the target language readers. the prevalence of semantic shifts in the text is noteworthy, contrasting the conventional balance between syntactic and semantic alterations. the primary objectives of this study are threefold: (1) to identify the semantic shifts that occur using modulation as a translation technique, (2) to categorize the various types of modulation employed in the translation process, and (3) to determine the modulation types that manifest more frequently than others. by delving into these aspects, the research contributes to the understanding of how modulation aids in achieving equivalence while maintaining the contextual integrity of the source text in the target language translation. 1 department of linguistics, universitas padjadjaran, bandung, indonesia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 2 introduction any activity of translating texts of any kindshas to deal with some challenging obstacles due to the different cultural background between the culture of the source language and the target language. one culture having its own rules, its own habits and its own customs as well as its own social agreement may see something from a certain perspective while others may see the same thing differently. the message is similar yet the ways the thing is expressed may not be the same. this involves the mindset that leads to a shift or change such as from positive into negative or vice versa, from active into passive or vice versa, from a certain part into another part, from one part into the whole part. in addition to that, the style of writing of a translator is also influenced by his/her cultural background as well as his/her social environment where the translator is raised. the thing that cannot be denied regarding this shift or change is the message that would be delivered in the source language text has to be the same.modulation as one of translation procedures by newmark (1988) is one of the solution to allow the differences into the sameness of message. translation may produce different form of language yet still keeps the same message so what the readers of the target language text acquire through the translated text is the same with what is acquired by the readers of the source language text. one of the main functions of this activity is to reach the equivalent which has to be as close as possible and as natural as possible. this is in line with the definition of translation given by nida and taber (nida, eugene a & taber, 1982). newmark himself who adopts translation procedures from vinay and darbelnet (1995) offers various types of modulation unlike what is offered by modulation as a technique of translation. this is why newmark’s modulation is used in this research to study the semantic shifts occurred in the data source. going to the background of the data source, an indonesian novel lelaki harimau(kurniawan, 2014)and its english translation man tiger(kurniawan, 2015) arethe phenomena that showsome terms or words or expressions seldom used in a daily usage are used here and in the contrary, some familiar words or expressions are used but not in a familiar usage, for example, when the verb tergolek which means “lying down” indicating the location is down like floor or the ground while in the source language text it is used to show a condition when something leans on which means vertically not horizontally as seen in this following sentence: “mayor sadrah segera memburu motornya yang tergolek di batang kelapa ‘major sadrah hurried toward his motorbike, which leant against a coconut tree’. the phenome can be found even in the introductory part or the beginning of the novel. this is the part where general information supposed to be given and usually the information or narration involves common or daily words or expression. what can be found in the data source is not like this. this is not common even a native reader may have a problem or confuse in comprehending the text.it is therefore the translator needs to make some shifts not only syntactically but also semantically for the sake of the readers of the target language text and it is therefore almost all sentences especially in this first part of the novel are shifted as well as modulated. the number of semantic shifts is almost of the same quantity as syntactic shifts. usually the number of semantic shifts is limited compare to syntactic shifts but in this novel it is not like that. this is interesting and worth to be studied further. it is therefore the novel is used as the data source of this research. based on the background, this research is to identify (1) what semantic shifts occur involving modulation as a translation procedure, and (2) what types of modulation used there. this research is also to identify (3) what type of modulation used more frequently than others. literature review the novelty of this research can be seen from the previous researches done regarding the modulation either as a translation technique or as a translation procedure. the term modulation in both as a translation procedure given by newmark and as a translation technique by molina and albir has one single function: to refer to semantic shift due to a change of viewpoint or perspective. the first previous research (2021) and the second previous global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 3 research also in the same year regarding this term as well as the translation of indonesian literary work into english found in journal articles. both researches use modulation as a translation technique proposes by molina and albir. the first one talks about the translation of indonesia fables and modulation is only one of the techniques used (muttaqin et al., 2021) while in the second one, modulation as a technique of translation proposed by vinay and darbelnet (1995) is used as a single technique consistingof ten types and the data source is an indonesian novel bumi manusia and its translation ‘the earth of mankind(yahya et al., 2021). similar to the second previous research, the third previous research uses vinay and darbelnet’s modulation yet the object of the research is not a literary work; it is patient information leaflets (rahmawati et al., 2019). the fourth previous research is when modulation is used as a method of translation in order to get naturalness in the target language text (putranti, 2018). the fifth previous research is a thesis; it discusses the translation from english novel into indonesian using newmark’s translation methods as well as translation procedures including modulation (prasasti, bunga, 2018). the sixth previous research is a journal article which discusses the translation of texts regarding social and religious affairs both from english into indonesian and from indonesian into english, this article uses vinay and darbelnet’s modulation adopted by newmark and it focusses on modulation in translation process (rahmatillah, 2017). the last previous research regarding the use of modulation as one techniques of translation found in a journal article dealing with the translation of an english novel into indonesian with idiomatic expressions as the object of the research (hendrawati & budiarta, i, 2017).what can be underlined here from all previous researches regarding the use of modulation both as a translation procedure and as a technique of translation compared to my research article is that my research article focusses on modulation as one of newmark’s translation procedures and it is to study the translation of an indonesian novel into english and it focusses only on the first part of the novel. it is therefore the novelty of this research is clear. the novelty of this research article can also beseen from the previous researches regarding the same data source, the indonesian novel lelaki harimau and its translation not only into english but also into german. there are two previous researches found. the first one is about the translation of figurative languages found in the novel and its translation into english where translation strategies of molina and albir are used(gustema, 2020). the second one is about the translation of body parts of women into german and the study involves appraisal theory (finalia et al., 2019). from the two previous researches regarding the novel lelaki harimau and its translation it can be seen that the novelty of my research article is clear as the object of this research is different from the objects of the two previous researches. as mentioned before that the term modulation can be used both as translation procedure and as translation technique. the term modulation as a translation procedure is first proposed by vinay and darbelnet(jean-paul vinay & darbelnet, 1995) and newmark adopts it as a part of the other translation procedures with nine types of it (1988). in the meantime, molina and albir categorize it as a translation technique without anyelaborate types of it (molina & hurtado albir, 2002). however, there is a similarity between newmark’s and molina & albir’s modulation especially in the definition of the term that modulation refers to the change (shift) of viewpoint or perspective. in this research, the nine types of modulation are taken from newmark’s book (newmark, 1988) and the examples of each type are taken from erlina’s (erlina, 2016) regarding the translation from english into indonesian and vice versa. the types of newmark’s modulationare as follow: (1) positive for double negative or vice versa, for example the sentence “it is not impossible to find the criminal if we find the proof” is translated into ‘kita mungkin bisa menemukan penjahatnya jika kita bisa menemukan bukti’, the double negative “not” followed by the negative “impossible” modulated into the positive term “mungkin” means possible; global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 4 (2) part for the whole, it is where one part of something is translated into the whole part of it, for example, “that is what i call a beautiful wheel” is translated into ‘itu yang kusebut si mobil cantik’ where wheel ‘roda or setir’asa part of a car ‘mobil’ is translated into mobil ‘car’ the whole part; (3) abstract for concrete, it refers to a condition where an abstract term or expression is translated into a concrete term or expression, for example, “he is living in the wild” is translated into ‘dia hidup di hutanbelantara’ where the abstract expression “wild” referring to the life in the jungle and its creatures, plants and animals is translated into the concrete of the wild, ‘hutan belantara’ the object referring to the vast jungle including all creatures living there; (4) cause for effect, when a condition in the source language is a cause while its equivalent in the target language is the effect, for example’ “dia memakai kacamata hitam” is translated into “he is wearing dark glasses”, hitam refers to black color as the cause and dark as the effect of the black color of sunglasses; (5) one part for another, it refers to a condition where a term or expression is translated into its synonymy, for example, “change the bandage every 24 hours is translated into “ganti perban itu setiap hari”, where 24 hours is equal to one “hari” ‘day’; (6) reversal terms; for example, “mindyour own business.” is translated into its reverse “jangan campuri urusanku.” this involves imperative sentence from positive command “mind …” into negative “jangan…” ‘don’t’ and from the possessive “your” for the second person into “my” ‘ku’ the first person. (7) active for passive, for example, “someone stole my purse” in active is translated into “dompet saya dicuri” ‘my wallet was stolen’; (8) intervals and limits, for example, “it covers 180 kilometers from bandung to jakarya” is translated into “perjalanan dari bandung ke jakarta memakan waktu tiga jam” ‘the trip from bandung to jakarta takes three hours’; and (9) change of symbols, for example, “he stood just a few feet away” which is translated into “dia berdiri hanya beberapa meter jauhnya”. there is a change of symbol from feet into meter. methodology the method used is descriptive-comparative approach under the qualitative research (kothari, 2004). it is qualitative as it does not have something to do with number though it deals with the frequency of usage. by using descriptive method, the discussion of the analysis regarding all phenomena are described just the ways they are and the comparative method is used to see the phenomena in the source language text compared to the phenomena in the target language text regarding the use of modulation with its types. the research about translation generally uses comparative method as there are at least two texts involved and they are compared to see what comes up between the two regarding the focus of the research. regarding the analysis of data, this research covers some steps: (1) to read the indonesian novel of the first chapter as the source language text; (2) to read the english novel of the same part, the first chapter, as the target language text; (3) to observe the equivalents of terms or expressions semantically shifted or modulated in the target language text; (4) to identify the types of modulation involved based on the characteristics of each type. after all the steps are completed, the next step is to put the data of each type of modulation into a table to be analyzed and described. the last step is to select the data which can be considered as strong data as the representative of each type of modulation to be used in this journal article. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 5 results and discussion there are sixty data found which are taken from two hundred sentences in the first chapter of the novel. the data are spreading to each type of modulation but two: positive for double negative and intervals and limits. there are twenty-four data belong to the part for the whole type, three data for the type of abstract for concrete, seven data belong to the cause for effect type, thirteen data for the type of one part for another, and for the type of reversal of terms, there are four data, then for the type of active for passive, there are six data, and the last is the type of change of symbols, there are three data. as mentioned before, not all sixty data are discussed here but only some that represent each type of modulation. table 1. modulation: part for the whole no. source language text target language text 1 pos ronda itu berada di tengah permukiman the night-watch hut stood in the middle of a village 2 …tak akan mempan mengiris leherayam paling pesakitan sekalipun. …it couldn’t decapitate the scrawniest chicken. 3 …serongsok apapun benda itu tetaplah sebuah samurai …no matter how damaged, it was still a sword 4 …mencari betina …and chase women 5 …dan menepuk ajak-ajak di pekarangan rumah penuh sayang. he patted the hounds in the backyard with affection. table 1 consists of data (1 – 5) involving modulation type, part for thewhole. from data number (2) and data number (3)the order is exactly the same; part in the source language text and the whole in the target language text. however, in data number (1) and data number (4) as well as (5) the order is vice versa: part is in the target language text while the whole is in the source language text. the expression “permukiman” in data (1) refers to ‘settlement’ which covers villages, cities, towns, countries and it is translated into a village as its hyponym. it is therefore it is a case of modulation, part for the whole. then the expression “leher ayam” which refers to the neck of chicken as a body part of chicken is translated into chicken, the whole body part of the animal. it is therefore this data number (2) involves modulation of part for the whole type. the same thing happens to data number (3) when the expression samurai referring to a type of sword originally from japan is translated into just a sword. the term sword covers all types of sword including samurai so this involves modulation of part for the whole type. in data (4) the expression “betina” referring to female of any creature including human and animal, is translated into women referring to female human being specifically. it is therefore data number (4) is also modulation of part for the whole type. then in the last data from this table 1, data (5) we can find that the term or expression “pekarangan” referring to both front yard and backyard is translated into “backyard”. it is then a type of modulation namely part for the whole as the word or expression pekarangan as the whole is given an equivalent backyard as a part of the pekarangan “yard”. table2. modulation: abstract for concrete no. source language text target language text 1 “itulah maksudku.” “that’s my plan.” 2 …dengan cara itulah margio dipuja. it was a feat that earned margio the admiration of his companions. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 6 the next type of modulation found in the data is categorized as abstract for concrete as can be seen in table 2. this type of modulation is represented by two data. data number (1) shows that the abstract expression maksudkuwhich means “my intention” is translated into my plan which is shifted or modulated into concrete expression. there is a change in the viewpoint or perspective and it is from abstract to concrete. it is therefore the modulation can be categorized as abstract for concrete type. the same thing happens also to data number (2) of this table 2 when the passive verb “dipuja” ‘adored’ in the source language text is translated into “earned the admiration”. the change of viewpoint or perspective occurs when the passive verb dipuja having an abstract meaning is translated into earned admiration having a concrete meaning. it is therefore the modulation can be categorized as abstract for concrete type also as data (1) of this table. table 3. modulation: cause for effect no. source language text target language text 1 …danmenenggelamkan kolam-kolam dengan sempurna. …until the ponds around it disappeared. 2 …barangkali karena ia telah sepuh dan tak lagi waspada. perhaps age had made him complacent. 3 …untuk segera duduk …to climb on behind him there are three data belong to table 3 which can be categorized as modulation with the type cause for effect. data number (1) and (2) have the exact order that is from the cause in the source language text into the effect in the target language text. while in data number (3) the order is vice versa, the cause is in the target language text and the effect is in the source language text. in data (1) the verb “menenggelamkan” ‘to sink’ referring to an action of causing something disappear in the water is then translated into the verb disappeared referring to the effect of sinking. it is therefore the modulation occurs here is cause for effect type. the expression in data (2) “telah sepuh dan tak lagi waspada” referring to a condition when getting older makes him not aware any longer of the situation around. this is a cause and it is translated into an effect when the expression age made him complacent is used for the equivalent. it is therefore it is a modulation of cause for effect type. in data number (3) of this table the expression “duduk” as a verb referring to a condition be seated in the source language text can be categorized as an effect. in the target language duduk ‘be seated’ is translated into climb onso this is not the same condition as climb on is the process that makes a condition of be seated, so this is the cause. table 4. modulation: one part for another no. source language text target language text 1 …untuk memberi pakan setiap senja …to feed his fish beforesundown, 2 …dan berusaha mengengkolnya, susah payah selalu begitu, …and tried to kick-start the engine, always a problem. 3 …sebanyak yang diketahui semua orang di sekeliling rumah mereka. …as far as their neighbors knew. 4 …hingga esok …into the next day there are four data in table 4 that can represent modulation of the type of one part for another. it is like a case of synonymy. in data number (1) the adverb of time “senja” which can be translated directly into “late afternoon” is translated into before sundowninstead. this case can be categorized as modulation of the type one part for another, as it is translated into before sundown not late afternoon, it refers to the same thing but is seen from different viewpoint. this same condition also happens to the rest data from data number (2) until data number global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 7 (4) where in data number (2) the verb “mengengkol” that can be translated directly into “to crank” is instead translated into to kick-start the engine, then data number (3) when the expression “semua orang di sekeliling rumah mereka” that can be directly translated into “all people around their house” is then translated into neighbors instead; then in data number (4) when the expression “esok” that can be translated into “tomorrow” directly is then translated into “the next day”. the four equivalents though seen from different points of view are of the same message. table 5. modulation: reversal of terms no. source language text target language text 1 dengan senjata usang di tangan margio, barangkali anwar sadat tak akan mati had the shabby weapon remained with margio, anwar sadat might still be alive. 2 ia ada di sini she had been there the next type of modulation is called reversal of terms which can be seen from table 5. the quantity of the data of this type is not as other types, it is limited. it can be said that it refers to converse as it describes the opposite of a condition yet having the same message. in data number (1) what is reversed is the expression “tak akan mati” ‘not going to die’ into still be alive; it is from die or dead into alive, not dead. in data number (2) what is reversed is the adverb “di sini” having the meaning a spot near to the speaker ‘here’ into “there” showing a distance from the speaker. by shifting the context of the sentences, reversed terms can be acceptable as they still refer to the same conditions or messages. it is therefore the two data indicate modulation with reversal of terms type. table 6. modulation: active for passive no. source language text target language text 1 …sebagaimana diingat mayor sadrah …as sadrah recalled. 2 motor tersebut diperolehnya bertahun-tahun lampau dari kepala polisi he had gotten the motorbike years ago from a local police chief table 6 consists of 2 representative data of modulation with the type active for passive. it is not difficult to identify passive in the source language text. in indonesian language passive is characterized by the use of prefix{di-} which is attached to a verb as can be seen in data number (1) “diingat”which means ‘is recalled’ and “diperoleh” which means ‘is gotten’. in the target language the passive verbs are translated into active verbs following the change of subjects: major sadrah or sadrah in data number (1) of table 6 who is functioned as object now becomes subject in the target language text, then “motor tersebut” ‘the motorbike’ in data number (2) which is functioned as subject in the source language text now becomes object in the target language text, and the subject is replaced by the male third person singular “he”. it is therefore the two cases in both data in table 6 can be categorized as modulation with the type of active for passive. the change of perspective or viewpoint through the modulation from active to passive or vice versa does not change the message. table 7. modulation: change of symbol no. source language text target language text 1 sungai kecil yang dijejali lebih banyak lumpur daripada arus itu meluap setinggi satu depa the creek normally more mud than water, rose six feet 2 …dan puluhan ajak terikat satu sama lain oleh tali kulit. …and dozens of hounds bound to each other by leather leashes, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 8 there are two data regarding this type of modulation, change of symbols in table 7. indonesian people use the term “satu depa” or “sedepa” ‘one depa’ to refer to a unit of length equal to six feet (approximately 1.8 m). feet as a measurement unit is more common than meter in the target language so the equivalent for the term satu depa is modulated into six feet in data number (1) of table 7. while data in number (2) of this table involves the term “puluhan” ‘tens’ to indicate number, sets of ten and it is translated into “dozens” which is equal to the measurement unit used in english indicating sets of twelve. the change of this perspective or viewpoint is categorized as modulation with the type of change of symbol. conclusion from all discussions in the data analysis, it can be concluded that out of nine types of modulation in newmark’s translation procedures, seven types can be found in the first chapter of the novel. there are two hundred sentences observed and from the two hundred sentences, there are sixty cases of modulation in sixty sentences. from the data collected, out of sixty cases of modulation, two types of modulation: positive for double negative and intervals and limits are not found. and the last thing to be concluded is the frequency of usage of each type of modulation. the highest frequency of usage is in the type of part for the whole. this reflects that the change of viewpoint or perspective tends to be generalized, from specific into general or in other word it deals with the case of hyponymy. references 1. erlina. (2016). translation studies: basic guidelines for students of translation major. 1(august), 29. 2. finalia, c., nababan, m. r., santosa, r., & djatmika, d. (2019). an appraisal theory approach to translation of body parts of women on the novel “lelaki harimau” by eka kurniawan. 254(conaplin 2018), 41–45. https://doi.org/10.2991/conaplin-18.2019.9 3. gustema, n. h. (2020). the translation of figurative languages in novel lelaki harimau by eka kurniawan. mozaik humaniora, 20(1), 89. https://doi.org/10.20473/mozaik.v20i1.16409 4. hendrawati, a., & budiarta, i, w. (2017). the translation of idiomatic expression in bloddline into “garis darah.” retorika, jurnal ilmu bahasa, 3(2), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 5. jean-paul vinay, & darbelnet, j. (1995). comparative stylistcs of french and english: a methodology for translation. john benjamins. 6. kothari, c. r. (2004). research methodology_ methods and techniques. new age international publishers. 7. kurniawan, e. (2014). lelaki harimau. pt gramedia pustaka utama. 8. kurniawan, e. (2015). man tiger (issue 1). verso. 9. molina, l., & hurtado albir, a. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta: journal des traducteurs, 47(4), 498. https://doi.org/10.7202/008033ar global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 9 10. muttaqin, u., yulianita, n. g., & yulianti, u. h. (2021). translation technique in translating indonesian fabels into english. lingua scientia, 28(1), 20–26. https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/jjbi/article/view/30099 11. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. in shanghai foreign language education press. pearson education limited. 12. nida, eugene a & taber, c. r. (1982). helps for translators the theory and practice of translation (volume vii). e.j. brill. 13. prasasti, bunga, d. (2018). translation methods and procedures used by listiana. 14. putranti, a. (2018). modulation: a translation method to obtain naturalness in target language texts. journal of language and literature, 18(1), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.24071/joll.2018.180112 15. rahmatillah, k. (2017). modulation in translation process. ethical lingua: journal of language teaching and literature, 4(1), 68–75. https://doi.org/10.30605/ethicallingua.v4i1.334 16. rahmawati, r., gurning, b., & murni, s. m. (2019). translation procedures in patient information leaflets. linguistik terapan, 15(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.24114/lt.v15i2.12357 17. yahya, m., fatiha, a, s., & nugarha, g, d. (2021). an analysis of modulation technique in the translation of bumi manusia novel into this earth of mankind. bahasa inggris terapan, 7(2), 94–108. www.ijmsssr.org global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 5; may-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 8 transforming legal responses to organ trafficking: indonesian criminal policy reform 1dr. ida ayu komang wisnuwardhana, 2prof. made gede wisnuwardhana and 3dr. ni luh putu wisnuwardhana article info abstract keywords: organ trafficking, tissue transplantation, legal framework, indonesia, endstage patients. organ and tissue transplantation is recognized globally as a vital therapeutic intervention for end-stage patients suffering from organ failure. in the context of indonesia, the practice of organ and tissue transplantation has been legalized since 1977, with kidney transplants being performed within a legal framework. this study delves into the legal landscape of organ trafficking in indonesia, examining the tension between the legal provision for transplantation and the emergence of covert trafficking activities. despite concerted efforts by the indonesian government to combat organ trafficking, instances of illegal organ trade persist, resulting in victimization of indonesian citizens. this research investigates cases of organ trafficking, shedding light on the gravity of the issue. the study highlights notable cases, including the kidnapping of a child who fell victim to organ trafficking, revealing the pressing need for more stringent measures. moreover, syndicates involved in organ trafficking operations have garnered attention due to their illicit activities. this paper examines the legal framework surrounding organ trafficking, encompassing relevant articles in indonesia's health act, act on the eradication of trafficking in persons, and child protection act. by analyzing the challenges in enforcing anti-trafficking policies, this study aims to emphasize the importance of strengthening legal mechanisms to combat organ trafficking. the rising occurrences of illegal organ trade in indonesia and other countries underscore the urgency of addressing this issue comprehensively. ultimately, this research underscores the necessity of bolstering efforts to curb organ trafficking, safeguarding the rights and well-being of indonesian citizens. 1wisnuwardhana university, malang, indonesia 2wisnuwardhana university, malang, indonesia 3 wisnuwardhana university, malang, indonesia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 9 introduction indonesian citizens have the right to obtain health services, and everyone who is sick has the right to be healed. one way to heal people who are sick in the final stages is to transplant organs and/or body tissues, by transferring certain organs or body tissues from the donor to the recipient (peraturan pemerintah nomor 53 tahun 2021 tentang transplantasi organ dan jaringan tubuh, 2021). countries around the world believe that organ and/or tissue transplantation is an effective therapy for healing end-stage patients who experience organ and/or tissue failure. (fauziyat, 2017). in the perspective of indonesian law, transplantation of organs and/or body tissues carried out under the law is a legal activity, so since 1977 kidney transplants have been carried out (marcelino et al., 2018)until 2022. the number of transplants in many authorized hospitals is more than 629 (supit et al., 2019). even though it is legal if the transplanted organ and/or tissue is obtained illegally (e.g., through buying and selling process or coercion or murder) then the transplant activity is categorized as a crime. trafficking in organs and/or body tissues for the purposes of transplantation is prohibited under criminal law, as regulated in article 64 juncto 192 of act no. 36 of 2009 concerning health (hereinafter referred to as the health act); article 2 of act number 21 of 2007 concerning the eradication of the crime of trafficking in persons (hereinafter referred to as the act on the eradication of trafficking in persons; and article 84 of act no. 23 of 2002 concerning child protection (hereinafter referred to as the child protection act). even though the indonesian government has made efforts to prevent and punish perpetrators of organ trafficking (as an application of criminal policy), covert trafficking activities of organs and/or body tissues are still happening and the numbers are increasing. there are several cases of organ trafficking in which indonesian citizens become victims, for example, the kidnapping of a child who was later found in tokyo but one of his kidneys was missing and his tongue was cut off (setiawan, 2014). there are 80 cases of organ trafficking carried out by syndicates (setiawan, 2014). cases of selling children's organs also occurred in various modes in three regions, namely in bogor, tangerang, and central java (okezone.com, 2016). many perpetrators of organ trafficking have been convicted, including 4 people who were sentenced by the central jakarta district court in 2016, with 15 cases of organ trafficking(putusan pengadilan negeri jakarta pusat, 2016). the crime of trafficking in organs and/or body tissues is not only in indonesia, illegal organ trafficking is suspected to have occurred in many countries including turkey, india, brazil, pakistan, nepal, philippines, iran, kosovo, china, and several former soviet countries in indonesia. eastern europe (freedomunited.org, 2020). indeed, it turns out that the prohibition on the commercialization of organs is not as strict as that in the law, so there is still room for the practice of commercializing, procuring, and transferring organs and/or body tissues (lenk & beier, 2012). these crimes that have not been completely eradicated can harm the health of the people, especially the health risks after selling their organs and/or tissues, and poor people who need organ transplants but cannot afford to buy organs or body tissues as a means of healing disease. in order for these crimes to be eradicated in indonesia, it is necessary to reformulate criminal policies in indonesia through 2 sub-policies, namely non-penal policies, and penal policies. the essence of the notion of criminal policy reformulation is the process of reformulating a written crime eradication framework based on the results of a review so that the revised strategy will be obtained so that crime eradication policies can achieve their goals efficiently and effectively. the criminal policy outlines the government's framework for tackling the crime of trafficking in organs and/or body tissues, whether carried out using a non-penal policy or using penal policy. the ultimate goal of criminal policy is to eliminate crime for the sake of social welfare. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 10 based on this line of thought, and so that the reformulation of criminal policy can be prospective, the indonesian government needs to use the results of scientific research in the fields of criminology and law. therefore, the results of this study will be useful, because researchers will evaluate the implementation of criminal policies, and finally will recommend what policies should be carried out by the government so that the eradication of organ trafficking can be efficient and effective. in order for the findings of this study to support the formulation of criminal policies, it is necessary to discuss in depth the 2 problem formulations in this research, namely (1) how to formulate non-penal policies in indonesia in order to prevent the occurrence of criminal acts of trading organs and/or body tissues? (2) how to formulate a prospective penal policy so that it can be used as a basis for convicting perpetrators of criminal acts who trade organs and/or body tissues? theoretical framework government policies to tackle crime in society can be called criminal policies. in order to tackle every crime, a solid strategy from the state and society is needed. according to hoefnagels, the criminal policy is not a standalone policy but is formed based on the conception of several disciplines, (hoefnagels, 1973) which is carried out with two kinds of sub-policies, namely penal policy, and non-penal policy. the theory of criminal policy can be described in the following diagram. based on the analysis above, it can be understood that the penal policy is the prevention of crime by using criminal law. the policy is operationalized by implementing criminal law, namely material law, formal law, and penance law in society. the operationalization of the penal policy includes criminalization, decriminalization, criminal polic y law enforcement policy social policy influencing views of society on crime and punishment (mass media) criminal law application ( practical criminology ) prevention without punishment adm. of crim. justice in narrow sense crime legislation crime jurisprudence crime process in wide sense juridical physical scientific social scientific sentencing forensic psychiatry and psychology forensic social work crime, sentence execution and police statistics social policy community planing mental health national mental health ) ( social welfare, children welfare administrative & civil law global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 11 penalization, and depenalization. the enforcement of criminal law is highly dependent on the development of legal politics, criminal politics, and social politics. therefore, law enforcement does not only pay attention to autonomous law but also pays attention to social problems and the science of social behavior.(hoefnagels, 1973) while the non-penal policy is carried out by influencing the public's view of crime and punishment through mass media and prevention without using a criminal. this policy has a very broad scope. based on the hoefnagels scheme above, it can be seen that several forms of non-penal policies are (1) social policy, (2) community mental health planning and development, (3) national mental health improvement, may include efforts to create social welfare and children's welfare, and (4) application of administrative law and civil law. the main objective of efforts within the scope of the non-penal policy is to improve certain social conditions, which directly or indirectly have an influence on crime prevention. the human body and its parts in a broad sense are considered non-commercial objects (lenk & beier, 2012). trafficking in persons is a modern form of slavery. trafficking in persons occurs both nationally and internationally and is a violation of human rights that needs to be addressed by all countries (un.gift united nations global initiative to fight human trafficking, 2015)the united nations global initiative to fight human trafficking (un gift) stipulates that organ trafficking is a crime that occurs in 3 categories of modes. (a)traffickers coerce or trick victims into giving away their organs. (b) when the victim formally or informally agrees to sell the organ, then is conned or not paid for the organ sold, or is paid less than the agreed price. (c) the potential victim is treated like a sick person, even though he is not sick. after that, the organs were removed without the victim's knowledge. victimologically, people who are vulnerable to selling organs include migrant workers, the homeless, or the illiterate. with regard to trafficking in organs and/or body tissues, indonesian criminal law (namely the health act, child protection act, and the criminal act of trafficking in persons) has prohibited the commercialization of organs and/or body tissues, for any reason. article 92 of the health act uses the prohibition term "trading in organs or body tissues," and the trafficking in persons act uses the prohibition term "exploitation of people". meanwhile, the child protection act explicitly mentions the prohibition term "selling and buying body organs and/or body tissues." the terms 'organ trafficking', 'illegal organ trafficking', 'organ buying', 'transplant tourism' and others are often used interchangeably to refer to trafficking in persons for the purpose of harvesting organs (un.gift united nations global initiative to fight human trafficking, 2015). the term commercialization of human organs or tissues refers to the provisions of article 64 (3) of the health act which strictly prohibits organs or body tissues from being traded under any pretext. thus, the notion of trading organs and/or body tissues is the same as the term commercialization of organs and/or body tissues. the prohibition on trading applies to all trading activities, whether for transplant purposes or for other purposes. the regulation on the prohibition of organ trafficking in indonesia is as follows. article 64 juncto 192 of act no. 36 of 2009 concerning health, article 192 which stipulates, that anyone who intentionally trades organs or body tissues under any pretext as referred to in article 64 paragraph (3) shall be punished with imprisonment for a maximum of 10 (ten) years and a fine of a maximum of idr 1.000.000.000,00 (one billion rupiahs). even according to the health act, the perpetrators of criminal acts in the trade of organs and/or body tissues, are not only individuals (humans) but also corporations, including hospitals (mahasena, 2018) article 2 of act number 21 of 2007 concerning the eradication of the crime of trafficking in persons, that any person who recruits, transports, harbors, sends, transfers, or receives a person by means of threats of violence, use of force, kidnapping, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or position of vulnerability, debt bondage global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 12 or giving payments or benefits despite obtaining the consent of a person who has control over another person, for the purpose of exploiting that person in the territory of the republic of indonesia, shall be punished with imprisonment for a minimum of 3 (three) years and a maximum of 15 (five) years. twelve) years and a minimum fine of rp. 120,000,000.00 (one hundred and twenty million rupiahs) and a maximum of rp. 600,000,000.00 (six hundred million rupiah). act no. 23 of 2002 concerning child protection, 84 regulates the prohibition of the law against child organ transplants for their own benefit. article 85 paragraph (1) regulates the prohibition of buying and selling children's organs, that anyone who trades organs and/or body tissues of children shall be punished with imprisonment for a maximum of 15 (fifteen) years and/or a fine of a maximum of rp. 300,000. .000,00 (three hundred million rupiahs). method this article was written based on the results of criminology and law research. this study focuses on the application of law and the contents of positive law from the internal side in the form of criminal law which regulates the prohibition of trading organs and/or body tissues, and its implementation in court. the legal materials used are (a) primary materials, namely in the form of indonesian laws and regulations, international law, and court decisions, and (b) secondary materials in the form of annual reports of government agencies and the ministry of health as well as scientific articles, and (c) news tertiary materials. and reviews in the mass media. all legal sources were searched using desk research techniques. the contents of the three types of legal materials were analyzed using technical content analysis and legal comparisons. the results of the legal analysis and its implementation are analyzed on an ongoing basis through internal and external analysis in order to obtain systematic findings on criminal policies against the sale and purchase of organs and/or body tissues. the framework that researchers will find is in the form of evaluation results and prescriptions.(soerjono, soekanto. sri, 1995) results and discussion (a) overview of the phenomenon of organ trafficking in indonesia based on studies of legal materials in the mass media, court decisions, and official announcements from ministries or law enforcement, it is known that in indonesia there have been cases of trafficking in disguised organs from 1993 to 2019. in 1993 there was an indonesian migrant worker abroad who became a victim of an organ theft case, namely ati wardiyati. his body was sent to indonesia, whose organs were not complete (putri, 2019). between 2003 and 2004, there were at least 80 cases of child trafficking with the mode of adoption involving a domestic syndicate. (sitanggang, 2019). from 2010 to 2011, in the bangka belitung area, there were 24 cases of organ sales. (sitanggang, 2019)in 2012, in malaysia, there were three shooting cases of indonesian workers, and it turned out that there were missing organs. (bbc.com, 2017a). in 2013, there were discoveries of human organs, namely the lungs and hearts of humans in minas district, siak regency, riau which were suspected to be related to a syndicate of trafficking in human organs (republika.co.id, 2013). in 2014, the directorate for the protection of indonesian citizens handled the case of sri rabitah, who allegedly had her kidney removed while working in qatar (republika.co.id, 2013). from 2014 to 2015 there were 15 people who had become victims of trafficking/kidney organ transplantation in west java. in 2016, there were cases of selling children's organs in global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 13 various modes in three areas, namely in bogor, tangerang, and central java. a 10-year-old boy was returned to his family near the borders of jayanti (tangerang) and cikande (serang), banten with a condition without a kidney and heart. (kementerian pemberdayaan perempuan dan perlindungan anak republik indonesia, 2016). in 2016 the body of dolfina abuk (indonesian workers abroad from north central timor regency) was returned full of stitches. (bbc.com, 2017a). in 2019, the central jakarta court convicted 4 kidney trading brokers. the description of phenomena and cases as described above is an indicator that trafficking in organs and/or body tissues has occurred in indonesia and cannot be eliminated optimally, either by using non-penal policies or by means of penal policies. (b) non-penal policy reformulation on trafficking in organs and/or body tissues referring to hoefnagel’s theory, the non-penal policies that have been carried out by the indonesian government to tackle trafficking in organs and/or body tissues are as follows. the process of influencing the public's view of crime and punishment through the mass media has been carried out. this policy is carried out by the government together with community organizations, religious organizations, and stakeholders by providing legal counseling. conventional and electronic mass media, including government agency websites and social media, have been utilized. however, its implementation has not been well coordinated in a complete work program, and there has been no measurable evaluation of the success rate of socialization and efforts to influence the public's view of organ trafficking. prevention of crime without the use of punishment in the form of planning and developing community mental health, improving mental health nationally, including efforts to create social welfare and children's welfare has been carried out. this step is necessary because the intervention is very important for the indonesian government to educate the public to increase transplant knowledge and motivation. the application of administrative law and civil law has been carried out. in 2021, the president of the republic of indonesia will create government regulation number 53 of 2021 concerning the transplantation of body organs and tissues. the contents of the regulation are very good in regulating the requirements, procedures, and handling of organ and/or tissue transplantation, compared to the contents of the previously applicable health ministerial regulation, namely the regulation of the minister of health of the republic of indonesia number 38 of 2016 concerning organ transplantation. this new government regulation has indeed been mandated in article 65 paragraph (3) of the health act. indonesia has also established a national transplant committee as the sole institution in indonesia that oversees and is responsible for organ donation, transplant allocation, and practice to ensure standardization, traceability, transparency, quality, safety, justice, and public trust. the formation of the committee is based on the decree of the minister of health. number hk.01.07/menkes/139/2021 concerning the national transplant committee. however, there is no national evaluation of the results of implementing government regulations and the performance of the national transplant committee. (c) penal policy reformulation on trafficking in organs and/or body tissues the penal policy is applied by using substantive criminal law, procedural criminal law, and penitent law. before the health act, the act on the eradication of criminal acts of trafficking in persons, and the child protection act, the crime of buying and selling organs was regulated by the criminal code to adjudicate cases of buying and selling organs and/or body tissues. penal policies through the application of criminal law by law enforcement officers have been implemented in indonesia as follows. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 14 in 2016, the central jakarta district court sentenced perpetrators to participate in the trafficking of human organs under the criminal act of trafficking in persons. the perpetrator, namely dedi supriadi bin oman rahman, was sentenced to 5 years and 6 months, and a fine of 200 million. yana priatna alias amang was sentenced to 5 years and 6 months, and a fine of 200 million. the donors who received the money were pery jayanto, dasep, ipan sopian, edi midun, and jajang jumara (putusan pengadilan negeri jakarta pusat, 2016) and all of them were not convicted because they were considered victims of criminal acts. the number of victims of kidney buying and selling who requested legal protection from lpsk is around 30 people. provisions in the criminal act of trafficking in persons cannot be used as a means to criminalize organ donors who are indicated to sell organs, namely receiving around 90 million per person from recipients of organs that have been transplanted. in 2017 the kupang court convicted 15 defendants for being legally and convincingly proven to have “illegally dispatched indonesian migrant workers (tki) on behalf of yufrinda selan, who is in fact a victim of organ trafficking in malaysia. (bbc.com, 2017b) the legal provisions in the criminal act of trafficking in persons can be used as a means to punish all perpetrators because if there are indications of organ sales, the recipient of the money is positioned as the victim, not the perpetrator. finally, in 2019, the central jakarta court convicted 3 perpetrators of buying and selling kidneys with 11 victims based on article 192 of the health act, on behalf of agung setiawan alias agung bin agus samsudin, deni fajar muharam alias defa, and ahmad junaedi alias ahmad, legally proven and convincingly participate in the trading of organs or body tissues as regulated and subject to criminal sanctions article 192 in conjunction with article 64 paragraph (3) of act number 36 of 2009 concerning health relating to (juncto) article 55 paragraph (1) number 1 of the criminal code with a criminal offense the same, namely each with a prison sentence of 2 years and 6 months, and a fine of rp. 250,000,000 (two hundred and fifty million rupiah) each, if the fine is not paid, it will be replaced with imprisonment for 1 (one) month. the provisions in this health act are also not used by judges as a basis for criminalizing organ donors (who receive around 80-90 million rupiah per person) from organ recipients (who give money between 200-300 million rupiah per person) because criminal law enforcers consider that the recipient of the proceeds from the sale (donor) is a victim of a crime, and the recipient of the donor is a patient who is sick and wants to recover. the parties who receive money and give money which they then hand over to each other and receive a kidney through a transplant are: (a) the name of the donor ade (banten) the name of the donor recipient chen (bangka belitung), (b) the name of the donor ikhsan (east java) the name of the recipient donor wisnstien (jakarta), (c) name of donor ferry (east java) name of donor recipient martin (jakarta), (d) name of donor munir (east java) name of donor anto (west java), (e) name of donor sawavo ( west java) the name of the donor recipient gugun (west java), (f) the name of the donor dedi (jakarta) the name of the donor recipient kristo (bangka belitung), (g) the name of the donor panji (west java) the name of the donor recipient rooby (west java), (g) name of donor ahmad (yogyakarta) name of donor recipient hersa (west java, and (i) name of donor edy (west java) name of donor recipient sugih (central sulawesi) based on the court's decision as a manifestation of the implementation of the penal policy in indonesia, it can be understood that the law violators who are convicted are brokers of buying and selling organs, and no one is indicated to sell organs and people who buy organs are sentenced to crime in indonesia. whereas the evidence, based on the court's decision, the recipient of the organ has paid the broker or donor in order to obtain the organ (kidney) for the needs of the transplant. kidney donors are also proven to have received money from donor recipients or brokers in exchange for the delivery of their organs. indeed, the police stated that the recipient of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 15 the kidney would not be a suspect because as a sick person, they always try to recover (beritasatu.com, 2016), and the recipient of the money is a victim of a crime. based on these facts, it turns out that there are weaknesses in the content of the law that prohibits organ trading and there are weaknesses in the law enforcement process. criminological, to tackle these crimes, it is still necessary to improve the legal provisions and the enforcement process. according to the health law, the perpetrators of the crime of organ trafficking are not only individuals but also corporations, and it turns out that so far no corporation has been convicted (mahasena, 2018). in general, the provisions of the criminal law governing organ trafficking are adequate, namely the health act, child protection act, and the act on the eradication of trafficking in persons. however, if examined in terms of substance, the more laws that regulate the prohibition of organ trafficking (i.e. 3 la acts), the greater the risk of disparity in sentencing by courts and disparity in interpretation by law enforcement officials. if compared, based on the severity of the criminal threat, the threat of imprisonment and fines for perpetrators of trafficking in organs and/or body tissues as regulated in the criminal act of trafficking in persons is lighter than the criminal threats in the health act and child protection act. based on the norm target, there will be more people who can be convicted under the health act, not only sellers, buyers, people who help, people who advocate, and people who participate, but also health service facilities involved, because of the health act every corporation is also a criminally liable party. in order for the penal policy to be effective, the criminal provisions governing the prohibition of trafficking in persons and the threat of punishment are more severe, and it is necessary to change the contents of article 92 of the health act. this article needs to be discussed because the criminal provisions for perpetrators of trafficking in organs and/or body tissues are more complete than the act on child protection and the act on the eradication of trafficking in persons. the reformulation of the contents of the rules is as follows. (1) it is necessary to add 1 paragraph in article 92 of the health act so that the contents of article 192 are as follows. (1) any person who deliberately trades organs or body tissues with any pretext as referred to in article 64 paragraph (3) shall be sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 10 (ten) years and a maximum fine of rp. 1,000,000,000.00 (one billion). rupiah). (2) in the event that the crime as regulated in paragraph (1) is committed against a child, the criminal penalty shall be increased by 1 (one) time. (2) it is necessary to add an explanation in article 92 paragraph (1) of the health act so that the contents of the explanation are as follows. editor's explanation of article 192 (1) of the health act, "donors and recipients of organ and/or human tissue donors who are proven to have received or given money or other materials in exchange for transplants are included in the category of criminals regulated in this article." penal policy reformulation by amending the provisions of article 192 of the health act can be used by criminal law enforcement as a means of punishing donors and recipients of organ and/or body tissue donors who have actually received and given money to each other. then, law enforcers in their respective environments (i.e., the police, prosecutors, and courts) make internal regulations that can encourage the use of article 192 of the health act to prosecute perpetrators who trade organs and/or body tissues for both transplantation and other purposes. this opinion is in line with the finding that there are many laws in a country that have not been able to deal with organ trafficking, (madsen, 2013) so it needs to be critically evaluated. (ambagtsheer et al., 2013)the increase in the severity of criminal threats as referred to in article 192 paragraph (2) needs to be done because in criminal law it is necessary to define in detail the elements of behavior and perpetrators along with criminal threats that the state can use as a basis for judging. the criminal provisions resulting from these changes can support the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 16 welfare of members of the community because the health act has an important role in the context of human health care, especially in efforts to prevent and force people to comply with health standards, (yeung & horder, 2014) and determine the limits of applicable legal jurisdiction (mchale, 2013). the criminal policy reformulation is in accordance with the mandate of the istanbul declaration on organ trade and transplant tourism in 2008 that each country or jurisdiction must develop and implement laws and regulations to regulate organ recovery from deceased and living donors and transplant practices, in accordance with international standards. if the indonesian government carries out criminal policy reformulation measures, then indonesia has implemented wma resolution 44.25, that the world health assembly asks countries to prevent the buying and selling of human organs for transplantation. the regulation on the prohibition of organ trafficking in criminal law is in accordance with the provisions of the united nations, who, and the istanbul declaration of 2008. the establishment of cooperation between countries to combat trafficking in organs and/or body tissues is also in line with international law because of all countries, including indonesia (madsen, 2013). conclusion based on the discussion above, it can be understood that although the indonesian government has carried out criminal policies, it turns out that cases of trafficking in organs for transplants occur in indonesia. in order for the crime of trafficking in organs and/or body tissues to be minimized, reformulation of non-penal policies is needed, namely preparing a crime prevention plan by involving stakeholders so that community member who has the potential to commit crimes understand the dangers and legal risks, improve people's mental health, increase income per capita, and improve administrative and civil law relating to organ transplantation. meanwhile, the penal policy was reformulated by amending the contents of article 92 of the health act, making regulations within the police, prosecutors, and courts to always use the health act as a basis for prosecuting perpetrators. the criminal policy reformulation plan in the non-penal sub-policy is stated in a written document made by the ministry of health, ministry of social affairs, and ministry of communication and information so that it can be used as a basis for the president in revising government regulations. meanwhile, the criminal policy reformulation plan in the penal sub-policy is stated in a written document made by the ministry of law and human rights so that it can be used as a basis for the president in issuing government regulations, and proposes a revision of article 92 of the health act. reference ambagtsheer, f., zaitch, d., & weimar, w. (2013). the battle for human organs: organ trafficking and transplant tourism in a global context. global crime, 14(1). bbc.com. (2017a). kasus sri rabitah: pencurian organ tubuh tki bukan yang pertama kalinya. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-39112370. bbc.com. (2017b). satu kasus perdagangan manusia, 15 orang divonis penjara di ntt. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-40102948. beritasatu.com. (2016). kasus ginjal, tersangka pernah jual ginjal di singapura rp 3 miliar. https://www.beritasatu.com/nasional/350077/kasus-ginjal-tersangka-pernah-jual-ginjaldisingapura-rp-3-miliar. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 17 fauziyat, a. (2017). global challenge of early detection and management of chronic kidney disease. jurnal kedokteran dan kesehatan indonesia, 8(1). freedomunited.org. (2020). stop forced organ harvesting. https://www.freedomunited.org/advocate/forcedorgan-harvesting/. hoefnagels, g. p. (1973). the other side of criminology (vol. 1). springer dordrecht. kementerian pemberdayaan perempuan dan perlindungan anak republik indonesia. (2016). press release: perdagangan ginjal modus baru tindak pidana perdagangan orang. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/index.php/page/read/30/942/press-release-perdaganganginjalmodus-baru-tindak-pidana-perdagangan-orang. lenk, c., & beier, k. (2012). is the commercialisation of human tissue and body material forbidden in the countries of the european union? journal of medical ethics, 38(6). madsen, f. g. (2013). organ transplantation and transnational organised crime the rusi journal. the rusi journal, 158(5). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2013.847706 mahasena, a. (2018). pertanggungjawaban pidana bagi pelaku tindak pidana jual beli organ tubuh manusia. jurnal magister hukum udayana (udayana master law journal), 7(1). marcelino, a., mochtar, c. a., wahyudi, i., & hamid, a. r. (2018). kidney transplantation: a new era of laparoscopic living donor nephrectomy in indonesia. asian journal of surgery, 41(1), 55–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asjsur.2017.02.010 mchale, j. v. (2013). organ transplantation, the criminal law, and the health tourist a case for extraterritorial jurisdiction? cambridge quarterly of healthcare ethics, 22(1). okezone.com. (2016). kasus penjualan organ tubuh yang pernah bikin heboh. https://megapolitan.okezone.com/read/2016/02/05/338/1305727/kasus-penjualan-organtubuhyang-pernah-bikin-heboh. peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia nomor 53 tahun 2021 tentang transplantasi organ dan jaringan tubuh. (2021). putri, w. a. m. (2019). pertanggungjawaban pidana orang yang mengiklankan penjualan organ tubuh manusia secara online . universitas 17 agustus 1945. putusan pengadilan negeri jakarta pusat. (2016). putusan pengadilan negeri jakarta pusat no. 1015.pid.b/pn.jkt.pst/2016. republika.co.id. (2013). sindikat penjualan organ tubuh manusia intai riau. https://www.republika.co.id/berita/mug841/sindikat-penjualan-organ-tubuh-manusia-intai-riau. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 18 setiawan, d. (2014). organ trafficking:kanibalisme modern terhadap ham anak. http://www.kpai.go.id. sitanggang, p. (2019). pembantuan dalam tindak pidana perdagangan orang (studi putusan pengadilan negeri medan no. 667/pid.sus/2018/pn mdn). universitas sumatera utara. soerjono, soekanto. sri, m. (1995). penelitian hukum normatif, suatu tinjauan singkat. rajawali press. supit, t., nugroho, e. a., santosa, a., soedarso, m. a., daniswara, n., & addin, s. r. (2019). kidney transplantation in indonesia: an update. asian journal of urology, 6(4). un.gift united nations global initiative to fight human trafficking. (2015). united nations office on drugs and crime, assessment toolkit: trafficking in persons for the purpose of organ removal. yeung, k., & horder, j. (2014). how can the criminal law support the provision of quality in healthcare? bmj journals, 23(6). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 7; july-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 a study of manipulative drill's effect on students' interest in oral english within enugu state's tertiary context 1dr. chika emeka nwachukwu, 2prof. amara uche okoro, 3dr. ngozi ifeoma okafor and 4prof. ikechukwu obi ezeugo article info abstract keywords: english language, global communication, oral english, language proficiency, language education. the role of the english language as a global means of communication has grown significantly, fostering mutual understanding between native speakers and non-native users worldwide. this transformation from a foreign to an international language has led to an increasing demand for proficiency, fluency, and effective communication in english, particularly evident in countries like nigeria. in nigeria, english serves a dual purpose as both a medium of instruction and a subject of study across all educational levels, including tertiary institutions, as mandated by the national policy on education. the nigerian educational research and development council highlights the paramount importance of developing linguistic competencies, with a special emphasis on spoken english skills, encompassing articulation, pronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation. however, oral english instruction often remains overlooked, relegated to introductory stages and lacking sustained attention throughout the curriculum. this discrepancy is problematic given the centrality of oral proficiency in language communication. neglecting this aspect can hinder effective language use and comprehension, leading to potential misunderstandings and miscommunications. this paper underscores the need to elevate oral english education to a prominent position within the curriculum and advocates for its consistent incorporation as a fundamental component of language learning. by recognizing the indispensability of oral english, educators and policymakers can empower learners to become adept communicators and bridge the gap between language acquisition and practical application. 1,2,3,4department of language studies, school of arts and social sciences, enugu state college of education (technical), enugu. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 2 introduction the english language, apart from becoming a key element in the globalization process, has metamorphosed into an international language of communication (uloh-bethels and offorma 2019). emad(2010) notes that english has developed from a foreign to an international language, which plays a significant role in achieving mutual intelligibility and understanding between native speakers and other users of english in the world. consequently, there is an increasing need for accuracy, fluency and communicative competence in english language in almost all the countries of the world including nigeria. english plays a dual significant pedagogical role in nigeria; as a language of instruction and a subject of study. it is in this light that the teaching and learning of english has become obligatory at all levels of education including the tertiary institutions. this is as enshrined in the national policy on education (npe) by the federal government of nigeria (frn, 2013). the objectives of teaching english in nigerian tertiary institutions, according to the nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc, 2017), include equipping students with the basic linguistic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing that will enable students to communicate competently in both the written and spoken forms of english. of all these linguistic skills, speaking is the most important (carte and nuan, 2001). the speaking skill is taught at the tertiary institutions as the spoken or oral english. this is the aspect of english which deals with articulation and pronunciation of english speech sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation. oral english is very essential for all persons and for all purposes, as it enables one to use the english language very well, almost like the native speakers. it is very necessary for learners of english language to master the use of oral english well in order to be good models of the language. however, as important as the oral english is in the learning of english, it is still a neglected area in english language teaching which is only focused on the first year of study through the introduction of the target language alphabet and sound system and is given less importance after the introductory stage. gilakjiani (2012) noted that oral english is the basis of communication and should be valued in the same weight as other components and skills of language such as grammar and writing. it is also considered as a priority since language is fundamentally a medium of communication which should be understood by all. he also stressed that a person with an unintelligible pronunciation may run the risk of not being understood by others. factors contributing to lack of interest in the teaching and learning of oral english range from those posed by the students, none use of appropriate technique, interference from the learners’ first language and the complex nature of oral english itself to the evaluation of proficiency in the skill. ayuba (2012) added that it is neglected because of its complexity, dearth of scientific foundation, insufficient teaching materials, the absence of none native speakers with formal expertise in pronunciation and opposing ideas concerning the teaching of oral english. other facts of neglecting oral english in language classrooms arise from the teachers’ doubt about how to teach it and lack of interest in the topics. most learners believe that they do not need special lessons in oral english as their productivity does not depend on the ability to speak. the introduction of speech organs which ought to have been acquired in the primary and secondary levels were not given much attention in the curriculum. the phonemes of the oral english were introduced without any teaching on their production for lack of time and facilities such as a standard language laboratory. where the teacher has to make do with open classrooms, a large number of students await him, and the proper assessment of the students’ progress in pronunciation was almost impossible. in secondary school terminal exams like west african examination council (waec), national examination council (neco), general certificate in education (gce), the chief examiners’ reports on oral english are overshadowed by the general global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 3 reports on the english language. even as the chief examiners explain in details, the performances in grammar and writing, not much time was dedicated to oral english so as to enable teachers and learners alike to know the aspect of failure to be able to channel their efforts toward them. for instance, the waec chief examiner’s report (2015) pointed out in details, the students’ inability to grasp the basic grammar such as tense, concord, spelling and complementation without any mention of students’ performance in oral english. furthermore, most institutions, focus on grammar and syntax to the disadvantage of the oral aspect of the english language forgetting that proper pronunciation, not only makes our speech intelligible, but also establishes rapport with the listeners. ayuba (2012) noted that the character of a man is either revealed or concealed through his speech unless, of course, he has the discipline to conceal his emotions. good grooming is essential in the communicative life of an individual because one is addressed, not only the way one dressed up, but also the way one speaks. most of these grooming are expected to take place in oral english classes to learners for various educational sectors including teacher trainees in institutions of higher learning. part of their training includes oral english designed to enable them possess good mastery of communicative skills so as to attain certain levels of communicative competence. this oral english is taught through related courses like introduction to phonetics and phonology, which has to do with the production of vowels and consonant sounds. the teaching of the production of the consonant and the vowel sounds includes the suprasegmental features of sounds and sound realization. oral english introduction to phonetics and phonology oral english is studied in institutions of higher learning at 100 level (year 1) through related courses such as – introduction to phonetics and phonology, a course offered in colleges of education in nigeria. the introduction to phonetics and phonology (known as eng 112 in enugu state college of education, technical) is an aspect of oral english taught in colleges of education in nigeria. the objective of this course as stipulated by the national commission for colleges of education (ncce) minimum standard are to expose students to relevant training in phonetics and phonology. it stressed the use of segmental and supra-segmental phonemes of english in the language laboratory and reduction, to the minimal level, the mother tongue (mt) interference in speech at the supra-segmental level (federal republic of nigeria (2012). the objectives as outlined by the ncce have not in any way been achieved as the teaching of oral english is still neglected and ignored as could be seen in the continued poor performance of students in external examinations. this is attributed to the fact that not many oral english teaching strategies, techniques are available to teachers in the classroom. a pronunciation course is considered an elective course in colleges of education. the argument, probably, could be that english pronunciation is not important at all, for very few tests would require students to show abilities related to pronunciation or speaking. both students and teachers believe that spending time on pronunciation is useless because it would be difficult, if not impossible for students to hear differences in the production of minimal pairs. dalton (2002) opined that oral english is simply ignored in the curriculum of some colleges of education and is even described as “the cinderella of language teaching”. this means that an often low level of emphasis was placed on this very important language skill. the effect of this is serious slide in the performances of students. hence the purpose of this study is to find out the impact of manipulative drill on students’ achievement in oral english as opposed to word-association drill. the study will examine the performances of students taught with each techniques, respectively. the cause of this failure has also been attributed to the conventional technique of teaching adopted by teachers of oral english. in the teaching of oral english, so many techniques such as mobility, saturation, comparative global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 4 and substitution drills have been introduced and adopted in the past. among the various techniques of teaching oral english is the word-association drill also. in this type of drill, the teacher pronounces some vocabularies and the students repeat them or are asked to practice them. then, the teacher writes down more vocabularies and pronounces the english phonemes. after the teacher pronounces one phoneme, the students are asked to predict what the phonemes are, based on the written words. the word-association drill as a technique does not provide the students enough varying opportunities to master the pronunciation activities as the students’ knowledge and mastery are only dependent on the model provided by the teacher. once the teacher fails to give the accurate and appropriate novel utterances the students who are at the mercy of their teachers and who have little or no input continue in the perpetual communicative error. this is assumed to have contributed to the continued low performances of students in oral english examinations. when this occurs, it can be harder to train the students in a different method of speaking and methodology. therefore, the need arises for a more effective technique of teaching oral english which manipulative drill can provide. the rampant failure in the oral form of the second language or foreign language teaching has made it necessary to credit new techniques. the old written exercise has been supplemented by the oral exercises. there are techniques and devices to develop oral english: and there are others to develop reading and writing, but there is a particular one that will enable teachers achieve better academic performance which is manipulative drill. yu (2013) noted that prior to the formalization of language drills in language instructions good oral mastery through mere repetition has not been possible. it is in this context that the need for a discussion on manipulative drills was felt to be essential. the manipulative drill (md) is primarily intended for oral practice. language habits are acquired through prescription. if one wants to communicate in an effective manner, the manipulation of language structure is necessary. so language patterns are repeated to the point of memorization so as to establish them as habits. the manipulative drill adopts the several procedures that are practical in nature including the following; 1) emphasize the stressed syllable by using visual effects: thicken, capitalize, underline, or color the stressed syllable. for example, today to day today today 2) use of rubber bandpull a wide rubber band between the thumbs while saying a word. stretch it out during the stressed syllable but leave it short during other syllables. 3) tapping, clapping or playing simple rhythm instruments. give a strong beat on the stressed syllable and weak beats on the other syllables. successful language instruction expects an automatic use of language manipulation by the learners (haycraft, 2012). in the word association drill, without having a grammatical analysis the learner will respond by analogy, whereas in manipulative drill unless the learner understands the features involved in the language manipulation he will not be able to give a correct and complete response. this understanding of the feature is what makes the learning internalized in the learner. manipulative drill takes the learner into available procedure that helps boost his communicative competence. in manipulative drill students first hear model dialogue either read by the teacher or on tape containing the key structures that are the focus of the lesson. they repeat each line of the dialogue individually and in chorus. the teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation and fluency. correction of mistakes of pronunciation is direct and immediate. the dialogue is memorized gradually, line by line. a line may be broken down into several phrases or words if necessary. the dialogue is read aloud in chorus one half saying one speaker’s part and the other half responding. the students do not consult their books throughout this phase. the dialogue is adapted to the students’ interest or situation through changing certain key words or phrases. this is acted out by the students. certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 5 pattern drills of different kinds. these are first practiced in chorus and then individually. drills are made use of to help the learners grasp the structural points and help them to internalize these structures. it is through constant repetition and manipulation that a language could be mastered and the features of the target language developed as habits. it is obvious that manipulative drill plays an extremely significant role in the language teaching. just as the gradation of vocabulary and structure is essential in order to make the instructional materials more effective, it is equally essential, if not more, to present the drills and exercises in a graded manner from simple to complex. by so arranging, the learner will have the facility of mastering the simple or easier aspect first and gradually proceed to the complex or difficult aspect. in so doing, the learners will have very little to manipulate in the initial stages and the degree of manipulation gradually increases as one proceeds gradually from the simplest drill to complex and more complex ones include interest. interest involves stored knowledge or cognitive representation stored from past experience and value or related emotional responses such as feelings of competence (renninger 2015). given the inherent linkages between these emotions and cognitive structures, interest and knowledge develop and influence how an individual engages in current and subsequent tasks. this resultant persistent interest affects the ease and likelihood that material will be encoded in the student’s memory (norman 2013). despite the various approaches to the study of interest and accompanying components, one common assumption across the body of work is that interest is a phenomenon that emerges from an individual’s interaction with his or her environment. although interest has recorded reasonable attention in the education literature for decades, bulunuz (2017) said that the construct is relatively absent from the field of instructional communication interest deals with how pleasant and attractive a person finds a given activity. it is believed to be a very important factor in learning. hornby (2001) defined it as the quality that something has when it attracts people’s attention or makes them to want to know more about it. it goes hand in hand with motivation when one is interested in learning oral english for instance, one is motivated to learn it, and when one is motivated to learn one develops interest in learning it. so, interest can be seen as a motivational construct that spur one into activities. so, teachers of oral english have to make their subjects as interesting as possible in order to stimulate and better hold their student interest and enhance their achievement. one of the ways of insurance this is the use of interesting and active learner-oriented instructional technique which the manipulative drill provides. the strategy that can offer this opportunity of effective understanding of oral english may be constant manipulation. in all drills learners have no or very little choice over what is said, so drills are a form of very controlled practice. there is one correct answer and the main focus is on getting it right. that is on accuracy. there is also the possibility of groups or pairs of students engaging in language drills together. in using the manipulative drill as a technique, structural patterns that are capable of creating and developing unconscious correct habits in learners are presented. drill that suit the interest and maturational levels of the learners and drill whose contents are related and sufficient to help learners internalize the chosen structures in oral english are also presented through the manipulative drill. it is against this backdrop that this study examined the effect of manipulative drill on teacher trainees’ achievement in oral english. two research questions and hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. research questions what are the mean interest ratings of students taught oral english using manipulative drill and those taught with word association drill? research hypothesis global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 6 ho1: there will be no significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of student taught oral english using manipulative drill and those taught using word association drill. research method the study employed the quasi-experimental research design. specifically, it is the non-randomized, control group, pre-test, post-test design. this design was adopted because the students that were used for the experiment were already in intact classes and randomization would disrupt the existing structure in the school, thus posing some administrative problems. area of the study this study was carried out in enugu state, nigeria. enugu state is located at the south east of nigeria. it is bounded by five statesanambra and abia in the south, ebonyi, kogi and benue states in the north. the residents were made up of mostly civil servants, business men and women and students. the study was carried out at the enugu state college of education technical, (escet). this institution was chosen because it is an educational institution that trains students who will become teachers of oral english on graduation and has language studies department. population of the study the population of this study consists of all the year one students offering english in the department of language studies of the enugu state college of education technical. there are seventy-five (75) year one students from enugu state college of education technical. this population is made up of 46 female and 29 male students. sample and sampling technique all the seventy-five (75) year one students of language studies department, enugu state college of education technical enugu for the academic year were used for the study. the school has language studies department. the criterion for this selection was based mainly on the higher institution in the state that has department of language studies. in assigning the experimental and control, the 53 students from enugu state college of education technical who gained admission after one-year remedial course became the experimental group while the 22 students who gained admission through jamb became the control group. both groups possess the same intelligence quotient (iq) this was achieved through the tossing of coin. instruments for data collection the instrument used to collect data for the study was the oral english interest inventory (oeii). the oral english interest inventory (oeii) was a 20-item instrument developed by the researcher based on the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains as they pertain to expressions of interest. the cognitive component had seven statements of interest and it dealt with the interest of the subject in knowing about oral english. the affective component had to do with the attraction or violence of the subject in the presence of the object of the interest it had six statements of interest. the psychomotor component, on the other hand, had seven statement of interest and it dealt with the actions towards to the object of interest. in all, oeii covered the general areas of student’s interest in oral english. it consisted of ten positive and ten negative items. the instrument was constructed on a four point likert type of strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d) and strongly disagree (sd). validation of the instrument the oral english interest inventory (oeii) was subjected to face validation. however, (oeii) was further subjected to content validation. the instrument was presented to five specialists. two of them are in language education; two in educational measurement and evaluation and one from educational psychology. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 7 for the face validation of oeii, the specialists were requested to examine the clarity of the instructions given; check the framing of the questions and their suitability to year 1 students; determine whether the marking scheme is accurate; check the adequacy and relevance of the purpose research questions, hypotheses and lesson plans with regard to instruments; and suggest any modifications to improve the face validity of the instrument. for the content validation of the oeii, the experts were requested to examine the test items generated in relation to the test blue print and table of specification and make recommendations. the table of specification/test blue print contains columns for knowledge and comprehension (lower order level) and application (higher order level). these are the levels of cognitive domain contained in the achievement test. reliability of the instrument in order to determine the reliability of the instruments, the researcher administered the oeii to 20 students from institute of ecumenical education thinkers corner enugu, enugu state, nigeria. the subjects were outside the area of the study within the same enugu urban area. they possessed similar social and educational characteristics as those that were used for the study. after administering the oeii the researcher determined the internal consistency of the oeii using kuderrichrdson’s formula (k – r 20). this formula is mostly applicable to tests that are dichotomously scored (ezeh, 2003). the oeii instrument that was used in this study has dichotomously scored items. hence, kuderrichrdson’s formula was found relevant. method of data analysis in the analysis of data that were got from the oeii, mean scores and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while the analysis of covariance (ancova) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.78 level of significance. analysis of covariance (ancova) was used as the statistical tool for testing the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. results this section presents the analysis of the data collected in accordance with the research questions and hypotheses that guided the study. research question one: what are the mean interest ratings of students taught oral english using manipulative drill and those taught with word association drill? table 1: mean and standard deviation of interest ratings of students taught oral english using manipulative drill and those taught with word-association drill group pre-test post-test n mean sd mean sd mean gain manipulative drill 53 28.94 5.65 52.37 10.89 23.43 word-association drill 22 28.85 5.56 48.80 5.76 18.95 table 1 shows that the students who were taught oral english using manipulative drill had mean interest rating of 52.37 with a standard deviation of 10.89 at the post-test against their pre-test mean interest rating of 28.94 and standard deviation of 5.65 while those who were taught using word-association drill had mean interest rating of 47.80 with a standard deviation of 5.76 at the post-test against their pre-test mean interest rating of 28.85 and standard deviation of 5.56. mean gain scores of 23.43 and 18.95 for the two groups respectively imply that the students who were exposed to manipulative drill had higher post-test mean interest rating than global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 8 their counterpart who were exposed to word-association drill. however, the post-test standard deviations of 10.89 and 5.76 for the students who were exposed to manipulative drill and those exposed to word-association drill respectively imply that the experimental group (manipulative drill) varied much in their individual interest rating than the control group (word-association drill). research hypothesis ho1: there will be no significant difference in the mean interest rating scores of student taught oral english using manipulative drill and those taught using word association drill. table 2: analysis of covariance of the effect of manipulative drill and word-association drill on mean interest ratings of students in oral english source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 1140.958a 4 285.240 4.356 .003 .199 intercept 6096.718 1 6096.718 93.106 .000 .571 pre-test 23.190 1 23.190 .354 .554 .005 treatment 775.577 1 775.577 11.844 .001 .145 gender 326.934 1 326.934 4.993 .029 .067 treatment * gender 544.295 1 544.295 8.312 .005 .106 error 4583.709 70 65.482 total 192725.000 75 corrected total 5724.667 74 a. r squared = .199 (adjusted r squared = .154) table 2 shows that the probability associated with the calculated value of f (11.844) for the effect of manipulative drill and word-association drill on mean interest rating of student in oral english is 0.001. since the probability value of 0.001 is less than the 0.05 level of significance (p < 0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected meaning that there is a significant difference in the mean interest rating of student taught oral english using manipulative drill and those taught with word-association drill in favour of the teacher trainees exposed to manipulative drill. besides, the partial eta square value (effect size) of 0.145 that manipulative drill had low effect on the interest of student in oral english. empirical studies: opara (2003) carried out a related research. the study examined the effect of pronunciation drills on secondary school students’ achievement in reading. to guide the study, four research questions were formulated. the questions examined such variables as gender, location and ability. a sample population of 240 boys and girls which represented the study population of 2,750 was used. the students were purposively selected from two coeducational schools representing the urban and rural secondary schools in the area. a pre-test and post-test was administered to the control and experimental groups used for the study. the mean performance of each group was computed and the hypotheses tested using analysis of co-variance (ancova). the result showed that there was a significant effect of drill on the achievement of students taught reading using drill as technique. this indicates that drill as technique enhanced students’ performance. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 9 in another research, rentel and kennedy (1992) investigated the effects of pattern drill on the phonology, syntax and reading achievement of rural appalachian children. the study examined the effectiveness of pattern drill relative to the reduction of phonological grammatical variations from the standard south midland dialect and the promotion of reading ability. the sample consisted of 120 rural appalachian first grade students enrolled in six intact classes. for six weeks, three randomly assigned classes received patterned instruction designed to modify subjects’ rural appalachian dialect. the remaining three classes served as controls. posttesting consisting of frequency of phonological and grammatical variations from standard provided by a panel of judges was administered. scores on the word reading achievement test were analyzed initially by a 2x3x3 mixed model analysis of covariance (ancova). results indicated that subjects that received patterned drill practice were better able to approximate the grammatical patterns of the standard south midland dialect. discussion of the findings: evidence from this study shows that students in the experimental group who were taught oral english using manipulative drill (md) obtained a higher post-test mean interest rating than those in the control group who were taught the same oral english using word-association drill (wad). the findings presented in table 1 indicate that those taught with md had a post-test mean score of 52.37, while those taught with the wad had 47.80. similarly, those taught with md had a mean gain score of 23.43, while those taught with the wad had a mean gain score of 18.95. the difference between those mean scores was statistically significant as shown by the result presented in table 1 the effectiveness of the md over wad is not farfetched as the md does not abstract statement and memorization of the phonemic symbols. rather, students are presented with familiar drilling exercise where intonations were patterned with practical exercises. they use them in context and have the chance of acquiring them. in other words, they unconsciously acquire the intonation pattern as well as the rhythm of the language in authentic discourse. the result of this study also goes to corroborate the monitor theory as propounded by krashen (1982) which states that adult second language learners approach second learning by either acquiring it or learning it but that acquisition is superior to learning. the md creates a variety of learning experiences for the learners to explore the language and acquire it just as children do. however, it also provides the learner with the rules which complement and polish what they had been exposed to through the acquired system. but learning of rules is never given first priority. this approach has been found to be superior to the wad which focuses chiefly on rote repetition of sounds as produced by the model which is usually the teacher that are often forgotten. conclusion on the strength of the findings of the study, the following conclusions are hereby drawn. the md has facilitative effects on students’ interest in oral english. students taught oral english using the md achieved significantly higher than those taught with the word-association drill (wad). this means that the md proved superior to the significant influence on students’ interest in oral english. recommendations the following recommendations are hereby made in line with the findings and implications of the study: the results of the study have shown that the manipulative drill (md) has significantly positive effect on students’ interest in oral english. thus, oral english teachers should adopt the approach as an alternative to the word-association drill (wad) oral english. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 10 workshops, seminars and conferences should be regularly organized for english language teachers by education authorities such as universities, college of education, ministries of education post primary schools’ management board and the universal basic education commission (ubec) on the use of md in teaching oral english english teacher preparation programmes in college of education and universities should include their relevant courses on methodology the use of md in teaching oral english so that students will be trained on how to use this approach in teaching oral english on employment. curriculum developers for secondary schools such as the nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc) and national commission for colleges of education (ncce) should incorporate the md as an effective approach in teaching oral english in the next review of the curriculum as well as carry out further research on other areas of the oral english where the md could be applied. textbook writers especially in oral english should develop new textual materials that are md complaint. references ayuba, k.a (2012). oral english as an aid to learning in higher institution in gidgina global books. enugu, nigeria. bulunuz (2017). development of interest in science and interest in teaching elementary science: influence of informal school and inquiry methods course experiences. unpublished doctoral dissertation. georgia state university. carter, r. & nuan, d. (2001). the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages. cambridge: cambridge university press. retrieved on 20th october, 2018 from http://oksandrayola.blogspot.com/2013/08/teaching-speaking-at-junior high...html?m=1 dalton, d. (2002). some techniques for teaching pronunciation. retrieved may 1, 2002, from http://itselj.org/techniques/dalton_pronunciation.html. emad, m. a. (2010). phonological analysis of phonotactis: a case study of arab learners of english. the buckingham journal of language and linguistics, 3, 17-19 ezeh, d.n. (2003). validity and reliability of tests in nworgu, b.g (ed), educayional measurement and evaluation; theory and practice (rev.ed.). nsukka; university trust publishers. federal republic of nigeria (2012) nigerian certificate in education minimum standard for languages, national commission for colleges of education, abuja. federal republic of nigeria (frn, 2013). national policy on education (6th ed.). lagos: nerdc press. gilakjani a p. (2012) visual, auditory, kinesthetic learning styles and their impact on english language teaching. journal of studies in education vol 2. no. 1 haycraft, j. (2012). an introduction to english language teaching, longman group ltd. england. hornby, a. s. (2001). oxford advanced learners’ dictionary (6th ed). oxford: oxford university press. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 11 krashen, s. (1982). principles and practice in second language acquisition. oxford: perfamon press. nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc, 2017). senior secondary education curriculum: english language for ss1-3, abuja: nerdc. norman, d. a. (2013). memory and attention: an introduction to human information processing. new york wiley. opara, r. n. (2003). effect of pronunciation drills on secondary students’ achievement in reading. unpublished m.ed project report, faculty of education, university of nigeria, nsukka. renninger, k.a. (2015). children’s play interests, representation, and activity, in r fwush & j hudson (eds) knowing and remembering in young children (pp. 127-165) emory cognition series (vol. 111) cambridge. m.a cambridge university press. rentel, v. m. and kennedy, j. j. (1992). effect of pattern drill on the phonology, syntax and reading achievement of rural appalachian children. american educational research journal. retrieved march 9, 2010 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1162052. uloh-bethels, a.c. and offorma, g.c. (2019). secondary school students’ learning outcomes in english consonant clusters: impact of pronunciation drill and school location. journal of cudimac, department of arts education, university of nigeria, nsukka. vol. 6 no. 1 west african examination council (2015). west african senior school certificate examination may/june 2016 chief examiners’ report (nigeria) lagos waec. wong, c. s. p. (2002). what makes english consonant clusters difficult for cantonse esl learners. retrieved from the internet in 5th december, 2011 from http://www.paaljapan.org/resourse/proceeding/paal7/pdfs/13kwan.pdfc. yu xiaoxue (2013) oral english learning strategies theories and practice in language studies vol.3 no 10; academy publisher manufactured in finland. creating computer confidence : an investigation into current privacy and security concerns of the senior demographic global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 4; april-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 10 tech literacy for seniors: overcoming interface challenges through human guidance 1emily katherine anderson, 2benjamin james patel, 3olivia elizabeth thompson article info abstract keywords: senior citizens, technology adoption, internet usage, user interfaces, human assistance the integration of technology into the daily lives of senior citizens remains a challenge, despite the potential benefits it offers. while seniors are familiar with basic device functions, they often miss out on the advanced capabilities that could enhance their lives. this study addresses the technological divide within the senior demographic and examines their distinct perspective on device usage. older adults' internet usage patterns are explored, highlighting the unique challenges they face in adopting new technologies. this research sheds light on the overlooked population of older adults in the context of rapidly advancing technology. the study emphasizes the disparities in user interfaces that may seem intuitive to younger generations but appear intimidating to seniors. notably, older adults prefer human assistance when engaging with technology due to their familiarity with in-person learning experiences. the value of learning from technologically literate individuals is highlighted, emphasizing the deeper understanding gained through observation of user behavior and thought processes. as technology continues to evolve, it is imperative to bridge the gap for senior citizens, enabling them to access the full range of benefits that modern devices offer. this research underscores the importance of tailored approaches to technology adoption among older adults and emphasizes the significance of considering their unique perspectives and preferences. 1. introduction members of the senior demographic often hesitate to integrate technology into their daily lives. while this demographic is often familiar with device functions such as making phone calls, they are often found missing out on the valuable capabilities that devices can offer [1]. most devices have capabilities to track medications, request goods and services, and search current news topics, all within just a few clicks [1]. unfortunately, older adults are an overlooked population as technology is advancing in a way that is not easily adaptable for the older generation [2][3]. previous research has shown that the older demographic is using the internet for common tasks, but with a very different perspective compared to a younger generation [4]. while 1 department of computer science, university of guelph, ontario, canada3 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 11 many people have been raised with device use in their daily lives, this is not the case for many seniors. interfaces that seem quite intuitive to an average person, may be quite intimidating and difficult for another to approach. many seniors prefer to have a real human assist them when using technology as they are accustomed to in person learning experiences and can comfortably engage in the experience [5][6]. because of the familiarity of this type of interaction and the connection that can built by reading another’s physical behavior, this learning method has been preferred by many individuals [5][6]. additionally, when seniors engage in learning from a technologically literate individual, they get an understanding of how to use the device and get to observe the user’s behaviour and thought process [3]. 1.1. covid-19 influence the covid-19 pandemic completely changed human behaviour as the globe was forced to remain inside their homes to try and conquer the virus. the elderly and many other groups were categorized as especially vulnerable and required extra protection from the virus [7]. though there is consistent improvement in medicine, the best course of action for these groups is to remain in isolation [7]. over two years later, there are still social restrictions on individual’s behaviours. people are required to maintain limited contact from others and are suffering the consequences of isolation. [8]. while in isolation many individuals have utilized the internet to complete daily tasks. in hopes to maintain regular behaviours, organizations enhanced and broadened user capabilities on their websites. the additional functions commonly include pre-ordering and online payment, as well as online appointment bookings [9]. seniors traversing these new online services are also challenged with the lack of human connection available to them. confused customers, resource shortages, and employee illness has overwhelmed companies and their customer service departments [10]. resultingly, consumers have the option to endure the extended wait for a customer service representative or navigate the interface on their own. moreover, individuals were restricted from visiting other households and were required to maintain social distance when communicating with another person. a large population of seniors lost their connection to their family, friends, and caretakers. the encouraged use of technology and deprivation of human connection has left the senior demographic especially vulnerable to the risks present on the internet. personal information is often required to access certain functionalities online and many users may not consider where this data is transmitted or to who. it is necessary that users understand that there are real security threats online, even if they do not seem as dangerous as a crime in real life [11]. while the internet may be overwhelming for seniors, it is important that they have the knowledge to maintain their security and privacy. before learning how to use new apps and websites, it is crucial to understand the threats that may be encountered and how to react. once the senior demographic has the knowledge and resources to identify and avoid risks, they will be able to confidently ease into learning how to use emerging technologies. this paper aims to develop a deep understanding of how elders’ perception of privacy and behaviour on the internet has changed during the covid-19 pandemic. the analysis will be completed by first understanding the trends and changes that are influencing behaviour and the associated potential attacks. once this background is developed, a survey will be conducted to get current perspectives from the target demographic. using the background and survey results a list of prominent knowledge gaps can be identified. finally, a comprehensive collection of resources and tools will be complied to address the knowledge gaps. 2. background to maintain some normalcy, many individuals transferred their daily activities to an online platform. a canadian survey found that 75% of individuals engaged in more internet related activities since the beginning of the pandemic, and almost half of canadians started using the internet for new tasks [12]. within these statistics, it was found that more than half of canadian senior citizens increased their internet usage [12]. a previous study identified that as the elder demographic migrates their actions to online platforms, they will be at a higher risk to be a victim of cybercrime. this population is less tech-savvy than younger demographics and is more prone to becoming a victim to internet fraud ploys [4]. previous research has identified that there is a need for a sufficient global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 12 teaching system to assist elders in technology security, and with the modern societal changes this need is escalated drastically [2]. it is of paramount importance that each person is educated on the information and resources required to protect themselves. the typical internet behaviour of elders has previously involved bonding over social media sites, consulting healthcare websites, and searching for a booking travel and tourism experiences [13][14]. elders are becoming more dependent on their devices and are comfortable within their established routine [13]. as they use their preferred websites more frequently, and observe their peers doing the same, there is a deeper level of trust for the website [13]. similar work has shown that elders prefer to use a tool they are familiar with, and do not feel a need to use other tools if it is not necessary. regardless of this opinion, many new tools are required for daily tasks, to reduce the amount of human interaction during the pandemic [15]. these new systems require that all individuals have the technological literacy requited to successfully use these tools. 2.1. adapting to current structures because of its ease of use, the internet has become a necessary part of people’s routine [16]. when the global quarantine forced internet dependency, elders did their best to quickly adapt. the pandemic caused high levels of uncertainty and the internet provided great information sources [17]. despite the benefits, seniors are sometimes not comfortable with new applications and are hesitant to use them [3]. it has previously been found that elders are comfortable using websites that someone else has taught how to use [3]. for example, elders could independently use a booking site that a travel agent had demonstrated to them but were not comfortable downloading and using a newer app like uber [3]. the hesitation to explore new tools is driven by fear of misuse and the possible resulting consequences [3]. unfortunately, the lack of use has led to an increase in potential vulnerabilities as there is a high level of unfamiliarity [15]. 2.2. common attacks because of the understood behaviours of the senior demographic there are certain attacks that are target towards these individuals. 2.2.1. phishing attacks seniors are a prime target for phishing attacks based on their financial standing, trusting demeanor, lack of knowledge, and poor response procedures [4]. this population is typically unsuspecting of fraudulent messages as they are used to in person transactions and have a more stereotypical perception of a criminal [18]. because of elders generally trusting demeanor, they have been identified as the most susceptible target for phishing messages [19]. currently many individuals are trying to make meaningful connections using the internet which escalates the potential of being a victim to phishing [20] [21]. 2.2.2. illegitimate websites illegitimate websites can be seen as stand-alone sites, popups, or overlays of otherwise legitimate sites [22]. the malicious sites are typically showing false security alerts, giveaways, or mocking real websites [22]. elders usually have low experience interacting with obscure websites so it is unlikely they will have success identifying fraudulent websites [4]. 3. methods this work aims to investigate the knowledge and perspectives of the senior population regarding their current internet interactions. previous work has noted that firsthand information is essential to obtaining accurate data [18]. an online survey was created and distributed to a group of elders. using the data from the survey, the main knowledge gaps were identified, and a collection of useful resources was compiled. 3.1. survey of knowledge and perspectives the survey was created to gain a deeper understanding of elder’s perception of privacy and behaviour on the internet has changed during covid-19. the topics of the survey include privacy concerns, privacy attitude, perceived threat, confidence to protect self, and the cost of security [2] [14]. the categorization of the “elder demographic” has been listed as many different ages. many technologies related studies have established this age as 55, so that is the threshold used in this survey [23]. the survey was developed with each of the established concern areas as the discovery goal. the question structure asks general questions on knowledge and perception, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 13 as well as how the pandemic has changed the related behaviour. the online website qualtrics was used to assemble and share the survey to the public. when the survey completed, the results were interpreted using r for analysis and visualization. the results were interpreted using r for statistic analyses and the results are presented as percentages to maintain anonymity of the participants. the responses were recorded in multiple choice and text entry format for quantitative and qualitative analysis. 4. survey results 4.1. general information figure 1. age distribution of survey participants the survey was available to the public from november 15 to 25 of 2021 and 11 participants completed the survey. the demographics of the survey included 100% females, with ages ranging from 55-80 (fig. 1). the most common devices of the participants include laptops, smart and tablets/ ipads (fig. 2). the “other” in figure 2 are one apple watch and one smart doorbell. all participants claimed that they currently use the internet every day and 70.8% of participants expressed that they use the internet more frequently than prior to the pandemic (tab. 2 in 7.7.2). the most common uses of the internet are to purchase goods and services, as well as watch streamed video content (fig. 3). the increase of internet purchases is most prominent for privacy related concerns. figure 2. percentage of participants that own each device global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 14 participants answered that the internet is extremely beneficial to daily life and have provided personal notes stating that they have been able to learn new hobbies and make global connections using the internet. 72.7% of respondents said they do prefer to use the internet for their daily tasks, while only 9.1% said that they did not (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). some participants said that using the internet is the easiest way for them to check traffic and search for other information, as well as stay entertained while completing other activities. figure 3. change of internet use during the covid-19 pandemic 4.2. privacy attitude 100% of the survey participants said that privacy and security on the internet are absolutely to them, with many comments regarding that they prioritize keeping information safe and a high concern regarding cyber attacks (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). when visiting frequently used sites over half of the participants said that they are more willing to trust the links or information requests from that website. 45.5% said that they are somewhat more willing to trust, and 36.4% expressed that they are absolutely more willing to trust these sites (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). when asked about trusting websites that are suggested by family or peers 54.5% said that they are absolutely willing to trust, and 36.4% said that they are somewhat more likely to trust the website (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). 4.3. privacy knowledge the survey results showed that 81.8% of participants regularly update their devices, and 63.6% understand why these updates are (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). the direct feedback was very promising with many participants explaining that the updates can fix bugs and security, with one participant even explaining how patches are deployed. when asked about the diversity and strength of passwords, 72.7% said that they use both and understand the reasoning for the requirement (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). the participants expressed an understanding of preventing hackers and maintaining security. though some participants did note that it was difficult to remember all their passwords for each site. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 15 4.4. perceived threat figure 4. perspective on potential threats the participants of the study all expressed that they feel nervous about their privacy on the internet and face the risk of a privacy breach whenever they do share personal information (fig. 4). more than a few participants shared that they had been victim of a financial scam on the internet and are nervous of it happening again. when asked about personal knowledge of phishing scams 63.6% said that they do know what they are, and 27.3% said that they somewhat understand them (fig. 4). though only 9.1% stated that they are worried about being victim to phishing scams, with 63.3% stating that they are somewhat worried (fig. 4). 4.5. confidence to protect self looking into the participants desire to protect self, majority stated that they want to protect themselves from the potential scams (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). it was expressed that the pandemic has not changed the level of concern regarding potential scams on the internet. 54.5% said that they do not know how to verify the legitimacy of emails or messages, and only 27.3% said that they are confident in their verification methods (fig. 4). similarly, 45.5% of participants stated that they do not know how to verify the legitimacy of websites, with 18.2% sure of their verification techniques (fig. 4). some promising verification techniques were explained including immediately deleting unrecognized messages, running anti-virus software, and looking for ‘https’ in the url. participants have also used separate email accounts for sensitive accounts and ones that may be less legitimate. 4.6. expected cost of security regarding the perceived cost of privacy there are many barriers that may keep individuals from achieving their goals. when asked if internet security is personally attainable 54.5% stated that they believe it is possible, but they have not achieved it. 36.4% stated that they have achieved it, and 9.1% said that they do not believe that internet security is attainable. despite this array of answers, 100% of participants said that they would increase their security of they were provided with the resources (tab. 3 in 7.2.3). participants stated that there are both knowledge and monetary barriers keeping them from attaining internet security (tab. 3 in 7.2.3). from a list of options of potential resources 100% said that they would like access to a software that alerts to scams of viruses, 72.7% said that they would utilize education resources, and 63.6% said that laws or legislation specifically regarding the internet safety of seniors on the internet would be beneficial (tab. 3 in 7.2.3). 5. discussion there have been efforts to assist elders and protect them from cyber crime, but these measures are insufficient for proper protection [4]. for over half a century there has been a conscious effort to engage and empower older global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 16 adults to learn about technology and the internet, yet there are still shortcomings [24]. many different methodologies have been proposed, and significant progress has been made. there was a high level of enthusiasm regarding the participants willingness to use the internet for their daily tasks. i believe that elders have become more adapted to using the internet compared to previous studies [2]. the results of the survey show that elders are commonly using the internet for purchasing goods or services and accessing bank and government sites. because of the high sensitivity of information associated with these tasks, there is a higher importance to better protection systems. the most prominent concerns include confidently securing online financial transactions, identifying fraudulent websites, messages and other scams, and the memory of passwords. additionally, the participants had a strong awareness of many of the threats online, but there was an optimistic bias present that participants did not think it would happen to them. overall, participants had an impressive amount of personal knowledge and provided strong techniques that are currently used. 5.1. identifying suspicious sources a significant level of trust in family and friend recommended websites was expressed from the results of the survey. this trust is not always unwarranted, but individuals should always do some independent inspection of the site to look for malicious components. the survey results showed that participants were unfamiliar with what to look for when trying to verify websites, emails, and other messages (fig. 4.4). though navigating to a new area of the internet can be intimidating, avoiding it all together can be more dangerous. using a browser extension (7.1.2) to alert suspicious websites when browsing will provide reassurance while navigating a search page [25]. additionally, there are ways to manually verify a website. techniques include searching the url to ensure that there is an “s” in “https” or that a lock symbol in the url [26]. another tactic is to take a moment to really look at what is on the website. poor grammar or low-quality logos are a good indication that the website is fraudulent [26]. when verifying the legitimacy of an email or message it is important to take a step back and consider what the content is. typically, if a message is “too good to be true”, it is not true [27]. if someone receives a suspicious message from a known or unknown contact, it is wise for them to contact that person or company via a different method [27]. for example, if a friend suddenly emails begging for thousands of dollars for an emergency, it is smart to use another platform, such as calling to confirm their identity. during financial transactions it is especially important to understand that relatives and banks usually do not put an intense time pressure on individuals. if there is a short time-period given with the message, it is most likely fraudulent [27]. a collection of useful resources to learn more about identifying and responding to scams on the internet can be found in section 7.1.1. many of the participants explained that they are aware of scams, but there was a drastic difference in responses when asked about the worry of the scam happening to them. figure 4.4 shows how the proportion shifts between knowledge of scams and the idea of it happening to them. this optimistic bias is a major downfall as it suggests people may not take their privacy as serious as they claim [28]. though participants claimed that privacy is a concern there is still a nuance that the attack won’t happen to them. in the future i hope to see similar results to those questions but driven by an increase of confidence to protect oneself. 5.2. securing financial transactions contradictory to the optimistic outlook many of the participants expressed that they had been victim to a financial scam. these breaches can occur from many different attacks such as phishing, fake transfers, or even physically stealing your card [29]. to prevent the attack there are an array of methods that can be taken such as using prepaid cards, or a middleman such as paypal [30] [31]. a prepaid card acts almost exactly as a credit card does and can be used for online transactions without having to share your real banking information. though there are some fees involved this method can be beneficial, especially for unfamiliar websites. another option for secure payment or transfer is a middleman tool that encrypts your banking information and limits the amount of accessible funds. these tools are listed in 7.1.3. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 17 in the case of a successful breach, it is important that the user has no liability for the unauthorized charges [29]. if you are using your banking card online, it is important to contact your financial institutions and inquire about this feature. 5.3. password security the survey showed that many participants did use strong and diverse passwords, but some did have difficulty remembering each of them. one participant said that they use mostly numerical passwords for security, but this may be more difficult to remember. using a tool such as a password manager can be very beneficial for maintaining accounts. password managers securely encrypt all sensitive information that is needed to login to a site [32]. the password manager also has capabilities of generating long and complex passwords when registering for a new account or updating current accounts [32]. this information is locked in the secure vault and can only be accessed using a master key [32]. by having the password manager in place, the user only has to remember one password but maintains the security that a diverse set of passwords provides. some recommended password managers are listed in 7.1.2. 5.4. learning tools many respondents of the survey said that they struggled with the monetary barrier of ensuring security. many operating systems offer a free built-in firewall, but some need to be installed and enabled [33]. learning how to enable and effectively use these can be a challenge for some elders. a group of technological women realized they were spending countless hours teaching older adults to develop their computer skills [34]. this team developed a website where volunteers offer tutorials and live help sessions to teach computer topics to elders (7.1.4). overall, there have been many developments in resources and tools to assist all people and seniors in achieving privacy and security while on the internet. some legislation has been established to penalize cyber criminals, but these efforts had little effect [20]. there is such a rapid change in technology and tools, that legislation and other protective measures may not be able to keep and maintain protection. the best way to protect elders is by providing a strong education so they can use their devices confidently [4]. previous research has provided feedback stating that elders do want to learn how to use new apps and services but feel like they have a lack of resources for learning how to use them so avoid them all together [3]. by increasing awareness and providing trustworthy tools will encourage elders to become more involved in the technology world. there will never be an absolute way to ensure security but encouraging a privacy mindset promotes users’ success [35]. 6. conclusions since the beginning of the pandemic, we have seen major changes in peoples’ interaction and reliance on technology. though the world has moved to a more technology integrated atmosphere, elders have had little opportunity to make the necessary adaptations. it is difficult to make accurate assumptions about a demographic we are not a part of. to assist the senior demographic in their transition into the evolving technology landscape it is necessary to understand where their needs lay. getting direct feedback from this demographic allowed for genuine understanding of the knowledge gaps that need attention. the results of the survey show that this demographic has a great foundational knowledge of using the internet and governing their privacy and security. the most prominent obstacle is the lack of awareness of the tools that are available for elders to ensure their privacy and security on the internet. promoting the conversation of the resources available and the need for them will increase awareness of the subject and give more opportunity for involvement. individual’s will be able to build their confidence to protect themselves with the utilization of the tools provided. once user confidence is built, i expect that this demographic will be able to adapt to current technology trends and ultimately thrive in the digital environment. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 18 6.1. future work the survey group in this project provided valuable information regarding the current knowledge gaps of the elder demographic. future research could further explore this demographic by involving a larger sample with a more diverse range of participants. this study would provide deeper insight to more specific needs of seniors using technology. deploying a large-scale project could bring more attention to the actual needs of seniors and provide developers with the incentive and necessary topics needed to build a comprehensive site for seniors. the development of one platform that encompasses the information and attributes of the previously listed resources would be extremely beneficial for educating the senior demographic. incorporating personal connection into learning platforms would also restore some normalcy to the participants learning style. for example, in an online class for technology education it would be interesting to see a feature that allows the participants to connect with other students to discuss their takeaways from the lesson and further deepen their knowledge. a system that connects similar participants for collaborative engagement in a e-learning environment would be extremely beneficial in this setting. additionally, investigation into what the technologic landscape will look like after the pandemic would be an interesting topic for further work. many of the newly created interfaces may be abandoned and left with copious amounts of personal information. a study on personal information management techniques would compliment the resource suggestions in this work. 7. appendix 7.1. resource topics and links 7.1.1. identifying scams • senior fraud protection kit this document includes some information about why seniors are targeted for attacks, as well as a check list for identifying a scam and a plan of action in the case of an incident. https://www.caregiverstress.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/1 seniors fraud protection kit_ us.pdf • internet safety guide for seniors this blog post discusses phishing, password theft, social media scams, and banking fraud. https://www.safetydetectives.com/blog/the-ultimate-internet-safety-guide-for-seniors/ • the little black book of scams the author explains that “knowledge is power” and understanding these concepts can help improve personal security. https://www.competitionbureau.gc.ca/eic/site/cb-bc.nsf/eng/04333.html • seniors’ guide to staying cyber safe during covid-19 this brochure includes some techniques for making secure passwords as well as scam avoidance and response. https://www.getcybersafe.gc.ca/en/resources/seniors-guide-staying-cyber-safeduring-covid-19 • recent scams and fraud a lists of scams currently targeting individuals and businesses that are sorted by delivery mechanisms as well as information of procedures if you are a victim. https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm 7.1.2. security tools • 1password the most intuitive password manager and has the option to schedule a demonstration of its functions, though this does come with a monthly fee. https://1password.com/ • bitdefender a free alternative is bitwarden, which only requests an annual fee when you choose to upgrade to apremium package. https://bitwarden.com/ • bitdefender traffic light https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 19 a free browser extension that scans the pages you visit for malware and phishing attempts. https://www.bitdefender.com/solutions/trafficlight.html 7.1.3. securing online payments • visa reloadable prepaid cards these cards have the zero-liability feature that ensures compensation in the event of an unauthorized transaction. https://www.visa.ca/en ca/pay-with-visa/cards/prepaid-cards.html • paypal securely send money to other users or complete online transactions with services to help remediate fraudulent transactions. paypal.com/ca/home 7.1.4. learning new tools • connected canadians this organization provides a wide array of groups and individual help sessions, covering many topics. https://www.connectedcanadians.ca/ 7.2. survey results 7.2.1. yes/no questions table 1. general results from the survey 7.2.2. internet use and recent changes table 2. frequency of internet use and influence from the pandemic global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 20 7.2.3. future resources table 3. feedback on the future of privacy and security resources acknowledgements the authors would like to thank everyone that participated in the survey as well as the family members that inspired this research! references m. myint, “safestart: simplifying technology for seniors,” 2020 intern reports, apr. 2020. available: https://digitalcommons.imsa.edu/intern_reports_2020/31 chakraborthy, rajarshi, s. 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https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites international journal of management sciences and business research, mar-2022 issn (2226-8235) vol-11, issue 3 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 3; march-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 factors shaping subject preferences in sindh's tertiary education: unveiling parental, societal, and institutional influences 1dr. sarah amina khan and 2prof. muhammad ali siddiqui article info abstract keywords: education system, pakistan, sindh, gender biases, subject selection. education plays a pivotal role in personal growth and national development. pakistan's education system, though vital, grapples with foundational issues and a shortage of qualified educators, obstructing access to quality education. despite numerous strategies, the current system remains inadequate, particularly in sindh. this study delves into the challenges of the education system in sindh, focusing on limited access, outdated curricula, inadequate teacher training, and gender biases. gender biases not only constrain career choices but also permeate educational environments, hindering holistic development. societal norms perpetuate gender-stereotyped career associations, obstructing the alignment of diverse careers with all genders. additionally, parental influence coerces students into unsuitable subjects, emphasizing university entrance over holistic growth. addressing these concerns necessitates comprehending the factors that shape students' subject preferences and their repercussions on academic and personal development. this study investigates the determinants behind subject selection and their broader impacts, advocating for an inclusive and high-quality education system. the findings underline the urgency of reforming education in sindh, ensuring equal opportunities regardless of socioeconomic status or gender. by rectifying the identified issues, a more responsive and effective education system can be forged, nurturing individuals' potential and propelling the socioeconomic advancement of the region. 1scholar, greenwich university, karachi, pakistan 2scholar, greenwich university, karachi, pakistan. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 2 introduction education is essential for individual survival and intellectual growth and contributes to the development of a country, particularly economically. however, the education system in pakistan has faced challenges since its independence in 1947, including deficient educational foundations and a lack of qualified teachers, leading to difficulties in access and quality education. various educational strategies have been implemented to address these challenges, but the current school system in pakistan is still not responsive enough to meet the demands for quality education. the current education system in sindh is characterized by a wide range of issues and concerns, including limited access to education, inadequate teacher training, outdated curricula, and gender biases. the gender biases present in the education system create limitations and barriers to the future potential of individuals, irrespective of their gender. gender stereotyping is not only related to career choices but also to educational institutions and learning spaces. the societal norms in sindh have created a mindset where male-oriented careers are not associated with females and vice versa. as a result, the educational system perpetuates the existing gender norms, creating a stuffed and congested mindset that does not allow for affirmatively acknowledging the allying of male-oriented careers with female and vice versa. another factor affecting subject selection is parental influence. with the fear of validation and acceptance, parents may neglect the potential and talent of their children and forcefully enroll them in subjects that may not be suitable for them. this manipulation of student subject selection only focuses on getting them into universities instead of fostering their intellectual growth and development. to improve the education system in sindh, it is essential to identify the factors that influence students' choice of subjects and how these choices impact their academic and personal growth. the study aims to fill this gap by examining the reasons behind students' choice of subjects and their impact on their overall educational and personal development. the study recommends the need for an improved education system that provides equitable and quality education to all students, regardless of their socio-economic background or gender. problem statement this research is to deduce the factors which affect the student’s perception over the subject choice on tertiary level of education in sindh, and how it is manipulated here to only be perceived as means to get into universities and bound to only the respective reason instead of helping them grow intellectually. research objectives to analyse how parents influence a student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. to analyse how societal norms and stereo typicality has an impact on student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. to analyse how the gender biases/discrimination affects student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. to analyse the role of educational institutions over the student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. to analyse how archetype of academics affect the student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. to analyse the status of art as an academic subject. research hypothesis h1: parental influence has a significant impact over the student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. h2: societal norms have a significant impact over the student’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. h3: role of educational institutions has a significant impact over student’s mindset of subjects on tertiary level. h4: gender stereotyping according to the academic fields has a significant impact over teenager’s perception of subjects on tertiary level. h5: all these factors are the main reason student’s prior technical subjects over art. h6: all these factors are the main reason art is still considered as an elite subject. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 3 literature review education system in sind education assumes a significant part in the turn of events and thriving of the country. the nature of training is the foundation of public advancement. if we glance back at history, we have a model. japan, a country that totally declined after the conflict, yet as the maxim goes, "favor the courageous", crushed the disappointment with the assistance of instruction, and with the assistance of the most remarkable schooling. assuming we dig further, we likewise have instances of china's advancement with the assistance of training. sindh carried any progressions to the training area, yet it finished in disastrous disappointment. as per the education and improvement report sindhi education statistics, just 45% of schools have electrical offices, 57% of schools have drinking water, 63% have latrines, 61 have dividers, and just 35% of schools are looking great (adb, 2019). in spite of the fact that sindh is the most elevated supporter of gdp, it actually positions second with regards to schooling quality. in sindh region, just 47% of schools are directed by educators, 27% of schools work in the homeroom, among a populace of 12 million, a greater number of than 6 million youngsters are out of school, and around half of kids leave essential training prior to finishing their examinations". sindh has fallen behind the world concerning quality instruction, as the interest for better schools is developing quickly while the stock of value schools is simply not keeping pace." education assumes a significant part in the turn of events and success of the country. the nature of training is the foundation of public advancement. if we glance back at history, we have a model. japan, a country that totally declined after the conflict, however as the truism goes, "favor the fearless", crushed the disappointment with the assistance of instruction, and with the assistance of the most impressive training. assuming we dig further, we likewise have instances of china's advancement with the assistance of instruction (adb, 2019). the present west rules the world simply because they have understood the essentialness of training to thrive and create. as per united nations article 26 "everybody has the privilege to schooling", the condition of training in pakistan, explicitly in the region of sindh is nowhere near palatable. sindh carried any progressions to the educational area, however it finished in devastating disappointment. as per the education and improvement report sindhi education statistics, just 45% of schools have electrical offices, 57% of schools have drinking water, 63% have latrines, 61 have dividers, and just 35% of schools are looking great. despite the fact that sindh is the most elevated supporter of gdp, it actually positions second concerning instruction quality. in sindh region, just 47% of schools are regulated by educators, 27% of schools work in the homeroom, among a populace of 12 million, a bigger number of than 6 million youngsters are out of school, and around half of kids leave essential training prior to finishing their examinations. the explanations for this are deficient administration/the executives, managerial issues and feeble framework. one more justification behind the disintegration of the training circumstance in sindh is that the substance of the educational plan is obsolete, and the schedule instructed by schools and universities is equivalent to that of our progenitors. today, individuals have arrived on the moon, however we actually stick to similar showing strategies and assessment framework, which is something miserable (adb, 2019).pakistan has a ton of gifts, yet is energizing that the public authority appears to be the most un-worried about the nature of schooling and the utilization of gifts. the sky is the limit, however the main thing required is commitment and trustworthiness. youth is the pearl of public turn of events. parenting influence parents and guardians are handed down by the excellence of their position to prepare, direct and direct their children or wards in other to get or secure strict, mental, social, moral, and instructive values. same is appropriate in the scriptural order to guardians, to prepare their youngsters in the best approach as this would coordinate their way when they become old. the hole here is: how conceivable would this order be assuming the understudies are constrained by their folks to take up subjects that will coordinate their interests towards their children's yearnings, to the impairment of the youngsters' advantage in their own wanted field. do guardians today global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 4 concentrate on the aptitudes, mental capacities, interests, assets and impediments of their kids or wards before intriguing impressions are made on their youngsters? this impression by guardians might impact the kid emphatically (adb, 2019). the parents go by this order to impact their children's decision of subject in optional schools. some compromise not to be engaged with the instructive quest for their youngsters or wards if their decision of subject doesn't get together with their own advantages. therefore, such understudies might be adversely or on the other hand decidedly impacted by this. tenibaje (2009) didn't mince his perspective when that's what he stated (adb, 2019). understudies’ scholarly execution is declining at upsetting rate. consequently, it becomes vital to inquire: the connection between parental effect on subject determination and scholarly execution of understudies in auxiliary schools. is there a relationship between parental impacts on subject determination? what's more, scholastic presentation understudies in auxiliary schools. will parentally impact on subject choice foresee the scholarly exhibition of understudies in optional school. these and a lot more is what the concentrate on tries to give replies to and which will shape the fundamental issue of this review (adb, 2019). parents' influence on subject selections stems from the continuous process of association with their children (young et al. as cited in alphonse, 2016). in analyzing subject selections related conversations between students and their parents, young et al in alphonse (2016) found a reconstruction of the relationship between the parents and the students through some aspect of career exploration. in a similar investigation by keller (2004), he reported that the behaviors of parents seemed to be especially relevant to middle school students. his study findings indicated that, perceived parenting behaviors discriminate between children with high and low career maturity and decision-making self-efficacy scores. which he noted that in order for parents to boost the career development of their young children, parents should do the following: a) expresses the interest in various adolescents’ matters that are relevant to their own children. b) tell their children that they have high expectations for their academic career. c) encourage their children to make their own decisions based on their own interest. d) tell their children they are proud of them. e) assist their children understand the results from interest assessments they have chosen. according to hewitt (2010), argues that factors influencing subject selection and career choice among children can neither be intrinsic nor extrinsic nor both. he further stated that most children are influenced by their parents’ favored career, while others follow the career educational choice that is open for them, some students choose to follow their own passion or career regardless of how much or little it will make them. while some choose the particular career that will give them high income in near future. finally, he posits that, student’s perception of being suitable for a particular job also have been found to be influenced by some number of factors including choice of science subjects, level of achievement, differences in job characteristics and ethical background. however, in parents' influence on subject selections, borchert in alphonse (2016) observed that several parental factors that influenced children subjects’ selection in secondary schools. they include environmental factors, opportunity factors and personality factors. while ebong (2015) discovered family background is a major contributory factor to students’ subject selection. for wachira (2018), she listed some parental factors that influenced children subjects’ selection in secondary schools to be parental expectations, parent level of education, parent socio-economic status, parental occupation, and parentchild relationship. societal norms implanted inside a school's environment are the social and compeer's standards of students. schools are social settings in which compeer model one another's the way of behaving and mentalities. these gathering mentalities, or normal practices, are extremely strong in shaping the way of behaving. therefore, teenagers frequently are global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 5 bound to act as per accepted practices instead of individual well-being. for example, in one review, the best indicators for cannabis use in an example of young people were the standards of their companion bunch. young people were bound to utilize drugs when they connected with companion bunches who decidedly supported its utilization. peer impact is significant in the obtaining of perspectives and normal practices among youths. the method involved with "obtaining "qualities of companions is deeply grounded. peers have been displayed to influence each other on degrees of sorrow, animosity, and different ways of behaving and qualities. these impacts happen on numerous levels. because of young adults’ inspiration to frame connections, they endeavor to improve shared traits inside peer gatherings, instead of contrasts. on a more extensive level, beyond peer gatherings, youths are impacted by and inspired to stick to bigger gathering standards. the more extensive gathering gives explicit environment standards that are ideal or not great. these messages major areas of strength for becoming of the juvenile way of behaving and influence bunch having a place, a particular inspiration for this formative stage (pauker et al., 2015). because of this respective impact of compeers' standards on vastly connected gatherings and more extensive social affiliations, for example, a student's grade level, the perspectives of friends are a significant effect on a student's accomplishment. companion bunches who underwrite positive or negative qualities in regards to scholastics can significantly affect the accomplishment of the student. pupils who reportedly have more bad friend values with respect to school have less school commitment than pupils who support lower levels of negative companion values. this is significant as school commitment is firmly connected with scholastic results, for example, grades and grades. by and large, underwriting lower scholastic assumptions perform much the same way as these assumptions. this is especially striking for minority pupils in settings with low scholastic assumptions (yakavets,2016). role of educational institutes while appropriately observing that world-class private establishments are grounded and based on custom, cookson, and persell (2010) concentrate on communicating the significance of the change that the educational programs of reputable schools definitely went through somewhere in the range of 1985 and 2010. as the united states travelled through the 20th 100 years, american culture was progressively classed and separated and these class distinctions reflected social, cultural, and monetary issues from one side of the country to the other. because of and with the guidance of a more innovatively progressed period, not in the least did american culture and societal change after some time, however, so did the worldwide scene. cookson and persell (2010) set that one justification for the adjustment of first-class educational programs was in light of america's need to keep up with its status as a worldwide pioneer. since schools have social and social regenerative propensities, the best approach to actually deliver and keep a world-class populace and notoriety is to modify the educational programs of schools to reflect current social, cultural, and monetary patterns and needs. the secret educational plan will be vital in understanding the significance of this review due to how it connects with the implied and double elements of school and their regenerative propensities. then, social class and social class portability will be characterized, and the manners in which that workmanship and information on human expressions reify one's situation in a social order will be elucidated. gender stereotyping in pakistan, there is a significant orientation difference in training. pakistan is a man-centric culture wherein ladies face an extensive variety of discrimination, prompting a low friendly, financial, and political status. ladies include 52% of pakistan's complete populace, as indicated by world bank measurements. keeping such an enormous part of the populace unskilled is what is going on, and it very well may be the main driver of the nation's delicate and disproportionate economy. pakistan is situated fourth most terrible on the planet for orientation equality in the 2021 global gender gap report. as far as instructive fulfillment, pakistan is positioned 144th out of 156 nations in the report. pakistan's whole schooling system has a 13 percent orientation divergence in global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 6 enrolment. what's more, simply 46.5 percent of ladies are proficient, 61.6 percent went to grade school, 34.2 percent achieved secondary school, and 8.3 percent went to tertiary training. there are deficient government schools for youngsters, or those that are accessible are distant to schoolchildren. the circumstance is altogether more terrible in pakistan's country regions, where schools need basics like water, power, and other instructive necessities. at the point when orientation disparity in schooling rises, it affects a family's financial position (adb, 2019). as a result, the public authority ought to reevaluate its regulations and standards to quickly span the orientation hole. expressly, ladies' schooling further develops social targets like teaching the approaching age, forestalling kid mortality, diminishing richness, and improving youngster sustenance. on the other side, such friendly objectives dynamically affect the economy, for example, lessening destitution, further developing work efficiency, human turn of events, and in the long run driving financial development. further developed orientation equality and ladies' cooperation in monetary exercises are firmly attached to social and financial advancement. ladies' schooling, well-being, and independence are fundamental for the human turn of events and long-haul steadiness. pakistan will in general slack in every single basic boundary. only training is deficient to empower ladies to enter the workforce in pakistan because of customary authoritative opinions and social traditions. adolescent pregnancy is the main social component driving young ladies to quit, while children are given a need in accomplishing schooling, especially tertiary level of education(adb,2019). technical subjects over art it was quite a long time before when the decision was equally spread across all disciplines, with expressions having a slight edge over the others? individual fitness, the work market, and the limit accessible in universities of sindh decided a definitive picture that arose. today fitness has almost no opinion valued by anyone. in 2018, 60,382 understudies showed up in the inter-science (pre-clinical, pre-designing, and general science bunch) assessments, 39,192 in inter commerce, and just 14,041 in inter-arts. some others showed up secretly however they were the extras who neglected to acquire confirmation in school or had picked to concentrate on being uninvolved as they worked. very few individuals notice that minimizing the sociologies suits the people pulling the strings. aesthetic sciences urge pupils not to acknowledge everything they are saying without clarifying pressing issues. dictator rulers love a consistent populace. it is a pity that this pattern towards dismissing the sociologies is on the ascent. humanities students are viewed as being non-serious and subjects like civics, history, and instruction are named as 'delicate' disciplines that don't add to the advancement of society. one certain result of this has been the response that has set in. various non-governmental colleges that have grown in the territory throughout the last many years (74 out of a sum of 177 colleges) offer human sciences. nonetheless, given their high expenses, they are past the span of the greater part. the truth of the matter is that today the primary. consider the selection of subjects is the initial they accommodate the rewarding position. expressions don't land one too paid a task as science and trade, so our experience shows. thus, the general picture for aesthetic sciences remains very disheartening. this is troubling on the grounds that it is generally perceived that the investigation of humanities makes individuals think fundamentally. the sociologies are the best course for an individual's brain, and they can be best in achieving conduct changes in the public eye. the truth of the matter is that we want individuals who can convey and explain, have sympathy, and are innovative. as per linkedin, a site for proficient systems administration, the most pursued by bosses for 2019 are delicate abilities like 'individuals on the board' that incorporate influence and joint effort. a few colleges in pakistan are attempting to direct their science and business the executives' disciplines by presenting human sciences subjects in their projects (adb, 2019). methodology the purpose of this study was to culminate the factors and respectively identify the factors that significantly impact the decision-making process of the students’ aspects of major subject. for the purpose, different global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 7 methodologies were adapted. for that, the research was done of qualitative and quantitative analysis of the quality of service. the following research report is based upon a survey that was carried out for the enhancive observation upon the respective topic cast-offed to contemplate the crucial on-going. the format of that was contemplated for the respective survey was google forms which designed which were sent off to different groups, the specialists and some relatives that are into the respective industry with a frequent rate to fill out those forms. the reason to do so was to analyse how the people in different aspects under the same circumstance investigate the respective services obtained in respective firm. it was descriptive research where we inherited information from people collected the forms and interpreted the consistent use , it also helped to observe the studies in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment and helped with less time consumption. the simple random sample approach was procured to make it justifiably user-friendly and understanding and comparatively this is the most convenient method of conducting survey collection information with many people and had the maximum accuracy rate of the collected information. also, the agents took abundant amount of time as they had busy schedules, but some sources helped tracking them down eventually. particularly their response held an important role in the research as they’ve the vast exposure to all problems and how about the topic. qualitative methods were picked for the survey, as it's reliably used to 'grasp social attribute of the different views of various individuals that were involved, to contextualize issues in the specific socio-social political milieu, and sometimes change or change social circumstances" (glesne, 2006, p.4). this technique for research includes 'a ton of interpretive, material practices that makes the world recognizable." (denzin and lincoln, 2011, p.3). with a definitive target of this review, we look for the confirmation of arising classes and emergency the pioneers among the pleasantry the board and bosses to conceptualize inventiveness. it casually involves multiple steps of data collection and information refinement. as far as it’s concerned with choosing qualitative method of research for our research, it helped us with: making sense of complex situations or social processes. learn from participants about their experiences (beliefs, motivations, opinions). construct a hypothesis/theory from data understand phenomena deeply and in detail. types of data the questionnaire consisted of several easy questions prompted to gather the most precise piece of information. options were given, no detailed answers were required that made it feasible for people to fill it out and tables were used for various questions to make it understandable and easier for us to collect the information. the obstacle we faced was not being able to conduct the survey on board with people that would have been very opportunist with their shared experiences to have a deeper knowledge not only about the research topic but also different opinions and point of views on how human psychology adapts to the strategies to provide us a better disclosure. results and findings participants and demographics: participants selected for this focus group discussion are all students but of different ages, socio economic backgrounds, educational backgrounds (school passed, high school graduates, university students) group 1: students from age span of 14-16 who have passed their school recently and are applying for colleges. group 2: students who are high school graduates and age span is from 17 to 19 and they are applying for universities. group 3: students who are currently studying at universities with science or arts as their respective core sub. findings the perception over choosing subjects in high school is dependent upon the interests of the individual. majority stated that students more likely prefer science subjects over art these days. minority disagreed on this issue. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 8 there were mixed opinions on this query, some stated that arts are an easy way out, some stated that it's always a backup plan, while some defended their idea that arts is sometimes a student's first choice, they gave their own example for instance. majority said their priority was science subjects and minority said that their priority was arts. it was a mixed audience of different backgrounds and goals, so it was concluded that the choosing of fields is discriminated based on gender and potential surprising. the concept of science fields being more difficult and arts and humanities being a piece of cake has created a leap of mindset in our generation and they stated that science students are more likely to be more hardworking and intelligent as compared to arts students. as compared to previous times arts is valued now. comparison shows that either this field had great value and scope since the beginning or only the conservative mindset of the society was the hurdle between the eyes to recognize it has great scope now as it has shown vast exposure to students now. it is a misconception if we see it now as it has gained great importance and has grand scope nationally and internationally as well. and it was a mindset and somehow is continuing to be this way until the generational gap disputes are solved and more awareness of art fields is spread among masses of all kinds. moreover, following are the reasons compiled when parents forcing their children: prestige & bragging value / pride treating children as an investment a doctor/ lawyer/ engineer = more $ = better life playing it safe & “safe” life inertia. peer pressure. following the rules/ tradition. moreover, quantitative method in form of questionnaire, was adopted to collect the data of the people’s perception. the results are following: 1name 2are you a student? 3what level/grade are you in? 4what major have you chosen for your college (tertiary level education)? chart title primary secondary tertiary passed out global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 9 5if yet to choose, which major will you choose for your college ((tertiary level education)? 6what was the reason that you chose the major chosen/ or will you choose the major? chart title science commerce arts chart title science commerce arts global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 10 7the educational institutions of pakistan have tended the student to think that the reason to study is to merely pass on to another grade/class and not to actually study or attain education. do you agree? 8do you agree that gender stereo typicality in regard to educational fields exists? (for example: the male students should only opt for science subjects, yet the girls would only opt for medicals.) and that it has a significant impact on students’ mindset of subjects at the tertiary level? 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 i chose it myself my parents told me to choose it it was because of the gender stereo typicality(the boy would opt for… it was because of the ongoing societal norms others chart title series1 series2 series3 series6 series10 0 20 40 60 80 100 strongly agree agree maybe disagree strongly disagree chart title series1 series2 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 11 9do you agree that the following factors: parental influence, societal norms, and gender stereo typicality, have a huge impact on the students prioritizing technical subjects over art? from the data gathered, we collected 150 responses out of them. out of which, 59% of the respondents were students, while the other 41% were the passed out/ graduated people. hence, the data became more authentic as the people currently in the situation comprehended it more. it can be identified that out of those people, 61% of the students have had been affiliated with science as their major, 33% as commerce whilst only 5% of them as the art. major fluctuations between the percentages and art opted by only 8 people out of 150, the near to no ratio. although they were extremely reluctant for many reasons including the mindset that they’ve built from generations that art doesn’t has any scope, is not notified, and considered to be some subject only elite people opt for, or some “luxury.” however, the two major reasons that were deduced were again, the allowance from the parents, and the fear of invalidation. comprehending further, we also observed that the reasons for these choices has had not been dependent on the self yet highly dependent upon their parents choosing it for them, or either they are choosing it under the pressure of society or the ongoing ritual stereos. the role of educational institutions has had mostly been more of the pass onto the next grades yet not to perceive any knowledge/ become literate, says the 90% of the respondents. 0 20 40 60 80 100 strongly agree agree maybe disagree strongly disagree chart title series1 series2 0 50 100 150 strongly agree agree maybe disagree strongly disagree chart title series1 series2 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 12 conclusion arts assist us with contemplating large issues, for example, environmental change and hereditary alteration that are established in science. also, in the period of "large information" where researchers examine billions of occasions hurled by regular or social peculiarities, one of the main approaches to understanding it is through representation. there is tremendous possibility here for commitments from specialists if by some stroke of good luck, we'd let them. the last time scientists recognized, workmanship, science, innovation, and designing were totally enmeshed. from the music business to medication, to media, to the plan of structures, textures, and grain parcels. artistic expressions don't simply prettify innovation, they drive and epitomize development. it's pointless and confounding to consider one more significant than the other when they are inseparably associated with significantly significant communications. we live in a time where there is a genuine interest in computerized abilities that cross all areas, and especially incorporate human expression. this focus group discussion concluded that arts and medical/engineering students had a variety of similar opinions on the mindset and general scope of the two different disciplines. whereas when it came down to devaluation and prioritization, the debate answered the agreement to be settled as a disagreement. both disciplines stand at their own places when it comes down to value. they have their respective scopes but here we took mindsets influenced by pakistani society mentality, so the conclusion came that it’s nor a mindset neither a misconception. a mixture of both, which is promoting a conservative mind culture to our coming generations. references adb (2019). sindh secondary education improvement project: report and recommendation of the president. retrieved from https://www.adb.org/projects/documents/pak-51126-002-rrp agha, n., syed, g. k., & mirani, d. a. 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(2016). societal culture and the changing role of school principals in the post-soviet era: the case of kazakhstan. journal of educational administration. designing an musical educational software combining traditional music-pedagogical methods and emerging technologies: the case of synth4kids global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 5; may-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 19 revolutionizing music instruction: synth4kids and the confluence of tradition and tech 1dr. maria eleftheriou article info abstract keywords: music education, technology integration, virtual instruments, web audio technology, steam education recent technological advancements have revolutionized children's interaction with music, ushering in novel and enriched musical encounters. educators must recognize the preferences of students for integrating technology and digital media into their learning, given the evolving digital landscape [37]. as music experiences increasingly adopt digital and multimodal dimensions, the integration of contemporary technologies into music education creates fresh educational paradigms [24]. the incorporation of technological tools in music instruction has the potential to amplify learning motivation and offer students profound involvement across diverse musical domains. notably, the integration of virtual instruments into music education has gained prominence. this article introduces the conception and development of an educational musical tool, synth4kids, tailored for children aged five to eight, leveraging modern web browsers and web audio technology. synth4kids comprises innovative instructional software grounded in traditional music pedagogical techniques, simultaneously embracing the contemporary digital milieu. by incorporating augmented reality, tactile interfaces, eyetracking, qr codes, and collaborative online music practices through webrtc, the tool creates novel avenues for music experimentation, facilitating innovative forms of musical expression and learning. the primary objective of synth4kids is to serve as an instructional asset seamlessly amalgamated into steam (science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics) educational endeavors, aligning with project-based learning principles. this fosters collaborative, transdisciplinary, game-based, and authentic problem-solving experiences, empowering students to explore music with a fresh perspective. 1department of music education, european university cyprus, nicosia, cyprus https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 20 1. introduction current technological developments in recent years have transformed the ways children interact with music, shaping new and expanded musical experiences. in this emerging digital context, teachers should consider students’ preferences for incorporating technology and digital media into their lessons [37]. the integration of current technologies in the music teaching-learning processes forms new educational perspectives as the current environments of constructing music experiences become increasingly digital and multimodal [24]. using technological tools in music lessons can enhance learning motivation and offers students’ opportunities for indepth engagement in various and diverse musical areas. a field gaining ground in the last years is the implementation of virtual instruments into music teaching-learning processes. this article aims to present the design and the development of an educational musical tool for children aged five to eight, which utilizes the capabilities of current web browsers, especially web audio technology. synth4kids consists of original instructional software, designed with orientation to music lessons, implementing elements and educational strategies from the traditional music-pedagogical methods. at the same time, it reflects the current digital context, drawing on emerging technologies –augmented reality, connection with tactile interfaces, eye tracking, qr-codes, as well as collaborative online music practices through webrtc. in this way, it opens new horizons for music experimentation and gives opportunities for new and expanded forms of music-making and learning. the ultimate aim of the synth4kids software is to be used as an instructional tool that can be efficiently integrated into steam –science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics– educational activities following a project-based learning perspective, engaging students in collaborative, transdisciplinarity, game-based, and authentic problem-solving experiences 2. virtual instruments & music education appling virtual instruments in the educational process can offer extended and new multimodal ways of musical interaction, expression, and learning [33]. their integration in music lessons constructs a pedagogical framework radically distinct from the conventional music teaching learning practices [42] while, at the same time, can offer opportunities for steam scenarios development [34], as well as game-based learning [5]. furthermore, virtual instruments allow students to engage students in informal musical activities inside and outside school, creating additional learning motivation [22, 24]. at a practical level, they can be used alternatively with acoustic instruments, leading to cost reduction for music equipment, as only a computer and builtin sensors –e.g., a web camera or gyroscope– are required [5]. research has shown virtual instruments’ positive outcomes in musical performance skills development, creativity enhancement [34], as well as the in-depth and meaningful acquisition of musical knowledge [14]. primarily, visual representation of musical information and simultaneous feedback provides conditions for multimodal music teaching-learning processes [11] through the interconnection of optical stimuli –image, text, numbers, symbols– with sound [34]. furthermore, connecting virtual instruments with sensors can contribute to multisensory experience formation through touch and movement, combined with augmented reality principles. 2.1. educational virtual instruments design designing virtual musical instruments for pedagogical purposes should follow particular principles, considering educational software design models, technological capabilities and limitations, user experiences and needs [7, 39], as well as meet specific educational goals. although the technological improvement of the last years offers new and enhanced capabilities for digital instruments via virtual and augmented reality, connection with touch-sensitive interfaces or sensors, and compatibility with communication protocols [34], their development seems to reflect a conventional design context [31]. current literature argues that virtual instruments’ construction is based on users’ experiences and behaviors with acoustic and electric instruments [41]. in this context, most of them represent existing instruments, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 21 such as pianos, glockenspiels, percussions, etc. for over two decades, it has become clear that their design should avoid the simulation of ‘real’ instruments and focus only on distinct elements from the users’ experience [7, 39]. as no virtual instrument can offer the same experiences as an acoustic one, it is expected that their design orientation should emphasize offering possibilities for augmenting and new musical experiences. the above situation also depicts the development of virtual musical instruments that are designed with orientation to be used in music lessons [24]. emerging technologies can create conditions for meaningful multimodal learning through fruitful individual, social, and aesthetic experiences [11, 34]. even though there are no limitations and restrictions in the design process, the current literature suggests some general guidelines. these focus on the incorporation of elements reflecting the skills and knowledge that users have from existing instruments, opportunities for multimodal feedback –visual, acoustic, tactile–, and an interaction between the real and digital worlds –augmented reality–, social interaction –collaborative performance, virtual/remote playing, hybrid orchestras–, as well as principles from the traditional music-pedagogical methods. 3. synth4kids musical educational software synth4kids consists of music educational software developed by the author. its design is an ongoing project that was initiated in 2018. as a virtual instrument, it was started as an analogue monophonic synthesizer representation with augmented features oriented to music teachinglearning processes. as earlier mentioned, the design’s ultimate goal is to offer multimodal ways of music-making, expression, and learning through rich musical experiences and possibilities of sound experimentation and improvisation [24]. for that reason, along with the components that can be found on an analog synthesizer –sound generators, adsr envelope, lfo, etc.– it incorporates various aspects from traditional music-pedagogical methods –chromesthesia, pentatonic scale, movable-do technique, etc.–, as well as, elements aligned with emerging technologies in music education –augmented reality, connection with tactile interfaces, eyetracking practices, qr-codes, and synchronous cooperative music practices. based on a synthesizer's virtual representation, the optical alignment of synth4kids’ features reflects how modules are placed in a conventional digital instrument (see figure 1). the content of the graphic user interface is arranged into three columns. the first contains the sound generators, the octave options, and the import and export functions –saving and loading patches. in the second column, the main screen is placed, which displays the parameters of each software module. when the user selects a component (e.g., adsr envelope, filter, or drum-machine), the main display is adapted and presents the appropriate parameters. below there are six diverse ready-made patches (pre-sets). the third column includes the audio output options –amplitude, panning–, pentatonic and after touch mode, the use of effects, the reproduction of – melodic/rhythmic– musical patterns, as well as the additional available options (e.g., eyetracking, painting, face recognition) for providing expanded musical possibilities. at the bottom of the application is the music keyboard, along with some essential performance features –pitch bend, slide, and hold notes functions– common for almost every synth [22]. finally, the keyboard can be transformed into a musical ribbon. the absence of knobs and buttons in ribbon mode gives more freedom to music playing, especially when the software is used on devices with touch screens. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 22 figure 1. synth4kids main screen referring to technical specifications, synth4kids was developed entirely in html 5, css, and javascript programming languages, making it compatible with most web browsers [36]. for producing the sound result, the tonejs was used, a javascript library created to enhance interactive online music applications development [21]. concerning the graphic interface, the widgets –buttons, keyboards, panels, and potentiometers– were included in the nexusui library that has been used for graphical environment development in numerous web-audio applications [36]. furthermore, synth4kids utilizes numerous free and open-source javascript libraries. a characteristic example is compatibility with the gyroscope sensor using gyro.js library. besides, it uses the device's web camera for face recognition with the clmtrackr.js open-source javascriptcode and eye-tracking utilizing the webgazer.js library [28], as well as communication with the external leap-motion™ sensor via leap-motion™ api. besides, the open-source p5.js library was imported for painting and drawing canvas. 3.1. practical application of synth4kids in music lessons the synth4kids software has been applied to children aged six and over in various learning environments. below are some remarkable examples from practical interventions whose results have been published and extended to current literature. in conservatoire education, it has been used in “theory of music” courses through the practical application of educational scenarios that reflected the philosophy of the steam model with constructions of musical artifacts [23]. according to the research results, the actions using synth4kids were found to be meaningful for students, leading to the acquisition of different musical and technological skills with high levels of creativity and experimentation. at the same time, the children showed confidence in improvising and composing with their creations. in addition, regarding the musical outcomes, it seems that they led to deeper acquisition of knowledge and understanding of abstract musical concepts and terms [23]. in school music education, it has been utilized in the music lesson for 2nd-grade students to enhance musical creativity, contributing to increased participation and interest. at the same time, it became clear that the children deeply acquisition of musical concepts, such as pitch, amplitude, duration, timbre, and tempo. 4. synth4kids basic features as commented earlier, synth4kids is a virtual analogue synthesizer representation [24]. in this context, it incorporates various popular elements from the synthesizers and, more generally, digital musical instruments. 4.1. elements from synthesizers generally, electronic and digital musical instruments differ in the ways of sound production and music interaction from acoustic ones. their construction consists of two different –digital or analogue– components; a sound global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 23 generator that produces the audible result and a controller –e.g., a music keyboard, a ribbon, or a sensor– for handling their usage [22, 41]. most synthesizers typically contain specific modules, including sound generators, adsr envelopes, filters, equalizers, low-frequency oscillators, and musical effects [9]. synth4kids is equipped with the above essential components. the ways of the interconnection between these elements are shown in figure 2. in this section, the features and capabilities of each module will be described in detail. figure 2. synth4kids sound modules sequence 4.1.1. oscillators all synthesizers require at least one sound generator, which is the core of sound synthesis. its role is to transform the signal values from a selected waveform to an audible signal [9]. the synth4kids educational software is equipped with two oscillators that operate simultaneously, based on the four standard and typical waveforms – sine, triangular, sawtooth, and square (see figure 3). the images of the oscillators’ waveforms were designed on the views of a sample of ten children aged five to seven years when asked, “what can these shapes may represent?”. triangle waveform sawtooth waveform figure 3. synth4kids waveforms representation based on additive synthesis principles, the sound process results from the sum of oscillators’ amplitudes. synth4kids takes advantage of the four different types of built-in oscillators from the tonejs library (am, fm, fat, s). children can select a type of oscillator and a waveform to make their favorable sound patch. alternatively, they have the possibility to experiment with sound timbre through the creation of their own complex periodic waveforms by parametrizing the amplitude value of the first sixteen harmonic frequencies (see figure 4). besides, it is possible to choose the number of harmonic frequencies from one to sixteen. each sound generator provides a detune function for changing the pitch up to one octave lower or higher, a mute button, as well as a fader for adjusting the sound output volume. furthermore, each oscillator is equipped with a random option for letting the user start from an unexpected and unknown point to create his sound design. the application also incorporates a third sound engine for noise generation, which operates in parallel with the other sine waveform square waveform global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 24 two sound generators (see figure 1). the student can choose one of the three typical colors of noise –pink, white, and brown– [9] or deactivate it with the mute button. figure 4. synth4kids oscillator parameters 4.1.2. adsr envelope adsr envelope handles the four fundamental parameters –attack, decay, sustain, and release– of a sound, shaping its dynamic progress and formatting its unique character and timbre [9]. in the case of synth4kids, the adsr envelope consists of four potentiometers, one for each parameter (see figure 1). also, the adsr envelope is visually represented by a jellyfish tentacle, divided into four points, one for each parameter. depending on the user's configurations, the specific part of the tentacle takes the appropriate shape, depicting the curve of the dynamic progress of the sound. 4.1.3. filter & equalizer (eq) filters and equalizers can provide various sound deviations and shape the final amplitude by strengthening or weakening specific frequencies or frequency bands. filters refer to removing or emphasizing particular parts of the frequency spectrum [9]. α filter is activated at a specific cut-off frequency. the three most common are low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass filters. the synth4kids application incorporates these filter types represented as sea waves images, depending on their shape in the audible spectrum. after enabling filter mode, the kids can change the cut-off frequency by moving a blue dot in a two-dimensional grid. the xaxis refers to the frequency, and the y-axis to cut-off resonance (see figure 5). figure 5. synth4kids filter & equalizer global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 25 on the other hand, the role of an equalizer (eq) is to handle the frequencies of the sound spectrum by intervening in the amplitude –increase, decrease or cut– of a specific frequency range [9]. synth4kids includes a three-band eq, dividing the human audible spectrum into low – 20 hz to 400 hz–, medium –400 hz to 2,500 hz– and high –2,500 hz to 20,000 hz– frequencies (see figure 5). 4.1.4. low-frequency oscillator (lfo) a low-frequency oscillator (lfo) generates frequencies below the human audible spectrum. in this way, the waveform of an lfo can be applied to the amplitude –creating a vibrato impression– or to the frequency –giving a tremolo feeling [9]. synth4kids is equipped with two built-in lfos, one for the amplitude and one for frequency alternation. both lfos are activated through the gyroscope sensor by moving the device in space. the lfo1 is applied on the two main oscillators, while the lfo2 affects the result of the three sound generators in the last stage of the chain of the modules. the direction on the x-axis modifies the lfo1 waveform while moving on the y-axis, the lfo2 waveform is changed. in the case the device does not enclose a gyroscope, the values of the lfo’s waveforms remain constant. 4.1.5. audio effects audio effects alter audio signal processing and give a more unique sound character. the choice and sequence of applying effects determine to a decisive degree, the identity of a sound [9]. synth4kids includes four different effects in a fixed row. every unit is presented with an icon for assisting children in associating what they listen to with an object from the real world. in short, the delay unit, represented by a tunnel icon, replays the same signal after more than a quarter of a second. next, the reverb module, illustrated as a puffy-fish image, shapes an imaginary space simulation. the following effect, the chorus, depicted by a choir icon, produces minimal pitch differences. finally, the distortion effect alters the sound by greatly amplifying the signal, adding extra harmonic frequencies. as an effect, distortion is visually illustrated by the hedgehog's nails (see figure 1). 4.2. elements from other digital instruments the synth4kids application also incorporates elements of electronic musical instruments that emphasize the sequencing of musical events. representative examples are drum-machines and sequencers/arpeggiators that handle rhythmic or melodic patterns programming, respectively [9]. in synth4kids, both the arpeggiator and the drum-machine modules can be programmed and operate in parallel with the same tempo. the overall tempo can be defined by the user on the third column of the application’s main screen. figure 6. synth4kids arpeggiator & drum-machine 4.2.1. arpeggiator the role of the arpeggiator is to develop and execute melodic patterns. in synth4kids, the user can create motives consisting of eight notes. therefore, an octopus icon was chosen to symbolize the musical sequence. the notes global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 26 are arranged in a circular-typed shape, reflecting the circularity of a loop (see figure 6). children can create their own melodic patterns by playing notes on the musical keyboard and filling the loop. alternatively, they can use ready-made ones constructed from the notes of a chord in ascending or descending order –depicted by a ladder icon. there is also an option for randomized creation patterns. furthermore, the user can activate are deactivate a note of the motive by pressing the appropriate button of the sequence, giving the sense of music rest. the arpeggiator starts the pattern execution with note c as the fundamental (tonic). at the touch of another button on the music keyboard, synth4kids performs an automatic transposition by changing the pattern’s tonic note. transposing to another key is smooth with no disruption in the musical result. as said before, the tempo can be changed through the main display of synth4kids. however, the user can alter the tempo at double or half by pressing the right and left arrows on the display screen. this way can provide more melodic and rhythmic interest without changing the musical pace, as abrupt doubling or changing at half the tempo gives a constant pulse impression. 4.2.2. drum-machine the synth4kids’ drum-machine module is based on digital musical instruments’ design philosophy for creating complex rhythmic patterns –the roland tr808 is the most representative in this category. synth4kids includes six percussion sounds created synthetically through the tonejs library –kick, claps, snare, hi-hat, crush, bell. the sound design took into account synthetic sound techniques used in analog drum-machines. the sounds are organized into a grid of six rows and eight columns. the x-axis represents the sound, and the yaxis the eight-note values (see figure 6). each percussion sound provides mute, random creation, and delete options. as in arpeggiator, every change on the grid is merged smoothly with no disruption in the acoustic result. below the grid, six buttons have been added, one for each sound. when playing a rhythmic pattern, the buttons flash and show which percussive sound is heard each time. this feature was imported to provide visual feedback. 4.3. additional features in addition to the above, synth4kids incorporates some features that are typical for almost all electronic musical instruments. these elements include recording, randomization, and midi functions. 4.3.1. recording during sound experimentation, it is imperative for the kid to be able to hear the audio result not only in music playing but at a later time. generally, listening is an active process that requires focus on the phenomenon of the sound at all stages of a musical praxis [16]. to that point, when something is recorded, students can concentrate on the audible result without being distracted by technical difficulties in the performance [17]. synth4kids is equipped with the recording function where children can record their results and save them as a .wav file to their devices. recording takes place internally through the browser's sound output in order to ensure the best sound quality. 4.3.2. randomization handling and experimenting with the parameters to produce the desired result can take much time, negatively affecting children's motivation. on the contrary, randomized selections can give opportunities for creativity and sonic experimentation [24]. the child does not need to start with the sound design from scratch or choose from random parameters and make modifications to achieve a preferred result. taking into consideration the target age for the use of the current application, the random selection mode was integrated into synth4kids. the random function is represented with a dice image and is observed in all software modules (drum-machine, oscillator, etc.). in addition, an overall random function is applied in all elements simultaneously, delivering more freedom and choices to start music-making. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 27 4.3.3. midi functions a characteristic feature in the majority of virtual instruments is midi compatibility. synth4kids takes advantage of the web-midi api that is supported in modern browsers. this way, a child can control the application's parameters by connecting a midi interface or playing melodies on a midi keyboard. 5. educational perspectives in the design αs mentioned above, the design orientation of synth4kids focuses on the music pedagogical perspectives and the perspectives of integrating into music lessons. on the one hand, it borrows elements from the traditional musicpedagogical methods, which have demonstrated good teaching outcomes over the years. on the other hand, it includes possibilities that give teachers opportunities for designing pedagogical actions that reflect current concepts and trends in the field of “music, pedagogy, technology” that focus on the integration of emerging technologies in music lessons. 5.1. elements from the traditional music-pedagogical methods synth4kids incorporates elements drawn from the traditional music pedagogical methods – dalcroze eurhythmics, orff schulwerk, kodály method. in this way, it can be efficiently integrated into educational activities and applied simultaneously with conventional strategies, especially at young ages. these features emphasize chromesthesia, pentatonic scale, movable-do technique, and kinesthetic experiences [21]. 5.1.1. chromesthesia chromesthesia consists of a type of synesthesia in which the sound is transformed into a color experience [3, 8]. various charts interconnect sound with color. synth4kids musical keyboard uses newton’s diagram that matches the musical notes with the primary colors of the visual spectrum in a series of red to violet [22, 24]. note c is correlated with red, d with orange, e with yellow, f with green, g with blue, a with purple, and b with violet [29]. it is worth mentioning that the same sequence of colors is widespread in music education. representative examples are the orff orchestra instruments and the boomwackers™ music tubes. 5.1.2. pentatonic scale the usage of the pentatonic scale consists an integral part of kodály’s and orff’s methods. kodály realized that young children had difficulties in singing the diatonic scale because of the octave range and the existence of semitones [6]. for that reason, his method commences from the vocal performance of the third minor (e-g) interval and gradually adds the pentatonic scale notes. in a different approach, orff considered that the pentatonic scale is a native tonality and can enhance children's musical creativity [26]. due to that, many orff orchestra instruments – xylophones, glockenspiels, etc.– use wooden or metal bars that can be easily removed, leaving only the notes that correspond with the pentatonic scale. synth4kids musical keyboard is equipped with the eight notes of a diatonic major scale and has the option to deactivate the fourth and seventh keys, providing a major pentatonic scale. 5.1.3. movable-do technique the movable-do technique is based on john curwen’s tonic sol-fa method. the names of notes do not represent absolute pitches but the intervallic relationship between the grades of a musical scale [6]. following the principles of the movable-do technique, synth4kids can transpose the pitch of the keys to a specific major scale, and the user can adjust the pitch to the preferred tonality by operating the ‘transpose’ fader. depending on the tonic note of the selected scale, the fader changes color based on chromesthesia (e.g., yellow if the tonic is e). 5.1.4. kinesthetic experiences kinesthetic experiences are a vital part of the content of all traditional music-pedagogical methods. dalcroze emphasizes music teaching-learning in a multisensory approach for acquiring musical knowledge experientially. kodály and orff included elements of movement such as walking, running, or clapping for a deeper understanding of rhythmic patterns and motives. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 28 emphasis on kinesthetic functions was given during the design of synth4kids through sensors and interconnection with tablets and laptops. as said before, lfo frequency values are alternated through the gyroscope sensor by changing the device’s position in the space. besides referring to musical keyboard and touch screen capabilities, moving the finger up, down, right, and left on each key can operate as an aftertouch function and change the pitch of the sound produced in a range of ±20hz. alternatively, the musical ribbon function allows more freedom for musical expression. from the above, it becomes clear that both keyboard and ribbon capabilities enable enhanced kinesthetic rare on most electronic musical keyboards. in addition, synth4kids can provide kinesthetic experiences by using the user’s device web camera. supporting face recognition, children can control elements such as effects, adsr envelope, eq, and pitch through the movement of various parts of the face –e.g., lips, eyes, eyebrows– or the movement of the whole head horizontally and vertically (see figure 7). for example, opening the mouth can affect the reverb effect, while moving eyebrows can alter cut-off frequency. the same sound parameters can also be modified by manipulating eye-tracking capabilities. kids can choose to manage two different parameters simultaneously; one for the xaxis and one for the y-axis (see figure 7). figure 7. face tracking & eye-tracking function another fundamental feature that can provide augmented kinesthetic experiences is connecting with external devices. synth4kids is compatible with the leapmotion™ device, an external sensor that tracks the movement of the hands and fingers [30]. due to its high accuracy, it can recognize the direction of the right or left hand and each finger separately. as in face recognition and eye-tracking practices, the user can set a music parameter (e.g., volume, pitch, filter, or an effect) and edit its value by moving his hands and fingers in the air. finally, synth4kids is compatible with the makeymakey™ tactile interface. children can create unique tangible musical instruments and artifacts by connecting conductive materials –fruit, metals, water, pencil, or the human body– in the current interface without prior knowledge circuits [22] and control all the components of synth4kids only by touching the materials (see figure 10). 5.1.5. collaborative practices collaborative practices in music teaching-learning are integral to all traditional musicpedagogical methods for students' comprehensive development –cognitive, social, emotional, and kinesthetic–, motivation, critical thinking, and self-confidence enhancement. children demonstrate a more remarkable willingness to participate in group activities than individually, especially when they present action in the classroom. synth4kids provides the ability for communication between two devices via the webrtc protocol. every time the application logs in, it produces a unique id which is transformed into a qr-code (see figure 8). the importance of the use of qr-code has dual nature. on the one hand, it is an element of the modern digital context. on the other, as synth4kids emphasizes the young ages, kids may struggle with letters and numbers. when a device global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 29 shoots the qr-code, the software logs in and enables webrtc protocol. with the ‘connect’ button, both browsers are interconnected. every change in the application's parameters is transferred to the other device and vice versa by pressing the ‘synchronization’ button. as a result, two students can collaboratively shape a sound pre-set without being in the same device or, to a more general perspective, without being in the same space. for the latter case, the function of extracting the id code has been taken into consideration so that it can be sent through a digital medium to a remote user. figure 8. webrtc via qr-codes the final feature that supports cooperative activities is quantization. this function can be enabled in cases of using synth4kids in music groups, concerning orchestras made only by laptops with synth4kids or a combination with orff instruments. the quantization feature was made in order for two or more different devices to handle synth4kids sequencing capabilities and play together quantized, which means performing melodic or rhythmic patterns simultaneously. generally, it is challenging, especially for young children, to be able to perform a pattern in sync. even if two users start the pattern execution at the same time, there may be delays in launching the web audio. for this reason, the quantization function tries to start the execution of the patterns from a fixed and standard reference point. considering that all devices have synchronized into a specific time zone, the application quantizes the arpeggiator and drum machine to the next following second. 5.1.6. graphic music scores the use of graphic music scores can offer tremendous freedom of expression, creativity, and indepth acquisition of abstract musical concepts by using symbols –images, drawings, diagrams– [35], especially for children aged four to seven years. figure 9. drawing function global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 30 the synth4kids features a drawing canvas with eight colors for graphic score development. each color is associated with a specific key of the musical keyboard. during the painting process, the application produces sound results depending on the selected parameters and the brush’s position on the x-axis and y-axis of the canvas (see figure 9). finally, the drawing result –graphic score– can be saved as a .jpeg image on the user's devices. 5.2. emerging technologies in music education the conventional concepts of distribution, production, recording, and reproduction of sounds, acquire new meanings in the current digital environment. that phenomenon leads to music education transformation, and emerging technologies can play a profound role. the current literature suggests new and emerging technologies in music education, among others, ubiquitous music, augmented reality practices, and the internet of musical things [4, 10, 18, and 38]. 5.2.1. ubiquitous music in our digital era, mobile devices, the internet, and new ways of interacting with sound construct a new frame of music perception. nowadays, we have access to music anytime, anywhere, from anyone at the touch of a button [18, 38]. modern technologies have an assertive role in this spread, creating new musical meanings and conditions for ubiquitous music. ubiquitous technologies in music praxis include, among others, do-it-yourself (diy) practices, web applications, tactile interfaces, and microcontrollers– based on the social-cultural context [18]. in particular, supporting technology, materials, and resources from everyday life creates an ideal environment for collaborative artistic practices and motivation for experiential and inquiry learning. tangible interfaces can function as physical objects from everyday life to manage communication between the user and the computer [27]. in this way, they provide expanded ways of interaction compared to the screen's conventional graphical user interface [1]. especially in the music teaching-learning process, new forms of expression and creativity have emerged through the construction of musical instruments and artifacts [27]. apart from the kinesthetic experiences provided by manipulating tangible interfaces, pedagogical actions with tactile interfaces form new multimodal experiences, following a steam education mindset. figure 10. synth4kids & makey-makey™ the use of web applications and interfaces reflects the viewpoints of ubiquitous music. in the case of synth4kids, the compatibility with the leapmotion™ device and makey-makey™ interface opens new horizons for developing educational activities. more specifically, following a transdisciplinarity perspective, a representative global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 31 example could be the construction of musical artifacts made of conductive materials, as shown in the following figure. 5.2.2. augmented reality (ar) augmented reality (ar) emphasizes the combination of natural and virtual elements in an interactive way that lead to the transcendence of the user's senses to carry out activities that would not be possible without the current technology [2]. technological equipment –tactile interfaces, sensors, microcontrollers, cameras, and mobile devices– is a prerequisite for an ar tool's smooth operation, usability, and attractiveness [40]. in music, ar can create a more direct interaction between the student and a computer system [12, 15] and is also closely associated with ubiquitous music. compared to conventional virtual musical instruments that supply limited interaction through the screen, associating visual objects with material things allows kids to interact with music more naturally and intuitively [15]. synth4kids can provide various ar musical experiences to children. a simple example is the face recognition feature showing a visual presentation on the screen that tracks face movements (see figure 7). besides, connecting conductive physical objects in the makeymakey™ interface and transforming them into music controllers is another characteristic of an augmented interconnection between children’s real and digital worlds. 5.2.3. internet of musical things (iomust) the term internet of things (iot) was developed to describe the vast expansion of the internet into the real world through everyday physical objects spatially distributed and augmented using information and communication technologies. internet of musical things (iomust) refers to real ordinary things related to music processes . diverse approaches are associated with iomust, from augmented reality musical instruments that use qr codes to ubiquitous music practices that include the creative use of the internet, mobile devices, and embedded technologies. musical “things” –e.g., virtual instruments and interfaces– transform music-making, facilitating music communication, interaction and creativity without necessarily being in the same space. furthermore, they contribute to music lessons through enhanced and multimodal teaching-learning processes. in the case of synth4kids, the web-based nature along with the interface communication compatibilities reflect by default the notion of iomust. besides, the compatibility with webrtc and qr-codes expands the interconnections with devices supporting additional capabilities for authentic music teaching-learning with iomust activities inside and outside the classroom. 6. conclusion and future perspectives the purpose of the current paper was to present the synth4kids educational web-audio software. the ultimate aim of the development was to provide new and expanded ways of music interaction, music-making, and learning for the young ages. in that context, the synth4kids application implements elements from the traditional musicpedagogical methods, combined with cutting-edge technologies in an innovative pedagogical framework for incorporating into music lessons. furthermore, it gives opportunities for carrying out steam activities reflecting project based and collaborative learning, interdisciplinarity, as well as game-based and authentic problem-solving experiences. from a technical perspective, the main goal was to create an os-independent application that could be easily accessible to all students. synth4kids architecture was based on web-based application development employing state-of-the-art apis and javascript libraries. the tremendous technological evolution in the field of the web during the last years has given the capabilities for fulfilling the ambitious goals of the synth4kids web application. undoubtedly, there is room for many improvements in the synth4kids features. numerous updates are in the future plans, based on literature review and users’, teachers,’ and students’ thoughts and opinions during all these years. referring to elements from traditional music pedagogical methods, a component that is about to be added is the ability to structure musical scales adapted to user’s preferences –not only major and pentatonic scales–, regarding kodály’s perspective that every nation must use their own scales in music education [6]. considering global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (5) pg. 32 current trends in music technology in education, blending artificial intelligence elements in music creation could be feasible for allowing the application to form melodies and melodic/rhythmic patterns based on student's performance –call-and-response technique. furthermore, a simple virtual console consisting of four tracks –bass, drum-machine, arpeggiator, melody– is another future plan, introducing young children to mixing techniques and digital audio workstations (daws) handling. a final update to the synth4kids could be the capability of letting the user handle the sequence of the modules (oscillators, envelopes, effects), giving more freedom to sound experimentation as well as an introduction to modular synthesis. acknowledgments i would like to thank dr. maria papazachariou-christoforou, lecturer at the european university cyprus, for her valuable feedback on the development and design of the synth4kids elements, as well as dr. may kokkidou, adjunct lecturer at the university of macedonia, for providing useful and practical information considering the emerging technologies in the field of music education. finally, i would like to thank christina charalambidou and malamatenia lizou for using synth4kids in their music teaching-learning processes in preschool and elementary music education, respectively, providing helpful feedback concerning the music experiences of their students. references antle, a., & wise, a. 2013. getting down to details: using theories of cognition and learning to inform tangible user interface design. interacting with computers, 25, 1, 1-20. azuma, r. 1997. a survey of augmented reality. presence: teleoperators & virtual environments, 6, 4, 355-385. berman, g. 1999. synesthesia and the arts. leonardo, 32, 1, 15-22. 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ieee access, 6, 61994-62017. van krevelen, d. w. f., & poelman, r. 2010. a survey of augmented reality technologies, applications, and limitations. international journal of virtual reality, 9, 2, 1-20. wang, g. 2014. principles of visual design for computer music. in proceedings of the joint international computer music conference and the sound and music computing conference, 391– 396. wigdor, d., & wixon, d. 2011. brave nui world: designing natural user interfaces for touch and gesture. elsevier, new york, ny. williams, d. 2014. another perspective: the ipad is a real musical instrument. music educators journal, 101, 1, 93-98. learner centered network models: a survey global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 2; febuary-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 26 learner-centered networks unraveled: analyzing interaction models in collaborative learning 1dr. anna sophia müller article info abstract keywords: social networks, collaboration, interaction models, ties, ego networks, duocentric networks. in collaborative environments, social networks emerge due to interdependencies and interactions among actors and their partners. as collaboration advances, participant behaviors become interdependent, leading to profile variations that influence partner profiles. these interactions eventually culminate in the formation of relationships termed "ties," which can be strong, weak, or dissolved over time. various activities, such as university course projects, arise from these ties, creating observable interactions in the network. this article explores the evolution of networks and learner interdependence within them, particularly focusing on learning-related interactions in educational settings. this survey article presents a comprehensive classification of networks and interaction models among learners. it delves into structural characteristics, illustrating how learners engage within these networks. the paper is organized into sections that progressively detail different network types: ego networks, duocentric networks, triadic networks, and scale-free networks. comparative analysis across these models further enhances our understanding. by comprehensively categorizing these networks, this article contributes valuable insights for students, instructors, and curriculum developers seeking to comprehend learner dynamics and interactions in collaborative learning scenarios. 1. introduction a social network generally arises in collaborations as a consequence of the dependencies, and interactions between actors, and their respective partners [1]. as the collaboration progresses, the behavior of participants tends to become interdependent. hence, a variation in an actor’s profile results in a corresponding change in the partner’s profile. in the event that their interaction progresses over a period of time, a relationship is formed. this relationship is called a tie. a tie can be strong, weak, or at a later time broken. with the formation of ties, different 1otto-von-guericke university magdeburg, magdeburg, saxony-anhalt, germany https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 27 forms of activities start taking place. these activities generate the interactions observed in social networks. a sample activity in a university setting could be a course project. now, most course projects encourage group formation, have a start date, deadlines, and grades. furthermore, this course project activity could be a subset of a semester task which consists of several course projects that eventually results in several collaborations among students, and in some cases, interaction with software tools, such as moodle [2, 3], learndash [4] blackboard [5, 6, 7] and the sqlvalidator [8] etc. as a consequence of these activities, and accompanying interactions, different networks begin to emerge. thus being able to gain insight into the evolution of these networks, interdependence among learners, and learning-related activities becomes immensely beneficial to students that make up these teams, instructors that supervise the students, and curriculum developers. the goal of this survey article was to provide a comprehensive, and up-to-date classification of networks, and a range of possible interaction models that can be observed among learners in the course of learning-related interactions. we describe the main features, and structural characteristics of these networks and how learners interact within them. the remainder of this paper is organized as follows: section 2 describes the essentials of social network interaction and introduces the learner-centered network interaction hierarchy. section 3 describes the ego network and corresponding models. furthermore, section 4 describes the duocentric network and corresponding models. section 5 describes the triadic network and corresponding models while section 6 describes the scale-free network. in section 7 we comparatively analyze the various models. section 8 presents the summary and future work. 1.1. contributions and article structure interaction modeling is an important topic that has high practical relevance in the area of social network analysis and beyond. this importance is linked to the viability of social networks and the multitude of insights one can gain from the unending interactions occurring within them. as part of our initial effort, we surveyed and reviewed several existing publications in the area of social network and interaction modeling found on elsevier, jastor, acm, google scholar, ieee explorer etc. our survey revealed the absence of a literature survey for learnercentered networks and associated models. ergo, this survey article aims to provide researchers’ desire to model group collaboration, readily useful social units with which groups can be classified. we also, describe associated models that readily give insight into group interaction dynamics, and the effects of collaboration. compared to previous surveys related to learner network modeling, this survey: • introduces the learner network interaction hierarchy. • characterizes the various interaction modeling forms in learner-centered social networks. overall, we provide a comprehensive, and up-to-date classification of interaction models that assume interdependence. while there are stochastic interaction models, learner interactions, and partner choices are not random. hence our focus will be on this class of models. 2. essentials of social network interaction as gupta et al. said: “the concept of randomness and coincidence will be obsolete when people finally define a formulation for patterned interaction between all things within the universe [9].” hence, in this section, we present the essential attributes that constitute an interaction. in general, interaction is broadly social and constitutes situations where the behaviors of an individual are consciously reorganized, and influenced by the behaviors of another individual, and vice versa. these interactions and behaviors form the basis of a social structure, and therefore fundamental objects of social inquiry and analysis [10, 11, 12]. a social network platform acts as a new dimension to the traditional social interaction process. these interactions as observed in social networks are no different from the three-way handshake [13, 14, 15, 16, 17], i.e., the algorithm used by the transmission control global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 28 protocol to establish and terminate a connection on the internet. these sequences of processes are involved in establishing and terminating a connection with an entity in a network consisting of message exchanges. the most important part of these messages is the internet protocol addresses. hence, an actor has to know the name, address, and possibly the location of an artifact or another actor that it wants to interact with. also very important in the three-way handshake is the response from the destination. this response can either be an acceptance or a denial. as a consequence of this structure, the identity, availability, location, and integrity information of every participating element of interaction needs to be known and shared for any interaction to take place. the lack or absence of any of them will result in a communication breakdown. based on this context, one can define interaction as a multi-path relationship between two or more nodes in order to achieve an objective. the essential components required for the formation of these multi-path relationships in a social network can be categorized into two groups: the network structures which are essentially graphs and the profile of a node [18]. in a graph, there are nodes that represent actors and for each node, there exists an interaction path between it and other nodes. these paths are called edges and they represent social connections such as friendship or project collaboration in the network. to get a better understanding, in the next subsection, we describe graphs and important properties. 2.1. graphs a graph, g is an ordered pair such that g = (v(g),e(g) (1) where v is a set, whose elements are called vertices or nodes e ⊆ {{x, y}| x, y ∈ v⟨x , y⟩} (2) and e, a set of edges which are unordered pairs [19]. another graph h is a sub-graph if h ⊆ g ⇐⇒ v(g)| ∧ e(h) ⊆ e(g) (3) so, h is a sub-graph of g if and only if the vertex set of h is a subset of the vertex set of g and the edges set of h is a subset of the edges set of g. fig. 1 shows a sample graph and a sub-graph. as can be seen from the two graphs, the vertices 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and the corresponding edges of graph b correspond to the vertices 1, 3, 4, 8, 5 and the corresponding edges in graph a. hence graph b is a subgraph of graph a. these graphs can be either undirected or directed. for instance, facebook’s network structure can be described as an undirected graph since the friendship structure is bidirectional, i.e., alice and bob being friends is the same as bob and alice being friends. on the other hand, twitter can be described with a directed graph, i.e., alice can follow bob without bob following alice. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 29 figure 1. graph and subgraph figure 2. sociogram with six nodes directed graphs or digraphs are a set of ”nodes”, and a set of directed ”lines” or ”edges” connecting pairs of nodes. we will denote the number of nodes in a digraph by ”g”, the group size. this type of graph is better represented with an (n*n) square matrix xm, called the adjacency matrix. given a directed interaction, involving a group of 6 nodes or individuals, the square matrix xm, shown in fig. 2 a, is used to represent the associated interactions. in xm, xm ij designates the status of the relationship between node i to node j. using a binary representation, we indicate the presence of a tie with “1” and its absence thereof with a “0”. after the establishment of a tie, the frequency of interaction can be indicated using ordinal numbers [20, 21]. furthermore, in fig. 2 b, the direction of the tie is represented using a sociogram. the arrowheads indicate the direction of the ties. an arrow pointing from node 5 to node 1 indicates a tie from node 5 to node 1. this is also seen through the sociomatrix xm = 1 but xm = 0. the profile information annotates the established paths with details that inform on the attributes of the node and neighbor nodes [22, 23, 24]. in the next subsection, we describe the node profile. 2.2. node profile a profile describes the significant characteristics of the individual that is represented by a node. in social networks, these characteristics consist of information about interactions, behavior, connections, opinions, etc. they are modeled within a graph as labels associated with the node. so given a node or individual, the profile information is modeled as a set of labels: l = {i1, ..., in} (4) these labels as identified in [1] come in several forms: demographic labels, such as age, gender, and location; labels that represent political or religious convictions; labels that encode activities, hobbies, and affiliations; and many other aspects that capture an individual’s preferences [25, 26]. so in general as also observed in offline social networks, interaction occurs between individuals that have similar profiles, i.e. when the nodes have similar hobbies, attend the same lecture, have close convictions, etc. for network measures such as centrality, diversity, and density, please refer to [1, 27]. given these interactions, 4 types of networks can be inferred: the dyad, the triad, and networks of arbitrary size. these networks form a hierarchy which we discuss in the next section. 2.3. learner centered network interaction hierarchy within the scope of the considered interaction classes, i.e., ergodic, dyadic, and triadic interactions, etc., we observe that an interaction hierarchy can be inferred. this survey presents a classification of these hierarchies. based on [1, 28, 29, 30], our hierarchy includes three main classes of networks or social units, namely dyadic networks, triadic networks, and networks of arbitrary size. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 30 figure 3. learner network interaction hierarchy as illustrated in fig. 3, these roughly form a hierarchy where networks of arbitrary size are the widest, i.e., most general type, whereas duocentric networks have the most specific domain. so as we move up the hierarchy, interactions become more restricted hence reducing the number of independently varying parameters in the interaction. this constrained degree of freedom allows for easy interaction modeling and instrumentation. in the next sections, we will describe the important features of each network in the interaction hierarchy and the respective models associated with them. 3. duocentric networks in the following, we briefly describe duocentric networks, a network that facilitates dyadic interactions. given a directed network, we define a duocentric network as a sub-network consisting of a pair of nodes and their associated ties [31, 32]. this pair of nodes are called dyads, the fundamental unit of interpersonal relations [31, 33, 34, 35]. the duocentric network is used when a pair of egos is central to a research problem. the main characteristic of this network is that it is bounded around a pair of egos while ignoring the ties among the respective alters [27]. figure 4. duocentric network in the analysis of a duocentric network, it is important to verify whether the two selected egos, singular individuals, are from the same class or category, i.e., whether they can be are precisely distinguished from one another as a function of some variable that can be used to differentiate them [36, 37, 38]. so if a research objective is to gain insight into on performance of male and female students in a programming language course, gender will topically be treated as a distinguishing variable. the students can further be distinguished by roles, i.e, if the respective course project is to be done by groups of students, and roles are designated within the groups. apart from dyads being distinguishable, it is important to global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 31 know if they are exchangeable. for exchangeable dyads, there are no relevant variables or roles by which the egos in the dyads can be consistently distinguished (e.g., same-sex friendships). the following are the characteristics of a duocentric network as shown in fig. 4: • primary actors, ego a and ego b, must be central and expressed as egos. • other actors are classified as alters per the ego model. • no relationships are captured among alters. • actors who only interact with one ego are classified as isolates. • interaction and dependence are shown by arrow direction. the interactions that occur in duocentric networks are not random. they are characterized as within-dyad dependencies. these dependencies are both bounded and influenced by the commonalities, and similarities shared by the network nodes in question. in the next subsection, non-independence, the property that gives insight into the shared dependencies found in duocentric networks is described. 3.1. non-independence when dependencies exist between pairs of attributes belonging to nodes in dyadic interactions (e.g, a male and a female student that belong to the same project group in a university course), the attributes of these two individuals or nodes are then more similar to one another than other nodes, (i.e. other students in the same course in other groups). for the dyad, other students, and instructors that constitute the main network are called isolates. an isolate that is a structural hole influence the interaction dynamics within a duocentric network [39]. these two nodes are said to exhibit the non-independence property [40]. this non-independence feature captures the commonalities shared by two sides of a dyad [41, 42]. 3.2. dyadic data analysis the primary objective of duocentric network analysis is the formulation of mathematical models that explain the non-independence property. for this, two types of variables, i.e. exogenous and endogenous variables are used. exogenous variables, depicted as ”x” in the models, are independent variables. they appear only as explanatory variables, and their values are determined outside the model. endogenous variables on the other hand are dependent variables. they will be depicted as ”y” in the models. they are caused by one or more variables in a model. also, an endogenous variable may cause another endogenous variable in a model [43, 44, 45]. furthermore, a structural equation model is defined for each endogenous variable. these structural equation models are multiple equation regression models representing assumed causal relationships among several variables, some of which may affect each other mutually [45]. using these variables, three different models that produce non-independence in a duocentric network setting, the social relations model, the actor-partner model, mutual influence model, and common fate model will be described in the next sub-sub sections 3.2.1. actor-partner interdependence model in the actor–partner model, non-independence is hypothesized to occur as a result of pre existing attributes of each partner, which affects both his or her interaction behavior, and also the interaction behavior of his or her partner [46, 40, 47]. for each partner as shown in fig. 5, there exist endogenous variables and exogenous variables. the “xi” as previously described, represent pre existing attributes or predispositions that the two actors bring to the interaction that may shape their interaction behaviors depicted by the ”yj”. thus, in a class project consisting of dyadic groups, a neglectful behavior of a group member may result in a poor performance for every group member. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 32 y1 = ax1 + bx2 + e1 (5) y2 = bx1 + ax2 + e2 (6) in fig. 5, ‘a’ and ‘b’ represents the paths and is equal across the two members of the interacting pair, ‘c’ represents the error variances, ‘d’ represent the variances of the exogenous variables, ‘e’ represents the covariance of the exogenous variables x1 and x2, and ‘f’ represents the covariance of the errors or disturbances e1 and e2. figure 5. actor partner model [47] the heart of the model are paths a and b. path a represents the actor effect, i.e., the effect of a person’s level of x on his or her level of y. path b represents the partner effect, i.e., the effect of a person’s level of x on his or her interaction partner’s level of y [47] the structural equation model, and the multilevel modeling or hierarchical linear model are two modeling approaches applicable to analyzing the actor–partner interdependence model. 3.2.2. mutual influence model in the mutual influence model, a derivative of the actor-partner interdependence model shown in fig. 6, interdependence is hypothesized to arise because the partners’ behaviors constitute a feedback loop [40, 47], whereby the y’s reciprocally influence each other. for example, a learners satisfaction is influenced or affected by his/her partner’s ot team members satisfaction i.e, the commitment of one partner influences the commitment of the other. where ‘a’ and ‘b’ represents the paths and is equal across the two members of the interacting pair, ‘c’ represents the error variances, ‘d’ represent the variances of the exogenous variables ‘e’ represents the covariance of of the figure 6. mutual influence model [47] exogenous variables x2 and x2, ‘f’ represents the covariance of the errors or disturbances e1 and e2. the heart of the model is the feedback loop represented by the reciprocal paths b, and also paths a, through which the x’s serve as instrumental variables [47]. 3.2.3. common fate model in the common fate model, the partners’ behaviors become non-independent owing that they are both impacted in the same way by influences at the dyad level. latent variables in a statistical model are random variables that global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 33 are not necessarily immeasurable. they are employed to represent features of interest in a model, that are not directly measurable or were not measured. they can also be used to construct estimators that are more efficient than those constructed from non-latent variable models. these shared situational or environmental pressures are conceived as dyad-level latent variables. they can also be used to construct estimators that are more efficient than those constructed from non-latent variable models [48]. in fig. 7 two indicators, x1, x2, and y1, y2 are used to measure the latent variables. they reflect the scores of dyad member a and member b (team member a and team member b) on the underlying latent construct [49, 47, 40, 50]. as shown in fig. 7, one dyad-level latent variable, lx, influences another dyad-level latent variable, ly. this influence is indicated by the path ”a” which indicates lx is directly affecting ly. using lx as an example, the variances and standard error of the between-dyad latent variables lx, ly, and z are calculated as follows: figure 7. common fate model [47, 49] 3.3. the social relations model (srm) the srm allows the number of individual under evaluation to scaled up to more than just two individuals. thus given that six individuals are involved in an interaction, it is tenable that their characters’ will influence or affect one another. thus, their joint or dyadic, characteristics affect what happens between them. hence they are interdependent on each other in as much as their relationship is concerned. to model this interdependence, the social relations model, a conceptual, and analytic approach to focus on the interdependence that exists in the relationships among individuals is employed. it analyzes the two-dimensional matrices of data representing interpersonal perceptions, affect, or behaviors elicited from their interaction via questioners [51, 52]. figure 8. associated variances and covariances global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 34 figure 9. a two-dimensional matrix fig. 9 shows such a matrix. here, x12 for example, represents scores derived from surveys on the extent that six student ”1” perceives student ”2” as knowledgeable with respect to a structured query language task. these scores can either be continuous or a dichotomous variable but it’s common that these data consists of continuous scores. when using continuous scores in a survey, respondents receive a score for each survey question. these scores add up to a predefined total from which associated variances and covariances shown in fig. 8 are derived. the variances and covariances facilitate the estimation of individual effects for a range of concepts as actor, partner, dyadic effects, etc. actor effects for example are impartial assessments of an individual’s behavior toward others, and partner effects refer to unbiased assessments of the ways in which an individual influences their partner [52, 51]. 3.4. discussion as mentioned above, the interactions observed in duocentric networks are characterized by within-dyad dependencies. these dependencies are the fundamental building blocks for measuring interpersonal influence. as observed in the majority of the surveyed literature, the actor partner model is the most employed of the three discussed models. the actor partner model evaluates to which extent an actor’s behavior or state is a consequence of his character or the character of his partner. it can be applied when dyad members are either distinguishable or exchangeable. the mutual influence model which is a variation of the actor-partner model omits partner effects. so for a group of two students working together for the first time on a course project, the mutual influence model does not take their individual effects into account. this omission of partner effects makes the implementation of the model difficult and further increases the possibility of erroneous estimates. the common fate model is an alternative to the actorpartner model in that the two egos are assumed not to influence each other. rather, both are under the influence of either a shared situational, an environmental factor, or their dyadic personality [47, 50, 40].the social relations model is more in-depth, in that it requires elicitation and analysis of data representing interpersonal perception effects, or behaviors of all the participants, etc. it is mostly employed for large dyadic group studies. when a third node or individual joins a dyadic network, a triadic network is formed. this new network not only creates room for new forms of social relationships but also alters the interpersonal dynamics of the dyad. in the next section, we discuss the triadic network and associated model. 4. triadic networks given a directed or an undirected network, a triadic network is a subnetwork consisting of any three nodes and their associated ties. these nodes take either a null or unconnected configuration, disconnected or connected pair global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 35 configuration, and an open or closed configuration as shown in fig. 10. nodes in a triad are transitively associated with each other [28], and to determine their roles, we take the triad census, figure 10. triads [53, 54] shown in fig. 10. i.e., we count the number of the different triad variations it participated in. the relationship between these nodes can either be directed or undirected. for undirected relationships, the nodes can form closed, open, and unconnected relationships. the unconnected relationship can either be completely unconnected or a connected pair as shown in fig 10. the closed triad describes a cyclic relationship such that all nodes in the triad are connected, i.e., a—t—b, (a is tied to b), b—t—c, and a—t—c. for the open triad, interaction is mediated, i.e, a single node a mediates the relationship between node b and node c. so we have a—t—c, and a—t— b. hence, information passes from a to b and then to c and back to a. directed relationships constitute an isomorphism. an isomorphism is a structure-preserving mapping between two structures of the same type that can be reversed by an inverse mapping [56, 57, 58], and owing to that two subgraphs are isomorphic if they are identical [1], a dyad that is neither asymmetrical nor mutual is null as shown in the sociomatrix in fig. 11. thus we have the first dyad variation, the null dyad. the second isomorphism, is invariant to a transformation, such as reflection hence it is not possible to distinguish between the two different forms i.e. b(i → j), and c(j → i) of asymmetric dyadic relations. the mutual dyad relationship, denoted by i ⇐⇒j between actor i, and actor j comes into play when i → j and j → i in the dyad [55, 59]. thus, the mutual dyadic relation between figure 11. dyadic isomorphism [55] global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 36 figure 12. directed triad relationship configurations [53, 54] actor i and actor j is represented by dij = (1, 1) as shown in fig. 11. thus for directed triad relationships, there exists g3, distinct 3-subgraphs formed by selecting each of the possible subsets of the 3 respective nodes, and their corresponding ties. this results in 16 isomorphism classes as shown in fig. 12. letter: u indicates up, and d signifies down, c indicates cyclical and t signifies transitive (i.e., having 2 paths that lead to the same endpoint). the variation denoted with 120d has 1 mutual, 2 asymmetric, 0 null dyads, and the down orientation. in this manner, the triads 1-3 depict an unconnected relationship, triads 4-8, and 11 depict variations of structural holes, and triads 9, 10, and 12-16 are variations of closed triads. the relationship between nodes in directed triad relationships eventually becomes a closure. triadic closure, also known as transitivity or clustering, refers to tie formation in open triads, which closes over time [60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. so for two individuals with a common acquaintance, there is a high likelihood of a tie forming between them via the social influence of their common acquaintance [61, 65, 66, 67]. triadic closure not only occurs in stand-alone triads but also in triads within large groups and entire networks. thus, as one mutual connection increases the likelihood of tie formation between two individuals, multiple mutual connections increase the probability for even more connections [61, 68]. to measure the presence of triadic closure, we employ the clustering coefficient measure, which is a measure of the degree to which nodes in a graph tend to cluster together [69, 70]. in the next subsection, we describe the mutual modeling and triadic relations model. 4.1. mutual modelling mutual modeling is a bidirectional approach employed in both dyadic, and triadic interaction modelling [71]. given a task involving three actors, a, b, and c, a builds a model of b, and c, and b builds a model of a, and c and c builds a model of b and a. this is represented using the notation m(c, a, x) which denotes “c knows that a knows x”. as the non-independence assumption is in play, c’s model of what a knows includes what c knows about a. so, if a states “c thinks i am proficient in programming”, a then builds a second-level model: m(a, c, m(c, a, programming skill)). furthermore, mo(c, a, x) represents the degree of accuracy of the model. so, for the accuracy of what a, b, c models about each other, we have 6 models as shown in fig. 13 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 37 figure 13. mutual modelling in a triadic interaction [71] 4.2. mutual modelling (trm) the triadic relations model extends the logic of the social relations model, section 3.3, to the analysis of data cubes. it takes into account the characteristics of the perceiver, actor, and partner, as well as their combinations all resulting in seven variances, and 16 covariance estimates. given a situation in which what to deduce if an actor a agrees against partner b according to partner c, the tiadic relations model assumes that the perceiver’s insight is comprised of eight components as shown below: where m is the mean perception within the group, ai is the group’s perception of actor i’s aggressiveness, bj is the group’s perception of partner j’s victimization, ck is the perception perceiver k has of aggression (among peers in general), abij is the group’s perception of actor i’s aggressiveness toward partner j, acik is the perception subject k has of actor i’s aggression toward others, bcjk is the perception subject k has of partner j’s victimization by others, and abcijk is the specific perception k has of actor i’s aggression toward partner j [52]. having derived these components, the individual level variances, dyad variances, and triad level variances are calculated, and further estimations are derived from them. 4.3. discussion triads are less reliant on the particular behaviors of their immediate participants for their structure, and property. as such, commitment in triadic relationships is bounded by achieving a goal. such a goal can be the achievement of success in a course project. given this goal, mutual modeling for triadic interactions consists of models of what the participants know about each other with respect to the goal of the relationship. this makes it suitable for modeling learner networks. the triadic relations model, on the other hand, allows for the study of multiple individuals, and dyadic processes simultaneously. furthermore, the trm can be employed in studying three dyadic processes simultaneously. more importantly, the trm allows one to analyze the overlap among dyadic processes, for instance, whether an individual’s behavior toward a peer is associated with that peer’s perception of the individual. despite requiring more computation than mutual modeling, trm gives more insight into factors that affect the dynamics of triadic collaboration [72]. while there are other models employed in triadic interaction modeling as observed in our literature survey, most of them incorporate stochastic assumptions which violate the nonindependence assumption. 5. networks of arbitrary size social capital is an efficacy derived from collaborative connections between individuals which results in the accomplishment of goals [73]. for example, a group with high trustworthiness and skill for a specified task is able to accomplish much more than a comparable group with the same level of skill and no trust. as such, the structural importance of an individual or node in a network or social unit is affected by its centrality with respect to the flow of social capital. thus, the formation of new ties, choice of partners, and the evolution of the abovediscussed networks are mainly driven by homophily and directed by preferential attachment [74, 75]. in global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 38 consequence, the growth or evolution of dyadic, and triad networks into networks of arbitrary sizes follow a pattern observed in systems that produce power-law distributions. these systems are described as scale-free. the scale-free networks will be described in the next subsection. scale-free networks the term scale-free is a mathematical expression used to describe the power-law characteristics of a probability distribution? the most basic model capable of producing a power-law degree distribution is the barabasi-albert (ba)´ model [76, 77]. at each time step in barabasi-albert’s model, once a new node is created, it is connected to existing´ nodes in conformity with “preferential attachment” principle. thus given a scale-free network, the probability p(k) of a node having k links follows a power law with degree exponent γ as shown in equation 12 p(k) ∝ kγ (12) furthermore, results from the study of hein et al [78] in which the internet was mapped, shows that the majority of the pages or nodes had few links while few pages had a large number of links. this is illustrated in fig. 14.a. the logarithmic plot of the distribution of the edges is further shown in fig. 14.b, which reveals the power-law characteristics of the distribution [79, 78]. this power-law characteristic, explains why in a network, a large number of nodes have very few connections, and a small number of nodes, structural holes, have a very high degree [77]. in all, driven by preferential attachment the previously discussed networks continuously grow as shown in fig. 15, thus scale-free. of the scale-free network shown in fig. 15. two of the main features of learner-centered networks that mirror the scale-free characteristics are: • continuous evolution. in the course of university enrollment, a student starts as an ego, and with each passing semester, new relationships are formed with other students in the same study. also owing that there are inter-faculty courses, relationships also form between students of different faculties. in all, a learner’s networks continue to evolve beyond the individual learning period [78]. • preferential attachments. this is a typical feature of offline networks. new associations or nodes prefer to attach to structural holes or nodes close to structural holes. as a result of this preference in tie formation, structural holes, their support cliques, affinity group members, and sympathy group members record more interactions. this leads to the formation of a few highly connected hubs [78]. figure 14. power law distribution of node linkages [80] global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 39 figure 15. evolution of a scale-free network as a consequence of transitive relationships fig. 15 shows a description of how scale-free networks evolve over a period of time, starting from a duocentric network. some examples of scale-free networks are shown in table 1. table 1. examples of scale-free networks [80] network nodes links internet routers optical and other physical connections protein regulatory network proteins that help to regulate a cell’s activities interactions among proteins research collaborations scientists co-authorship of papers world wide web web pages urls 6. comparative analysis the basic assumption that associates the models described in previous sections with each other is the non independence assumption, which assumes that tie formation between individuals is not random. based on this parent assumption, the following assumptions, and concepts, • distinguishability, which asserts that members of a social network are distinguishable if they differ on a dimension that is of factual relevance to the purpose of the investigation. for example, in an analysis examining instructor-student relation, the instructor, and student are typically interpreted as distinguishable because they play different roles in the interaction, one as an instructor in a lecture and the other as a student. furthermore, members of a social network can be distinguished based on inherent variables such as age, sex, empirical scores, etc. table 2. comparison of the considered network models global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 40 associated models criterion dunbar model actor partner model mutual influence model common fate model mutual model srm trm assumption of distinguishability 0 x x x 0 x x assumption of homophily 0 x x x x x x assumption of network closure 0 x x x bidirectional influence 0 0 0 x x x assumption of transitivity 0 0 0 x x x assumption of centrality x legend: x = implements concept; o = partially implements concept; = does not implement concept table 3. comparison of the considered network structures learner networks criterion duocentric triadic networks of arbitrary size instrumentation level medium medium low interaction with alters restricted restricted restricted network size 2 3 unrestricted reciprocity high medium medium • homophily, a predisposition for individuals to associate with other individuals they perceive via choice or external induction like culture, behavior, etc, to be similar to them. thus contacts among similar people occur at a higher rate than among dissimilar people. • network closure, which describes networks in which nodes are highly connected to each other thus fostering trust, cooperative, and collaborative behaviors among nodes in the network. • centrality which indicates or measures the importance or position of an actor in a network. thus, a structural hole is central with respect to its immediate local network. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 41 • bidirectional influence which are effects that are observed in dyadic and triadic relationships when partner effects from network members are present and statistically significant. • transitivity is the tendency that two actors who are connected to a third-party preferentially establish a mutual relationship in the course of time. etc., are used in table 2 to comparatively distinguish between the models based on which features and assumptions they embody. table 3 further differentiates the networks in fig. 3 based on their level of instrumentation, network size, actor interaction with alters, and reciprocity. overall, the mutual model, and triad relations model while being feature-rich is suited for triads although they can be adapted for dyads. the mutual influence model is a derivative of the actor partner model which is specially fitted for dyadic networks. it can also be extended to triads, in which case six models are required, and a cumulative effect is derived by comparing all the individual effects. the common fate model, also a derivative of the actor partner model allows one to take into account, latent variables as individual behaviors, and emotions that affect how they interact. calculating the variances, and covariances in the social relations model can sometimes be complicated and lead to errors, but they offer detailed insights into individual behaviors, and how they affect interaction. also using this method, group structures are not a requirement. summary and future work the goal of this survey article was to provide a comprehensive, and up-to-date classification of networks, and a range of possible interaction models that can be observed among learners in the course of learning-related interactions. we introduced the main features and structural characteristics of these networks and how learners interact within them. having introduced the related models and their basic characteristics, we comparatively analyzed them. taken together, we highlighted – from the conducted literature survey the most relevant information and sufficient references to follow up on any of the above-mentioned models and networks. however, interaction models constitute a large, interdisciplinary area of research that is reasonably developed. therefore, our survey analysis is by no means all-encompassing. furthermore, as mentioned above, we solely focused on interaction models that assume interdependence. future work could on the one hand widen the scope by addressing further aspects of learner-based 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press, 2006.´ a.-l. barabasi, e. bonabeau, scale-free networks, scientific american 288 (5) (2003) 60–69.´ open educational resources for online language teacher training: conceptual framework and practical implementation global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 7; july-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 8 illuminating the virtual classroom: oer-driven language teacher training anchored in cognitive load theory and threshold concepts 1marco alessio rossi, 2isabella maria bianchi, 3giovanni luca martini article info abstract keywords: online teaching, distance education, covid-19 pandemic, professional development, mental health effects the evolution of online teaching and learning has spanned several decades since its inception, gaining significant momentum with the advent of the world wide web. despite the proliferation of platforms, tools, and training for online content delivery, the distinct professionalism required for effective online teaching has not been widely recognized. the urgency of the covid-19 pandemic expedited the transition to online education, often resulting in hastily adapted courses without proper planning or specialized training. this shift placed educators under unprecedented pressure, leading to challenges in managing online contexts and creating engaging learning environments. concurrently, students grappled with adverse mental health effects, including isolation, depression, anxiety, and stress during home schooling. to establish a sustainable and healthy teacherstudent dynamic, strategies addressing the balance between personal and professional life have been emphasized. this paper underscores the significance of purposeful strategy development to ameliorate the multifaceted challenges posed by online education, aiming to foster a more harmonious and effective educational ecosystem. despite its importance, online and distance education remain contentious topics, warranting comprehensive exploration and consideration. 1. introduction online teaching and learning have been a feature of education for nearly four decades now, ever since the university of toronto offered its first online course in 1984. it wasn’t however until the arrival of the world wide web in the mid nineties that online offerings really took off in both academic and professional contexts. platforms, tools, apps and technology in general to facilitate delivery of online content have multiplied over the years and training exists for course designers, creators, e-tutors and emoderators. yet, the specific professionality 1 italian studies, school of languages, literatures and cultures, university of galway, ireland https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 9 involved in online teaching is not widely acknowledged as recent events have shown: the emergency situation caused by the covid-19 pandemic forced governments to move most teaching online and recurrent lockdowns often meant on/off reliance on online classes. anecdotal evidence however suggests that by and large this has not worked well in all schools, as face-to-face courses were hastily adapted to the online modality without the meticulous planning and the specialist training needed for creation and delivery of successful distance education. many research studies carried out across the world reported that teachers were forced to teach online even without undergoing specific training. as a result of this, teachers have been constantly feeling under pressure and have been struggling to manage online contexts effectively as well as creating a pleasing and engaging learning environment [1,2]. at the same time, students have been experiencing psychiatric disorders and adverse mental health effects, such as feeling of isolation, depression, anxiety and stress over home schooling [3, 4, 5]. in order to lead a more sustainable and efficient employment life and build a healthier teachers-students, students-teachers as well as teachers-parents relationship, many contributions have highlighted the importance of purposeful strategy building which aims to address current issues such as the conflict between personal and working life balance which is presumptuously making room in the historical era we are currently living in [6, 7]. however, online and distance education continues to be perceived as a controversial topic. in order to shed light on the benefits and advantages of online learning, the unesco forum has recently coined the concept of open educational resource (oer) which refers to the openness and provision of reusable digitalised resources for educational purposes which are released under an open license and completely free of charge. this has led to the development of an enormous number of public resources which can potentially be extremely relevant to both teachers and learners in managing online learning environments. nevertheless, finding appropriate oers to be used for a specific purpose still remains a challenging task. in fact, although oers have proved to be paramount and useful learning assets especially in emergency situations like the covid19 pandemicthere seems still to be a lack of adequate oers for online language education. the lilac project was not borne out of the extraordinary circumstances of 2020: it started towards the end of 2019, following extensive needs analysis of learners and teachers involved in or considering online courses. we feel however that it has become particularly topical in the light of these developments. lilac is specifically concerned with the peculiarities of teaching and learning languages online and the skills and competences that both teachers and learners need in order to make the most of their experience. in particular, lilac oers are conceived as web-based training modules for independent study for both groups of stakeholders to help them reflect on, acquire or enhance the necessary skills and appropriate online behaviour. lilac modules (freely accessible online https://www.lilac-project.com/) support personalised learning paths, with users free to either select individual activities or follow an entire module sequentially. learning personalisation is in turn facilitated by a mixture of micro learning elements, which contribute to the updating or enhancement of a given skill, and macro learning content, aimed at deepening knowledge and providing new competences and skills on the basis of a number of identifiable threshold concepts. the uniqueness of this project lies in devising and providing pioneering open educational resources (oers), not yet available in the field of online language education, and within a conceptual framework based on the principles of macroand microlearning, cognitive load theory and threshold concepts. one feature that makes the two training modules original is also the bilingual version of the interactive oers which were first created in english, then translated into gaelic. the two lilac modules have been recently launched as an open course entitled “lilac: online language learning and teaching” promoted by the national forum for the enhancement of teaching and learning in higher education and whose aim is to provide teachers and learners with a digital badge for professional development supporting their lifelong learning and career mobility (https://opencourses.ie/opencourse/lilac-online-language-learningand-teaching/). furthermore, lilac oers have represented the conceptual and didactic framework for a new teaching module, “learning and teaching languages online”, which was designed and tailored for undergraduate students of the bachelor of arts in global languages and ran online for the first time in fall 2020 at the national university of ireland, galway[8]. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 10 in the paragraphs that follow we discuss the theoretical framework underpinning the design, the structure and implementation of lilac oers with a focus on language teacher training module. 2. conceptual framework open educational resources (oers) are gaining support and recognition especially in higher education. numerous universities are now developing and providing their own. the term first appeared in 2002 at a conference hosted by unesco during which the participants defined oers as: “the open provision of educational resources, enabled by information and communication technologies, for consultation, use and adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial purposes” [9]. currently, the most widely-used definition of oers explains that they are “digitised materials offered freely and openly for educators, students and self-learners to use and re-use for teaching, learning and research” [10]. an oer is commonly said to consist of 1. learning content such as full courses, courseware, content modules, learning objects, etc.; 2. tools, including software to enable users to develop, re-use and deliver learning content; 3. implementation resources, which comprise intellectual property licenses to promote open publishing of materials. arguments in favour of promoting research in the field of online learning and the development of oers include the importance of sharing knowledge in line with academic traditions, the reuse of resources, the reduction of costs, the potential of attracting new students by providing more flexible materials and the need to look towards new and profitable business models [11,12]. however, whilst oers show great potential for future educational practice, they are still in their infancy [13]. there are still critical and not entirely resolved issues surrounding access, quality assurance and even cost that hinder the usage of oers [12]. at the same time, the complex relationship between design and pedagogical impact of an oer requires further investigation, as it can affect motivation and, ultimately, the achievement of learners’ goals. presentation, interactivity, collaborative value, time required for completion of the task are all key issues that need to be addressed. koohang & harman [14] argued that the educational value of an open digital content can contribute to its sustainability. the value of oers can be measured by how well they are designed and presented. instructional design (linked to learning theories) and presentation (associated with user interface) are vital to sustainability of oers. whilst online learning may have since moved on from a purely instructional design approach, koohang and harman’s statement still ring true today. this paper analyses the pedagogical principles, learning and cognitive theories that underpin the design of an oer at both microlearning and macrolearning level, and discusses how the potential of technology can be exploited to enhance and bring positive and substantial changes to teaching and learning. on the basis of our experience with the lilac project, we argue that oers can be designed in accordance with the principles of microlearning and ubiquitous and adult learning theories (§2.1), can be aligned with cognitive theories and module design practice (§2.2) and incorporate threshold concepts (§2.3). the study therefore aims to position the complex and multi-faceted oer design process within a solid theoretical and conceptual framework. the structure of lilac oers will then be presented as a practical example of how the potential of technologies to support learning can be embedded in online contexts (§5). 2.1. microlearning, ubiquitous and adult learning contexts the terms micro and macrolearning are often used in relation to online environments and oers, even though they also exist in other contexts. microlearning refers to small chunks of content, requiring limited time commitment and is based on the idea that short forms of learning, including fine-grained, inter-connected and loosely-coupled learning activities with microcontent [15, 16], can enable learners to access online resources quickly and construct knowledge in specific moments and conditions of the every-day life. the term “macrolearning”, instead, refers to larger formats of e-learning in terms of time and scope. in general, this concept refers to entire multimedia learning modules or sizeable learning materials, such as text-based scripts or power point slides, and the process of learning demands that several hours be spent on didactic materials. the content is usually created by subject matter experts with authoring tools and includes a wide range of topics presented through combined learning objects. both micro and macrolearning be conceptualised in many ways referring to different aspects, which in turn include different areas, as shown in table 1 [17]. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 11 table 1. microlearning and macrolearning (adapted from hug, 2005:3) linguistics language learning learning contents course structure competency classification sociology micro level single letters vocables, phrases, sentences learning objects, micro content learning objects competencies of learners and teachers individualized learning macro level texts, conversation, linguistic communication sociocultural specifics, complex semantics topics, subjects courses, curricular structures designing a curriculum learning of generations, learning of societies recently, an interesting study which examines the design of microlearning showed that adult learners have contrasting opinions about the content areas perceived to be relevant for macrolearning, conceived as longer timeframe, and microlearning [18]. adult learners who need to keep acquiring new information in order to keep up with fast societal changes, rely on microlearning as an effective approach for obtaining that information, whereas macrolearning was seen as more appropriate for deepening knowledge. in a nutshell, adults perceived that domain-specific information can be delivered via macrolearning, while microlearning can be more significant for domain-neutral areas. the authors suggest that institutions that intend to develop microlearning should consider the dual structure of content delivery, so that learners who want to keep up with topical content can study microcontents while those who prefer to deepen their knowledge on more stabilised areas can attend e-learning courses. however, it should be noted that whether microlearning content delivers merely information rather than knowledge is a matter of debate and further research is needed on the best ways to help learners to progress from the information consumption stage to the knowledge building stage [18]. the lilac project is a web-based training programme accessible from different devices, with oers in the form of both larger modules and individual activities designed to assist online language teachers/learners in their transition from face-to-face to online learning environments. lilac oers therefore constitute a miscellaneous product made up of diverse forms of e-learning: the online modules provide a richer macro-media format built around microcontent consisting of self-contained small chunks of information and short interactive learning activities. microlearning offers a way of organising learning in small steps and with small units of content. whilst not designed to deliver complex concepts and foster deep knowledge, it does the advantage of making learning seem less intimidating, faster and adaptable to one’s schedule. as the most typical form of anytime-anywhere learning, it can be adapted to support individual learning needs and is commonly defined as ubiquitous informal learning. at the time of writing, the percentage of students who learn outside formal classroom settings is increasing and it is interesting to note that it has now been known for some time that informal learning spaces contribute to boost learners’ motivation [19], especially when learners perceive the learning goals as achievable. microlearning is therefore aimed at mobile modern users who need to update their knowledge, skills or competences and identifies appropriate technologies and learning environments to satisfy that need. ubiquitous technologies and in particular mobile learning environments are well positioned to support microlearning. for this reason, the lilac project makes its online modules accessible to a variety of devices and helps users to transfer knowledge across different surroundings, as microlearning requires. in modern societies characterised by new modes of technology-assisted learning, adults tend to connect their educational experiences with their life tasks, and microlearning allows them to do just that: the accessibility and flexibility of microcontent facilitates autonomous learning whenever is required. the adult learning theory focuses on the role of the adult learners and how their own characteristics influence the process of learning in an global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 12 informal context. [20] identified four principles that characterise adult learners: 1. they are self-directed and wish to be responsible for their own actions; 2. they have an extensive personal and professional experience, and this is an essential component in the development of their identity; 3. they are ready to learn and show a very high intrinsic motivation; 4. they have a specific goal and expect achievable outcomes. in addition, adults need to be part of the development, implementation and evaluation of the learning process [21] and need to see the value of their education and the information provided [22]. in a nutshell, adult learners look to education to fill a gap in their lives and microlearning, as an effective strategy, allows them to meet their immediate needs. however, despite the growing interests in microlearning, research that can inform the design of microlearning content still seems to be rather scarce, especially in the context of informal learning for adult learners [18]. 2.2. microlearning, cognitive theories and module design course designers need to create e-learning materials that meet the specific needs of adult learners, attract them and motivate them to learn. successfully designed curses are those that identify specific and attainable goals, and provide adult learners with opportunities to perform tasks, including self-reflection tasks, that inspire them to attach the new information to personal relevance, goal achievement, and problem-solving [22]. to this purpose, it seems advisable to combine adult learning theory with a cognitive framework, in order to help adult learners to retain and use the information provided. microcontent design is based on concepts derived from cognitive science. in particular, the concept of cognitive load and how quickly the working memory may become overloaded is extremely relevant for learning and teaching in online learning environments where the students’ attention span is greatly reduced. in these settings, if the limitations of the working memory are overlooked, the learning process is very likely to slow down or even be completely jeopardised, with negative consequences for learners’ affective filter. however, when information is channelled via microcontent, cognitive load is decreased considerably, and information may be retained and successfully exploited. cognitive load theory applied to microlearning therefore leads to the design of courses/tasks and activities where unnecessary information is removed and only core information is presented, so that adult learners can more easily store the newly acquired knowledge and utilise the long-term working memory efficiently [23] this ‘lighter’ approach is especially appropriate when information is presented for the first time or complex knowledge and skills need to be broken down to aid acquisition [24]. delivering this content through lengthy lectures or workshops tends to overwhelm the working memory, thus not guaranteeing the learner’s retention of knowledge [22]. however, additional information and more in-depth content can still be included in e-learning courses and made available to those who have more time, or different motivation and goals. we suggest that a combination of micro and macrocontent is ideally suited to the design of online courses, especially those courses that support personalised learning paths. the mixture of the two elements allows designers to reach different learner types and satisfy different needs. the short chunks of learning do not imply simplified pedagogical strategies. on the contrary, designing effective microlearning scenarios is a complex and challenging task, as it integrates various didactical approaches [25]. guidelines for the design of microcontent and microlearning activities, therefore, should take into account both technical and pedagogical principles. from a more technical point of view, the microlearning designer should consider: (a) format: microcontent information needs to be easily scanned at a glance; (b) focus: microcontent information needs to sum up in a sentence and offer the main message in a text or in a stretch of discourse; (c) autonomy: microcontents should be self-contained; (d) structure: microcontents usually present the title, topic, author, date, tag and url; (e) addressability: microcontent should include a permalink to quickly access [26] from a didactic perspective, the pedagogical strategies that facilitate microlearning include selfdirected learning, learner-driven learning, knowledge sharing, layered learning, and what we might call cumulative and scalable global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 13 learning, whereby the combination of several microlearning sessions leads to the acquisition of more complex knowledge. the lilac project adheres to the technical guidelines and pedagogical strategies described above. the implementation of the theoretical framework in an academic context however soon revealed the complexity of the challenge. we see microlearning as a series of “light bulb moments” which illuminate the learning path and personalise it by means of relevant, engaging contents and activities that, while belonging to the field of informal learning, are nonetheless structured, pedagogically sound and ready to be imported into more formal macrocontexts. this way, microlearning sessions can represent short but meaningful moments of transition. according to hug, “when the focus is on learning tasks and processes, products or outcomes, it is important to avoid definitions of microlearning that lack discriminating or differentiating power. if microlearning is simply equated with informal learning, lifelong learning […], we end up in a night in which all cows are black” [27]. the complex, albeit perhaps obvious challenge when designing online modules and developing online oers for adult learners is the need to marry their requirements, goals and expectations with technical guidelines and the core principles of pertinent learning and cognitive theories. to this purpose, we propose, possibly for the first time in the field on online language learning and teaching, the application of a threshold concepts (tcs) framework (§2.3) to the design of informal learning sessions for adult learners. 2.3. threshold concepts there are times, during the learning process when learners seem ‘to get stuck’, and moving on to the next level of knowledge feels like a mammoth task. this happens when learners reach a point in their disciplinary developmental path where new and complex knowledge is needed in order to continue along that path. they are on the threshold of a new level of understanding, but need to be able to cross it in order to enter that new level. threshold concepts (tcs) represent key knowledge that, when integrated in the process of learning, has the potential to change a learner’s world view and way of thinking irreversibly. so much so that [a] threshold concept can be considered akin to a portal, opening up a new and previously inaccessible way of thinking about something. it represents a transformed way of understanding or interpreting or viewing something without which the learner cannot progress [28] tcs facilitate learners’ engagement in the discourse and practice of a given discipline and therefore present specific features: they are (a) transformative, because they involve a conceptual shift for learners; (b) irreversible, once acquired, they will not be forgotten; (c) integrative, because they enable learners to make a connection between new and previous knowledge; (d) bounded, and their boundaries are defined from a disciplinary point of view [28]. the tc paradigm has the potential to change teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and even identity through a new model of knowledge. since tcs focus on learners’ experience during a course, their engagement and depth of learning, they are emerging as a useful tool for identifying key components of student-centred curriculum design [29] and for pinpointing significant learning thresholds for teachers in professional development contexts [30]. for that reason, the study of tcs has become an interesting area of research that can lead to better curricular structure. as [31] points out: if we want to develop an understanding of the pedagogy of the subject we teach, we have to start somewhere and making sense of what seems central and often difficult to grasp by most learners, is a good place to begin our inquiry. online language teachers who work in secondary or higher education need to be aware not only of the tcs with which their students are struggling but also of their own set of tcs, related to the practice of online teaching. in addition, it would be advisable to flag tcs to learners, including those encountered by teachers in order to facilitate learning and at the same time encourage a critical self-reflection on the most challenging aspects of online teaching/learning languages. in 2017 northcote and her team [30] analysed the challenges that a novice global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 14 online teacher may face and identified a set of tcs that can prove extremely useful for designers of professional programmes. the list of tcs is presented on the project website in table 2. the researchers focused on tcs related to the teaching/learning of foreign languages in an online setting and then showed how the articulation of these concepts can inform the development of oers. the lilac project hinges upon language teachers’ and learners’ responses on how they perceive online learning contexts, what concepts appear particularly challenging to them and what areas of knowledge seem to be more troublesome than others. we suggest that making all the hurdles explicit within the tcs framework facilitates a direct approach to them and their resolution. these disturbances can be resolved using inquiry-based approaches [32] and critical self-reflection [33]. table 2. threshold concepts about online learning at http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/ the project on which this paper is based used a survey questionnaire to gather data from academic staff as well as two rounds of focus-groups with the participation of lilac team members, language teachers, teaching assistants and students (from secondary and higher education). the objective of both survey and focus groups was to identify a set of tcs related to online language teaching and learning and then embed them in the design of the lilac modules. tcs identified following data analysis as well as more informal consultations with experts using technologies applied to language learning are presented in the paragraph below (§4). the set of possible tcs connected to online language teaching and learning lay the foundation of the design of the oers in the context of the lilac project. 3. methodology 3.1. aim and participants in this article we discuss the lilac team’s replicable approach to oers based on a solid theoretical conceptualisation that takes into account learning and cognitive theories on one hand and the threshold concepts framework on the other. in order to identify the set of threshold concepts connected with online language teaching and learning, a survey questionnaire was administered to the stakeholders and analysed. additional data were http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/ http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/ global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 15 collected during two rounds of focus-group sessions, in which the lilac research team discusses issues encountered in online learning contexts with 10 language trainees, teachers and teaching assistants working in secondary and tertiary education and 3 students enrolled in the professional master of education (pme) programme at the national university of ireland, galway (nui, galway). 3.2. data collection an informative questionnaire made on google forms was purposefully designed for both experienced language teachers and trainee teachers who have just embarked on their very first teaching experience, and for language learners who are in transition towards the online learning environment. a total of 38 questionnaires were collected and then scrutinised. as far as the structure of the questionnaire is concerned, in a first background section (section a) teachers were asked to give information about the foreign language(s) they teach, the educational level (primary, secondary or third) they are teaching in and whether they knew the difference between blended and online learning. a second section (section b) focused on estimating how many teachers had already experienced teaching in online and/or blended learning environments; what they thought the advantages and drawbacks of these two teaching contexts were and which language skills among listening, speaking, writing and reading they found or considered most difficult to teach. they also had to indicate which aspects of online teaching most appeal to them but also rate, on a scale from least to most challenging, the following aspects: evaluation, fostering interaction, time management, delivering live online classes, creating a community of learners, devising online activities and/or other aspects they considered problematic. in addition, they were requested to share their opinion on which skills language learners should develop in order to transition smoothly from face-to-face to online learning. in the third and last section (section c), teachers were asked to self-assess their digital skills in terms of language teaching. they first had to rate their ability to use different search methods to identify accurate and reliable online information and/or educational resources in relation to the language(s) they teach. secondly, they were asked to indicate and rate their ability to produce digital learning content through the use of multimedia presentations, audio & video recordings and online learning tools. finally, they had to indicate which social media they were using or would be willing to use for language teaching and rate their ability to provide and coordinate clear and respectful online interaction. all rating scales varied from a "1-basic” to a “5excellent” ability. data was also gathered from language student in a similar manner, through questionnaires and focus group. student responses are not analysed here, but are occasionally referred to when a comparison with teacher responses is deemed relevant. 4. results and discussion the responses we received involved mainly experienced teachers (81.8%) with some previous but limited experience in online and blended learning, and mostly working in second (27.3%) and third (72.7%) level education, so dealing with teenagers and mainly young adults. on the other hand, learner responses came mostly from university students (93.3%) with just a small percentage from secondary school students (6.7%). answers to the questionnaires showed a general consensus on the advantages of online teaching and learning environments, mainly because of their wider flexibility and accessibility in terms of space, time and audience, but also in relation to creativity and autonomy for both teachers and students. however, results of the teachers’ questionnaire are in part consistent with those described in [22] dealing with online teaching issues in general, and highlight numerous concerns about online language teaching. teachers, both novice and experienced, lamented the lack of training specifically tailored to online language teaching, especially at a time when there is an urgent need to move more and more classes online and explore new ways of building knowledge. in particular, teachers identified the following aspects as the most challenging: (a) managing online learning contexts efficiently; (b) managing technology effectively: this includes understanding and resolving limitations imposed by the technological tool to the teacher’s creativity (having a nice activity in mind only to find that the technology at hand does not allow for its implementation) as well as acquiring relevant research, organisational and time management skills to avoid spending a disproportionate amount of time preparing online classes and activities. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 16 (c) designing activities and modules that can help students to develop all four language skills, with 47,6% of teachers reporting that they perceive speaking skills as the most difficult to teach online; (d) creating a real sense of community, understanding group dynamics and connecting with the students (i.e. empathising with students’ feelings and perceptions); fostering interaction among participants both synchronously and asynchronously; preventing isolation, thus ensuring social presence and student engagement; (e) assessing language learning online, giving feedback and monitoring students’ learning process. it seems that teachers struggle to align online learning activities and assessments. regarding self-assessment of digital skills, answers by teachers show that they rank themselves high (4 on a 5point likert scale) in relation to their ability to use different search methods to identify accurate and reliable online information and/or educational resources. however, when it comes to the ability to produce digital learning content, there are big gaps among respondent: only 4.8% positioned themselves at very basic level, some at intermediate level (19%), a good percentage (42.9%) at very good level and 33.3% at proficiency level. answers also reveal that most teachers make a very basic use of social media in teaching, with most responses indicating “discussion boards” as their option. the final question referred to the ability to provide and coordinate clear and respectful online interaction: just over a third of respondents (31.8%) positioned themselves between 3 and 4 on a 5-point likert scale. in line with these results, discussions with the focus group highlighted the same issues encountered by examining the teachers’ questionnaire, and concentrated particularly on the lack of adequate online resources that could facilitate online language teaching and learning. language teachers denounce a paucity of easily readaptable or reusable online materials, something which makes lesson and course planning even more of a time-consuming task. table 3 summarises the issues identified by language teachers and learners as possible elements of disturbance in online language learning contexts. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 17 table 3. language teachers’ and learners’ issues in an online learning environment. language teachers language learners manage online teaching and learning contexts. manage online language learning. enforce netiquette. comply with the netiquette. get lost in timing and organisation. keep themselves highly motivated, engaged, and organised. lack of discipline. basic ability to produce digital learning content and basic use of social media. basic abilities to search and identify accurate and reliable online resources; basic abilities to work online in an autonomous way or in a team. design and plan online lessons and courses. develop the four language competences, especially concerning speaking skills. feel frustrated for time demanding concerning online materials preparation. feel frustrated due to the poor connection/sounds that is particularly annoying during synchronous classes. manage students’ groups dynamics. manage groups dynamics between classmates, and classmates and teachers/instructors help students to develop the four basic language competences, especially regarding speaking skills. less focus on speaking skills, little attention to the phonetic and prosodic aspect of language learning. help students to interact with each other and overcome the feeling of isolation. feel isolated and not enough supported. recognise a new role of the learner who has more responsibilities. build a sense of a community online. build a sense of community and interact with each other’s. lack of social interaction among students. assess online: provide an immediate feedback, monitor students’ learning progress, prepare rubrics and tests. accept new forms of assessments such as selfassessment and peer reviewing. reward students online. monitor language learning progress. manage plagiarism issues. electronically marked assessments have little or no tolerance for almost correct answers. the elements of disturbance listed in table 3 were then analysed and grouped into five macro areas (moving to e-learning; digital and organisational skills; language component; online communities; assessment), which constitute the five categories on which tcs are based (table 4) as well as the five units of each module and are graphically represented as a virtual tree (§5). the tcs included in the lilac modules are generally consistent with those proposed by [22] that refer to online teaching, however some are new and are indicated in bold in table 4 below. content was then designed to incorporate and deal with the tcs identified. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 18 table 4. threshold concepts about online language teaching and learning. threshold concepts online language teachers online language learners 1. transition towards eteaching (including course design, lesson planning, teacher and course preparation) and elearning (including relationship between the teacher and students, teaching presence, social presence and cognitive presence) 1.1t an online course must be designed to have specific mechanisms to communicate, monitor and give feedback to groups of students as well as individual students. 1.2t online course design is critical to the success of online teaching and learning. 1.3t online presence, while elusive, must be pursued. 1.4t students need to be encouraged to be more regulated in an online course than in an on-campus course. 1.5t online language teaching requires specific approaches and methods, not only presenting content. 1.1l online language learning is not engaging and not effective. 1.2l students cannot learn without the teacher being present. 2. technology (including teacher-digital content, learner-digital content interaction) and organisation (including the difference from on campus teaching and learning) 2.1t preparation for designing and planning online teaching may take longer than preparation for on-campus teaching. 2.2t using technologies requires a lot of time to be exploited properly. 2.3t using technologies restricts creativity in developing digital 2.1l online learning environment requires more rules than on campus learning. 2.2l online learning environment require a new role for learners who have more responsibilities. contents 3. language components (including the strategies and method in developing the four basic language competences) 3.1t online courses neglect the development of speaking skills. 3.1l online courses neglect the development of speaking skills. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 19 4. online communities (including teacher-learner, learner-learner, and learnercontent interaction) 4.1t online learning contexts require a new mode of interaction between language teachers, learners and resources. 4.2t online teaching requires facilitating interaction, not only presenting content. 4.1l online learning contexts require a new mode of interaction between language teachers, learners and resources. 4.2l online learning environment fosters a feeling of isolation. 4.3l online learning environment neglect interaction among learners. 5. assessment 5.1t online course design needs alignment between learning activities, assessment tasks and feedback mechanisms to ensure students engagement. 5.2t online assessment increases plagiarism. 5.1l electronically marked assessment are not reliable. the lilac modules, albeit leaving scope for repurposing most oers, are specifically designed to assist online language teaching and learning. in line with the parameters of our project and in order to aid the interpretation of the threshold concepts listed in table 4, the features of threshold concepts were redefined in terms of online language teaching and learning, as follows. (a) transformative: they change the way we view online teaching and learning. (b) troublesome: the idea of online language teaching can be counter-intuitive to the way we have always taught. online language teaching and learning may seem too difficult or too complex. (c) irreversible: concepts learned about online language teaching and learning are difficult to unlearn. (d) integrative: threshold concepts about online language teaching and learning are likely to incorporate concepts about other teaching/learning-related issues (e.g., curriculum design, assessment). (e) bounded: a threshold concept about online language teaching/learning is related to an academic's scholarly practice of teaching. (f) discursive: evidence of threshold concepts about online language teaching/learning will be demonstrated incidentally in an academic's use of language. (g) reconstitutive: the academic's grasp of a concept may go back and forth across stages of being sure and not sure, as they develop, undevelop, construct, and reconstruct the concept for themselves. (h) liminality: as the online language teacher crosses the liminal space between not teaching online and teaching online effectively, s/he may experience some level of stuckness. as the online language learner crosses the liminal space between not learning online and learning online effectively, s/he may experience some level of stuckness. 5. the lilac tree and the online language teacher analysis of respondents’ answers, identification of tcs and reference to online learning and cognitive theories determined the design structure of the lilac modules, which progress from basic, essential skills to more advanced competences. we used the metaphor of the tree to give a graphic representation of the development of skills and competences related to online teaching, as shown in figure 1. we metaphorically conceived our online global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 20 teacher as a virtual tree whose roots are represented by the essential digital skills that teachers need to develop and constantly update in order to transition successfully from a classroom-based to an online teaching environment. teachers’ digital skills are directly linked to their organisational skills, and together they make up the nourishment needed to nurture the three branches of our tree, enhancing a teacher’s pedagogical, social and assessor role. as fig.1 shows, and following the tree structure outlined above, the lilac teachers’ module was therefore devised as a five-unit module. each unit is then divided into a number of lessons with specific objectives, reflections and tips to help teachers overcome difficulties and challenge what they perceive as e-teaching limits. this structure has been graphically designed as an interactive image, our so-called lilac tree map, which can be found in the module introduction and acts as an interactive table of contents. the user can click on the single units and immediately access its content. below an overview of each unit. unit 1: moving to e-learning addresses tcs from 1.1t. to 1.5t. it aims at laying or reinforcing the foundations for the transition from face-to-face to online teaching environment. it comprises of five lessons, which respectively explore: the characteristics and therefore the differences between the two teaching & learning environments (lesson 1); theories and methodologies applied to the online educational context (lesson 2) and the most effective approaches and methods when teaching online (lesson 3); preparing students for online learning (lesson 4) and basic netiquette (lesson 5). unit 2: digital and organisational skills addresses tcs from 2.1t to 2.3t. it comprises of three lessons and has been purposefully designed to respond to what has been identified in the teachers’ questionnaire as a widespread need for strong and solid organisational and time management skills. lesson 1 is a brief introduction to the topic. in lesson 2 the teachers are given the tools to identify their current level of digitalisation in terms of digital resources and technologies and are walked through the development of their digital competences. lesson 3 explores more in detail the organisational and managerial skills that teachers should have when teaching online and gives tips on how to organise the working time and space effectively. unit 3: pedagogical role addresses tcs 1.2t, 1.5t, from 2.1t to 2.3t, and 3.1t. it aims at enhancing teachers’ pedagogical skills by providing them with tools and tips to plan and implement effective online learning activities that promote the development of the four basic linguistic competences. the unit has therefore been designed to help teachers to overcome the perceived limits of educational platforms and technology. lesson 1 offers an innovative lesson planning system, the lilac “ping-pong planning”, which provides a structure for teachers’ synchronous and asynchronous delivery of both content and feedback and for their interaction with online learners, while lesson 2 and 3 focus on the four language competences, giving practical tips to enhance reading & writing and listening & speaking skills respectively. lesson 4 provides an overview of the educational tools to be employed online. unit 4: social role addresses tcs 4.1t and 4.2t. it examines the strategies that a teacher should follow to create a strong sense of community among the learners, establish a solid teacher-student relationship and manage the community of learners by fostering students’ interaction and engagement both synchronously and asynchronously. it comprises 3 lessons: lesson 1 explores how teachers can create and also help their students to create and maintain a relaxing and healthy learning environment; lesson 2 focuses on the creation of online communities and on the tools to be used; finally lesson 3 focuses on how to support students’ learning engagement and interaction with both content and peers. unit 5: assessor role addresses tcs 1.1t, 1.5t, 3.1t, 4.1t, 4.2t, 5.1t and 5.2t, comprising again of three lessons, explores the world of online assessment and evaluation. lesson 1 provides the teachers with ideas and advice on how to create new effective and appropriate online assessments (e-portfolio, peer-assessment), while lesson 2 gives an overview of strategies and ways to monitor and assess students’ learning; lesson 3 focuses on the creation of feedback aimed at enhancing students’ performance. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 21 each unit includes an end-of-unit final quiz where teachers can put themselves to the task and assess what they have learnt so far. all the units and lessons have also been conceived as totally independent and self-containing. learners are totally free to take the course in sequential order or jump around the units/lessons according to the topic(s) that interest(s) them more. figure 1. lilac tree map 6. conclusion this paper outlined the creation of training modules for online language teachers as part of the lilac project oers, and the conceptual framework underpinning their design. it argued that effective oers need to take into account the impact of cognitive load on learners’ acquisition and retention of knowledge, the principles of micro and macro learning for appropriate distribution of the cognitive load, the identification of threshold concepts for the selection and sequencing of content, as well as online and multimedia learning theories, in our case specifically directed to adults. the lilac team identified tcs through questionnaires and focus groups and built the oers around them, organising content in self-contained microlearning units that nevertheless form part of a larger macro structure and are supported by and supplemented with macrolearning content. acknowledging adults’ need for information that is relevant, motivating, purposeful and quickly retrievable, we designed a learning path that can be easily personalised, while at the same time offering the option of sequential progression. the micro level allowed us to introduce learning objects and single skills while at the macro level we dealt with topics and more complex, integrated skills and competences. this combined structure also allowed us to spread the cognitive load so as to avoid load “peaks” within the module. whilst lilac oers are specifically designed for training online language teachers and learners, we believe that they provide a template for the development of further oers with different objectives and stakeholders. as reliance on online content grows and its inclusion in both formal and informal learning environments becomes nearly unavoidable, solid conceptual frameworks for their design need to be investigated, updated and implemented so that learners are exposed to significant and motivating learning paths that can encompass both single items of knowledge as well as more complex information, skills and competences. it is hoped that future global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 22 research will focus also on statistical data on the impact of online oers on retention, which in turn will further inform design and implementation. acknowledgements the lilac project is funded by the national forum for enhancement for teaching and learning in higher education. we would like to thank all the participants, teachers and students, who helped this research project. references dempsey, m. & burke, j. 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(2007) microlearning as a challenge for instructional design. in t. hug (ed) didactics of microlearning, concepts, discourses and example, münster: waxmann, 98-109. buchem, i. and hamelmann, h. (2010) microlearning: a strategy for ongoing professional development. elearning papers: 21. http://elearningeuropa.info/files/media/media23707 hug, t. (2009) outline of a microlearning agenda. elearning papers: 16 www.elearningpress.ue http://elearningeuropa.info/files/media/media23707 http://elearningeuropa.info/files/media/media23707 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (7) pg. 24 meyer, j. h. f., & land, r. (2003). threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: linkages to ways of thinking and practising within the disciplines enhancing teaching-learning environments. undergraduate courses project, occasional paper 4 (pp. 1-12). edinburgh: university of edinburgh. land, r., meyer, j. h. f., cousin, g. & davies, p. (2005). conclusion: implications of threshold concepts for course design and evaluation. in j. h. f. meyer, & r. land (eds.), overcoming barriers to student understanding: threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge. london and new york: routledge. 195206. northcote, m., gosselin, k., kilgour, p., mcloughlin, c. & boddey, c. (2017) using threshold concepts about online teaching to support novice online teachers: designing professional development guidelines to individually assist academic staff (“me) and collectively guide the institution (“us”). in h., partridge, k. david, & j thomas (eds), me, us, it! proceedings ascilite2017: 34th international conference on innovation, practice and research in the use of educational technologies in tertiary education (pp.328336). cousin, g. (2006) an introduction to threshold concepts. planet. kreber, c. & kanuka, h. 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(2011) transforming online teaching practice: critical analysis of the literature on the roles and competencies of online teachers. distance education, 32(3), 421439. open educational resources for online language teacher training: conceptual framework and practical implementation global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 54 designing effective oers for language teacher training in online environments: integrating threshold concepts and cognitive load theory francesca nicora, oriana bologna, and laura mcloughlin italian studies, school of languages, literatures and cultures, university of galway, ireland abstract: open educational resources (oers) are increasingly being used to support language teacher training in online learning environments. to create effective oers, there is a need to consider principles of microand macro-learning, cognitive load theory, and threshold concepts (tcs). this paper presents the lilac project, which aims to support language teachers in managing online learning environments through the design and implementation of oers. the lilac oers are available as web-based training modules that offer personalized learning paths with a blend of micro and macro learning content. the design and structure of these oers are based on a conceptual framework that takes into account learning and cognitive theories as well as the tcs related to online language teaching and learning. to identify the tcs, the lilac team used survey questionnaires and two rounds of focus-group sessions involving language trainees, teachers, teaching assistants, and students from secondary and higher education. the results were used to create modules that address areas such as managing technology effectively, designing activities to develop language skills, and fostering a sense of community in online environments. the lilac oers provide an effective approach to language teacher training that can lead to positive changes in teaching and learning outcomes. this paper offers insights into the benefits of online learning and supports an efficient and sustainable approach to language teacher training. keywords: open educational resources, threshold concepts, cognitive load theory, micro-learning, macro-learning, online language teaching and learning, personalized learning paths, language teacher training, online learning environments, sustainable approach. 1. introduction online teaching and learning have been a feature of education for nearly four decades now, ever since the university of toronto offered its first online course in 1984. it wasn’t however until the arrival of the world wide web in the mid nineties that online offerings really took off in both academic and professional contexts. platforms, tools, apps and technology in general to facilitate delivery of online content have multiplied over the years and training exists for course designers, creators, e-tutors and emoderators. yet, the specific professionality involved in online teaching is not widely acknowledged as recent events have shown: the emergency situation caused by the covid-19 pandemic forced governments to move most teaching online and recurrent lockdowns often meant on/off reliance on online classes. anecdotal evidence however suggests that by and large this has not worked well in all schools, as face-to-face courses were hastily global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 55 adapted to the online modality without the meticulous planning and the specialist training needed for creation and delivery of successful distance education. many research studies carried out across the world reported that teachers were forced to teach online even without undergoing specific training. as a result of this, teachers have been constantly feeling under pressure and have been struggling to manage online contexts effectively as well as creating a pleasing and engaging learning environment [1,2]. at the same time, students have been experiencing psychiatric disorders and doi :10.5121/ijite.2022.11301 adverse mental health effects, such as feeling of isolation, depression, anxiety and stress over home schooling [3, 4, 5]. in order to lead a more sustainable and efficient employment life and build a healthier teachers-students, students-teachers as well as teachers-parents relationship, many contributions have highlighted the importance of purposeful strategy building which aims to address current issues such as the conflict between personal and working life balance which is presumptuously making room in the historical era we are currently living in [6, 7]. however, online and distance education continues to be perceived as a controversial topic. in order to shed light on the benefits and advantages of online learning, the unesco forum has recently coined the concept of open educational resource (oer) which refers to the openness and provision of reusable digitalised resources for educational purposes which are released under an open license and completely free of charge. this has led to the development of an enormous number of public resources which can potentially be extremely relevant to both teachers and learners in managing online learning environments. nevertheless, finding appropriate oers to be used for a specific purpose still remains a challenging task. in fact, although oers have proved to be paramount and useful learning assets especially in emergency situations like the covid19 pandemicthere seems still to be a lack of adequate oers for online language education. the lilac project was not borne out of the extraordinary circumstances of 2020: it started towards the end of 2019, following extensive needs analysis of learners and teachers involved in or considering online courses. we feel however that it has become particularly topical in the light of these developments. lilac is specifically concerned with the peculiarities of teaching and learning languages online and the skills and competences that both teachers and learners need in order to make the most of their experience. in particular, lilac oers are conceived as web-based training modules for independent study for both groups of stakeholders to help them reflect on, acquire or enhance the necessary skills and appropriate online behaviour. lilac modules (freely accessible online https://www.lilac-project.com/) support personalised learning paths, with users free to either select individual activities or follow an entire module sequentially. learning personalisation is in turn facilitated by a mixture of micro learning elements, which contribute to the updating or enhancement of a given skill, and macro learning content, aimed at deepening knowledge and providing new competences and skills on the basis of a number of identifiable threshold concepts. the uniqueness of this project lies in devising and providing pioneering open educational resources (oers), not yet available in the field of online language education, and within a conceptual framework based on the principles of macroand microlearning, cognitive load theory and threshold concepts. one feature that makes the two training modules original is also the bilingual version of the interactive oers which were first created in english, then translated into gaelic. the two lilac modules have been recently launched as an open course entitled “lilac: online language learning and teaching” promoted by the national forum for the enhancement of teaching and learning in higher education and whose aim is to provide https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11301 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 56 teachers and learners with a digital badge for professional development supporting their lifelong learning and career mobility (https://opencourses.ie/opencourse/lilac-online-language-learningand-teaching/). furthermore, lilac oers have represented the conceptual and didactic framework for a new teaching module, “learning and teaching languages online”, which was designed and tailored for undergraduate students of the bachelor of arts in global languages and ran online for the first time in fall 2020 at the national university of ireland, galway[8]. in the paragraphs that follow we discuss the theoretical framework underpinning the design, the structure and implementation of lilac oers with a focus on language teacher training module. 2. conceptual framework open educational resources (oers) are gaining support and recognition especially in higher education. numerous universities are now developing and providing their own. the term first appeared in 2002 at a conference hosted by unesco during which the participants defined oers as: “the open provision of educational resources, enabled by information and communication technologies, for consultation, use and adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial purposes” [9]. currently, the most widely-used definition of oers explains that they are “digitised materials offered freely and openly for educators, students and self-learners to use and re-use for teaching, learning and research” [10]. an oer is commonly said to consist of 1. learning content such as full courses, courseware, content modules, learning objects, etc.; 2. tools, including software to enable users to develop, re-use and deliver learning content; 3. implementation resources, which comprise intellectual property licenses to promote open publishing of materials. arguments in favour of promoting research in the field of online learning and the development of oers include the importance of sharing knowledge in line with academic traditions, the reuse of resources, the reduction of costs, the potential of attracting new students by providing more flexible materials and the need to look towards new and profitable business models [11,12]. however, whilst oers show great potential for future educational practice, they are still in their infancy [13]. there are still critical and not entirely resolved issues surrounding access, quality assurance and even cost that hinder the usage of oers [12]. at the same time, the complex relationship between design and pedagogical impact of an oer requires further investigation, as it can affect motivation and, ultimately, the achievement of learners’ goals. presentation, interactivity, collaborative value, time required for completion of the task are all key issues that need to be addressed. koohang& harman [14] argued that the educational value of an open digital content can contribute to its sustainability. the value of oers can be measured by how well they are designed and presented. instructional design (linked to learning theories) and presentation (associated with user interface) are vital to sustainability of oers. whilst online learning may have since moved on from a purely instructional design approach, koohang and harman’s statement still ring true today. this paper analyses the pedagogical principles, learning and cognitive theories that underpin the design of an oer at both microlearning and macrolearning level, and discusses how the potential of technology can be exploited to enhance and bring positive and substantial changes to teaching and learning. on the basis of our experience with the lilac project, we argue that oers can be designed in accordance with the principles of microlearning and ubiquitous and adult learning theories (§2.1), can be aligned with cognitive theories and module design practice (§2.2) and incorporate threshold concepts (§2.3). the study therefore aims to position the complex and multi-faceted oer design process within a solid theoretical and conceptual framework. the structure of lilac oers will then be global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 57 presented as a practical example of how the potential of technologies to support learning can be embedded in online contexts (§5). 2.1. microlearning, ubiquitous and adult learning contexts the terms micro and macrolearning are often used in relation to online environments and oers, even though they also exist in other contexts. microlearning refers to small chunks of content, requiring limited time commitment and is based on the idea that short forms of learning, including fine-grained, interconnected and loosely-coupled learning activities with microcontent [15, 16], can enable learners to access online resources quickly and construct knowledge in specific moments and conditions of the every-day life. the term “macrolearning”, instead, refers to larger formats of e-learning in terms of time and scope. in general, this concept refers to entire multimedia learning modules or sizeable learning materials, such as text-based scripts or power point slides, and the process of learning demands that several hours be spent on didactic materials. the content is usually created by subject matter experts with authoring tools and includes a wide range of topics presented through combined learning objects. both micro and macrolearning be conceptualised in many ways referring to different aspects, which in turn include different areas, as shown in table 1 [17]. table 1. microlearning and macrolearning (adapted from hug, 2005:3) linguistics language learning learning contents course structure competency classification sociology micro level single letters vocables, phrases, sentences learning objects, micro content learning objects competencies of learners and teachers individualized learning macro level texts, conversation, linguistic communication sociocultural specifics, complex semantics topics, subjects courses, curricular structures designing a curriculum learning of generations, learning of societies recently, an interesting study which examines the design of microlearning showed that adult learners have contrasting opinions about the content areas perceived to be relevant for macrolearning, conceived as longer timeframe, and microlearning [18]. adult learners who need to keep acquiring new information in order to keep up with fast societal changes, rely on microlearning as an effective approach for obtaining that information, whereas macrolearning was seen as more appropriate for deepening knowledge. in a nutshell, adults perceived that domain-specific information can be delivered via macrolearning, while microlearning can be more significant for domain-neutral areas. the authors suggest that institutions that intend to develop microlearning should consider the dual structure of content delivery, so that learners who want to keep up with topical content can study microcontents while those who prefer to deepen their knowledge on more stabilised areas can attend e-learning courses. however, it should be noted that whether microlearning content delivers merely information rather than knowledge is a matter of debate and further research is needed on the best ways to help learners to progress from the information consumption stage to the knowledge building stage [18]. the lilac project is a web-based training programme accessible from different devices, with oers in the form of both larger modules and individual activities designed to assist online language teachers/learners in global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 58 their transition from face-to-face to online learning environments. lilac oers therefore constitute a miscellaneous product made up of diverse forms of e-learning: the online modules provide a richer macromedia format built around microcontent consisting of self-contained small chunks of information and short interactive learning activities. microlearning offers a way of organising learning in small steps and with small units of content. whilst not designed to deliver complex concepts and foster deep knowledge, it does the advantage of making learning seem less intimidating, faster and adaptable to one’s schedule. as the most typical form of anytimeanywhere learning, it can be adapted to support individual learning needs and is commonly defined as ubiquitous informal learning. at the time of writing, the percentage of students who learn outside formal classroom settings is increasing and it is interesting to note that it has now been known for some time that informal learning spaces contribute to boost learners’ motivation [19], especially when learners perceive the learning goals as achievable. microlearning is therefore aimed at mobile modern users who need to update their knowledge, skills or competences and identifies appropriate technologies and learning environments to satisfy that need. ubiquitous technologies and in particular mobile learning environments are well positioned to support microlearning. for this reason, the lilac project makes its online modules accessible to a variety of devices and helps users to transfer knowledge across different surroundings, as microlearning requires. in modern societies characterised by new modes of technology-assisted learning, adults tend to connect their educational experiences with their life tasks, and microlearning allows them to do just that: the accessibility and flexibility of microcontent facilitates autonomous learning whenever is required. the adult learning theory focuses on the role of the adult learners and how their own characteristics influence the process of learning in an informal context. [20] identified four principles that characterise adult learners: 1. they are self-directed and wish to be responsible for their own actions; 2. they have an extensive personal and professional experience, and this is an essential component in the development of their identity; 3. they are ready to learn and show a very high intrinsic motivation; 4. they have a specific goal and expect achievable outcomes. in addition, adults need to be part of the development, implementation and evaluation of the learning process [21] and need to see the value of their education and the information provided [22]. in a nutshell, adult learners look to education to fill a gap in their lives and microlearning, as an effective strategy, allows them to meet their immediate needs. however, despite the growing interests in microlearning, research that can inform the design of microlearning content still seems to be rather scarce, especially in the context of informal learning for adult learners [18]. 2.2. microlearning, cognitive theories and module design course designers need to create e-learning materials that meet the specific needs of adult learners, attract them and motivate them to learn. successfully designed curses are those that identify specific and attainable goals, and provide adult learners with opportunities to perform tasks, including self-reflection tasks, that inspire them to attach the new information to personal relevance, goal achievement, and problem-solving [22]. to this purpose, it seems advisable to combine adult learning theory with a cognitive framework, in order to help adult learners to retain and use the information provided. microcontent design is based on concepts derived from cognitive science. in particular, the concept of cognitive load and how quickly the working memory may become overloaded is extremely relevant for learning and teaching in online learning environments where the students’ attention span is greatly reduced. in these settings, if the limitations of the working memory are overlooked, the learning process is very likely global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 59 to slow down or even be completely jeopardised, with negative consequences for learners’ affective filter. however, when information is channelled via microcontent, cognitive load is decreased considerably, and information may be retained and successfully exploited. cognitive load theory applied to microlearning therefore leads to the design of courses/tasks and activities where unnecessary information is removed and only core information is presented, so that adult learners can more easily store the newly acquired knowledge and utilise the long-term working memory efficiently [23] this ‘lighter’ approach is especially appropriate when information is presented for the first time or complex knowledge and skills need to be broken down to aid acquisition [24]. delivering this content through lengthy lectures or workshops tends to overwhelm the working memory, thus not guaranteeing the learner’s retention of knowledge [22]. however, additional information and more in-depth content can still be included in e-learning courses and made available to those who have more time, or different motivation and goals. we suggest that a combination of micro and macrocontent is ideally suited to the design of online courses, especially those courses that support personalised learning paths. the mixture of the two elements allows designers to reach different learner types and satisfy different needs. the short chunks of learning do not imply simplified pedagogical strategies. on the contrary, designing effective microlearning scenarios is a complex and challenging task, as it integrates various didactical approaches [25]. guidelines for the design of microcontent and microlearning activities, therefore, should take into account both technical and pedagogical principles. from a more technical point of view, the microlearning designer should consider: (a) format: microcontent information needs to be easily scanned at a glance; (b) focus: microcontent information needs to sum up in a sentence and offer the main message in a text or in a stretch of discourse; (c) autonomy: microcontents should be self-contained; (d) structure: microcontents usually present the title, topic, author, date, tag and url; (e) addressability: microcontent should include a permalink to quickly access [26] from a didactic perspective, the pedagogical strategies that facilitate microlearning include selfdirected learning, learner-driven learning, knowledge sharing, layered learning, and what we might call cumulative and scalable learning, whereby the combination of several microlearning sessions leads to the acquisition of more complex knowledge. the lilac project adheres to the technical guidelines and pedagogical strategies described above. the implementation of the theoretical framework in an academic context however soon revealed the complexity of the challenge. we see microlearning as a series of “light bulb moments” which illuminate the learning path and personalise it by means of relevant, engaging contents and activities that, while belonging to the field of informal learning, are nonetheless structured, pedagogically sound and ready to be imported into more formal macrocontexts. this way, microlearning sessions can represent short but meaningful moments of transition. according to hug, “when the focus is on learning tasks and processes, products or outcomes, it is important to avoid definitions of microlearning that lack discriminating or differentiating power. if microlearning is simply equated with informal learning, lifelong learning […], we end up in a night in which all cows are black” [27]. the complex, albeit perhaps obvious challenge when designing online modules and developing online oers for adult learners is the need to marry their requirements, goals and expectations with technical guidelines and the core principles of pertinent learning and cognitive theories. to this purpose, we propose, possibly global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 60 for the first time in the field on online language learning and teaching, the application of a threshold concepts (tcs) framework (§2.3) to the design of informal learning sessions for adult learners. 2.3. threshold concepts there are times, during the learning process when learners seem ‘to get stuck’, and moving on to the next level of knowledge feels like a mammoth task. this happens when learners reach a point in their disciplinary developmental path where new and complex knowledge is needed in order to continue along that path. they are on the threshold of a new level of understanding, but need to be able to cross it in order to enter that new level. threshold concepts (tcs) represent key knowledge that, when integrated in the process of learning, has the potential to change a learner’s world view and way of thinking irreversibly. so much so that [a] threshold concept can be considered akin to a portal, opening up a new and previously inaccessible way of thinking about something. it represents a transformed way of understanding or interpreting or viewing something without which the learner cannot progress [28] tcs facilitate learners’ engagement in the discourse and practice of a given discipline and therefore present specific features: they are (a) transformative, because they involve a conceptual shift for learners; (b) irreversible, once acquired, they will not be forgotten; (c) integrative, because they enable learners to make a connection between new and previous knowledge; (d) bounded, and their boundaries are defined from a disciplinary point of view [28]. the tc paradigm has the potential to change teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and even identity through a new model of knowledge. since tcs focus on learners’ experience during a course, their engagement and depth of learning, they are emerging as a useful tool for identifying key components of student-centred curriculum design [29] and for pinpointing significant learning thresholds for teachers in professional development contexts [30]. for that reason, the study of tcs has become an interesting area of research that can lead to better curricular structure. as [31] points out: if we want to develop an understanding of the pedagogy of the subject we teach, we have to start somewhere and making sense of what seems central and often difficult to grasp by most learners, is a good place to begin our inquiry. online language teachers who work in secondary or higher education need to be aware not only of the tcs with which their students are struggling but also of their own set of tcs, related to the practice of online teaching. in addition, it would be advisable to flag tcs to learners, including those encountered by teachers in order to facilitate learning and at the same time encourage a critical self-reflection on the most challenging aspects of online teaching/learning languages. in 2017 northcote and her team [30] analysed the challenges that a novice online teacher may face and identified a set of tcs that can prove extremely useful for designers of professional programmes. the list of tcs is presented on the project website in table 2. the researchers focused on tcs related to the teaching/learning of foreign languages in an online setting and then showed how the articulation of these concepts can inform the development of oers. the lilac project hinges upon language teachers’ and learners’ responses on how they perceive online learning contexts, what concepts appear particularly challenging to them and what areas of knowledge seem to be more troublesome than others. we suggest that making all the hurdles explicit within the tcs framework facilitates a direct approach to them and their resolution. these disturbances can be resolved using inquirybased approaches [32] and critical self-reflection [33]. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 61 table 2. threshold concepts about online learning at http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/ the project on which this paper is based used a survey questionnaire to gather data from academic staff as well as two rounds of focus-groups with the participation of lilac team members, language teachers, teaching assistants and students (from secondary and higher education). the objective of both survey and focus groups was to identify a set of tcs related to online language teaching and learning and then embed them in the design of the lilac modules. tcs identified following data analysis as well as more informal consultations with experts using technologies applied to language learning are presented in the paragraph below (§4). the set of possible tcs connected to online language teaching and learning lay the foundation of the design of the oers in the context of the lilac project. 3. methodology 3.1. aim and participants in this article we discuss the lilac team’s replicable approach to oers based on a solid theoretical conceptualisation that takes into account learning and cognitive theories on one hand and the threshold concepts framework on the other. in order to identify the set of threshold concepts connected with online language teaching and learning, a survey questionnaire was administered to the stakeholders and analysed. additional data were collected during two rounds of focus-group sessions, in which the lilac research team discusses issues encountered in online learning contexts with 10 language trainees, teachers and teaching assistants working in secondary and tertiary education and 3 students enrolled in the professional master of education (pme) programme at the national university of ireland, galway (nui, galway). 3.2. data collection an informative questionnaire made on google forms was purposefully designed for both experienced language teachers and trainee teachers who have just embarked on their very first teaching experience, and for language learners who are in transition towards the online learning environment. a total of 38 questionnaires were collected and then scrutinised. as far as the structure of the questionnaire is concerned, in a first background section (section a) teachers were asked to give information about the foreign language(s) they teach, the educational level (primary, secondary or third) they are teaching in and whether http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 62 they knew the difference between blended and online learning. a second section (section b) focused on estimating how many teachers had already experienced teaching in online and/or blended learning environments; what they thought the advantages and drawbacks of these two teaching contexts were and which language skills among listening, speaking, writing and reading they found or considered most difficult to teach. they also had to indicate which aspects of online teaching most appeal to them but also rate, on a scale from least to most challenging, the following aspects: evaluation, fostering interaction, time management, delivering live online classes, creating a community of learners, devising online activities and/or other aspects they considered problematic. in addition, they were requested to share their opinion on which skills language learners should develop in order to transition smoothly from face-to-face to online learning. in the third and last section (section c), teachers were asked to self-assess their digital skills in terms of language teaching. they first had to rate their ability to use different search methods to identify accurate and reliable online information and/or educational resources in relation to the language(s) they teach. secondly, they were asked to indicate and rate their ability to produce digital learning content through the use of multimedia presentations, audio & video recordings and online learning tools. finally, they had to indicate which social media they were using or would be willing to use for language teaching and rate their ability to provide and coordinate clear and respectful online interaction. all rating scales varied from a "1basic” to a “5excellent” ability. data was also gathered from language student in a similar manner, through questionnaires and focus group. student responses are not analysed here, but are occasionally referred to when a comparison with teacher responses is deemed relevant. 4. results and discussion the responses we received involved mainly experienced teachers (81.8%) with some previous but limited experience in online and blended learning, and mostly working in second (27.3%) and third (72.7%) level education, so dealing with teenagers and mainly young adults. on the other hand, learner responses came mostly from university students (93.3%) with just a small percentage from secondary school students (6.7%). answers to the questionnaires showed a general consensus on the advantages of online teaching and learning environments, mainly because of their wider flexibility and accessibility in terms of space, time and audience, but also in relation to creativity and autonomy for both teachers and students. however, results of the teachers’ questionnaire are in part consistent with those described in [22] dealing with online teaching issues in general, and highlight numerous concerns about online language teaching. teachers, both novice and experienced, lamented the lack of training specifically tailored to online language teaching, especially at a time when there is an urgent need to move more and more classes online and explore new ways of building knowledge. in particular, teachers identified the following aspects as the most challenging: (a) managing online learning contexts efficiently; (b) managing technology effectively: this includes understanding and resolving limitations imposed by the technological tool to the teacher’s creativity (having a nice activity in mind only to find that the technology at hand does not allow for its implementation) as well as acquiring relevant research, organisational and time management skills to avoid spending a disproportionate amount of time preparing online classes and activities. (c) designing activities and modules that can help students to develop all four language skills, with 47,6% of teachers reporting that they perceive speaking skills as the most difficult to teach online; global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 63 (d) creating a real sense of community, understanding group dynamics and connecting with the students (i.e.empathising with students’ feelings and perceptions); fostering interaction among participants both synchronously and asynchronously; preventing isolation, thus ensuring social presence and student engagement; (e) assessing language learning online, giving feedback and monitoring students’ learning process. it seems that teachers struggle to align online learning activities and assessments. regarding self-assessment of digital skills, answers by teachers show that they rank themselves high (4 on a 5-point likert scale) in relation to their ability to use different search methods to identify accurate and reliable online information and/or educational resources. however, when it comes to the ability to produce digital learning content, there are big gaps among respondent: only 4.8% positioned themselves at very basic level, some at intermediate level (19%), a good percentage (42.9%) at very good level and 33.3% at proficiency level. answers also reveal that most teachers make a very basic use of social media in teaching, with most responses indicating “discussion boards” as their option. the final question referred to the ability to provide and coordinate clear and respectful online interaction: just over a third of respondents (31.8%) positioned themselves between 3 and 4 on a 5-point likert scale. in line with these results, discussions with the focus group highlighted the same issues encountered by examining the teachers’ questionnaire, and concentrated particularly on the lack of adequate online resources that could facilitate online language teaching and learning. language teachers denounce a paucity of easily readaptable or reusable online materials, something which makes lesson and course planning even more of a time-consuming task. table 3 summarises the issues identified by language teachers and learners as possible elements of disturbance in online language learning contexts. table 3. language teachers’ and learners’ issues in an online learning environment. language teachers language learners manage online teaching and learning contexts. manage online language learning. enforce netiquette. comply with the netiquette. get lost in timing and organisation. keep themselves highly motivated, engaged, and organised. lack of discipline. basic ability to produce digital learning content and basic use of social media. basic abilities to search and identify accurate and reliable online resources; basic abilities to work online in an autonomous way or in a team. design and plan online lessons and courses. develop the four language competences, especially concerning speaking skills. feel frustrated for time demanding concerning online materials preparation. feel frustrated due to the poor connection/sounds that is particularly annoying during synchronous classes. manage students’ groups dynamics. manage groups dynamics between classmates, and classmates and teachers/instructors global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 64 help students to develop the four basic language competences, especially regarding speaking skills. less focus on speaking skills, little attention to the phonetic and prosodic aspect of language learning. help students to interact with each other and overcome the feeling of isolation. feel isolated and not enough supported. recognise a new role of the learner who has more responsibilities. build a sense of a community online. build a sense of community and interact with each other’s. lack of social interaction among students. assess online: provide an immediate feedback, monitor students’ learning progress, prepare rubrics and tests. accept new forms of assessments such as self-assessment and peer reviewing. reward students online. monitor language learning progress. manage plagiarism issues. electronically marked assessments have little or no tolerance for almost correct answers. the elements of disturbance listed in table 3 were then analysed and grouped into five macro areas (moving to e-learning; digital and organisational skills; language component; online communities; assessment), which constitute the five categories on which tcs are based (table 4) as well as the five units of each module and are graphically represented as a virtual tree (§5). the tcs included in the lilac modules are generally consistent with those proposed by [22] that refer to online teaching, however some are new and are indicated in bold in table 4 below. content was then designed to incorporate and deal with the tcs identified. table 4. threshold concepts about online language teaching and learning. threshold concepts online language teachers online language learners 1.transition towards eteaching (including course design, lesson planning, teacher and course preparation) and e-learning (including relationship between the teacher and students, teaching presence, social presence and cognitive presence) 1.1t an online course must be designed to have specific mechanisms to communicate, monitor and give feedback to groups of students as well as individual students. 1.2t online course design is critical to the success of online teaching and learning. 1.3t online presence, while elusive, must be pursued. 1.4t students need to be encouraged to be more regulated in an online course than in an on-campus course. 1.1l online language learning is not engaging and not effective. 1.2l students cannot learn without the teacher being present. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 65 1.5t online language teaching requires specific approaches and methods, not only presenting content. 2.technology (including teacherdigital content, learner-digital content interaction) and organisation (including the difference from on campus teaching and learning) 2.1t preparation for designing and planning online teaching may take longer than preparation for on-campus teaching. 2.2t using technologies requires a lot of time to be exploited properly. 2.3t using technologies restricts creativity in developing digital 2.1l online learning environment requires more rules than on campus learning. 2.2l online learning environment require a new role for learners who have more responsibilities. contents 3. language components (including the strategies and method in developing the four basic language competences). 3.1t online courses neglect the development of speaking skills. 3.1l online courses neglect the development of speaking skills. 4.online communities (including teacher-learner, learnerlearner, and learner-content interaction) 4.1t online learning contexts require a new mode of interaction between language teachers, learners and resources. 4.2t online teaching requires facilitating interaction, not only presenting content. 4.1l online learning contexts require a new mode of interaction between language teachers, learners and resources. 4.2l online learning environment fosters a feeling of isolation. 4.3l online learning environment neglect interaction among learners. 5. assessment 5.1t online course design needs alignment between learning activities, assessment tasks and feedback mechanisms to ensure students engagement. 5.2t online assessment increases plagiarism. 5.1l electronically marked assessment are not reliable. the lilac modules, albeit leaving scope for repurposing most oers, are specifically designed to assist online language teaching and learning. in line with the parameters of our project and in order to aid the interpretation of the threshold concepts listed in table 4, the features of threshold concepts were redefined in terms of online language teaching and learning, as follows. (a) transformative: they change the way we view online teaching and learning. (b) troublesome: the idea of online language teaching can be counter-intuitive to the way we have always taught. online language teaching and learning may seem too difficult or too complex. (c) irreversible: concepts learned about online language teaching and learning are difficult to unlearn. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 66 (d) integrative: threshold concepts about online language teaching and learning are likely to incorporate concepts about other teaching/learning-related issues (e.g., curriculum design, assessment). (e) bounded: a threshold concept about online language teaching/learning is related to an academic's scholarly practice of teaching. (f) discursive: evidence of threshold concepts about online language teaching/learning will be demonstrated incidentally in an academic's use of language. (g) reconstitutive: the academic's grasp of a concept may go back and forth across stages of being sure and not sure, as they develop, undevelop, construct, and reconstruct the concept for themselves. (h) liminality: as the online language teacher crosses the liminal space between not teaching online and teaching online effectively, s/he may experience some level of stuckness. as the online language learner crosses the liminal space between not learning online and learning online effectively, s/he may experience some level of stuckness. 5. the lilac tree and the online language teacher analysis of respondents’ answers, identification of tcs and reference to online learning and cognitive theories determined the design structure of the lilac modules, which progress from basic, essential skills to more advanced competences. we used the metaphor of the tree to give a graphic representation of the development of skills and competences related to online teaching, as shown in figure 1. we metaphorically conceived our online teacher as a virtual tree whose roots are represented by the essential digital skills that teachers need to develop and constantly update in order to transition successfully from a classroom-based to an online teaching environment. teachers’ digital skills are directly linked to their organisational skills, and together they make up the nourishment needed to nurture the three branches of our tree, enhancing a teacher’s pedagogical, social and assessor role. as fig.1 shows, and following the tree structure outlined above, the lilac teachers’ module was therefore devised as a five-unit module. each unit is then divided into a number of lessons with specific objectives, reflections and tips to help teachers overcome difficulties and challenge what they perceive as e-teaching limits. this structure has been graphically designed as an interactive image, our so-called lilac tree map, which can be found in the module introduction and acts as an interactive table of contents. the user can click on the single units and immediately access its content. below an overview of each unit. unit 1: moving to e-learning addresses tcs from 1.1t. to 1.5t. it aims at laying or reinforcing the foundations for the transition from face-to-face to online teaching environment. it comprises of five lessons, which respectively explore: the characteristics and therefore the differences between the two teaching & learning environments (lesson 1); theories and methodologies applied to the online educational context (lesson 2) and the most effective approaches and methods when teaching online (lesson 3); preparing students for online learning (lesson 4) and basic netiquette (lesson 5). unit 2: digital and organisational skills addresses tcs from 2.1t to 2.3t. it comprises of three lessons and has been purposefully designed to respond to what has been identified in the teachers’ questionnaire as a widespread need for strong and solid organisational and timemanagement skills. lesson 1 is a brief introduction to the topic. in lesson 2 the teachers are given the tools to identify their current level of digitalisation in terms of digital resources and technologies and are walked through the development of their digital competences. lesson 3 explores more in detail the organisational and managerial skills that teachers should have when teaching online and gives tips on how to organise the working time and space effectively. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 67 unit 3: pedagogical role addresses tcs 1.2t, 1.5t, from 2.1t to 2.3t, and 3.1t. it aims at enhancing teachers’ pedagogical skills by providing them with tools and tips to plan and implement effective online learning activities that promote the development of the four basic linguistic competences. the unit has therefore been designed to help teachers to overcome the perceived limits of educational platforms and technology. lesson 1 offers an innovative lesson planning system, the lilac “ping-pong planning”, which provides a structure for teachers’ synchronous and asynchronous delivery of both content and feedback and for their interaction with online learners, while lesson 2 and 3 focus on the four language competences, giving practical tips to enhance reading & writing and listening & speaking skills respectively. lesson 4 provides an overview of the educational tools to be employed online. unit 4: social role addresses tcs 4.1t and 4.2t. it examines the strategies that a teacher should follow to create a strong sense of community among the learners, establish a solid teacher-student relationship and manage the community of learners by fostering students’ interaction and engagement both synchronously and asynchronously. it comprises 3 lessons: lesson 1 explores how teachers can create and also help their students to create and maintain a relaxing and healthy learning environment; lesson 2 focuses on the creation of online communities and on the tools to be used; finally lesson 3 focuses on how to support students’ learning engagement and interaction with both content and peers. unit 5: assessor role addresses tcs 1.1t, 1.5t, 3.1t, 4.1t, 4.2t, 5.1t and 5.2t, comprising again of three lessons, explores the world of online assessment and evaluation. lesson 1 provides the teachers with ideas and advice on how to create new effective and appropriate online assessments (e-portfolio, peerassessment), while lesson 2 gives an overview of strategies and ways to monitor and assess students’ learning; lesson 3 focuses on the creation of feedback aimed at enhancing students’ performance. each unit includes an end-of-unit final quiz where teachers can put themselves to the task and assess what they have learnt so far. all the units and lessons have also been conceived as totally independent and selfcontaining. learners are totally free to take the course in sequential order or jump around the units/lessons according to the topic(s) that interest(s) them more. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 68 figure 1. lilac tree map 6. conclusion this paper outlined the creation of training modules for online language teachers as part of the lilac project oers, and the conceptual framework underpinning their design. it argued that effective oers need to take into account the impact of cognitive load on learners’ acquisition and retention of knowledge, the principles of micro and macro learning for appropriate distribution of the cognitive load, the identification of threshold concepts for the selection and sequencing of content, as well as online and multimedia learning theories, in our case specifically directed to adults. the lilac team identified tcs through questionnaires and focus groups and built the oers around them, organising content in self-contained microlearning units that nevertheless form part of a larger macro structure and are supported by and supplemented with macrolearning content. acknowledging adults’ need for information that is relevant, motivating, purposeful and quickly retrievable, we designed a learning path that can be easily personalised, while at the same time offering the option of sequential progression. the micro level allowed us to introduce learning objects and single skills while at the macro level we dealt with topics and more complex, integrated skills and competences. this combined structure also allowed us to spread the cognitive load so as to avoid load “peaks” within the module. whilst lilac oers are specifically designed for training online language teachers and learners, we believe that they provide a template for the development of further oers with different objectives and stakeholders. as reliance on online content grows and its inclusion in both formal and informal learning environments becomes nearly unavoidable, solid conceptual frameworks for their design need to be investigated, updated and implemented so that learners are exposed to significant and motivating learning paths that can global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 69 encompass both single items of knowledge as well as more complex information, skills and competences. it is hoped that future research will focus also on statistical data on the impact of online oers on retention, which in turn will further inform design and implementation. acknowledgements the lilac project is funded by the national forum for enhancement for teaching and learning in higher education. we would like to thank all the participants, teachers and students, who helped this research project. references dempsey, m. & burke, j. 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(2013) the scholarship of teaching and learning and the online classroom. canadian journal of university continuing education, 32(2), 109-131. http://elearningeuropa.info/files/media/media23707 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 72 baran, e., correi, a., & thompson, a. (2011) transforming online teaching practice: critical analysis of the literature on the roles and competencies of online teachers. distance education, 32(3), 421439. babae ka, hindi babae lang: the quality of life and lived experiences of female delivery riders global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 2; febuary-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 navigating roads and roles: female delivery riders' journeys unveiled 1maria sofia cruz santos, 2andres miguel reyes garcia and 3isabella clara lim perez article info abstract keywords: delivery riders, gig economy, female representation, coping mechanisms, gender diversity this study delves into the evolving landscape of delivery riders, who emerged as essential frontline workers during the pandemic, facilitating the supply chain amid covid-19 restrictions. the challenges posed by the transportation sector are further compounded by driver turnover. acknowledging the importance of not only recruiting top talent but also retaining them, this research sheds light on the experiences of female delivery riders. the study highlights how financial constraints forced numerous individuals into delivery roles, exposing them to new encounters. despite the gender diversity in north american gig platforms, discrimination, harassment, and wage gaps persist among gig workers, prompting the need for understanding women's perspectives and coping mechanisms. the focus shifts to grab ph, a super app, and its commitment to enhancing female representation within its driver and delivery-partner communities. by offering comprehensive support services and inclusive livelihood options, grab ph empowers female delivery partners, expanding job opportunities for women in a traditionally male-dominated industry. the study emphasizes the transformative impact of such employment on families and society, promoting financial stability and role modeling for future generations. the research also explores the dual nature of female riders' experiences, examining how freedom and flexibility in gig work can affect sleep patterns, workloads, and social connections. it contrasts risk management strategies of food delivery drivers, demonstrating the significance of driver control in mitigating risk outcomes. the study further addresses legislative interventions aimed at safeguarding drivers' interests. in the context of these issues, this study aims to delve into the lived experiences of female delivery riders, uncovering their challenges and coping mechanisms. by delving into the realities faced by filipino female delivery drivers, the research contributes to a comprehensive understanding of this dynamic sector. 1jesus is lord colleges foundation, inc. philippines 2jesus is lord colleges foundation, inc. philippines 3jesus is lord colleges foundation, inc. philippines https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 2 introduction delivery riders became frontline workers who assisted everyone in getting their daily supplies. they transported them to their destinations when the pandemic started, and everyone had to stay home to stop the covid-19 virus from spreading (gonzales, 2021). the challenges faced by the transportation sector are worsened by driver turnover. beyond the significance of hiring top individuals, employers also need to consider how to keep their new hires. the company's drivers serve as its public face and speak for the business (james, 2019). due to financial restraints, countless people had to work as delivery drivers, revealing them to various new involvements and experiences they would not have otherwise had (awi et al., 2021). in north america, women make up around half of the workforce in platforms for home services, food delivery, and cruise. while studies have shown that gig workers experience discrimination, harassment, and a gender wage gap, our knowledge of women's views on these problems and their coping techniques is lacking (ma et al., 2022). as the super app, grab ph doubles down on its attempts to have more excellent female representation among its driver and delivery-partner communities (manila times, 2022). its objective is to provide inclusive livelihood options. female delivery partners may reach any of the driver centers around the nation for any support or worries they may have as they begin their adventure, while grab ph's partner centres in metro manila offer end-to-end assistance from application to onboarding. the number of jobs available to women increases as a new industry welcomes more of them. jobs for women can modernize traditional culture in a place like the philippines where gender conventions place the male as the breadwinner. in families with a single source of income or unpredictable incomes, a fullor part-time job might make all the difference. the increased financial stability ensures a higher standard of living for the working individual and their families. beyond the monetary value, the empowered women of 2022 will have intangible benefits. the kids in their life, particularly the young girls, develop into admirable female role models (transportify, 2022). furthermore, wu (2022) states that female riders entered a male-dominated sector because they had time freedom, had lower occupational thresholds, and anticipated being able to utilize their subjective judgments to improve their earnings. however, this freedom also forces them to lose more sleep, have more work, and be without true ties to the outside world as they attempt to raise their level of social adaptation. pancharoen and phuaphansawat (2021) explained that, 0n the other hand, former and old risk management strategies are used differently by food delivery drivers. because the drivers themselves are controlling their risk, as seen by the frequency, severity, and duration of hazards from the study, the risk outcome that impacts food delivery drivers has not had a significant impact on them and their families. as part of the system control, house bill 6958, sometimes referred to as the food and grocery delivery services act, was passed by alfredo garbin, a representative from the ako bicol party-list. when riders and drivers of these delivery companies have already settled and paid for what they need, this conduct targets consumers and customers who cancel existing food and grocery purchases (rivera, 2020). hence, tran et al. (2022) discussed that many drivers adopted unsafe and risky traffic practices due to the stress of their jobs, their long working hours, and their financial difficulties. in line with the abovementioned contextual issues, the researchers seek to establish a study about the lived experiences of female delivery riders, the challenges they currently face, and how they cope with these issues to continue making earnings for their families. they come to appreciate the realities of life as filipino female delivery drivers. research questions this study explores the experiences, challenges, and coping mechanisms of female delivery riders. specifically, this sought to answer the following questions: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 3 1. what are the lived experiences of female delivery riders? 2. what are the challenges faced by female delivery riders? 3. what are the coping mechanisms of female delivery riders? methodology this study employed heideggerian phenomenology to explore the participant's lived experiences. participants of the study this study was composed of fifteen (15) female delivery riders as its participants. thus, the participant in this study is a current resident of bulacan, philippines. instrument of the study this study utilized a semi-structured interview guide that underwent thorough content evaluation by validators to verify its accuracy. the researchers created the interview guide, as mentioned above, which includes particular questions to concentrate on the four key themes of this study. the questions primarily addressed the lived experiences, challenges, coping mechanisms, and quality of life of female delivery riders. furthermore, it's crucial to remember that the participant had the freedom to voice out any concerns or requests for clarification related to these questions. data collection process the researchers used a semi-structured interview guide to gather the data and reach in-depth findings. the interview was conducted through interactions that took place in person. the researchers prepared the consent to participate in this study in advance. the participants received this personally, including the informed notice that the entire conduct of the interview would be recorded for the transcription of verbatim phrases and sentences from the participants. ethical considerations legal considerations have been made for every step in numerous investigations and research. one of the most crucial components of research ethics is informed participation. to safeguard the human subjects taking part in research, rules mandating informed consent have been issued. notifying potential research participants of the major components of a study and what is included allows them to choose if they would like to participate. the participants must not be affected in any way by the interview procedure, whether on purpose or incidentally (gupta, 2013). the participants also have the option to withdraw from participating if any unexpected event may require them to do so. in compliance with the data privacy act of 2012 (dpa), officially known as republic act no. 10173, this study intends to safeguard participants' private and public information. input from participants will remain confidential and will not be used for other purposes outside the study. data analysis procedure a detailed study is required to generate accurate and essential aspects of the data obtained from female delivery riders. this study utilized the interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa), which was developed on the modified van kaam technique made well-known by moustakas because the researchers' goal is to gather in-depth information about the participants' experienced phenomena. this type of analysis is also suitable, especially in a study wherein the researchers are examining detailed responses from the participants, including their lived experiences, challenges, coping mechanisms, and quality of life. the transcripts of the interview, which contain participants' actual words or verbatim, will be carefully reviewed and analyzed. firstly, it is essential to consider gaining an exploratory understanding from the initial data gathered. after that, forming categories and separating data according to themes will be essential. this study's key themes included: female delivery riders' lived experiences, challenges, coping mechanisms, and quality of life. some aspects underneath these themes will also global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 4 be analyzed thoroughly. by doing so, a more accurate and reliable set of data will be gathered, and more understandable results will come out. furthermore, data saturation will be met when no new information is found through data analysis; when that happens, it alerts researchers that they may need to stop collecting data (hancock et al., 2016). results and discussion “hangga’t nagra-ride kami, lalaki sahod namin. kung magstay lang kami sa bahay namin, walang mangyayari talaga e. tsaka kahit mababa kailangan lang t’yagain. hindi fixed ‘yun e.” with a varying amount of daily salary, participant 1 stated that one of the reasons for this is the planner set by the riding company. “salary, ahh kase sa rider depende sa booking e tulad ngayon meron kaming planner simula nung nilabas si planner hindi naging maganda yung kita ahm, may araw na isang booking lang maghapon yung isang booking na yun ahm kung 58 pesos na delivery fee yung lang yung kita mo so, hindi naging maganda yung planner na na-encounter namin sa ngayon.” in line with the findings of talamayan (2022), riders are compelled to accept unfair payment schedules and working conditions because of the severe fines for non-compliant riders and the difficulties finding work amid the pandemic. this shows that female delivery riders are like many other workers who accept how the system works and keep on working for the sake of having an income for the family despite daily work struggles. i hold my time for work this section presents the four main themes of this study, namely: (1) the realist, (2) the accommodated, (3) the vulnerable, and (4) the determined. the realist with a huge margin, the participants are the ones who accept various situation with an "it is what it is" attitude and prepares to deal with them and treats them as normal parts of a difficult way of living. most of the participants in this study, female delivery riders, believed that their life became more stable because they took the chances to have even the smallest possible salary. also, their spare time could be used for working; thus they took the opportunity to work and have money even at nighttime. moreover, they are more resilient because they realise that it is the key to coping and surviving. i'll take even the smallest salary when asked about the amount of salary they acquire every day, participant 3 answered that it is not fixed and they need to have perseverance, especially on the days that their salary is low. participant 3 mentioned that, luckily, for the female delivery riders, the work they got into does not require them to observe a fixed timeframe. based on the response of participant 5, she holds her time for work. she stated that, “sa ganitong trabaho kasi, hawak ko talaga oras ko kaya nagagawa ko muna ‘yung ibang gawain bago ako magwork.” several participants have stated the same. according to the statement of participant 7, she controls how long she is stuck under the sun while riding. “dito talaga sa amin, ‘di naman talaga fixed ang oras sa work, minsan nasa amin na rin kung magwowork kami as rider o hindi. kadalasan nasa amin na talaga kung gaano katagal kaming nakabilad sa arawan.” according to quitlong et al. (2020), given that the results of their study demonstrate that grab food can meet and support its employees' financial demands, those who are interested in working there [delivery riding companies] should think about devoting their time and effort to the endeavor. but, since they do not have fixed time at work global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 5 as delivery riders, they hold their time and they are their own bosses even if they are inside different companies. the majority of the participants revealed that it is up to them whether to go out and ride or to stay at home and do household chores. resiliency is the key waxmann (2021) states that there are still several areas where notable gender disparities may be seen, and the tremendous improvement in women's resiliency and coping skills aid them in overcoming these situations. in line with this, several participants expressed how resilient they are and how others are shocked at why they still have the courage to pursue being female delivery riders. participant 1 mentioned that, “actually, palakasan ng loob ‘yan lalo kung rider ka syempre sinasabi nila na parang isang paa mo parang nasa hukay, parang nanganganak lang. yung isang paa mo nasa hukay, yung ganun, kase syempre delikado kase kalsada kalaban mo dyan e.” people, specifically customers, get shocked as they encounter female delivery riders just like the experience shared by participant 1. participant 1 elaborated, “actually, may naencounter ako niyan taga jollibee crew sa pulo lahat ng sabi niya sa akin “rider ka po?”, sabi ko “oo bakit?”. hangang-hanga siya kase ngayon lang daw siya nakakita ng rider na babae sabi niya actually hindi siya makapaniwala tapos yung ibang customer ko naman din na nadedeliveran nagugulat sila like “pwede pala rider na babae ahh...”. sinasabi ko “opo pwede naman”, tapos tinatanong ako kung mahirap ba, sabi ko madali lang, alam niyong nakakataba ng puso kase hangang-hanga sila sayo, pinupuri ka nila kase never pa daw silang nakaencounter ng babae na rider more on mas madalas na lalaki yun, yung ganun iyon nakaka-ano siya parang nakapagpalakas pa ng loob.” as the participants experience being in these types of situations, they eventually have a level of resiliency that is enough to handle and surpass future problems. supporting the result, the world health organization (2019) addresses gender imbalances and stereotypes in the health and social care workforce and states that there should be gender equity hub that aims to promote important gender-related programs. furthermore, by putting more women into paid, formal employment with positive health, education, nutrition, income, and empowerment, as well as that of their families and communities, gender analysis of the female health and social care manpower, will enable the realization of a stronger female workforce in various fields of work and will provide a more balanced working field when it comes to gender. lastly, the researchers found out that resiliency should always be the key in a world of "it is what it is" approach, and this must not be limited to men only. the accommodated most of the participants in this study experienced good relationships with colleagues and have high selfefficacy while working as delivery riders. they are continuously finding ways to help their husband or partners with family expenses. their workmates as delivery riders made them feel accommodated as they hustle for financial independence, work on some adjustments in life, and receive strong support from colleagues. i am reaching financial stability when asked about the changes in their lives as they are being accommodated by the delivery riding companies they are working at, participant 1 responded that their quality of life improved as she gets enough money for the family too, not just her husband. participant 3 mentioned that, “compared sa dati siguro sa financial, medyo umano ano ahm, medyo umano ano, umangat kase nagkaroon ako ng income unlike before husband ko lang yung inaasahan ko. yung ganun kase ngayon natutulungan ko sa financial, nabibili ko yung gusto ko at ng mga bata, yung mga ganun.” global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 6 participant 2 also responded that her colleagues and her love for motorcycles are why she became a rider. since she is earning in this work, she continued working as a delivery rider. “ahhh reason, mahilig talaga akong magmotor, ehhh ano parang niyaya ako ng mga kasamahan ko na “pasok tayo sa ganito” ganun, dun na, since kumikita naman ako ng pera sayang tuloy ko na lang din.” with their need to bring sufficient monetary input for the family, female delivery riders had the phrase "at least" in their minds. for them, a little is better than none, thus they continue their work as long as it makes them less worried about finances. participant 3 mentioned that, “yun nga yung tulad noon at least yun kapagka everyday na budget lagi kami may budget sa bahay, di ka mangangarag sa mga bayarin, kasi laging ‘at least’ meron na nakaabang na lang, babayaran mo na lang [mga bills].” she then proudly added, “tumutulong din ako sa asawa ko kaya ako nagwork, tumutulong din ako sa asawa ko sa mga gastusin sa bahay. kailangan ng additional e.” in support, awi et al. (2021) came out with the findings that due to financial constraints, many people had to work as delivery drivers, which exposed them to a variety of new experiences they would not have otherwise had. through this, the researchers came up with an understanding that the monetary problems led the females to enter the delivery riding field. in line with the abovementioned, participant 1 explained how delivery riding helped her family financially and how it contributed when her husband got home after the termination of work abroad. participant 1 mentioned that, “ahmm...financial tapos, ahm, una kase yung husband ko napauwi siya [from abroad] nawalan siya ng work, tapos nagstay siya dito ng kulang 1 year. tapos ahm, yung pag-gragrab ko yung nakatulong sa amin sa financial, kaya ayun” i am protected by colleagues! world health organization (2022) states in an article that protecting the safety of your drivers is both the sensible way to do it and essential to keeping your business operating since millions of people depend on safe, on-time deliveries of online orders, restaurant meals, parcels, and other things. with these, the researchers found that these female delivery riders need to feel safe while working, thus their workmates should not cause any harm or should not be the reason why they feel hurt, especially in the physical and emotional aspects. associated with this, several participants described how respected and protected they became in the presence of their colleagues. participant 1 elaborated that, “kase sa experience as a rider na babae ano kapag kasama ko yung mga kasamahan nararamdaman ko yung alam mo yung paggalang pag ikaw yung halimbawa yung isa kung kasamahan niloloko-loko ka, yung iba pagtatanggol ka, yung ganun. tapos yun nga yung sinabe ko kanina ginagawa nila nagagawa ko rin, yung ganun.” due to their few percentages in the number of riders, female riders should feel protected especially against disrespectful customers and colleagues. some of the female riders expressed how they feel their colleagues' concern for their safety. participant 2 mentioned that, “syempre nag-iisa ako diyan talaga [na babae], ano yun, mga protective ang mga yun sa akin. palabiro, pero kung may ano-ano nagtatanong sila na “binastos ka ba nila?”, lalo sa madaling araw.” global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 7 according to waxman (2021), it should come as no surprise that the situation of women varies based on who surrounds them and that the process of achieving equality with men has reached various stages in various spheres of life given the diverse starting points of the women's movement. with these, the responses of the participants could imply that the talks about the safety and protection of female delivery riders should not end with this study, and thus this study should be a bridge to investigate riders' protection in the field further. fascinatingly, the researchers saw a glimpse of several female delivery riders who positively continues their relationships with their male colleagues – and their other female coworkers must be glad about it. the vulnerable one of the main themes of the responses shows that it is truly a challenge for female delivery riders to maintain smooth flows of connections between them and the customers. indicated in this section are most of the female delivery riders lived experiences of how they are challenged by fake bookings and how they became more likely to meet harm through road/location safety matters. moreover, as they became more exposed to harm in the field/road, they subsequently had lesser time for their families. many of them also experienced problems in terms of physical condition and misjudgments from society as they keep on doing what is encompassed in their work as delivery riders. accident-prone workers as the female delivery riders gamble their health on the roads, it is unsure where an accident may occur. they are prone to road accidents, not just those events that are unintentionally caused by riders, but by other road users too. several participants shared their experiences when asked about their negative encounters with other road riders. participant 1 elaborated that, “ahm, minsan nagdeliver ako... nabangga ako ng motor sa ano. motor sa motor, sa batia? bali crossing siya and then padiretso ako ang tulin ng takbo niya walang siyang helmet tatlo sila sa motor ano magkakamag-anak tapos nabangga niya ako sa gitna [ng motor] ko kung tutuusin kasalanan niya kaya lang hindi ko na siya inano kase hindi naman ako nasaktan so hinayaan ko nalang… hindi naman ako natumba, nagkagasgas yung motor kaunti pero hinayaan ko na hindi ko na siya inano na magbayad o magpabaranggay.” in her experience, she expressed patience to the point that she did not let things get worse. in line with this, according to schnitker and emmons (2007), it has long been acknowledged that patience is a human virtue and an essential element of moral greatness. thus, what the participant has expressed shows one of the most important tools for humanity – patience. correlated to her abovementioned experience, the researchers found that patience is an important quality of a human being, especially those who face triggering situations. however, aside from the internal aspect, participant 1 added that a rider's safety is also not in her hands because other inconsiderate riders do not care about other road users and can sometimes be the reasons why careful drivers also experience unpleasant incidents. participant 1 further stated that, “kasi kahit anong ingat mo, kung yung mga nakakasalubong mo sa kalsada barubal magdrive, alam mo yun, walang pakielam sa mga nakakasalamuha niya sa kalsada, useless si safety na ginagawa mo kaya nasasakanila pa rin, di pa rin natin hawak.” she proudly added, “para kase sakin hindi ako ganun katulin magpatakbo, matulin ako magpatakbo kapag walang ibang sasakyan. pero kapag may ibang sasakyan na ano ahm, alam kong alanganin ako lalo sa pagsingit hindi ko siya ginagawa global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 8 kase syempre minsan may nakikipagkarerahan na kasamahan mo e yung ganun, yun pag ganun hindi ako papatol kase syempre pwede akong madigrasya ganun lang.” interestingly, based on herald express (2020), the firm [food panda] now covers the accident insurance of its delivery staff. with this, if an accident occurs by any chance, riders would be less worried about how to handle it. however, they also play a part in ensuring road safety by keeping good driving every time they go on the roads. also, tran et al. (2022) stated that many drivers adopted unsafe and risky traffic practices as a result of the stress brought by their jobs. however, the researchers found that several female delivery riders believe in the famous phrase "slowly but surely" whenever they drive their motorcycles. participant 3 mentioned that, “ahhh talagang ingat lang saka basta yung kahit di ganun kabilis basta yung safe lang na makarating sa customer yun lang ang nasa isip ko.” this implies that safety should be one of the riders' top priorities and they must ensure that they should always keep a good quality of service while keeping a proper attitude in driving. when fake booking hits when asked about her latest biggest problem, participant 2 explained that there are times that fake bookers will attack; and as a rider, she believes that karma would not follow her but the ones who did it to her. participant 2 stated that, “wala ehhh, parang ano lang, isipin mo na lang na ano ka ngayon, siguro di mo araw ngayon, bawi ka na lang sa susunod pera lang naman yan, kumbaga yung karma di naman sayo babalik, dun lang naman yun sa gumawa sayo nun.” indeed, we all have some days when we can say "maybe it's not my day today", and the researchers considered that female delivery riders should somehow have this attitude to eliminate the thought of reciprocating a negative act towards them, like what many discourteous customers are constantly doing. i have lesser time for the family time is the most precious gift we can give someone, like in a famous saying. however, female delivery riders found it difficult to give because their work as riders became a huge reason for them not to spend more time with their families. participant 2 mentioned that, “less syempre yung oras, oras talaga. pero ano naman ahhh, nabawasan ang oras, pero kumbaga iniiwan ko lang naman yung mga bata yung time na may mga kasama na sa bahay nakauwi na sila galing sa school, nakagawa na kami ng mga assignment.” in support, žnidaršič and bernik (2021) discussed that work-family balance policies and practices, such as encouragement from a leader and coworkers and family-friendly activities, have a beneficial influence on an individual's work-family balance, which increases work engagement as well as the overall evaluation of the company's support for work-family balance. however, several participants revealed that they have unfixed time scheduling as delivery riders. participant 2 explained that, “sa isang araw usually full-time kasi pero ano putolputol ‘yung oras like lalabas ako ng 1:00 ng hapon tapos uuwi ako 9:00 ng gabi tapos babalik ako ng 11:00 ng gabi, derecho na iyon hanggang 5:00 madaling araw tapos uuwi ulit ako ganon ‘yong routine.” furthermore, female delivery riders are found to be struggling with balancing time between work and family. participant 5 said that it is because she is assigned to the majority of chores in their home, especially when it comes to taking care of her 5month-old baby at the same time. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 9 she strongly uttered, meron kasi akong baby 5 months pa lang, tsaka assigned talaga ako sa halos lahat ng mga gawain sa bahay dahil same kami ng partner ko na nagwowork pero mas madalas syang wala dahil sa malayuan yung kanya.” in addition, participants 6 and 7 shared almost the same. “panganay ako e, kadalasan ako rin sa maraming gawain sa bahay kaya yung pagiging delivery rider ko sa isang araw hindi fixed kung anong oras.” and “sa akin ang household chores kaya lumalabas lang ako sa bahay at nagwowork pag ubos na gawain sa bahay, kadalasan hapon na ako hanggang gabi.” as mentioned in the above statements, some female delivery riders experienced being in a variety of situations at work, limiting them from having quality time with their families or the other way around. these experiences change the way they manage their time for work and family, and the balancing became harder due to work overload. however, female delivery riders stood still and stayed focused despite managing time problems, which will be presented in the later section. the determined a strongly positive view of your goal for yourself and your loved ones is an essential part of success in most fields. determination is important because this includes doing certain tasks to better follow a built plan of action – regardless of the negativities in the path through the endpoint. this section of the study reveals that suitability for changing conditions, a sense of belongingness, continuous dedication, and being family-oriented are key factors that helped female delivery riders in being still. good quality of life for female delivery riders also depends on the riders themselves since a rider's ability to do the responsibilities with higher efficiency directly affects how stressed they are, as income is perceived as a necessity. i am suitable for changing conditions flexibility toward changing situations every day is an important part of working as a female delivery rider. they must remain focused as they encounter ups and downs at work. participant 1 explained her reason why she still delivered one order despite the flood and the distance of the location from hers. “minsan nakaencounter ako gabi na siguro ganitong oras, ang deliver ko is tiaong, guiguinto, baha tas layo diba, tas naiisip ko kung icacancel ko ba o idedeliver ko siya kaya lang may ano kase may impact siya sa ratings once na magcancel ka lalo kung food magkakaroon ka ng cancellation rate e once na magkaroon ka ng cancellation rate ka ang hirap niyang bawian ang laki ng points ni cancellation rate and bago mo siya mabawi, mga 15 rides e.” participant 3 explained her first plan with her motorcycle which is to be used as a service only, but she eventually ends up using it for delivery riding as she sees an opportunity there to have a more reasonable income. participant 3 stated that, “ahhh kasi una reason ko [sa pagkuha ng motor], kasi kumuha kasi ako ng tricycle na personal ko para may pang service-service ako tapos at the same time yung sa kuryente namin ako ang nagbabayad kaya nagwork din ako.” also, as discussed in the study by melia (2020), motorcycles are far less expensive than more wheeled vehicles, which eliminates several barriers for drivers who want to transport packages but do not have enough money to buy a car. however, this does not abolish the idea that 2-wheeled vehicles are more prone to road accidents than other several-wheeled vehicles. based on goodman (2021), in comparison to most other road vehicles, riding a motorbike significantly increases your exposure to rain, lightning, heat, wind, and other weather patterns. this can occasionally make life challenging, especially if you rely only on your motorcycle for transportation and work. you can find yourself global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 10 traveling under difficult circumstances. it may be an endurance challenge or an even more hazardous one. thus, female delivery riders are facing difficult situations in the field. that's why their suitability for changing conditions is a huge factor affecting several working aspects. i am stress-free! in reality, people can work more productively if they are surrounded by the ones who make them feel welcome and stress-free. a sense of being stress-free is an essential matter in terms of maintaining a good attitude towards work. with these, participant 1 explained how her stress level is lowered due to the bond that she and her colleagues share with one another. participant 1 mentioned that, “ahm... wala siguro kase kapag nasa work ka malelessen yung stress mo kapag yung mga kasama mo kase merong mga palabiro, may mga kwentuhan, nag-aaya kainan ng ganito, yung parang ganun.” moreover, a sense of belongingness also led to higher self-efficacy for female riders most likely because of the constant similarities between male and female riders in everyday tasks that they do together. participant 1 added, “parang feeling ko pag magkakasama kami lalaki na rin ako kase yung ginagawa nila nagagawa ko din tapos actually delikado yung ganun pero ano ahm... tawag dun ahh...lakas ng loob.” participant 6 shared almost the same, “nilalakasan ko lang loob ko kasi unti-unti nakakasanayan ko na mga ginagawa ng lalaki tsaka narealize ko kaya ko naman talaga. mula nung dumami mga nakasama kong lalaki, nakita kong wala naman pala kaming pinagkaiba masyado, kaya ko rin naman karamihan sa ginagawa e kasi madali lang naman din pag di ka naiilang sa kasama.” the way they said things about courage makes it clearer that the blur in the lines between male and female significantly disappears. furthermore, according to faraz et al. (2021), a high level of selfefficacy, which the study discovered, positively impacts task and contextual job performance but has no relationship with unproductive conduct. the researchers discovered that the workplace had an impact on both self-efficacy and productivity. thrifty for the family survival is one of the main reasons people are working for money; for most female delivery riders, this task [working] should not be limited to men only. also, as female delivery riders get money from working, this should be saved and allocated for several everyday expenses. participant 1 discussed how and why she prepares for future expenses. participant 1 elaborated that, “oo sa mga bata, sa ahm dito sa bahay, kase marami pang aayusin kung gusto kong makaipon na di alam ng asawa ko, sa madaling salita makakapagtabi ako ng sarili kong pera para if ever na kagaya niya kapag pinaumpisahan ulit ito (bahay) or ano meron akong sariling hawak na pera kase ano from the start sa aming mag-asawa ano ako e ahm, alam mo yung hindi ko inaasahan sa kanya lang lahat tsaka yung madiskarte sa madaling salita.” according to an article in icici pru (2020), saving money is one of the key components of wealth accumulation and ensuring a stable financial future. you may escape life's uncertainties by saving money, which also allows you the chance to live a decent life. thus, the participants' thriftiness for the future of their families can help them fight fears and worries about their well-being. finding more ways to have money for future use is a great attitude, but a challenging one when it comes to low-income riders. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 11 i am more than just a woman! every participant had different sides or perspectives towards gender roles, but the only thing they all agreed on is that being a female does not limit them to what they can do. participant 2 stated that people should not say that women are just women; a woman like her believes that they can do what a man does. “sa akin naman po kasi di nila pwedeng sabihing “babae lang yan”, ang sa akin lang naman kasi kaya ako nandito kasi kaya ko namang gawin ang kayang gawin ng mga lalaki, minsan nga sa di pagyayabang, pero minsan feeling mo mas magaling ka pa nga sa kanila.” regarding how she sees herself, she strongly added, “yun lang naman, yung kumbaga kung ano kaya mo, yun ang ibigay mo. kung tingin nila sayo hanggang diyan ka na lang, yung ang tingin nila sa akin, sa inyo na yun, pero ang alam ko sa sarili ko, kung ano ang kaya nilang gawin, kaya ko rin. minsan mas hinihigitan ko pa nga sila, mas kaya ko pang higitan minsan.” according to jiang et al. (2019), individual perceptions about their self-efficacy as accomplishers of certain tasks and how they believe they can do those tasks are the fixed point of perceived self-efficacy – and it is essential in achieving success, especially in the working fields. thus, what female delivery riders think about their capabilities truly molds their success in their job. it is essential to consider how a person becomes effective in performing the roles assigned to her. several women who took part in this study believed that they can even surpass the performances of men in some situations – not to brag but to state that they still can be successful in doing various tasks even when those tasks are initially seen as for men only. participant 3 strongly believes that as long as she finds money without putting harm on others, she is doing the right thing. she mentioned that, “kumbaga kasi di ko na rin iniisip kung ano yung iisipin ng ibang tao, kasi ang mahalaga sa akin basta ako kumikita ako wala akong ginagawang masama, kinikita ko nang maayos, nang wala akong naagrabyado na ibang tao yun.” (p3) to sum it all up, these experiences strongly speak that even though solutions are implemented in most cases, there are a lot of adjustments needed to better build a community without discrimination – and there are several women who live but are not experiencing a great quality of living due to being exposed to several issues that arose. the main themes of this study (the conclusion based on the findings, the following conclusions are derived: female delivery riders' families would not have sufficient money for everyday necessities if only the head of the family will work. thus, female delivery riders are willing to take action to stabilise their finances, even with a threat to their safety and with unfixed salaries. female delivery riders' self-efficacy helps them in coping with the challenges because they tend to believe that they can surpass any negative circumstances that may arise even from the external aspects of their job that are just parts of the system. completing their daily work – easy and hardbecomes faster and more efficient because they have a strong belief in their capacity to do it. most of the female delivery riders in bulacan, specifically in sta. maria, bocaue, and marilao areas are prone to road accidents and fake bookings. also, being delivery riders has put them in situations wherein they tend to have lesser time for their family. this is because even though they hold their time for work, they still need to spend additional time on it to gain more money for the needs of their families. due to the small percentage of female delivery riders in the industry, it is a strange thing for some people. this caused the female riders to express themselves by saying that women can also accomplish what men can do – in global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (2) pg. 12 several aspects, not just in their job. this leads to the solid statement that being female does not limit them in what they can accomplish. further, female delivery riders firmly believe that if they get easily affected by negative occurrences, no improvements will be observed in their quality of life. thus, as female delivery riders, resiliency is one of the most effective keys to surpassing hardships and striving for the betterment of their lives. moreover, it is highly suggested that female employees should be given preferential assistance given their physical capabilities and role in the family. thus, local government units should provide an alternative source of income that will allow them to have quality time with their family, especially their children. based food delivery in paris before and during the pandemic:profile,motivations and mobility patterns of couriers. european transport references arnaldo, s. 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march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 46 designing social infrastructure in online education: lessons from an adult esl program in florida during the covid-19 pandemic 1susan e. baerand 2 george r. larkin 1school of public affairs and administration, the university of kansas 2school of public policy and administration, walden university abstract: the covid-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of social components in online education, particularly as learners confront mental health challenges due to the loss of social interaction associated with the shift to virtual learning. this paper examines the concept of social infrastructure in online education, focusing on an adult english as a second language (esl) program in walton county, florida, that was compelled to rapidly transition to online learning during the pandemic. the authors adopt bielaczyc’s social infrastructure framework, which identifies the dimensions of social infrastructure required to integrate technology-based learning tools into online classrooms. these dimensions involve cultural beliefs, practices, socio-techno-spatial relations, and interaction with the outside world. the paper applies the framework to the adult esl program in walton county by analyzing student-teacher-cyberspace configurations, student interaction with the outside world, and bridging on-tool and off-tool learning activities. the authors assert that thriving online learning environments with technology-based tools must broaden beyond just the tools themselves and encompass the development of social infrastructure, which shapes the manner in which learners and instructors interact and acquire knowledge. keywords: covid-19, online education, social infrastructure, adult education, english as a second language (esl), technology-based learning tools. 1.introduction the covid-19 pandemic harshly affected many areas including in-person and online education. although many educational institutions at all levels offered online learning programs prior to the covid-19 pandemic, the pandemic illuminated the need for an enhanced social component in online education [1,2]. during the pandemic, many students experienced mental health concerns such as depression and anxiety as a result of undergoing an abrupt transition from in-person learning to online learning and the loss of social contact this transition entailed [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. these mental health concerns raise the question of whether and how the internet and related technology can also serve as an effective form of social infrastructure for students and instructors participating in online education. social infrastructure is generally defined as the physical places and organizations that shape the way people interact [11]. social infrastructure does not equate to social capital but instead consists of the physical conditions that determine whether social capital develops. social infrastructure may be discussed more specifically in relationship to education and technology.[12] find that online learning is not only a cognitive global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 47 process but is also situated within a social context. [13] contend that technologies for learning have considerable social infrastructures. [14] defines social infrastructure as the social structures that support learning with a technology-based learning tool. bielaczyc developed the social infrastructure framework to make instructors’ decisions affecting social structures clear and to organize them into a methodical framework that highlights key classroom design elements. the framework explores dimensions of social infrastructure needed to integrate technology-based learning tools into classroom practice, because successful learning environments with technology-based learning tools extend beyond the tools themselves to include the design of social infrastructure. the four dimensions of the social infrastructure framework include the cultural beliefs dimension, practices dimension, socio-techno-spatial relations dimension, and interaction with the outside world dimension. although defined separately, the four dimensions of the framework operate interdependently [15]. this paper adds to the existing literature surrounding bielaczyc’s social infrastructure framework by applying the framework to an adult education program during the covid-19 pandemic. specifically, the purpose of this paper is to describe bielaczyc’s social infrastructure framework and to apply the framework to an adult english as a second language (esl) program in walton county, florida that was forced to quickly implement online learning because of the covid-19 pandemic. in this paper, we examine the internet and zoom more specifically as the technologybased learning tool used in the online esl program. in the first section of this paper, we describe the four dimensions of the social infrastructure framework. 2.the social infrastructure framework: theory 2.1. the cultural beliefs dimension the cultural beliefs dimension serves as the first element of the social infrastructure framework and refers to the mindset that shapes classroom life. when one designs an online adult education classroom, the framework calls for the consideration of four areas of cultural beliefs. the first area involves how learning and knowledge are conceptualized, and this conceptualization concerns how students and instructors view the process of learning. an appropriate online learning environment involves students as generators of knowledge rather than an environment where knowledge is considered fixed or owned by the instructor [16]. the second and third areas of cultural beliefs include consideration of how a student’s social identity is understood and consideration of how an instructor’s social identity is understood. the conceptualization of a student’s social identity refers to how students view themselves as learners as well as how they view other students in the class and others in their social network with regard to their own learning. for example, students might see other students as learning resources, team members, or competitors. an instructor’s social identity involves the way instructors view themselves and the way students view the role of instructors in the learning process. introducing a technology-based learning tool such as the internet into the classroom has been shown to move an instructor’s role from a central authority figure to a facilitator [17]. the fourth area of cultural beliefs involves how students and instructors view the purposes and uses of a particular technology-based learning tool which is the internet and zoom in the case of this paper. cultural beliefs concern questions about how students are meant to use the tool to carry out learning objectives. another question involves how the tool will fit into the overall workings of the classroom [18]. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 48 2.2.the practices dimension the practices dimension of the social infrastructure framework involves the ways that instructors and students participate in both online and offline learning activities relating to the technologybased learning tool. when instructors explore this dimension of classroom design for online adult learners, they need to consider four areas that include student activities, participant structures of students, participant structures of teachers, and coordinating on-tool and off-tool activities. in selecting student activities, instructors need to determine whether student activity selection will be left open to students or whether it will be semistructured or tightly controlled. when they design student participant structures, instructors need to decide if students will work individually or in groups and how the work will be organized. instructors also need to consider their own participant structures. for example, teachers might observe or intervene in student learning activities. teachers might also serve as a coach, role model, or discussion leader. finally, instructors need to coordinate on-tool activities that use the technology-based learning tool and off-tool learning activities that take place away from the tool. blending on-tool and off-tool learning activities allows students to appreciate how what they are learning with the technologybased tool transfers to the real world. this type of blending also provides multiple forms for learning [19]. although participant structures in the online classroom vary, the social infrastructure framework’s practices dimension proves consistent with the claim that instructors serve as initiators of interpersonal or social processes in the classroom [20]. 2.3.the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension refers to how the organization of physical space and cyberspace support student interaction with the technology-based learning tool. this paper focuses on student-teacher-cyberspace configuration sand cyberspace-physical-space relations as the design considerations for this dimension. the student-teacher-cyberspace configurations design consideration proves relevant when students are able to interact online. instructors should consider whether students work separately or collaboratively in cyberspace, how student products are organized in cyberspace, and whether student online work is visible to all or whether students have private work areas in cyberspace. instructors also need to consider their own use of the technology-based learning tool and their own configuration in cyberspace. a question to be answered includes whether instructors should be online and use the learning tool themselves. the cyberspace-physical-space relations design consideration focuses on the ways that students’ physical world is brought into cyberspace and vice versa. aspects of students’ physical world may be brought into cyberspace for a number of reasons including giving students more ownership and deepening their relationship to their online work [21]. 2.4.the interaction with the “outside world” dimension the interaction with the outside world dimension involves how students interact, both online and offline, with people outside their immediate classroom context. key aspects of student interaction with the outside world include bringing in knowledge from the outside, extending the audience for student work, and interacting with others. instructors might bring in knowledge from the outside by having experts in a chosen field visit the virtual classroom. extending the audience for student work might involve students making virtual presentations to an outside audience. interacting with others involves students engaging in bidirectional interactions with the outside world such as virtually exchanging ideas with peers in other locations [22]. 3.the social infrastructure framework:application global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 49 3.1. background in this section, we describe the application of the social infrastructure framework to an online adult esl program in walton county, florida. the population in walton county is growing quickly, and the county is one of the top ten counties in the united states in percentage growth from 2017 to 2018 [23]. a faith-based organization operates walton county’s esl program to help immigrants obtain the language skills necessary to function in their new home and become citizens of the united states. walton county attracts students in the esl program due to the county’s economic opportunities. many immigrants, mostly spanish speaking, have come to walton county to take service sector jobs created by increased tourism and population growth. immigrants often learn about potential job opportunities in walton county from family members or friends already living there. prior to the covid-19 pandemic, the walton county esl program offered in-person classes on tuesday mornings and evenings. the esl program offered courses from beginning to advanced levels and placed students based on pre-enrollment assessments. the program scheduled and coordinated holidays, seasonal breaks, and summer vacation with the local school system calendar. once students completed the esl courses, they also were offered a course to help them prepare for the united states citizenship examination. the logistics of the courses changed drastically with the covid-19 lockdown in mid-march 2020. by late summer 2020, the organizers of the walton county esl program began to make plans to resume instruction in the fall. the program leadership and a vast majority of the instructors preferred an online rather than in-person format due to continued threats from covid-19. with some limited assistance from a statewide faith-based esl coordinating organization, the walton county group decided to use zoom as the primary technology-based learning tool for online instruction. the remainder of this section will illustrate how the various dimensions of the social infrastructure framework outlined at the beginning of this paper have or have not guided the development of the program’s online esl instruction. 3.2.the cultural beliefs dimension the learning process for walton county’s esl program prior to the onset of covid-19 was conducted as part of a larger education and socialization process. the weekly in-person instruction began with food, songs, and fellowship. childcare services were provided, and class members were encouraged to bring their children. participants who had reached an advanced degree of knowledge in the program would often serve as mentors to new students. instructors designed learning activities to encourage interactions within individual classrooms in order for students to learn from one another. as a result, students served as generators of knowledge and learning resources for each other in the esl program’s in-person learning format. the first task in the esl program’s move to an online environment was to ensure that students would participate in the program. to this end, the walton county esl group developed an extensive outreach program to encourage student participation. the retention of existing students was given priority over the recruitment of new students. in addition, to enhance teachers’ use of the zoom learning tool in the online classroom, the sponsoring organization gave them zoom subscriptions and instruction in its use. it also encouraged teachers to attend statewide workshops on remote instruction via zoom. instructors encouraged students to view the purpose and use of the zoom learning tool as the means that would allow instruction to continue and friendships to flourish even in the absence of in-person contacts. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 50 despite these efforts, the abrupt move to online instruction negatively impacted the social identity of both students and teachers. students who previously viewed their instructors as knowledgeable friends and facilitators who helped with the learning process in the in-person program now saw them only as remote faces appearing via zoom on a computer screen or tablet device. in the walton county esl program’s online setting, instructors were deprived of the informal interactions with students that allow them to form strong personal relationships and tailor instruction to individual needs. in the case of this program, the introduction of technology threatened rather than enhanced the favorable social identities of both students and instructors that served as the foundation of the in-person esl program. 3.3. the practices dimension the internet and a few of the digital tools associated with it have allowed the adult esl classes to continue during the covid-19 pandemic. although zoom conferencing has been the primary technology-based learning tool, other learning tools such as email and whatsapp have proven to be valuable resources. prior to the pandemic, the esl program mainly used face-to-face contact as the means of outreach to potential students. during the pandemic, email allowed instructors and course organizers to contact potential students to inform them of available online esl opportunities. instructors and students also utilized whatsapp as a means of communication between instructional sessions. moving instruction from in-person classroom sessions to online zoom sessions required adjustments to student activities and the participant structures of students and instructors. prior to the pandemic much of the in-class instruction involved students interacting with one another and the instructor. instructors teaching via zoom had to adjust course materials to facilitate more individual work. the new format and materials have resulted in much less interaction between students. instructor interaction with students has become more formal and individually directed, and informal and spontaneous interactions with groups of students have greatly decreased. 3.4.the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension the esl program’s initial move to online instruction occurred due to fears about the spread of the covid19 virus. many of the students enrolled in the esl program were at high risk of contracting covid-19. consequently, one of the major motivations for moving to a virtual classroom was to separate students from one another and from the instructor. planning regarding the socio-techno-spatial relations dimension that might have accompanied a more traditional transition to remote learning did not happen due to the unique and time-sensitive nature of the transition required during the pandemic. the zoom platform, chosen as the preferred method of instructional delivery, did not allow for extensive online interactions among students in the program. traditional online learning management systems, such as blackboard, have features that allow groups of students to interact in a cyber-classroom setting. the zoom system allows some student interaction. however, instructors were not experts in utilizing it for sub-group interactions. therefore, most of the work in the zoom classroom involved individual interactions between the student and the instructor. 3.5.the interaction with the “outside world” dimension the desire to socially distance during the covid-19 pandemic served as the primary factor that led the esl program to transition to an online learning environment, and it severely limited any efforts to interact with the outside world in an offline setting. volunteers comprised the entire instructional staff for the esl program, and the logistical challenges in arranging outside interactions in the online classroom substantially global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 51 limited these interactions. as a result, students did not engage in bidirectional interactions with the outside world in either an online or offline setting throughout their online esl education during the pandemic. 4.conclusion the purpose of this paper was to describe the social infrastructure framework and explore its application in the design and implementation of an online adult education program that abruptly transitioned to the use of zoom for instructional purposes. the framework was retroactively applied to an online adult esl program in walton county, florida that was forced to implement online learning due to the covid-19 pandemic. although it was more abrupt, the process of transitioning to an online learning environment in the adult esl program involved a trajectory of change for both students and instructors which is consistent with findings in the literature [24]. the walton county esl program case study also proved similar to some efforts at all levels of education forced to rapidly implement online learning as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. due to the pandemic, the esl program’s primary concern was to move online quickly without giving much forethought to the social infrastructure that would make technology based online learning efforts successful. the results and satisfaction levels of the program’s pandemic forced move to online learning are mixed at best. however, educators should not use the results of this sudden covid-19 induced move to online learning as a justification to discontinue future attempts to educate students remotely. in addition,[25] noted the significance of school administrators during the covid-19 pandemic, and [26] found that school principals’ use of digital technology during the pandemic was considered adequate according to teachers, indicating that effective leadership was important in implementing technology during the pandemic. in the case of the walton county esl program, there was not an identified leader driving the use of technology during the pandemic which may have also influenced this study’s results. in addition, abruptly designing an online adult education program during a pandemic is specific to a particular and hopefully rare time and place [27]. thoughtfully developing and designing online education programs based on a sound social infrastructure framework should improve the online learning experiences of adult education students and other students. future research might examine the social infrastructure framework when applied to online adult education programs that have been carefully designed under more normal post-pandemic circumstances. references macmahon, s., leggett, j., & carroll, a. 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(1945) the use of knowledge in society. american economic review, 35(4), 520-530. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 9; september-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 11 probing into the genetic attributes of pathogenic bacteria in fermented meat provisions 1dr. amira samir mahmoud, 2prof. ahmed hassan ibrahim and 3dr. yasmine ahmed elmasry article info abstract keywords: foodborne pathogens, foodborne illness, disease outbreak, foodborne infection, foodborne intoxication. foodborne pathogens are microbial agents that can trigger instances of foodborne illness, leading to disease outbreaks with significant public health and economic implications. the occurrence of multiple similar illnesses resulting from the consumption of contaminated food characterizes a foodborne disease outbreak. over 200 distinct foodborne diseases have been recognized, each posing a unique threat to human health. these diseases encompass both foodborne infections, characterized by a longer incubation period, and foodborne intoxications, marked by a more rapid onset of symptoms. in foodborne infections, pathogens ingested with food establish themselves within the human host, while in foodborne intoxications, toxins produced by pathogens in food are ingested, causing illness. the consumption of foods contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins contributes to fatalities, illnesses, hospitalizations, and economic burdens. particularly, gastrointestinal infections resulting from foodborne diseases have a pronounced adverse impact on human well-being. recognizing the significance of foodborne illnesses and their diverse manifestations is vital for effective prevention and control strategies. this paper sheds light on the various aspects of foodborne diseases, their classification, and the significant consequences they impose on individuals and society. 1. introduction foodborne pathogens are biological agents that can cause a foodborne illness event. a foodborne disease outbreak has defined the occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a typical food 1department of botany & microbiology, faculty of science, assiut university, egypt 2department of food hygiene, faculty of veterinary medicine, assiut university, egypt 3molecular biology center, assiut university, egypt https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 12 (cdc, 2012). more than 200 foodborne diseases have been identified (mead et al., 1999). foodborne illness occurs when a pathogen is ingested with food, establishes itself and multiplies in the human host, or produces a toxin that the human host then ingests. thus, foodborne illness is classified into foodborne infection and foodborne intoxication. in foodborne infections, the time from ingestion of the human host until symptoms occur is much longer than foodborne intoxications (bintsis, 2017). the consumption of foods contaminated with foodborne pathogenic microorganisms and microbial toxins is responsible for deaths, illnesses, hospitalization, and economic losses. due to their widespread nature, foodborne diseases (fbd), especially gastrointestinal infections, negatively affect human health (abd el-aziz, 2015). bacteria and fungi usually contaminate meat and meat products. foodborne pathogenic bacteria as salmonella, shigella, escherichia, listeria, clostridium, and vibrio and their toxins have been health problems (abd el-aziz and yousef, 2017, abd el aziz and yousef, 2018). salmonella spp., s. aureus, e. coli o157: h7 and l. monocytogenes are the predominant bacteria species that cause public health problems worldwide, and they are the primary pathogens involved in food poisoning (lei et al., 2008). the presence of pathogenic bacteria such as salmonella, listeria monocytogenes, e. coli, and toxigenic fungi in foods poses a poisoning threat (darwish et al., 2008). as well, the growth of bacteria can lead to organoleptic changes in food, including off-colors and offodors, rendering it unacceptable to the human consumer (duffy et al., 2006). several pcr tests for detecting pathogens in foods have been validated, harmonized, and commercialized to make pcr, a standard tool used by food microbiology laboratories (maurer, 2011; postollec et al., 2011). pcr based on oligonucleotide primers has been developed quickly and more quickly than the bacterial culture (abd el-aziz, 2013). so, the main objective of this study was to detect the prevalence of foodborne pathogenic bacteria in fermented meat products. to confirm the identification of the bacterial isolates, the dna lysate of pure colonies was amplified by pcrbased method using specific primers for each genus. 2. materials and methods 2.1. collection of meat product samples twenty fermented meat products: hotdog, pepperoni, salami, sausage, and luncheon (four from each) were included in the study. these samples were purchased from different assiut cities, egypt, and collected from september to december 2018. the samples were transferred in an icebox to the laboratory and kept frozen until microbiological analyses for pathogenic bacteria. the following primers, which were used to pcr-amplify specific genes, were synthesized by invitrogen, germany (table 1). table 1: primer nucleotide sequences for amplification of target genes from isolated foodborne pathogenic bacteria. primer name bacterial strain amplifie d product [bp] characteristi cs annealing ta primer sequence 5` 3` f .flich 7 r flich 7 e. coli 0157:h7 247 48 °c taccatcgcaaaagcaactcc gtcggcaacgttagtgatacc global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 13 907r 27f listeria 900 48 °c ccgtcaattcctttgagtttagagtttgatcctggc tcag hiya-f hiya-r listeria monocytogen es 200 48 °c ccgtgcgccctttctaactt tttgttcagttttgagaggt st11-f st15-r salmonella 429 48 °c gccaaccattgctaaattggcgca ggtagaaattcccagcgggtactg g f-16s r-16s s. aureus 228 52 °c gtaggtggcaagcgttatcc cgcaca tca gcg tca g meca1 meca2 s. aureus meca 532 50 °c aaaatcgatggtaaaggttgc agttct gca gta ccg gat ttgc 2.2. isolation procedures of foodborne pathogenic bacteria 2.2.1. isolation of enterohemorrhagic e. coli o157:h7 each meat sample was enriched at a 1:10 ratio in vancomycin trypticase soy broth (vtsb) and shaked for 2 min in stomacher then incubated for 24 h at 37 °c (samadpour et al., 2002; ethelberg et al., 2009). one loopful from each enrichment vtsb culture was streaked on sorbitol macconkey agar plates then incubated at 37 °c for 24 h. e. coli o157:h7 colonies are sorbitol negative (appear pale yellow as compared with pink sorbitol positive). 2.3. biochemical reactions of e. coli o157:h7 2.3.1. sugar fermentation test the pure culture of e. coli o157:h7 inoculated in peptone water contains 1% sorbitol using phenol red as an indicator, and then incubated at 37 °c for 24 h (cowan and steel., 1974). the appearance of no yellow color could not ferment sorbitol and be suspected to be e. coli o157:h7. 2.3.2. isolation of listeria spp. each meat sample was enriched at a 1:10 ratio in listeria enrichment broth (leb) and shaked for 2 min, then incubated at 35 °c for 48 h. a loopful from leb culture was streaked on oxford agar plates and incubated at 35 °c for 48 h. gray colonies with black centers were suspected to be listeria spp. were picked up onto nutrient agar slants for further confirmation. 2.3.3. isolation of salmonella spp. each meat sample was pre-enriched at a 1:10 ratio in lactose broth and blended for 2 min in stomacher, then incubated at 35 °c for 24 h. for enrichment, after incubation, the mixture was shaken well, and 1 ml was transferred to a sterile test tube containing 10 ml rappaport vassiliadis broth (r.v broth), then incubated at 35 °c for 24 h. a loopful from enrichment r.v broth culture was streaked on the surface of salmonella-shigella agar plates, and then the plates were incubated at 37 °c for 24 h. the small colorless colony with a black center was picked up onto nutrient agar slants to confirm salmonella (apha, 1992). 2.3.4. isolation of staphylococcus aureus sodium chloride 10% broth tubes (finegold and martin, 1982) were inoculated with an appropriate amount from each prepared sample. inoculated tubes were incubated at 37 °c for 24 h. loops from incubated tubes were streaked on mannitol salt agar (msa) plates (finegold and martin, 1982). inoculated plates were incubated at 37 °c for 24 h. mannitol fermented colonies (surrounded by yellow halo) were picked up onto nutrient agar slants for further confirmation. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 14 2.3.5. identification of foodborne pathogenic bacteria the bacterial isolates were identified based on morphological examination include colony characteristics, shape, spore, motility, gram’s reaction and growth on differential medium (macconkey agar, endo agar medium). the bacterial identification was carried out following the standard methods described in bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology (holt et al., 1994). 2.4. molecular identification 2.4.1. bacterial lysis and dna extraction a single colony of each isolate was picked and suspended in 200 μl of nuclease-free distilled water. after vortexing, the suspension was boiled for 5 min followed by snap chilling on ice for 10 min. 50 μl of the supernatant was collected after centrifuging for 10 min at 10956 × g. it was used as a template for pcr reactions. the concentration of dna was measured using spectrophotometer gene quant1300 (ali and yousef, 2014). 2.4.2. primers and pcr amplification specific primers were used for the amplification of each isolated foodborne pathogenic bacteria. the primer flich7was specific for e. coli o157:h7 (samadpour et al., 2002; wang et al., 2002). the primer16srrna gene was used for the detection of the listeria genus. in addition, specific primers of the hemolysin (hlya) gene were used to detect l. monocytogenes isolates (sanlibaba et al., 2018). the primer st11-st15 was specific for the genus salmonella (soumet et al., 1999). the primer meca gene was used for the detection of methicillin resistance (mrsa) of s. aureus (khan et al., 2012) (table 1). the polymerase chain reaction was done by using a total volume of 25 µl. the optimal amplification reaction mixture contained 12.5 µl of master mix, 1 µl of forwarding primer (10 pmol),1 µl of reverse primer (10 pmol), 5 µl of dnaase and rnase free water by using deionizer water (millipore-direct-q uv) and 5 µl of dna (bacterial lysate). go taq ®green master mix is a premixed ready to use solution (promega, usa): 608-274-4330 was used. pcr was carried out in a thermal cycler (biometra, german). the pcr products were separated on 1% agarose gel containing ethidium bromide at 100 volts for 1 hour. the results were analyzed by uv illuminator (viberloumat) and photographed by gel documentation system, including bio-doc analyze (bda) software (biometra) for measuring and analyzing the pcr products. 3. results and discussion 3.1. morphological identification of e. coli o157:h7 examination of fermented meat samples revealed that one sample of 20 samples was positive for e. coli o157:h7 (figure 1a). it was isolated from luncheon samples. it appears as gram-negative short rods and facultative anaerobe. it can grow on sorbitol macconkey agar medium. e. coli o157:h7 do not ferment sorbitol (colorless colony) (cowan and steel, 1974) (figure 1a). sheikh et al. (2013) isolated e. coli o157:h7 from ground beef hamburger. also, e. coli o157:h7 was isolated by chinen et al. (2001) from hamburger and ground beef. 3.2. molecular identification of e. coli o157:h7 for confirming the identity of isolated e. coli o157:h7, the amplification pcr results of the target gene for shiga toxinproducing escherichia coli (stec), e. coli o157:h7 was used to confirm the isolated colony. specific pcr was used to determine the identities of e. colio157:h7 through amplification of flich7 band gene fragments for e. coli o157:h7. figure (1b) showed agarose (1%, w/v) gel indicating flich7 band gene fragments generated by pcr using genomic dna extracted from e. coli o157:h7 isolated from luncheon. gel electrophoresis of pcr products revealed the desired 247 bp fragment for the flich7 band. abd el-aziz (2015) found that 12 out of 90 meat-based sandwiches contain portions of rfb (o-antigen-encoding) regions of e. coli stec serogroups o157 and o111. also, pavithra and ghosh (2013) found 36 out of 215 samples from meat shops, fast foods, and fish stalls samples (16.7%) were identified with e. coli; 12 out of 100 samples were from fast foods. out of 36 e. coli global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 15 positive samples, nine (25%) possessed the gene encoding shiga toxin (stx1) gene, including two samples from fast food (baschera et al., 2019) as well as hessain et al. (2015) isolated e. coli o157:h7 from beef burgers and chicken burgers. while rasheed et al. (2014) and ozbey et al. (2017) could not isolate stec pathogen from the examined street vended samples, they stated that efficient cooking and other suitable hygienic prophylactic measures are needed decrease the incidence of stec in food items. b figure 1. a; streaking of e. coli o157:h7 on sorbitol macconkey agar media. b; 1% agarose gel electrophoresis of pcr products to detect e. coli o157:h7 gene flich7: lane 1: dna marker; lane 2: pcr product of e. coli o157:h7 at 247 bp. escherichia coli are essential intestinal microbiota of humans and warm-blooded mammals. while e. coli typically harmlessly colonizes the intestinal tract, several e. coli strains can cause a variety of diseases within the intestinal tract and elsewhere in the host. the strains that because enteric infections are called diarrheagenic or pathogenic e. coli strains (duffy et al. 2006; abd el-aziz, 2015). a strain o157:h7 of e. coli, one that expressed o-antigen 157 and h-antigen 7, was shown to belong to a category of e. coli that produce toxins similar to shiga toxin of shigella dysenteriae and distinct from e. coli heat-stable and heat-labile toxins. strain o157:h7 is estimated to cause 63,000 illnesses, 2,100 hospitalizations, and 20 deaths each year (scallan, 2011). the principal reservoir for this zoonotic pathogen is the intestinal tract of cattle, and other animals may also serve as reservoirs. transmission of e. coli o157:h7occurs when food or water contaminated with feces of infected animals or humans is consumed. contamination of animal products often occurs during the slaughter and processing of animals or cattle manure as fertilizer for crops (garcia et al., 2010). e. coli can survive for long periods in the environment and proliferate in vegetables and other foods (garcia et al., 2010). 3.3. isolation and molecular identification of salmonella spp. salmonella spp. was isolated from two samples of chicken luncheon. it appears as a small colorless colony with a black center, gram-negative short rods. the amplification pcr results of the target gene set for genus salmonella confirmed the desired 429 bp fragment (figure 2). also, tarabees et al. (2017) and fahim et al. (2019) isolated salmonella spp. from chicken meats. salmonella typhimurium was isolated from chicken carcass meat and molecularly identified (abd el-aziz, 2013). also, ozbey et al. (2017) isolated salmonella spp. from sausage. a global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 16 figure 2. dna gel electrophoresis on 1% agarose gel showing the pcr products: lane 1: dna size marker; lanes 2 & 3 pcr products of salmonella spp. at 429 bp. salmonella spp, one group of enterobactericiae, has pathogenic characteristics and is considered one of the most common causes of enteric infections (food poisoning) worldwide. salmonella spp. lives in the intestines of most livestock and many wild animals. salmonella spp. infection usually occurs when a person eats food contaminated with the feces of infected animals or humans. salmonella outbreaks are commonly associated with meat, poultry, and eggs, but these bacteria can also contaminate other foods such as fruits and vegetables (abd el-aziz, 2013). poultry products have consistently topped the incidence of salmonellosis in many developing countries, including india, egypt, brazil, and zimbabwe (yang et al., 2011). contamination with salmonella in poultry products can occur at multiple steps along the food chain, including processing, handling, preparation production, distribution, and retail marketing (dookeran et al., 2012). 3.4. listeria monocytogenes listeria monocytogeneswas isolated from two samples of sausage. the genus of listeria appears as gram-positive short rods bacteria. 3.5. molecular identification of l. monocytogenes the amplification pcr results of the target genes for listeria spp. were used to confirm the isolated colony. a total of 20 samples were examined for the presence of listeria spp. two samples of sausage were identified as listeria spp. (figure 3a). the amplification results of the target gene for the identification of listeria spp. showed that 2 samples from 20 samples were defined as listeria monocytogenes (figure 3b). hosseini et al. (2014) and natratilova et al. (2004) isolated listeria monocytogenesfrom sausages, salami, and burgers meat products. ozbey et al. (2017) isolated listeria sp. from sausage, salami, and sosis. meloni (2015) reported that l. monocytogenesis among the most frequently detected pathogens in dry fermented sausages. also, bohaychuk et al. (2006) isolated listeria monocytogenes from fermented sausages. b a global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 17 figure. 3. a-pcr results of 16s rrna gene for the detection of listeria spp. lane 1: dna marker; lanes 2, 3 amplification of listeria spp. at 900 bp. b; 1% agarose gel electrophoresis showing the pcr results: lane 1: dna marker; lanes 2, 3 pcr products hly gene of listeria monocytogenes at 200 bp. listeria monocytogenesis one of the leading causes of death from foodborne pathogens, especially in newborns, pregnant women, the elderly, and immuno-compromised individuals. the bacteria listeria spp have been found in various raw foods, such as vegetables, uncooked meats, and contaminated foods after cooking or processing. it causes meningitis, septicemia and gastroenteritis (ferreira et al., 2014; buchanan, 2017). listeriosis is a severe infection usually caused by eating food contaminated with l. monocytogenes. although it is a relatively rare disease with a high mortality rate (20-30%), it is one of the deadliest food-borne threats (jemmi and stephen, 2006). unlike many other pathogenic bacteria, listeria multiplies in cold environments such as refrigerators and has tolerance to freezing temperature, high salt, and low ph (ghandhi and chikindas, 2007; raheem, 2016). ready-to-eat (rte) foods pose a higher risk for listeriosis as they are ingested without any further processing, such as cooking, that could kill l. monocytogenes (raheem, 2016). 3.6. staphylococcus aureus out of 20 samples, s. aureus was isolated from 6 samples of chicken luncheon and sausage (three from each). s. aureus is nonmotile, gram-positive cocci that appear singly or in pairs, tetrads, short chains, or characteristic "grapelike" clusters and facultative anaerobes. all s. aureus samples were tested for the presence of the 16s rrna gene in order to ensure the correct interpretation of toxin-negative isolates. detection of the meca gene by the polymerase chain reaction is considered the ''gold standard'' in mrsa diagnosis. the primer meca gene was used for the detection of methicillin resistance of s. aureus. a b global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 18 figure 4. a: pcr results of 16s rrna gene for the detection of s. aureus lane 1: dna marker; lanes 2 to 7 amplification of s. aureus. b: electrophoresis on 1% agarose gel showing the pcr results: lane 1: dna marker; lane7: meca of s. aureus 3.7. molecular identification of s. aureus the amplification pcr results of the target genes for s. aureus was used to confirm the isolated colony. a total of 20 samples were examined for the presence of s. aureus. six samples were identified as s. aureus (figure 4a). the amplification results of the target gene for the identification of s. aureus showed that one sample from 20 samples defined as s. aureus contains meca gene, which was isolated from sausage (figure 4b). s. aureus was isolated from the beef burger and sausage (mohammad et al., 2018). bacon and sofos (2003) reported that s. aureus was recorded in pork, ground beef, sausage, ground turkey. most staphylococcal food poisoning cases being traced to food contamination during preparation because of inadequate refrigeration, inadequate cooking or heating, or poor personal hygiene (bacon and sofos, 2003). after ingestion of the enterotoxin and an incubation period of less than 6 and up to 10 h, symptoms may include headache, vomiting, nausea, abdominal cramps, dizziness, chills, perspiration, general weakness, muscular cramping and prostration, and diarrhea that may or may not contain blood (bacon and sofos, 2003). s. aureus in food is considered a public health hazard because of its ability to produce enterotoxin and the subsequent risk of food poisoning. they are challenging to inactivate with heat because temperatures required to inactivate them are higher than those needed to kill the organism (bacon and sofos, 2003). s. aureus is considered one of the most resistant non-spore-forming pathogens (fda, 2012). 4. conclusion the results showed the moderate incidence of foodborne pathogenic bacteria in the examined meat samples, and greater emphasis should be applied in prevention and control of contamination during processing for reducing foodborne risk for consumers. also, the results cleared that pcr is an ideal method for identifying foodborne pathogenic bacteria, as it was effective, more sensitive, reduces effort and time. pcr can be used as a diagnostic tool to correct foodborne pathogenic bacteria from meat samples. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 19 acknowledgment authors would thanks to research finance unit, faculty of science, assiut university, egypt, for their funding of this research. conflict of interest we declare that we have no conflict of interest. orcid id naeima m. h. yousef: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6327-141x doaa m. abd elaziz: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3075-4968 martina a. mansour: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8134-3157 references american public health association (apha, 1992). standard methods for the examination of dairy products. 16th ed., american public health association, new york. abd el-aziz, d.m. 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(2011). prevalence of salmonella on raw poultry at retail markets in china. journal of food protection, 74(10), 1724-1728. © licensee multidisciplines. this work is an open-access article assigned in creative commons attribution (cc by 4.0) license terms and conditions (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 education as a driver of social change and economic opportunity chinyere prince chinedu mmom faculty of education department of educational management rivers state university, nigeria email: pcmmom@yahoo.com; chipcmmom@gmail.com article info abstract keywords: education, social change, economic opportunity. doi 10.5281/zenodo.10998409 education is a critical factor in driving social change and economic opportunity. this study delves into the transformative influence of education, unraveling its pivotal role in driving both social change and economic opportunities. through a comprehensive exploration, we highlight education's capacity to empower individuals, challenge societal norms, and foster innovation. as a cornerstone for societal progress, education cultivates critical thinking and resilience, shaping an enlightened citizenry capable of navigating the complexities of the modern world. examining the symbiotic relationship between education and economic opportunity, we underscore the indispensable role of well-educated individuals in fueling innovation, enhancing workforce capabilities, and elevating a nation's global competitiveness. recognizing the evolving landscape of industries and the knowledge economy, we emphasize the ongoing need for sustained investment in education to ensure alignment with the dynamic demands of the job market. this paper concludes with a resounding call to action, emphasizing the imperative of continued investment in education. as a transformative force that extends beyond individual lives, education stands as the linchpin for societal well-being. proposing policy initiatives, resource allocation, and innovative learning approaches, for societies to prioritize and nurture the educational journey for all. in this commitment lies the promise of a sustainable and prosperous future, where education acts as the catalyst for positive social change and economic opportunities on a global scale. introduction as human beings, we are constantly striving to improve our lives and the lives of those around us. one of the most important ways to achieve this is through education. education is often seen as a key driver of social change and economic opportunity. by providing individuals with knowledge and skills, education can empower them to improve their own lives and contribute to the development of their communities. education can also promote social inclusion and reduce inequality, as well as foster understanding and tolerance among different groups. the https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear mailto:pcmmom@yahoo.com mailto:pcmmom@yahoo.com global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 2 concept of education as a driver of change and economic opportunity is that education can empower individuals to improve their lives and contribute to the development of their communities and countries (robinson, 2018). education can open up opportunities for individuals, enabling them to gain the skills and knowledge they need to find employment, start businesses, and improve their standard of living. in addition, education can lead to positive social change by fostering creativity, innovation, and social cohesion. these factors can contribute to economic growth, which in turn can lead to improved standards of living for individuals and communities. there are many ways in which education can contribute to societal development. firstly, education can help to reduce poverty by providing individuals with the skills and knowledge needed to find employment and increase their income. for example, the world bank has found that each additional year of schooling can increase earnings by 10%. (world bank, 2019). in addition, education can lead to improvements in health and well-being by teaching people about proper nutrition, hygiene, and disease prevention (world bank, 2015). it can also empower individuals to participate in decision-making and hold their governments accountable. according to the united nations, education is a human right and a public good, and it is essential for creating an inclusive, equitable, and sustainable future. education is one of the key priorities of the sustainable development goals (sdgs), with goal 4 specifically focused on ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education for all (united nations, 2019). furthermore, education is a key component of the united nations' sustainable development goals (sdgs), which aim to achieve a more prosperous and sustainable future for all. the sdgs include a specific goal for education (sdg 4), which is to "ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (united nations, 2019). this goal highlights the importance of quality education, and the need to ensure that all people have access to educational opportunities throughout their lives. the sdgs also recognize the link between education and other goals, such as sdg 1 (no poverty), sdg 3 (good health and well-being), sdg 5 (gender equality), sdg 8 (decent work and economic growth), and sdg 13 (climate action). for example, education can help to reduce poverty by providing people with the skills and knowledge they need to find decent work and increase their income. in addition, education can promote gender equality by ensuring that girls and women have access to the same educational opportunities as boys and men. and lastly, education can help to mitigate and adapt to climate change by teaching people about environmental issues and encouraging sustainable practices. these are just a few examples of how education is connected to the sdgs. because of the importance of education, several initiatives and programs were implemented around the world to promote education and meet the sdgs. one example is the global partnership for education, which is a partnership of governments, donor countries, international organizations, and private sector partners that works to improve education in developing countries (global partnership for education, 2022). another example is the unesco institute for statistics, which collects and analyzes data on education to track progress towards the sdgs (unesco institute for statistics, 2021). it is true that despite the numerous benefits of education, several challenges need to be addressed to fully realize the potential of education as a driver of change and economic opportunity. one challenge is the lack of access to quality education, particularly in developing countries. according to unesco, over half of the world's children and youth are not receiving a quality education. another challenge is the high cost of education, which can be a barrier for many families, especially those living in poverty. in addition, gender inequality remains a significant issue in many countries, with girls often facing greater barriers to accessing and completing their education. finally, conflicts and emergencies can disrupt education systems, leading to significant educational losses for children and youth. for example, the ongoing conflict in syria has led to more than half of all school-age children being out of school, and the ongoing covid-19 pandemic has led to school closures in many countries, affecting global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 3 over 1.6 billion children and youth worldwide. despite these challenges, it is clear that education is a vital tool for promoting positive social change and improving economic opportunities (unesco, 2020; united nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs, 2022). against this backdrop, this paper examines the role of education in driving social change and economic opportunity. it explores the challenges facing education, including access, cost, gender inequality, and conflict, and proposes solutions to these challenges. the paper also highlights the importance of investing in education and ensuring that it is accessible to all individuals, regardless of gender, socioeconomic status, or location. finally, the paper provides recommendations for policymakers, educators, and other stakeholders to consider when promoting educational opportunities. conceptual clarification education as a driver of change and economic opportunity: a definition education, often regarded as the cornerstone of societal progress, plays a pivotal role as a driver of change and economic opportunity. at its core, education encompasses the systematic process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes. beyond the acquisition of information, education serves as a catalyst for change by empowering individuals and communities. it is a dynamic force that shapes perspectives, challenges societal norms, and stimulates innovation. furthermore, education is not merely confined to formal schooling; it extends to informal learning, vocational training, and continuous self-improvement, making it a lifelong journey rather than a destination. agboola (2019) defined education as "the process of developing and cultivating the mental, moral, and physical faculties of the individual, to make him a useful and productive member of the society in which he lives. this definition emphasizes the personal and social benefits of education, and how it contributes to the betterment of society as a whole. omoregbe (2018) also described education as "the deliberate effort of an individual or a society to train or develop the whole person, the mind, body, and spirit, so that he may reach his full potential and become a full, self-realized person, capable of living a fulfilled life. this definition emphasizes the comprehensive nature of education and its role in helping individuals reach their full potential ozo-mekuri (2017) saw education as the process by which humans are given the tools and the context with which to develop their minds, hearts and spirits to be able to take action and make informed decisions. this definition highlights education's role in providing individuals with the tools and context they need to grow and take action, both as individuals and as members of society. ozo-mekuri's further highlighted that education is not just about acquiring information, but about using that information to take action and make decisions. this means that education is not just about passively receiving information, but about actively using it to improve oneself and one's community. the significance of education in societal development education, as a bedrock of societal progress, holds profound significance in shaping the course of human development. beyond the acquisition of knowledge and skills, education plays a transformative role in fostering a more informed, adaptable, and socially responsible citizenry. the significance of education in societal development cannot be overstated. it acts as a cornerstone that supports the pillars of progress, influencing various dimensions of human life (alfred & ememonye, 2017). one of its fundamental roles is the cultivation of critical thinking and analytical skills, enabling individuals to navigate an increasingly complex world. moreover, education fosters a sense of civic responsibility and social awareness, laying the groundwork for active participation in the community. as societies evolve, so do the challenges they face. education serves as a compass guiding individuals through societal changes by promoting adaptability and resilience. it equips them with the tools to understand, question, and contribute to the ongoing transformation of their communities. in essence, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 4 education is an investment in the collective intellect, fostering a society that can meet the demands of the present and navigate the uncertainties of the future. to understand the significance of education in societal development, it is important to understand the different ways in which education can positively impact society. education can lead to economic growth by providing individuals with the skills and knowledge they need to contribute to the workforce and generate income. education can also help to reduce poverty by providing people with the means to improve their lives and contribute to their communities. in addition, education can promote social cohesion by fostering mutual understanding and respect among diverse groups (kincaid & thomas, 2011). it can also reduce crime and violence by providing individuals with the tools they need to resolve conflict peacefully. and lastly, education can promote democracy by fostering a more informed and engaged citizen. below are the multifaceted dimensions of education and its pivotal role in societal development (hanushek & woessmann, 2010; hanushek, 2006; gertler & glewwe, 2016). knowledge and skill acquisition: at its most fundamental level, education serves as a conduit for knowledge and skill acquisition. the classroom, whether physical or virtual, becomes the nexus where individuals gain insights into diverse subjects, from mathematics and science to literature and the arts. this acquisition of knowledge not only imparts a broad understanding of the world but also equips individuals with the tools necessary to navigate the complexities of modern society. beyond knowledge, education cultivates a spectrum of skills crucial for personal and professional success. critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration are among the skills honed through educational experiences. these skills, collectively known as 21st-century skills, are indispensable in a world where adaptability and innovation are paramount. civic responsibility and social awareness: education is a cornerstone in the cultivation of civic responsibility and social awareness. it instils a sense of duty toward one's community and the broader society. through education, individuals gain insights into the workings of government, the principles of justice, and the mechanisms of social change. this awareness creates engaged citizens who actively contribute to the improvement of their communities. moreover, education serves as a vehicle for the transmission of societal values and ethics. by introducing individuals to historical events, cultural diversity, and ethical frameworks, education fosters an understanding of the interconnectedness of societies. this understanding, in turn, lays the groundwork for empathy, tolerance, and a collective commitment to building a just and inclusive world. cultural and intellectual development: the significance of education extends beyond the pragmatic realm of knowledge and skills; it contributes to the cultural and intellectual development of individuals and societies. exposure to various disciplines, arts, literature, and sciences enriches the intellectual tapestry of individuals, fostering creativity and a deeper appreciation for the diversity of human thought. through education, cultural norms are examined, challenged, and contextualized. this process contributes to cultural evolution, allowing societies to adapt to changing realities while preserving essential aspects of their heritage. the interplay between education and culture creates a dynamic equilibrium, ensuring that traditions are valued while fostering an environment conducive to progress and innovation. adaptable and resilient societies: societal development is inherently linked to the ability to adapt to change and navigate challenges. education, by nurturing adaptability and resilience, positions societies to respond effectively to evolving circumstances. the continuous learning inherent in educational pursuits encourages individuals to embrace change, view challenges as opportunities for growth, and develop the skills necessary to overcome obstacles. adaptable societies, shaped by education, are better equipped to harness the benefits of technological advancements, navigate economic transformations, and address pressing global issues. the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 5 resilience instilled through education becomes a societal asset, ensuring that setbacks are viewed as temporary and surmountable hurdles rather than insurmountable barriers to progress. economic development and innovation: education serves as a linchpin for economic development by cultivating a skilled and innovative workforce. a well-educated populace contributes to economic growth by fueling sectors that rely on knowledge, creativity, and technological expertise. industries thrive when supported by a workforce that can adapt to evolving demands and contribute to innovation. furthermore, education is a catalyst for entrepreneurship. it nurtures an entrepreneurial mindset by encouraging risk-taking, problem-solving, and creative thinking. entrepreneurs often emerge from educational environments that foster a spirit of innovation, leading to the development of new businesses, products, and services that drive economic prosperity. interconnected global communities: in an era characterized by globalization, education plays a pivotal role in connecting individuals and societies on a global scale. the exchange of ideas, cultural perspectives, and collaborative efforts are facilitated by an educated populace. educational institutions serve as hubs for international collaboration, fostering a sense of global citizenship and promoting mutual understanding among diverse cultures. moreover, education contributes to the development of a global workforce capable of participating in the knowledge economy. as individuals from different parts of the world share educational experiences, a network of interconnected minds emerges, transcending geographical boundaries and contributing to the collective advancement of humanity. in other words, the significance of education in societal development is profound and multifaceted. it is the foundation upon which knowledge is built, skills are honed, and individuals become active contributors to the well-being of their communities. education fosters civic responsibility, cultural evolution, and adaptability, shaping societies that are resilient, innovative, and interconnected. as we navigate the complexities of the 21st century, investing in education emerges not only as a pragmatic necessity but as a visionary commitment to building a more enlightened, inclusive, and sustainable world education and social change education and social change are closely intertwined. education stands as a potent catalyst for social change, serving as a transformative force that shapes individuals, communities, and entire societies. education can play a pivotal role in transforming societies by empowering individuals to challenge the status quo, question traditional beliefs and values, and create new knowledge. it can also help to shift the way people think and behave, leading to social transformation (rogoff, 2014; akyeampong et al.,2019; chandra, 2006). for example, education can promote equality and social justice by providing people with the knowledge and skills to advocate for their rights and demand equal treatment. below is the intricate relationship between education and social change by also examining how education acts as a vehicle for empowerment, a catalyst for cultural evolution, and a cornerstone for community development (zhao, 2019; jordan, 2009; apple, 2003). empowerment of individuals: education is a cornerstone of individual empowerment, offering a pathway for individuals to break free from the shackles of ignorance and limited opportunities. it provides the tools necessary for critical thinking, fostering the ability to question, analyze, and form independent judgments. empowered individuals are more likely to challenge societal norms, advocate for justice, and actively participate in shaping their communities. moreover, education equips individuals with a sense of agency, enabling them to make informed decisions about their lives. this empowerment extends beyond academic knowledge to encompass practical skills, contributing to economic self-sufficiency and enhancing one's ability to navigate the complexities of the modern world. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 6 cultural and attitudinal shifts: education serves as a powerful agent of cultural and attitudinal change. exposure to diverse perspectives, historical contexts, and alternative worldviews challenges ingrained beliefs and fosters open-mindedness. as individuals engage with a broad spectrum of ideas and experiences, they become more tolerant and accepting of diversity, contributing to the breakdown of stereotypes and prejudices. the transformative impact of education on attitudes is particularly evident in issues related to gender, race, and social equality. educational environments that promote inclusivity and equality contribute to the erosion of discriminatory norms, creating a more just and equitable society. community development: communities flourish when their members are educated and actively engaged in the process of development. education provides individuals with the skills and knowledge needed for effective community leadership and problem-solving. informed communities are better equipped to address local challenges, whether they relate to healthcare, infrastructure, or social issues. furthermore, education fosters a sense of shared responsibility within communities. individuals who have benefited from education are more likely to contribute positively to community initiatives, thereby creating a collective momentum toward progress. this community engagement, driven by education, establishes a foundation for sustainable development and social cohesion. advocacy for social justice: education empowers individuals to become advocates for social justice. informed by an understanding of societal structures and historical contexts, educated individuals are more likely to recognize and challenge systemic injustices. education cultivates a sense of civic responsibility, encouraging individuals to stand up against discrimination, inequality, and human rights violations. moreover, educational institutions often serve as hubs for activism and social movements. students and educators alike, fueled by a passion for justice instilled through education, become driving forces behind movements that seek to bring about positive social change. generation of new ideas and innovations: education is a crucible for the generation of new ideas and innovations that can reshape societies. it nurtures creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, fostering a culture of innovation. this innovative mindset, when applied to societal challenges, can lead to breakthroughs in various fields, from science and technology to social policy and governance. educated individuals are more likely to contribute to the development and implementation of progressive ideas that challenge the status quo. this intellectual dynamism, driven by education, becomes a driving force for social change as societies adapt to new paradigms and embrace transformative approaches. bridging social divides: education has the power to bridge social divides by providing equal opportunities for learning and personal development. inclusive and accessible education ensures that individuals from diverse backgrounds have the chance to access the benefits of knowledge and skill acquisition. this inclusivity becomes a vehicle for breaking the cycle of poverty, empowering marginalized communities, and fostering a more equitable society. in conclusion, the nexus between education and social change is intricate and profound. education is not merely a means of transmitting information; it is a force that shapes attitudes, empowers individuals, and moulds the very fabric of societies. by investing in education, societies pave the way for a more enlightened, tolerant, and progressive future where positive social change becomes not just a possibility but a shared reality. education and economic opportunity education serves as a key determinant of economic opportunity, acting as a catalyst for individual advancement and a driver of broader economic development. in a nutshell, education can lead to improved economic outcomes for individuals and communities by providing the skills and knowledge needed to find and keep jobs, earn higher global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 7 incomes, and start and grow businesses. it can also lead to economic growth by increasing productivity and innovation. the various multifaceted relationships between education and economic opportunities explain how education equips individuals with the skills necessary for workforce participation, fosters entrepreneurship and innovation, and contributes to a nation's global competitiveness (psacharopoulos & patrinos, 2018; world bank, 2016; unesco, 2016; organisation for economic co-operation and development, 2016). workforce development: at the heart of the connection between education and economic opportunity lies the role of education in workforce development. a well-educated populace is the backbone of a skilled and adaptable workforce, ready to meet the demands of a dynamic job market. education equips individuals with the technical expertise, critical thinking abilities, and communication skills sought after by employers across various industries. educational institutions, from schools to universities and vocational training programs, play a pivotal role in shaping the workforce. the alignment between educational curricula and the evolving needs of the job market ensures that graduates are not only academically proficient but also well-prepared for the practical challenges of their chosen fields. as industries evolve, the adaptability instilled through education becomes a crucial asset, enabling individuals to navigate career shifts and contribute meaningfully to economic productivity. entrepreneurship and innovation: education nurtures an entrepreneurial mindset by fostering creativity, problem-solving skills, and a willingness to take risks. entrepreneurs often emerge from educational environments that encourage critical thinking and expose individuals to diverse fields of knowledge. the cultivation of an entrepreneurial spirit through education is vital for economic growth, as it leads to the creation of new businesses, products, and services. moreover, education provides individuals with the tools to identify gaps in the market, assess risks, and leverage opportunities. the entrepreneurial drive instilled through education contributes not only to individual success but also to the overall dynamism of the economy. educational institutions that prioritize innovation and entrepreneurship create an environment where individuals are encouraged to think outside traditional boundaries, fostering a culture of continuous improvement and adaptation. global competitiveness: nations that prioritize education position themselves for enhanced global competitiveness. in an interconnected world driven by technology and knowledge, a well-educated population becomes a strategic asset. education contributes to a country's ability to participate effectively in the global economy by producing a workforce skilled in cutting-edge technologies, research, and development. countries with strong educational systems are more likely to attract foreign investments and multinational corporations seeking a knowledgeable and skilled workforce. the correlation between education and global competitiveness is evident in the success stories of nations that strategically invest in their education systems, positioning themselves as leaders in innovation, research, and economic development on the world stage. economic mobility and social equity: education serves as a powerful tool for breaking the cycle of poverty and promoting economic mobility. individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to secure higherpaying jobs, enjoy greater job security, and accumulate wealth over time. this economic mobility, facilitated by education, contributes to the creation of more equitable societies where opportunities are not determined solely by one's socioeconomic background. moreover, education serves as a means of addressing systemic inequalities. access to quality education for all, regardless of socio-economic status, ethnicity, or gender, becomes a cornerstone for fostering social equity. by providing equal educational opportunities, societies can mitigate disparities and empower individuals to overcome economic challenges, leading to more inclusive economic growth. technological advancements and digital literacy: in the era of rapid technological advancements, education plays a critical role in preparing individuals for the digital economy. digital literacy, encompassing the ability to global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 8 navigate technology, understand data, and adapt to new digital tools, is increasingly essential for economic participation. educational institutions that integrate technology into their curricula empower students with the skills necessary for the jobs of the future. furthermore, education contributes to the development of a technologically adept workforce that can drive innovation in emerging industries. the intersection of education and technology creates a synergy that not only enhances individual employability but also positions nations at the forefront of technological progress, contributing to economic growth through the adoption of cutting-edge solutions. continuous learning in the knowledge economy: the knowledge economy, characterized by the rapid generation and dissemination of information, places a premium on continuous learning. education, far from being confined to a specific period of one's life, becomes a lifelong journey of acquiring new skills and updating existing knowledge. in this context, educational systems that prioritize adaptability and provide avenues for continuous learning contribute to sustained economic opportunity for individuals and society as a whole. moreover, the ability to engage in continuous learning enhances an individual's resilience in the face of economic disruptions. lifelong learners are better equipped to navigate changing job markets, seize emerging opportunities, and contribute to economic innovation throughout their careers. in other words, the symbiotic relationship between education and economic opportunity is evident in the multifaceted ways education contributes to individual success and societal advancement. education is not merely a pathway to employment; it is a cornerstone for economic development, entrepreneurship, global competitiveness, and social equity. by investing in education, societies lay the groundwork for a future where economic opportunities are abundant, innovation thrives, and individuals are empowered to contribute meaningfully to the dynamic landscape of the global economy. challenges to education as a driver of social change and economic opportunity while education serves as a powerful driver of social change and economic opportunity, it faces numerous challenges that hinder its transformative potential. these challenges, ranging from issues of accessibility to quality concerns, pose significant obstacles to realizing the full impact of education on both individual empowerment and broader societal development (macbeath, 2008; jahan, 2014; unesco, 2018; smith & johnson, 2019; world bank, 2020). access disparities: limited access to education, particularly in marginalized or economically disadvantaged communities, remains a significant challenge. factors such as geographic location, poverty, and gender inequality contribute to disparities in educational opportunities, restricting the transformative power of education to specific segments of the population. quality of education: the quality of education varies widely across regions and institutions. insufficient resources, outdated curricula, and a lack of qualified teachers can compromise the effectiveness of educational systems. without a commitment to maintaining high educational standards, the transformative impact of education on individuals and societies may be diminished. socioeconomic barriers: socioeconomic factors, including the cost of education, school fees, and related expenses, can prevent individuals from accessing quality education. this economic barrier disproportionately affects disadvantaged populations, perpetuating cycles of poverty and limiting opportunities for social mobility. gender disparities: gender inequality in education remains a persistent challenge. in some regions, cultural norms may prioritize the education of male children over females, limiting the transformative potential of education for women. addressing gender disparities in education is crucial for achieving social change and economic empowerment. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 9 technological gaps: the digital divide poses a challenge as not all individuals have equal access to technology and the internet. with the increasing importance of digital literacy in the modern world, those without access to technology face limitations in acquiring essential skills, hindering their economic opportunities and participation in the knowledge economy. cultural resistance to change: societal norms and cultural resistance to change can impede the transformative potential of education. in some cases, deeply ingrained traditions may resist the introduction of new ideas, hindering the development of a more inclusive and progressive society. lack of relevance to job market: discrepancies between educational curricula and the demands of the job market can result in graduates who lack the skills needed for current employment opportunities. this gap diminishes the potential for education to act as a direct driver of economic opportunity when individuals are not adequately prepared for the workforce. political instability and conflict: regions experiencing political instability or conflict often face disruptions in education systems. schools may be damaged or inaccessible, and students and teachers may be displaced. the long-term impact of political instability on education can hinder social development and economic growth. inadequate teacher training: the effectiveness of education is closely tied to the quality of teaching. inadequate teacher training and professional development programs can result in educators who may struggle to deliver engaging and relevant content, impacting the overall learning experience for students. lack of lifelong learning opportunities: in the rapidly changing landscape of the knowledge economy, the absence of opportunities for continuous learning can render individuals unprepared for evolving job market requirements. the concept of education as a lifelong journey is hindered when access to ongoing educational resources and training is limited. addressing these challenges requires comprehensive strategies, including targeted policies, investments in infrastructure, and a commitment to overcoming cultural and societal barriers. by tackling these obstacles, societies can unlock the full potential of education as a driver of social change and economic opportunity for all conclusion to conclude, education is a powerful force for positive change and progress. it has the ability to transform individuals, communities, and entire nations. by providing access to quality education, we can empower people to overcome economic, social, and environmental challenges. education, with its ability to challenge norms, break down barriers, and promote inclusivity, emerges as a beacon guiding communities towards a more enlightened and equitable future. it acts as a catalyst for empowerment, instilling the skills and knowledge necessary for individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern world with confidence and resilience. furthermore, the symbiotic relationship between education and economic opportunity underscores the indispensable role of welleducated individuals in driving innovation, contributing to a skilled workforce, and enhancing a nation's global competitiveness. the continuous evolution of industries and the advent of the knowledge economy accentuate the need for ongoing investment in education to ensure that individuals are equipped with the skills demanded by an ever-changing job market. to achieve a sustainable future for all, it is vital to continue investing in education and ensuring that it is accessible and relevant to all people. with a well-educated, skilled, and innovative population, we can create a world that is healthier, more prosperous, and more peaceful. suggestions addressing the challenges to education as a driver of social change and economic opportunity requires a multifaceted approach that involves various stakeholders. here are potential solutions to overcome these challenges: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 10 improve access: implement policies that prioritize and ensure universal access to education, particularly in marginalized or remote areas and also provide financial assistance such as scholarships, stipends, or subsidies to economically disadvantaged individuals to make education more accessible. enhance education quality: invest in comprehensive teacher training programs to ensure educators are wellequipped with the skills to deliver high-quality education and also regularly update and adapt educational curricula to align with current industry needs, technological advancements, and global trends. address socioeconomic barriers: implement policies that eliminate or reduce school fees to mitigate financial barriers to education and also engage with local communities to understand and address specific socioeconomic challenges hindering access to education. tackle gender disparities: implement and enforce policies that promote gender equality in education, ensuring equal opportunities for all and also conduct awareness campaigns to challenge stereotypes and cultural norms that perpetuate gender disparities in education. bridge technological gaps: expand access to technology by investing in infrastructure, particularly in rural and underserved areas and also implement digital literacy programs to equip individuals with the skills needed to navigate the digital landscape. address cultural resistance: facilitate open dialogues within communities to address cultural resistance and promote the value of education and also provide training for educators to ensure cultural sensitivity in educational approaches. align education with job market: foster partnerships between educational institutions and industries to align curricula with the current and future needs of the job market and also introduce practical experiences such as internships or apprenticeships to bridge the gap between education and employment. lifelong learning opportunities: develop and promote programs that offer continuous learning opportunities for individuals throughout their lives and also expand access to online learning platforms and resources to facilitate lifelong learning beyond traditional educational settings. implementing these solutions requires collaboration between governments, educational institutions, communities, and international organizations. by addressing these challenges collectively, societies can create an environment where education truly becomes a powerful force for social change and economic opportunity. references agboola, b. 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(2019). education, empowerment, and social change in china. journal of contemporary china, 28(112), 1051-1072. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education teaching strategies based on generational teacher cohorts global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 33 generational cohorts and teaching strategies used in secondary schools in the dominican republic jessica ramírez, ginia montes de oca and carmen caraballo dominican institute for educational quality evaluation and research, ideice, santo domingo, dominican republic abstract: this study explores the teaching strategies used by secondary school teachers in the dominican republic, and how these strategies differ among four generational cohorts: baby boomers, generation x, millennials, and igeneration. the study analyzed the teaching strategies used in various dimensions such as class planning, introduction, development and practice, closure, and evaluation of learning. data was collected through a survey instrument that measures the frequency at which teachers in various dimensions apply these strategies. the study also examined how gender, location, and types of schools influence the use of teaching strategies.results indicated no significant differences among the generations, however, baby boomers were found to use more traditional teaching strategies such as questionnaires and debates. female teachers outperformed their male counterparts in each cohort. furthermore, there was a difference in how public and private sector teachers use teaching strategies, with the exception of the closing and evaluation dimension. interestingly, the study found that igeneration teachers used traditional teaching tools and strategies similar to baby boomers. the most used platform among teachers was google classroom, but baby boomers preferred zoom.this study highlights the importance of understanding generational cohorts in relation to the teaching strategies used in secondary education. it is crucial to analyze these strategies in order to assess their impact on student learning and academic achievement. by identifying the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy, teachers can more effectively plan their lessons and tailor their teaching methods to meet the diverse learning needs of their students. keywords: generational cohorts, teaching strategies, secondary education, classroom technology, teaching and learning process. 1. introduction teaching strategies is an essential component of the teaching learning process. teaching strategies are tools, resources used by teacher for facilitate the learning process. this learning process can be active or passive. according to orlich et al. [1], “active learning encompasses a wide range of teaching strategies, all of which engage the learner in the actual instruction that takes place. seat-work is passive. students working on problems in small groups is active” (p.40). teaching strategies have a general application it can be applied in all subject and for all level. the use of those strategies depend on many factors like the investment in tools and resources, etc. we apply generational cohort theory on teachers to describe the teaching strategies used in secondary schools. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 34 the work most closely related to this paper is romanes & veniegas [2] which “explores the differences in the 21st century teaching and skills practices among generational groups of teachers.” another work is bharati [3], which “examines teacher attitudes, teaching strategy lesson preparation, etc.” 1.1. generation cohort theory the concept of generational differences was developed by the hungarian born sociologist, karl mannheim who published his treatise on the “problem of generations” in the 1920s [4]. the main idea is that each generation are influenced by historical, social events, and people born within the same generation share similar characteristics. doi:10.5121/ijite.2022.11401 there is not a general consensus regarding the cohort for each generation. in table 1 shows some basic characteristics of each generational cohorts. table 1. a comparison of generational cohorts (adapted from [2]) baby boomers generation x generation y (millennials) generation z (igeneration) characteristics hardworking, loyal, confident, cynical, competitive anti-authority, highly individualistic, selfreliant, family focused confident, digital thinkers, sense of entitlement, needy realistic, creative, hyper-connected why they are the way they are the wealthiest, healthiest, largest generation of their time. raised to pursue their dreams children of workaholics and divorce; the arrival of cable television and computers. raised to be self sufficient micro-managed by their parents, technology, always rewarded for participating. raised to be high achievers raised in a culture of fear, mobile technology, helicopter parents, social media communication styles prefer communication personal or via phone prefer concise communication and email prefer frequent feedback and problem solving via technology prefer virtual communication instead of inperson meetings problems they are facing now retirement, rising health care debt, caring for children and aging parents debt, unemployment lack of job opportunities flaws no always open to new ideas have difficulty committing short attention spans over-confident in their knowledge, lack of interpersonal skills 1.2. education in the dominican republic the origins of the dominican republic education system can be traced back to the american discovery. spaniards requires, the native inhabitants of the island to get basic and rudimentary knowledge to facilitate the evangelization of america process [5]. however, the formal or school education on the island of santo domingo began in 1502. by then the basic curriculum included classes like reading, writing, calculation and christian doctrine. already in the period between 1822 and 1844 there were few elementary schools and almost zero coverage of secondary education. on may 12, 1845, the organic law of public instruction was promulgated, with which the first public schools called first-letter schools were created. this law provides for the construction of a school in each common or town and two, in each head of province with primary and higher levels. the public education law of 1867 meant the consolidation of the educational system, organized the dominican educational system https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11401 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 35 for the first time, creating the superior board of studies and established the obligation of the state to promote public education, the sciences and the arts and free primary education. nowadays, in the dominican republic children are enrolled into preschool from the age of 3 to 6 years the primary schools last for 6 years, then they enrolled into secondary school for 6 years [7]. 1.3. secondary education it is the period after the primary level. it last for 6 years divided in two cycles. each cycle lasts 3 years. it offers general training and options to respond to the aptitudes, interests, vocations and needs of the students, to insert themselves efficiently in the world of work and further studies. it includes the ages of 12 and 18 years. it is made up of two cycles. the first cycle lasts three (3) years and is common to the different modalities. the second cycle of this level has a duration of three (3) years and is developed in the modalities: academic, professional technical and arts [7]. the main goal of this study is to describe the teaching strategies use in secondary education based on the generational teacher cohort. this paper also examines whether gender, location and types of schools got some impact in the results. according to new strategist press [7], “differences among generations are too often buried in statistics that look only at the population as a whole.” we want to examine if there are any differences in choosing a teaching strategy for instance, between a baby boomer teacher and aigeneration teacher. in this study we use the generational cohorts as described in [5], baby boomer born 1946 -1964, generation x born 1965-1976, millennials born 1977-1994 and igeneration born 1995-2009. the rest of the paper is organized as follow. section 2, explains the methodology. in section 3, we present the results and the final conclusions are presented in section 4. 2. methodology the research is descriptive and a mixed approach that will measure the strategies used in secondary schools and the frequency with which they are used in the classroom. 2.1. population and sample according to educa [8], in the dominican republic educational schools are grouped into 18 educational regions and 122 school districts. 248 schools distributed in the 18 educational regions of the nation were probabilistically selected. a stratified random sampling was used, choosing two teachers per school. 2.2. data collection instrument to achieve the objectives set, the questionnaire was selected as a measurement instrument, in which likert scales and dichotomous questions with open answers predominate so that participants can deepen about the strategies used in the teaching-learning process. the ethical guidelines of the research were followed, the participants gave their consent and participated freely and voluntarily. it should be noted that for this reason in some schools only one teacher participated. table 2. survey dimensions dimensions details class planning • class goals • topic relevance • daily tasks class introduction • prior knowledge assessment • class summary • justification and important of the class global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 36 class development and practice • teams organizations • presentations, debates, mind maps • blackboard • glossary • motivation • questionnaire and comprehensive reading • analogies • summary of the topic • problem solving learning approach • synchrony between topic and students capacities closing and knowledge evaluation • socratic method • complementary activities • oral and written evaluation • supervision of the daily tasks • feedback • decision making based on the evaluation results • final questions • clarification of doubts technology planning learning experiences and the use of information technologies (ict) to measure the strategies used by the teachers, they were segmented into dimensions such as: lesson planning, class introduction, class development and practice, closure and evaluation of learning and use of technology (table 2). 3. results we present results for each generational teacher cohort such as “baby boomers, baby boom or bb”, “generation x or gx”, “millennials or m” and” igeneration or ig”. we also present results based on gender, school location, etc. 3.1. sample feature the sample mean is 40.38 years, with a standard deviation of 10.38 with an asymmetry coefficient of 0.20. with a minimum age of 21 years and a maximum age of 75 years. table 2 shows the summary of descriptive statistics of the sample based on the age variable of the complete sample in column 2 and segmented in columns 3 and 4 based on the gender variable and in columns 5 and 6 based on public and private school. table 3. sample sex school age female male public private mean 40.38 41.21 38.57 40.60 40.12 error 0.47 0.570 0.82 0.57 0.77 median 40 42 39 41 40 mode 43 52 43 45 40 standard deviation 10.38 10.35 10.30 9.30 11.56 variance 107.89 107.06 106.04 86.55 133.52 range th54 47 53 45 54 mín. 21 21 22 22 21 max. 75 68 75 67 75 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 37 total 489 329 157 265 224 figure 1 shows the distribution of the sample based on the generational teacher cohorts. millennials got the 56% of the sample in contrast with baby boomer, with just the 5% of the sample. figure 1. sample distribution by age generation the basic descriptive statistics in details for each generational cohort are shown in table 4. table 4. sample generational cohorts age baby boomers generation x millennials igeneration mean 61.65 51.11 37.60 25.02 median 60 51 38 25 mode 58 52 43 26 standard deviation 4.36 3.32 5.30 1.60 variance 19.05 11.04 28.06 2.58 total 24 124 273 224 figure 2 ilustratesthe gender proportion of the sample. for all generations female outperformed male. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 38 figure 2. sex distribution by generation figure 3, show the proportion of the gender in both public and private school. most of the baby boomers and igeneration teachers work on private schools, 74% and 67% respectively. figure 3. school distribution by generation there is not a baby boomer teacher working in a rural school (figure 4), and urban schools have more teachers than rural school, this is because in our sample most of teachers works in the city. figure 4. school location by generation most of the teacher got a university degree the 85% of the igeneration got a bachelor degree and the 37% of the generation x have postgraduate education. (figure 5). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 39 figure 5. education 3.2. pedagogical strategies the results of the teaching strategies are presented according to their dimensions and the aspects related to each dimension (see table 2). 3.2.1. class planning table 5 presents the results for the dimension class planning the 89% of the baby boomers that works in the public schools always plan the class, and just 69% of the igeneration teacher always prepare the class. table 5. class planning gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 83% 71% 89% 76% 80% 0% 80% gx 82% 78% 82% 79% 81% 80% 81% m 82% 79% 82% 78% 80% 81% 81% ig 68% 70% 70% 69% 69% 71% 69% frequently bb 13% 24% 11% 18% 16% 0% 16% gx 17% 21% 17% 19% 18% 20% 18% m 17% 20% 16% 20% 18% 16% 18% ig 26% 29% 25% 29% 28% 27% 28% sometimes bb 2% 5% 0% 4% 3% 0% 3% gx 1% 1% 0% 2% 1% 0% 1% m 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% 1% 1% ig 4% 1% 6% 1% 3% 2% 3% never bb 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% gx 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% m 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% ig 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 40 legend: gen: generation, bb: baby boomers, gx: generation x, m: millennials and ig: igeneration. 3.2.2. class introduction for the class introduction, the 85% of millennials working in a rural school always introduce the class (table 7). table 6. class introduction gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 77% 76% 78% 76% 77% 0% 77% gx 77% 74% 79% 72% 76% 80% 76% m 82% 77% 82% 79% 79% 85% 80% ig 75% 80% 83% 75% 77% 80% 77% frequently bb 23% 19% 22% 22% 22% 0% 22% gx 21% 18% 18% 23% 20% 17% 20% m 17% 21% 17% 19% 19% 14% 18% ig 21% 17% 13% 22% 21% 13% 19% sometimes bb 0% 5% 0% 2% 1% 0% 1% gx 3% 8% 3% 5% 4% 3% 4% m 1% 2% 1% 2% 2% 1% 1% ig 4% 3% 4% 3% 2% 7% 3% never bb 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% gx 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% m 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% ig 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 3.2.3. class development and practice in contrast with the results presented both in table 5 and 6, the mean of the dimension class development and practice the attribute always is less than the 50% for all generations as shown in table 7. for the closing and knowledge evaluation dimension (table 8), the 79% of the igeneration teachers working in rural schools always evaluate the knowledge of the students. the igeneration teachers use always the technology (table 9) in the classroom (73%), however, no as we expected and no very distant from the millennials. table 7. class development and practice gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 44% 40% 46% 41% 43% 0% 43% gx 43% 43% 41% 47% 44% 36% 43% m 47% 43% 46% 46% 46% 46% 46% ig 43% 48% 48% 44% 45% 48% 45% frequently bb 37% 37% 33% 38% 37% 0% 37% gx 37% 35% 39% 34% 36% 41% 37% m 35% 35% 34% 36% 35% 34% 35% global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 41 ig 31% 30% 33% 29% 30% 31% 31% sometimes bb 19% 21% 18% 21% 20% 0% 20% gx 18% 18% 18% 17% 18% 19% 18% m 15% 20% 17% 16% 17% 16% 17% ig 21% 18% 15% 22% 20% 18% 19% never bb 0% 2% 2% 0% 1% 0% 1% gx 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% m 1% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% ig 4% 4% 3% 4% 4% 2% 4% 3.2.4. closing and knowledge evaluation table 8. closing and knowledge evaluation gen female male public private urban rural general bb 65% 66% 76% 64% 67% 0% 67% gx 64% 64% 65% 67% 66% 67% 66% always m 69% 66% 68% 72% 70% 69% 69% ig 75% 75% 78% 75% 75% 79% 76% bb 28% 29% 20% 30% 27% 0% 27% frequently gx 27% 28% 25% 26% 26% 25% 26% m 22% 25% 22% 23% 23% 19% 22% ig 18% 21% 15% 20% 20% 14% 19% bb 7% 5% 5% 6% 6% 0% 6% sometimes gx 8% 6% 8% 6% 7% 6% 7% m 6% 6% 7% 5% 6% 6% 6% ig 3% 3% 4% 3% 3% 4% 3% bb 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% gx 1% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1% 1% never m 1% 2% 2% 0% 1% 3% 1% ig 2% 1% 3% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3.2.5. technology table 9. technology gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 50% 21% 33% 44% 41% 0% 41% gx 47% 48% 43% 54% 48% 40% 48% m 55% 62% 59% 54% 61% 45% 57% ig 61% 56% 65% 55% 55% 73% 59% global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 42 frequently bb 44% 50% 50% 44% 46% 0% 46% gx 38% 23% 41% 26% 34% 40% 35% m 33% 27% 29% 34% 30% 35% 31% ig 22% 32% 20% 30% 31% 13% 27% sometimes bb 6% 21% 8% 12% 11% 0% 11% gx 14% 25% 14% 18% 15% 20% 16% m 12% 9% 11% 12% 9% 17% 11% ig 14% 11% 11% 14% 13% 13% 13% never bb 0% 7% 8% 0% 2% 0% 2% gx 1% 2% 1% 1% 1% 0% 1% m 0% 2% 1% 0% 0% 2% 1% ig 3% 0% 4% 0% 2% 0% 1% 3.3. resources available in the classroom we evaluate the resources and tools used in the classroom, the origin of the resource, as well as the frequency of use of the resource or tool. then we present the general results, expressed in percentages for each generational teacher cohort. figure 6. resources available in the classroom figures 6 shows the resources available for each generation group. the 75% of the baby boomers uses a laptop, the 83% got internet and 92% use the blackboard. the 71% of the generation x uses a laptop(a), the 62% have access to internet and 88% use the blackboard. the 80% of the millennials uses a laptop, the 74% have access to internet and 93% use the blackboard. the 76% of the igeneration uses a laptop, the 79% have access to internet and 96% use the blackboard 3.4. platforms online platforms and tools use for virtual classes. those platforms and tools are: zoom, skype, google meet, teams, google classroom, moodle, blackboard and edmodo. the 57% of the male baby boomers use global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 43 zoom as their primary tool for online class. skype is not widely use. the 70% of the generation x teacher who works in a rural use google meet. table 10. platforms gen female male public private urban rural general bb 50% 57% 33% 59% 52% 0% 52% zoom gx 52% 50% 50% 53% 53% 30% 51% m 48% 42% 49% 42% 47% 43% 46% ig 50% 45% 30% 57% 52% 33% 48% skype bb 6% 29% 17% 12% 13% 0% 13% gx 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% m 2% 1% 2% 1% 2% 2% 2% ig 0% 6% 0% 4% 4% 0% 3% bb 56% 29% 50% 47% 48% 0% 48% gx 47% 50% 61% 32% 47% 70% 48% google meet m 45% 49% 54% 36% 45% 54% 47% ig 29% 35% 43% 26% 28% 47% 32% teams bb 38% 14% 17% 35% 30% 0% 30% gx 9% 21% 10% 13% 12% 0% 11% m 16% 19% 16% 18% 17% 16% 17% ig 16% 13% 13% 15% 15% 13% 14% bb 50% 14% 33% 41% 39% 0% 39% google gx 48% 63% 59% 43% 51% 60% 52% classroom m 56% 56% 58% 52% 59% 46% 55% ig 47% 52% 48% 50% 50% 47% 49% moodle bb 13% 0% 17% 6% 9% 0% 9% gx 8% 13% 3% 17% 10% 0% 9% m 15% 17% 15% 17% 19% 5% 15% ig 8% 13% 4% 13% 13% 0% 10% bb 0% 14% 0% 6% 4% 0% 4% gx 7% 13% 6% 11% 8% 10% 8% blackboard m 4% 5% 3% 7% 5% 3% 4% ig 8% 3% 4% 7% 6% 7% 6% edmodo bb 13% 0% 17% 6% 9% 0% 9% gx 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 0% 4% m 6% 4% 6% 4% 5% 6% 5% ig 5% 10% 4% 9% 7% 7% 7% global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 44 4. conclusions teaching strategies contribute to the development of students' skills. this study was carried out to analyze the use of teaching strategies by teachers at the secondary level based on the generational teacher cohorts. based on the study carried out, it can be concluded that: secondary school teachers in the dominican republic use different strategies when teaching, the most used always being those belonging to the dimensions of class planning and class introduction. a possible explanation for this would be that both dimensions have only three aspects to deal with compared to the other dimensions which have more than 8 dimensions. it should be noted that the dimension related to the use of technology is an exception to what was expressed in the previous paragraph, since it only has two aspects. but it could be explained by the fact that some teachers do not have a laptop in the classroom or internet access available. it is clear that this would affect the number of teachers using technology as a strategy. teachers who work in the public sector use more strategies than teachers who work in the private sector, with the exception of the closing dimension and evaluation of learning. an unexpected finding was that the igeneration teachers uses traditional tools and strategies as the baby boomers. platform most used by teachers is google classroom, excepting the baby boomers that prefers zoom. teachers in schools located in rural areas have access to platforms and tools for online teaching at almost the same level as those located in urban areas. the covid-19 pandemic speed up the investment in technology in all types of school, public, private in urban and rural area. in general, teachers employ strategies and use tools to facilitate student learning. we did not find out significant differences amongst the generational teacher cohorts. in the future, we would like to extend the study to include student perception data to evaluate how effective are those teaching strategies. references orlich, d., harder, r, trevisan,m.& a. brown (2017). teaching strategies. cengage learning. romanes, m. & veniegas, s. (march, 2018). differences among generational groups of teachers in a public school district in their practice of 21st century teaching-learning skills. the asian conference on education & international development 2018. bharati, s. (2014). teaching strategies used by secondary teachers in teaching english as a second language in rural odisha. international journal of science and research (ijsr). 3(6), 542-543 mckercher, b., lai, b., yang, l., & wang, y. (2020). travel by chinese: a generational cohort perspective. asia pacific journal of tourism research, 25(4), 341–354. https://ezproxy.unibe.edu.do:2085/10.1080/10941665.2019.1709877 [5] ministerio de educación (2019), memoria institucional 2019. https://siie.minerd.gob.do/storage/app/uploads/public/5f1/4f1/77c/5f14f177c2ced973744833.pdf [6] morrison r. (1993). historia de la educacióndominicana. cenapec. new strategist press. (2018). american generations: who they are & how they live: vol. 9th edition. new strategist press, llc. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 45 educa (julio 2022). sistema educativodominicanoennúmeros. info educativas. 1(1), p.4. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 1; january-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 technological solutions for elevating education management in north sumatra 1dr. ida susanto widjaja, 2prof. ahmad fauzi nasution, 3dr. maya sari lubis and 4prof. budi pranoto putra article info abstract keywords: education quality, technology integration, information systems, school management, student progress. education plays a pivotal role in national development, with its quality profoundly impacting both individuals and societies. the challenges faced by the education sector in north sumatra, indonesia have resulted in subpar education quality, primarily due to the disconnect between education and technology. this paper delves into the substantial gap between the prevailing low educational quality and the heightened public demand for excellence. various solutions proposed by education experts focus on leveraging technology for educational management enhancement. technology's integration in education has gained momentum in recent years, yet many schools still operate with manual systems, especially evident during the pandemic. this study scrutinizes the predicament faced by several schools in medan, binjai, and deli serdang due to their inadequate information systems. pt. engineering technology metromatics, a prominent digital enterprise in north sumatra, emerges as a trailblazer in seamlessly merging technology with education. their innovative application of information systems stands out as a viable solution. this school management-centric application provides educational institutions with a streamlined platform for efficient and effective learning environment creation and management. by utilizing this system, student progress can be accurately tracked, facilitating targeted interventions to address their challenges in a precise, effective, and efficient manner. introduction education is an important factor for the development of a nation. the quality of education is crucial to the success of individuals and societies. in north sumatra, indonesia, the problems of education are complex, leading to lowquality education in the region. these problems and implications arise due to the lack of synergy between the world of education and the world of technology. while the public's interest in getting quality education is very high, the quality of education in north sumatra is still low. this paper describes the gap between the low quality of the world of education and the very high public interest. 1,2,3,4university pembangunan panca budi, gatot subroto street km 14.5 medan, north sumatera, indonesia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 2 many solutions have been offered by education experts to solve the problem of the low quality of education. one of the solutions is to utilize technology in managing education management. in recent years, technology has become an integral part of education. the development of information technology is very rapid, with changes and additions to information systems and technology happening almost every year. the application of computerized and digitized systems plays a role in information management in schools, with the competition for business growth continuing to grow. however, there are still many schools that have not optimized technological developments, such as registration systems and student progress reports that are still being done manually. this is a phenomenon in several schools in medan, binjai, and deli serdang, where many schools experience problems during the pandemic because they have not accessed a good information system. one of the leading digital companies in north sumatra that integrates technology with the world of education is pt. engineering technology metromatics. this company combines insight and strategy to create the best digital products. one of the products of this company that is suitable to solve the problems in the world of education is an application of information systems. this application is a school management-based application that can help educational institutions to create a learning environment and management activities to be more effective and efficient. through this information system, the track record of students will be identified, so that actions in solving student problems can be carried out correctly, effectively, and efficiently. the provision of the school management information system application provides the idea to create a school management information system application that can provide information about school activity programs for teachers, students, and parents of students. the management information system can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of school management. the provision of a site is expected to help parents get academic information and the psychological development of their children. so it is hoped that it will not only help make it easier for parents but also to improve the quality of the school itself effective and efficient education is a clear goal that must be comprehensive and synergize with other programs. school management is a crucial factor in carrying out education and teaching in schools, measuring the success of students' achievements. however, many schools in medan, binjai, and deli serdang still have not optimized technological developments. they continue to carry out registration systems, provide continuous student progress reports manually, and offer ineffective counseling services due to parents' inability to participate. this is a problem that has been exacerbated during the pandemic, as many schools lack good information systems. to address these issues, the study proposes the creation of a school management information system application that can provide information about school activity programs for teachers, students, and parents of students, increasing effectiveness and efficiency in school management. the system aims to help parents get academic information and the psychological development of their children, improving the quality of the school itself. it will also be designed to be as simple as possible, providing real-time access and immediate notifications for users. finally, the study explains that universities have a role in supporting educational activities in schools by contributing ideas related to solutions to problems that develop in school management. one solution is the realization of an education management system capable of meeting the demands of the digital information technology revolution towards the 4.0 education era (cyber system). universities can mobilize their scientific energy by involving lecturers, students, and professionals such as pt. engineering technology metromatics. the integrated information management system will help limit the spread of student data, both positive and negative, maintaining the confidence of students who commit violations and closing opportunities for other students to imitate or commit the same violation. the program aims to improve the quality of technology in educational institutions. methods 2.1. outcomes and performance indicators the socialization activity for the development of integrated school management based on information systems was held in october 2020. the target schools to be visited were 10 schools and during the implementation the research team visited 11 schools, namely smk global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 3 putra anda binjai, sman 1 binjai, smp al-fityah binjai, sman 6 medan, mas muallimin, islamic center, smp al-hijrah, sd al-hijrah, sma panca budi medan, mas al-washliyah 49 pasar lembu asahan and mts al-washliyah 1 kisaran. before the team visited the school, the team had communicated with the school to hold a socialization activity for the development of integrated school management based on information systems. the outreach to smk putra anda binjai was held on october 26, 2020. in this case, the principal and staff welcomed us very warmly so that the socialization event went smoothly. the principal appreciates the edulink information system which is presented to the principal, staff, and teachers. they said that their school needed a system like this to help them, especially in today's digital environment. in addition to describing the information system, the researcher also expressed the desire to establish cooperation between the school and the panca budi development university, and the principal responded with joy in the hope that this collaboration would develop both parties. the signing of the mou took place on november 26, 2020. on the same date, october 26, 2020, a visit was also held with sman 1 binjai, where during the visit the principal was not welcomed because he was attending outside activities. we were greeted by the vice-principal, mr. ismanda and mrs. wita. greeted warmly and socialization activities went smoothly. the school asked a lot of questions regarding the system that was presented, and their doubts about the system were solved by providing all the solutions to the problems faced by the school. information systems are not only for students but can be used by finance, governance, libraries, and so on. al fityah binjai junior high school became the school we visited on october 26, 2020. the principal along with his staff and teachers attended the integrated information system socialization activity. the school received very well what was conveyed by the team, but the principal could not be sure to be able to work with the campus because he had to ask for approval from the foundation first. a week after the visit, the school stated that it was willing to cooperate and the signing of the mou took place on december 15, 2020. on 27 october 2020, the team visited sman 6 medan, sma panca budi medan and then mas muallimin. these three schools welcomed the team very well in the principal's meeting room. the principal of sma panca budi, sman 6 medan, and the head of the madrasah mas muallimin said that the information system presented was needed by the school. with this system, data may be lost because it has been backed up in the system. cooperation with the school also continued for the signing of the mou. the islamic center was visited on october 27, 2020. we were warmly welcomed into the hall which was already attended by the principal, teachers, and deputy director of the islamic center. it can be seen that the teacher still does not understand the information system presented, so the team provides further direction regarding the system being presented. at the end of the opportunity, the deputy director expressed interest in the information system but their party had to submit it to the foundation for further approval. the obstacle the team faced was that the islamic center did not want to cooperate with the university for the development of the field of pancasila. al-hijrah middle school and elementary school were the next schools we visited. the principal of the elementary school and the student body of the al-hijrah middle school welcomed us very well. on this occasion, the alhijrah junior high school was willing to cooperate, while the al-hijrah elementary school said that it had not been able to establish cooperation because it did not make a big contribution to the sd. mas al-washliyah 49 pasar lembu asahan and mts al-washliyah 1 kisaran was the last school visited due to their location outside the city. the team was warmly and enthusiastically welcomed by the school, and all teachers and employees received socialization of the integrated information system. there were no obstacles in explaining the information system, even the team was offered to convey this system to all schools in the range because it had a positive impact on the school. in this case, all schools that the team visited involved students in the socialization of information system-based integrated school management development. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 4 tables 3. program beneficiaries based on the proposed activity plan, it is expected that the beneficiaries of the program implementation no. beneficiary group amount 1 undergraduate students from the faculty of islamic religion and humanities in the islamic religious education study program and undergraduate students from the faculty of science and technology in the computer systems study program 20 people 2 educational institutions or schools in north sumatra 10 schools 3 pt. engineering technology metromatics 4 people tables 4 – program outcomes based on the proposed activity plan, it is expected to meet the output targets no outer type achieveme nt target outside achieve m en ts percentage of achieveme nt against target 1 final activity and financial report 2 international journal 1 1 100% 3 national journal 1 1 100% 4 unpab/faculty collaboration with partners there is an mou established an mou 100% 5 unpab/faculty collaboration with 10 schools there are mous for 10 schools 9 mous with schools 90% global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 5 6 patent, trademark and copyright legality of patent, trademark and copyright patent intellectual property rights (estimated 24 months) and trademark intellectual property rights (estimated 12 months) have been filed copyright has been published 100% 2.2. implementation of programs and activities. in the world of education in schools today, the application of computerized and digitized systems plays a role in information management in schools with business competition that continues to grow. it is undeniable that the role of technology in providing information services is an important factor for various institutions and individuals. the current problem is that there are still many schools that have not optimized technological developments, such as there are still many registration systems that are carried out manually; provide continuous student progress reports manually; ineffective counseling services due to the condition of parents who cannot participate. this is a phenomenon in several schools in medan, binjai and deli serdang, where there are many schools experiencing problems during this pandemic because they have not accessed a good information system. the school management information system that can be accessed by everyone via smart phones provides the idea to create a school management information system application that can provide information about school activity programs for teachers, students and parents of students which in the end the management information system can increase effectiveness and efficiency. school management. the provision of a site is expected to help parents get academic information and the psychological development of their children. so it is hoped that it will not only help make it easier for parents but also to improve the quality of the school itself. through this edulink information system, it is hoped that it will also make it easier for schools to manage student data, finance, governance and so on. and through this system minimize data loss because everything is backed up on the system. schools will be given training in using the system. training is provided for all school operators. the available information system can be adapted to the needs of the school. the objectives of the development of integrated school management based on information systems are as follows: 1. development of an integrated school management information system that is used on an ongoing basis. 2. utilization of information systems as a more efficient means of communication in school management. 3. implementation of an integrated information system for educational institutions and related agencies. 4. opening business opportunities for lecturers, students and university graduates. 5. generating new start-ups for unpab graduates universities, both public and private, have a big role and responsibility in developing and producing quality and superior human resources, so that they can affect the level of success of educational goals in the 4.0 era as it is today. for universities, superior and quality human resources can not only be produced in an easy way, but global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 6 superior human resources can be produced through good processes and management in an educational institution as well. superior processes must be supported by systems and tools that can provide appropriate guidelines and information as well as good management. the socialization activity for the development of integrated school management based on information systems was carried out in several schools spread across 4 (four) districts/cities of north sumatra, namely medan city, binjai city, deli serdang regency and asahan regency, namely: putra anda foundation vocational school, binjai city, sma negeri 1 binjai city, sd, smp, sma it al-fityah foundation, binjai city, mas al-washliyah muallimin medan, sma negeri 6 medan, madrasah aliyah and mts islamic center north sumatra, sd and smp it al hijrah deli serdang regency , sma, smp and smk panca budi, mas al washliyah 49 pasar lembu, mts al-washliyah kisaran, asahan district. this research was carried out for approximately 4 (four) months starting from september to december 2021. analyze and result of integrated information systems for educational institutions the socialization of information system-based integrated school management development began through communication to the school regarding the planned visit to disseminate the information system. during the visit, the team conveyed the goals and objectives of carrying out socialization and establishing cooperation with the school. the school provides a room to welcome the team. then the team began to socialize the system that was created. the audience consisted of the principal, staff and teachers. integrated system to be builtat a school called edulink. edulink is a web-based learning information system specifically designed for students and teachers in schools aimed at supporting the teaching and learning process. this system will later help teachers to facilitate various student academic activities that are usually carried out directly at school, such as sharing subject matter, giving assignments and sending messages between teachers and students. the description of the characteristics of the three users is described as follows: a. admin is responsible for managing all data for students, teachers, and lessons at school. the admin as the superuser has full control over the system. all data to be entered in the system must be verified by the admin. the admin itself is owned by the coordinator in the school principal's duties. b. teachers as educators in schools, are responsible for distributing teaching materials according to the level of education and students of the teacher concerned. every teacher who wants to use the system must be active and the data has been verified by the admin. c. responsible for following the learning process that has been loaded by the teacher in the system. every student who wants to use the system must also have an active status and the data they have has been verified by the admin. the edulink information system becomes a school management information system which includes academics, ppdb, online learning, online exams, ppdb, school finances, to information services for parents. the principal views sidikmu as a medium, a media that must be utilized as best as possible, if the human resources are not able to use the media it will be in vain. principals who act as managers of educational institutions whose duties include: planning, organizing, actualing and evaluating which are manifested in policies and programs made. in this case the principal in an effort to run sidikmu has made several programs for school admins, teachers, and guardians of students. along with the times and the advancement of world civilization and the dynamics of the life of the earth's inhabitants, which often causes turmoil in social life. and where social problems always arise at any time due to the very fast flow of globalization that is happening. sarlito w. sarwono states that the progress and development of world civilization also affects its supporting tools, including communication technology which is used as a tool to process and transfer the required information data devices, communication technology is also the cause of the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 7 entry of new norms and values from outside which in turn are norms. and these new values enter into the environment of family and community life. management information system is an operational system that implements orcarry out various functions to produce useful outputs for the operation and management of the organization concerned. the application of management information systems in everyday life is very common. in the world of education, education management information systems and information technology are very supportive to improve the quality of learning. the application or implementation of education in the future will experience fundamental changes, especially those caused by the application of information technology that accelerates the transfer of knowledge. the types of technology that directly have a strong influence on the implementation of education are computers, internet networks that can be constructed for a learning process. in the world of education, there are many educational institutions that have succeeded in developing information technology to support the learning process, both at home and abroad so that they can adopt learning patterns that are easier, faster, have added value and are innovative in finding new formulations to provide additional knowledge and skills. knowledge and skills for students. the school management information system can be said to be running if all school components can use and utilize the system itself, for example the existence of integrated or integrated facilities starting from a database of students, teachers, guidance and counseling, student cards with barcodes, student attendance lists, teachers or employees, grades (tests, uts, uas, try outs and others) where report cards are automatically programmed. and also in the school, there is also an sms gateway system application or commonly called sms smart school. this is also easy because it is managed by the school itself, so access costs are cheaper and easy to monitor. with smart school sms, student guardians can receive automatic reports from the school, such as student grades, disciplinary violations, tuition payments, teacher data and other transparent school information. integrated information systemthe results of the interaction between elements in the academic environment to produce information that is used as the basis for making decisions, carrying out actions, either by the perpetrators of the process itself or from parties outside the school. implementation of an academic management information system at the sma/smk/ma level has complete data management such as: school year management, data on types of student violations at school, extracurricular data, subject data, department data, teacher data, student data, class data or study groups , extracurricular value data, student violation data, student attendance data and teacher attendance data. utilization of management information systems, especially in the field of education, is indispensable in management, both in terms of managing academic administration, reporting and personnel administration and many other fields that require this education management information system service. the need for a database application that can manage school data and information, school management and learning committees, also concerns the need to make reports from schools quickly and validly to relevant agencies such as reports to the district or city education office, province or ministry of education national. information technology is also a competitor's weapon. it can be seen that information technology is one of the tools to increase efficiency in the operational activities of educational institutions, even to become the choice of today's society, educational institutions must have an adequate set of information technology. to see to what extent the process of implementing the management of education management information systems, as a school principal has several criteria in running an education management information system, including the following: a. can determine the right approach in planning education management information systems inhis school. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 8 b. effective and efficient application of education management information systems by school principals is demonstrated by the ability to: collect data comprehensively according to needs, able to process data into accurate information, able to use education management information systems as processed results in making decisions. in the implementation of system administrationinformation is used several kinds of administration, namely administrative administration, teacher administration and teaching. the management and implementation of simdik has helped, facilitated and facilitated the process of running education management in schools. conclusion based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that to implement an integrated education management information system in supporting significant success in the world of education, a balance of available resources is needed between the availability of human resources who have skills in operating technology such as computers and the availability of funds for the procurement of computer equipment. which has become more sophisticated. therefore, in the application of integrated school management based on information systems that have added value, 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serious games and education: a comparative approach to investigate the significance of game walkthroughs 1dr. aiko miyazaki, 2prof. takeshi nakamura article info abstract keywords: gamification, education, game elements, motivation, engagement, cognitive benefits, interactivity, news games, immersion, emotional empathy. the gamification of education has garnered considerable attention in recent years. this research investigates the incorporation of game elements and aesthetics in educational contexts to enhance student motivation and engagement. the allure of gamification lies in its ability to capitalize on the familiarity and interest students have in games as a medium for learning. moreover, the cognitive benefits of video games are well-documented, encompassing improvements in visual spatial resolution, reaction time, spatial awareness, probabilistic reasoning, and visual short-term memory. this study explores the potential of games to revolutionize education. markus fried's categorization of video game interactivity presents three key theories: user-news game interaction, user-technology platform interaction, and user-user relationship interaction. user engagement with news games involves information transfer, where users both receive and curate news content within the gaming framework. this process culminates in a user-driven "secondary creation" outcome, fostering immersion and emotional empathy. immersion, a concentration of attention on a specific scenario or thought activity, plays a pivotal role in the interaction between users and news games. by simulating real-world events, news games engender an environment that heightens user engagement and empathy, aligning with murray j h's assertion that heightened realism amplifies user immersion. this study illuminates the potential of game-based education and the transformative power of immersive experiences in news games. 1 graduate school of information sciences and arts, toyo university, kawagoe, saitama, japan https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 2 introduction in recent years, there has been a growing body of research on the gamification of education. some studies use the elements and aesthetics of games to motivate students to learn [1], while others claim the advantage of gamification that games are a familiar medium for students and are more interesting than written media [2]. in addition to this, there is already abundant evidence that video games have a more or less positive impact on the cognitive domain. for example, games can improve visual spatial resolution [3], reaction time [4], spatial awareness [5], probabilistic reasoning [6], and visual short-term memory [7]. overall, games have been shown to lead education into a new realm. according to game scholar markus fried, there are three theories of interactivity in video games [8]. the interaction in games can evolve into a user-news game, user-technology platform (phone or computer), and useruser relationship. the interaction between the user and the news game can be thought of as a process of information transfer. in the user's game activity in a news game, there is a role for the user to receive news content in the game and a role for the user to select and discard news content in the game. the end result is a different outcome for the user: a "secondary creation" for the user. in this interaction, the user becomes a character in the game, and the psychological experience that emerges from this interaction is called "immersion. the user extracts information through the game, and the game experience is acquired by evoking emotional empathy. immersion is a special phenomenon in the human psyche, characterized by the concentration of attention on a certain situation or thought activity by the person involved. in traditional newspaper articles, readers often let their imaginations run wild by reading. news games create a virtual environment with news events based on actual events, giving users a strong sense of reality. this makes it easier for users to become emotionally involved in the news story and to develop strong empathy; murray j h has stated that the more realistic the immersive environment of an interactive work, the more actively immersed the user will become [9]. games are "multi-directional interactive." especially when compared to written media, which are still the most used in education. this means that the results obtained are also comprehensive. if the importance of a particular attribute in a game needs to be examined, the results can be made clearer by focusing the sample on that attribute of the game. in previous studies, we have chosen "narrative" and "immersion". in other words, we created a sample of serious vr games with narrative content. the reason for this choice is that serious and educational games are closely related. both are trying to use some aspect of the game to achieve some goal other than entertainment[10]. the concept of serious games was first proposed in 1970. at the time, the main goal of defining serious games was to use simulations and games to improve education inside and outside the classroom. at the time, the video game industry was not established, so most serious games were pen-based [11]. since then, many teachers have been inspired to continue creating serious games. serious games were redefined by sawyer.b in 2002, who argued that serious games are games that aim to acquire knowledge and skills [12]. building on this definition, definitions of serious games have been continuously refined, for example, according to chen & michael (2005), a serious game is "a game whose primary purpose is not entertainment, enjoyment, or fun" [13]. although the definition of serious games seems to have gained a lot of support, the scope of serious games is still debatable. first of all, serious games have been easily confused with educational games since their inception. second, sawyer.b argues that the scope of serious games has become increasingly broad, attracting participants from a wide range of disciplines, including education, defense, advertising, politics, scientific inquiry, medicine, emergency management, urban planning, engineering, and journalism, and that for participants from different disciplines, serious games will always have global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 3 they argue that there are areas of the game that do not overlap with their own. this leads participants in these particular domains to further restrict the definition of serious games based on their own needs [14]. despite these domain-specific arguments, there is a common point shared by all disciplines. that serious games are designed to engage people for a variety of purposes beyond pure entertainment [15]. this definition is similar to the definition of news games. news games use people's interest in games to draw attention to a news or concept and to explain it from a multimedia perspective. because the satirical nature of news games is consistent with serious games, researchers believe that news games are included in the category of serious games. in addition, since the concept of serious games has been related to education from the beginning, it is easy to confuse serious games with educational games. however, the main purpose of educational games is to disseminate educational knowledge, while the purpose of serious games is not only to disseminate; according to djaouti's model, serious games have other purposes such as information dissemination, training, and data exchange [16]. therefore, researchers believe that educational games are also included in the category of serious games. on the other hand, according to neurologist michael smith, when people watch narrative images that induce empathy, the brain automatically filters out external influencing factors to focus on learning and cognition, indicating that the human mind wants to know the unknown from a narrative perspective. he believes that without a narrative connection, people cannot stay in the brain for long [17]. there is also considerable research showing that memories of events with a strong narrative component are more likely to be remembered [18]. and many studies have revealed that an immersive virtual reality system can better facilitate situational memory performance [19], [20]. consequently, we reinforce memory through narrative and immersion, and bring players into an independent worldview in the form of vr games to increase the target ability of information transfer and reduce the psychology of distributed responsibility. our previous research proposes that using virtual reality technology to gamify narrative contents is a way to make information more deeply memorable. previous studies have confirmed the above. in the case of a vr game that presents the story in images versus a game that presents the story in text, that presents the story in images is a better way to remember the information. the study also found a positive correlation between subjects' experience and their self-reported confidence in their memory. the researchers believe that gaming experience and short text reading experience are the reasons for the subjects' better selfperceived confidence [21]. this result and the information provided in the subject interviews have attracted the attention of researchers. in previous experiments, subjects in the non-vr group watched game walkthrough more often than they played the games themselves. game walkthrough is when players record their own gameplay, and the video content is often uploaded to video sharing sites (such as youtube) or streamed live on streaming sites (such as twitch). there are millions of potential recipients for these contents [22]. the researchers conducted additional interviews with all groups of subjects and found that 95% of the subjects had watched game walkthrough, 74.16% watched at least 7 hours per week, and they were in the habit of watching them while eating. their reasons for watching game walkthroughs were as follows: • watching game walkthroughs allows them to be exposed to games anytime and anywhere. • they don't have the hardware for a particular game, or the hardware doesn't meet the requirements of the game. so they can only get to know a game by watching it. • they have some game walkthrough players who are particularly fond of. • by watching the game, they can find the hidden elements of the game quickly, or see the hidden ending without having to play the game for long time by themselves. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 4 • finally, the most common reason was that the videos can be viewed at any time on cell phones. from these reasons, it is clear that video media is certainly more accessible to users' fragmented time compared to game media. from the above survey, we found that game walkthrough is convenient and accessible, so why not use it in the educational field. the main theoretical idea of this study is based on self-determination theory (sdt) [23]. this means that it is argued that the essence of behavior is motivated by interest and enjoyment [24]. through our survey, we found that most college student gamers are interested in game walkthrough. in addition, the data on the time spent watching game walkthrough suggests that they are not just a way to pass the time, but that they enjoy them. against the above background, this study investigates whether game walkthrough of serious games can have the same learning effect as serious games. use game creation (samples) and questionnaires, this study will compare the information that viewers remember from game walkthrough and actual game play, analyze their strengths and weaknesses, and examine the impact of the vr format on the results. 1. methods we create a vr game and a not vr game and record the game walkthroughs. and we divide the subjects into four groups: who play a not vr game (nvr group), who watch the walkthrough of the not vr game (group gw), who play a vr game (group vr), and who watch the walkthrough of the vr game (group gwvr). a questionnaire will be used to find out which group's subjects remember the game story. the sample is based on actual events. more than 80% of the text is taken directly from the news interviews. references are to newspaper articles about the incident from 2006 to 2015. these news stories were distributed across diverse media platforms over a long period of time. they were selected as scenarios for the serious game because of their integrative nature and the narrative nature required for this experiment. 1.1. sample since the subjects were intended to be chinese university students, the researchers first selected two chinese news stories. each was news about the greening of the kubuqi desert and news about a trafficked woman becoming a local teacher. the kubuqi desert is the seventh largest desert in china, located on the northwestern edge of ordos city. 2000, a group recruited workers to plant trees in the kubuqi desert, and many applied. ten years later, the workers have gradually learned how to plant trees and grasses, gained a lot of experience, and become familiar with sandy plants. in addition, the technology continues to develop, and the pv photovoltaic photothermal sand control power generation demonstration project is actively adopting a combined model of "sand control + grass planting + agriculture + power generation + poverty alleviation" and "cleaning pv modules + maintenance of under-board planting" to provide a new channel for increasing farmers' and herders' incomes by it offers: in 2017, as a result of years of efforts, the ecological environment in the area has improved, and migratory birds such as the common kookaburra are now visiting the desert. another news story is that in 1994, gao, a woman who worked outside her home, was trafficked by two women under the pretext of "looking for work" as she stood in line at the train station to buy a train ticket home. the buyer's village had a population of over 400, including 30-40 women who had been trafficked from other areas as "brides". ms. gao, the only middle school graduate in the village, was asked by the principal in 2000 to be the only substitute teacher at the village elementary school, where she taught a dozen students in two grades for a monthly salary of 200 yuan. in addition to her regular classes in language, math, and science, gao gave art classes to the children and often played with the students; in 2006, a photographer visited the village to take pictures and global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 5 posted her story on the internet, and she was later named "2006 hebei province's inspiring person". in july 2015, an article published in 2013, "the most beautiful rural teacher: kidnapped woman becomes female teacher in a mountain village," was discovered by an internet user, which described gao's harrowing experience in a few pages and praised her for remaining in the countryside as a teacher the incident from a few years ago has once again attracted attention and caused a great deal of controversy. the local government decided to fire ms. gao on the grounds that the news about her exposed the lack of efforts to combat traffickers and rescue abducted women, the dropout of school-aged children, and the lack of investment in education, which was later rescinded after a public outcry. ultimately, the researcher chose the second news article. the reasons: 1. the second news story was more narrative; the first story was a simple story curve from valley to mountain, whereas the second story was a more complex story curve from valley to mountain and back again; 2. the second story had by far the greater number of news stories; 3. the second story had a more complex story curve from valley to mountain, and back again; 4. the first story had a more complex story curve from valley to mountain, and back again. interviews with ms. gao in particular are very plentiful, and these reports allow for a more realistic reconstruction of the story from the victim's perspective. the sample is divided into four stages in total, each with 1-2 enemies and 2 key items, and the player must collect the key items while avoiding enemy pursuit. the enemies are designed to symbolize hostility or the protagonist's fears, such as "husband," "fear of forced childbirth," or "local government". key items in each stage are related to the storyline of that stage. first, design the game characters and draw the front and side views of the characters for modeling. after completing the design of the game's characters and scenes, modeling is done in 3ds max. before modeling, import the front and side views into the background to build the character model more accurately. once the modeling is complete, create the texture. in order to make the texture position correspond to the model position, the model is introduced into unfold3d and the texture is expanded. the next step is to import the model into mudbox and draw the texture. back in 3ds max again, bound the bones, moved the bones in the model, and used keyframe animation to animate the character walking, running, and attacking. finally, import the characters and scenes into unity to create the game. screenshots of the game are shown in figure 1. also, the game walkthrough is actually divided into various genres. for example, “speedrun” [25], which aims to finish a game as quickly as possible. “longplay” [26] focuses on completely documenting the gameplay process, with little commentary from the player. “let's play” [27] focuses on the player's in-game experience and sharing. considering the possibility of experimentation, research first consider eliminating the live broadcast type of play. next, according to the interviews with the subjects, most of the game walkthrough they watch are of the “let's play” type. and in “let’s play” type the player’s comments and reactions will be more sympathetic to the audience than in the other types. so in the “let’s play” type game walkthrough the viewers can be able to relate to the players more than in the other types. and the researchers expect that the “let’s play” type can reduce the lack of immersion which is one of the problems of using game walkthrough. therefore, the game walkthrough used in this project is of the "let's play" type. the game walkthrough will be recorded by inviting two female game walkthrough players who post videos, and they have never been exposed to the sample information until the game walkthrough is recorded. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 6 figure 1. screenshots of the game 1.2. questionnaire all subjects were recruited through convenience sampling and snowball sampling. the original plan was for some subjects to experience the vr face-to-face with the researchers, but this was all changed to online for the new corona. subjects were asked to download the samples themselves through a link provided by the researcher, experience the samples on their respective devices, and mail in a questionnaire and recording. all subjects were aware of and consented to the experiment before it was conducted. the questionnaire is divided into four written questionnaires and one recorded questionnaire. the written questionnaire consists of basic information, recognition check, correctness check, and empathy check, while the recorded questionnaire consists of subjects telling a story and giving their impressions of the sample. the basic information questionnaire asks the subjects their age, gender, major, gaming experience, experience using vr, and the theme of the sample. the recognition check and the correctness check use the same 10 questions. the purpose of the recognition check is to find out how much the subjects themselves think they know about the sample story, and their actual cognitive status is not important in this research. in the empathy check, the strength of the empathic emotion for each subject is investigated through a self-report questionnaire. questionnaire as shown in figure 2. basic information age gender game experience major have you ever used vr? no yes have you paid attention to the news o female population sales? f no yes have you read related articles on thi game? s no yes global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 7 recognition check question get it maybe get it not sure maybe don't get it don't get it where the protagonist was kidnapped? who bought the protagonist? what is the attitude of the protagonist 's husband towards her? what are the protagonists' means of suicide? why the protagonists left the village? what reminds the protagonist of life's hopes? how is the protagonist known to the public? why doesn't the local government want the public to know about the protagonist? what is the attitude of the villagers towards this? did you understand the ending? correctness check full score 100 correct answer +10 score: empathy check stage no feeling felt a strong emotion 1 2 3 4 ：no feeling ：feeling emotions, but not enough to take action. ：feels emotional and takes short-term/single/simple actions. ：feels emotional and takes long-term/ continuous/ /complex actions. figure 2. questionnaire 2. experimental results and analysis 2.1. basic information the subjects were 120 university students (62 females, 59 males, mean age 21.183 years, age range 18-24 years, sd=1.402). 120 subjects were divided into 4 groups of 30 each: group nvr: 19 females, 11 males, age range 19-23 years, mean age 20.733 years, sd=1.263. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 8 group vr: 13 females, 17 males, age range 19-23 years, mean age 20.833 years, sd=1.240. group gw: 15 females, 15 males, age range 18-24 years, mean age 21.3 years, sd=1.486. group gwvr: 14 females, 16 males, age range 19-24 years, mean age 21.866 years, sd=1.309). the overall gender ratio is basically the same, but the gender ratio of each group is different; as can be seen from the gender ratios of the four groups, the sex ratio of the game walkthrough group appears to be average when compared to the large number of females in the group and the large number of males in the group. in a gender survey on vr and ar device ownership rate conducted in 2017 [28], 43% of device owners were female and 31% of those planning to purchase a device were female. according to data from another u.s. gamer gender survey, the highest percentage of female gamers has only been 48% since 2006 [29]. combining the data from this survey and its collection process, we can assume that although the number of women who own vr devices is smaller than men, the number of women interested in gaming is not small. the majors of the 120 subjects included 21 in science and engineering, 20 in education, 18 in arts, 14 in management, 12 in architecture, 12 in literature, 9 in economics, 6 in sociology, 3 in physical education, 3 in philosophy, and 2 in history. the diversity of the subjects' majors is beneficial in obtaining more diverse perspectives in the recording survey. when the subjects self-reported their gaming experience, 71 said they had "a lot of gaming experience," 15 said they had "normal gaming experience," and 34 said they had "little gaming experience. overall, the subjects had a lot of gaming experience. 2.2. recognition check figure 3 shows the percentage for each option chosen by each group. overall, group nvr is the most confident in their own memory, followed by group gw, then group vr, and finally group gwvr. as can be seen from figure 3, the selection tendencies of group nvr and group gw are very close. more than half of the respondents chose "get it", and around 30% of the respondents chose "maybe get it". "not sure" was selected slightly more often by group gw, but the difference between the two groups was not large. group vr and group gwvr not only differed from these two groups, but even in the same vr-related sample, their selection trends were not consistent. the options for group gwvr are distributed on average compared to the other groups. the percentage of times group gwvr chose "not sure" was the highest among all options for this group, reaching 3%. the number of times they chose "get it" and "maybe get it" was equal, both accounting for 25%. "get it" was chosen the most by the other three groups, with 18%, three times as many as the group vr chose the same item. studies have shown that the more experienced a person is, the more confident he or she is in identifying memories [30]. this may explain the greater confidence in self-recognition of memories in group nvr and group gw. although the subjects in this experiment had more gaming experience, in daily life, visual media is more accessible than gaming media and does not require more energy or two hands. in addition, chinese college students, the age group of the subjects, spend less time in contact with game media than video media. by combining the data of group nvr, group gw and group vr, it was proved that the memory discrimination and experience of the test takers are positively correlated [31]. the data of group gwvr shows different characteristics from this. the researchers made an additional visit to the group on this issue. "more than half of the subjects who chose "not sure" said that they could not concentrate on the gwvr sample throughout. there are two main reasons for this: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 9 1. they are not used to vr game walkthroughs from the beginning. these subjects found it more distracting to watch a vr game walkthrough than to watch a regular game walkthrough. 2. at first, they were able to enjoy the vr game walkthrough, but later in the video, they felt uncomfortable due to the constant shaking of the camera. researchers believe that these two cases, especially the former one, reaffirm the positive correlation between media experience and subjects' memory. figure 3. the percentage of times each option was selected in each group 2.3. correctness check the same question is used for the recognition check and the correctness check. there are five levels of correctness depending on the subject's answer. the score for each level is: "more than correct": 5, "correct": 4, "mostly correct": 3, "somewhat correct": 2, and "incorrect": 1. the total score is 1500. as figure 4 shows, the total score of each group is group nvr: 1153 points, group gw: 1141 points, group vr: 1248 points, group gwvr: 1060 points. the scores are, in order from highest to lowest, vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. it is clear that the overall score of the game sample is higher than the game walkthrough, but contrary to expectations, the difference in scores between group nvr and group gw is only 2 points. the highest and lowest scores were significantly different from those of adjacent groups, with a difference of 95 points between group vr and group nvr, and 81 points between group gw and group gwvr. taken together with the recognition check in the previous section, this indicates that group nvr and group gw are not only similar in their tendency to select for memory recognition, but also have very similar levels of the actual memory component. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 10 the score ranking for the subjective questions again matches the overall score ranking: vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. higher scores on subjective questions require more empathy from the subjects. if the genre is one that stimulates empathy, it may be better to have people play the game directly rather than deliver it using a game walkthrough to achieve the goal. therefore, if subjective feedback from viewers is needed, the vr sample can provide the most feedback among the four groups. next is nvr games. in terms of ownership rate of vr and pc devices, nvr may be a more suitable medium. on the other hand, game walkthroughs did not provide comparable subjective responses, especially for vr games. in other words, if the subject matter requires empathy, it may be better to have the audience play the game directly rather than deliver it through a game walkthrough to achieve the goal. figure 4. the total score a for each group 2.4. empathy check as shown in figure 5, overall, group nvr tends to start high and end low. group vr and group gw have very similar fluctuating trends, both starting high and ending low until stage 3, but increasing in empathy until stage 4. group gwvr shows a steep decrease from stage 1 to stage 2, and a slower decrease in the other stages. the scores for nvr and vr do not change so much, whereas the scores for gw and gwvr are more variable. with the exception of stage 3, group vr consistently led the other three groups in empathy, followed by group nvr, then group gw, and finally group gwvr. this is the same ranking as for the correctness check. the ranking of the overall score for the empathy survey is vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 11 figure 5. empathy for each stage 3. limitations and conclusion the self-report of the four groups in the recognition check was nvr>gw>vr>gwvr in order from highest to lowest. in the correctness check, the total score ranking of the four groups was: vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. the ranking for the empathy check was the same as the correctness check: vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. negative emotional keywords such as "scary" appear frequently in the recordings. a number of studies have confirmed that empathy plays a role in the construction of our memories [32,33]. coupled with the fact that it is an experimental result, it further proves that empathy is positively correlated with memory correctness. in other words, group vr, which ranked first in both the empathy and correctness surveys, and the vr serious game with a storyline are the means by which recipients can remember the most information. group nvr's sample narrative vr serious game is also a good medium for environments where vr conditions are not feasible or where vr device ownership rate is a consideration. although slightly inferior to group nvr, the group gw data was very close to group nvr in all surveys and the selection trends were similar. if the recipients want to memorize a single message or multiple messages, or if they value the convenience of game walkthroughs, gw is considered more suitable than nvr. however, group gw scored lower in questions that required subjective thinking, if the receiver is required to think subjectively, gw is less suitable. finally, gwvr, which is also a game walkthrough sample, does not perform well. in particular, compared to the similarity between group nvr and group gw, group gwvr and group vr have large differences in each survey. according to additional interviews with subjects in this group, the major reason for this is that the shaking lens distracts the subjects' attention and the subjects are not used to the walkthrough of vr game. therefore, the walkthrough of vr game is not a suitable medium to make the receiver memorize the information. in the case of game media, it is known from previous studies that empathy is positively correlated with memory correctness [34]. based on the above data, this rule is not completely true for game walkthrough media. although the group gw game walkthroughs can empathize to some extent with the game walkthrough players about their gaming experiences, they are limited compared to actual game plays, especially when it comes to the questions they have to think about. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 12 researchers believe that this is because the quality of empathy that the receiver feels differs from the empathy that is guided by the game walkthrough players. game walkthroughs often allow the receiver to experience the game by empathizing with the medium of the game walkthrough players. a game walkthrough, on the other hand, allows the viewer to empathize directly with the game's protagonist; in a game walkthrough, the player is constantly verbalizing his or her feelings as the game progresses, thus reducing the need for the gw viewer to perceive his or her own feelings. therefore, group gw is inferior to group nvr in terms of the need to think and construct their own words, which has lost its empathic mediation. there are also limitations to this study. one is that the data reads that while the percentage of correct answers for gw group is not bad, it is slightly lower than nvr group. this is most likely due to the fact that as a video medium, games walkthroughs are still less interactive than game media. if the comments were used to increase the participation and interaction of the recipients, a higher percentage of correct answers might be obtained. at the same time, however, some of the comments undermine the convenience of the game walkthrough, as recipients who are eating have to put down their cutlery and use both hands to control the game. therefore, the viewers of the game walkthrough are not able to empathize in a positive way through the game walkthrough players, or the accuracy and precision of the game content is not guaranteed due to the lack of interactivity of the visual media. in order to increase interactivity, the game walkthrough needs to sacrifice convenience. there may be ways to increase interactivity while maintaining the convenience of the game walkthrough, such as voice input of comments. however, it is difficult to guarantee the interactivity and convenience of the game walkthrough in the current mainstream way. second, the sample in this study is narrative oriented and has a weak gaming aspect in comparison. different samples may yield different results, and subsequently, a sample that focuses more on gaming than narrative will be the next research topic. some scholars believe that the fact that the primary purpose of serious games is not entertainment does not imply that they cannot be entertaining. in many cases, education and entertainment overlap and use each other to achieve their respective goals[35].at the same time, serious games are always controversial. its entertainment, its interactivity, its necessity. for a long time and even now, most people consider games to be pure entertainment. therefore, games that lack entertainment value are subject to criticism. it remains to be seen if the games walkthrough can compensate for the lack of gameplay. the results of this study indicate that serious games walkthrough is a viable educational option outside the classroom, especially given the prevalence and convenience. with the rapid development of technology, students' interests are constantly changing, according to selfdetermination theory, education can be constantly updated to stimulate students' interest in learning. on the other hand, game walkthrough, a by product of educational gamification, give students more options. students will be able to experience educational games in class, and also learn outside the classroom by watching game walkthrough anytime, anywhere. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank everyone, just everyone! references 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october-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 11 examining microbial quality in ready-to-eat foods of makkah's cafeterias 1ahmed khalid al-faisal and 2aisha abdullah al-mansoori article info abstract keywords: ready-to-eat foods, rte, contamination, microorganisms, food safety. the consumption of ready-to-eat foods (rtes) has witnessed a surge in the kingdom of saudi arabia, particularly in the city of makkah, owing to shifting demographics and lifestyle changes. this trend is influenced by the influx of itinerant workers, pilgrims, and visitors, leading to an increased preference for convenient rte options, especially for breakfast. cafeterias offering rte foods have gained popularity due to their affordability, accessibility, and convenience. however, certain rte food items, including those containing animal-derived ingredients like eggs, fish, meat, and poultry, are susceptible to contamination by various microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. the contamination of rte foods during processing and sandwich preparation has been reported, potentially resulting in cross-contamination and the presence of pathogenic microorganisms like staphylococcus aureus, salmonella species, bacillus species, and escherichia coli. consequently, the quality of rte foods can be significantly compromised. in this context, understanding the factors contributing to the contamination and deterioration of rte foods is crucial for ensuring food safety and public health. this study aims to investigate the prevalence and implications of microorganism contamination in rte foods in makkah, saudi arabia, and proposes strategies to enhance the safety and quality of rte meals. introduction ready-to-eat foods (rtes) are items prepared in advance and ready for consumption only after heating without further processing or preparations. it could be raw or cooked meals. rte food items consumption has recently 1environmental health department, faculty of public health & health informatics, umm al-qura university, makkah, saudi arabia 2 epidemiology department, faculty of public health & health informatics, umm al-qura university, makkah, saudi arabia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 12 increased in the kingdom of saudi arabia, mainly in holly makkah city, due to the rapid demographic change characterized by a change in lifestyle and a large number of itinerant workers, visitors, and pilgrims resulting in a large percentage of the population taking ready-to-eat food especially as breakfast’s meal. in addition, cafeterias that serve rte foods provide cheap, economical, and easily accessed items. some rte foods items contain raw materials of animal origin, such as eggs, fish, meat, and poultry, which can easily get contaminated by different microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi (ashenafi, 1995). the cross-contamination of rte foods with pathogenic microorganisms could occur during the processing and preparation of fillings and sandwiches (oranusi et al., 2013; rahman et al., 2014; sharma et al., 2014). contamination of rte food by pathogenic microorganisms like staphylococcus aureus, salmonella species, bacillus species, and escherichia coli leads to remarkable changes in food quality. moreover, consequently causing food-borne illnesses and food poisoning are considered major public health issues that negatively affect the socioeconomic development and output of many fields such as tourism and trading (newman et al., 2015). food-borne diseases and food poisoning problems are becoming an important issue worldwide (al-mazrous, 2004). in the kingdom of saudi arabia in general and holly makkah city in particular, food-borne illness and food poisoning are emerging as significant public health threats that render a high burden of diseases and negatively affect the socioeconomic development and productivity of many sectors. several studies have reported that foods served by catering services were the primary source of many food-borne outbreaks (osimani and clementi, 2016). in makkah city, increasing food poisoning cases were reported, especially during the hajj and umrah seasons. it was mainly due to the high consumption of rte meals, especially those from cafeterias (shirah et al., 2017). we think minimizing fungal and bacterial loads in rte foods served in cafeterias within makkah city by following good hygiene practices and continuous microbiological assessment programs is necessary. moreover, using microbiological testing results of rte foods in makkah city will provide an example for other cities in saudi arabia for dealing with ready food. however, very little research has been carried out on assessing microbial quality and safety of rte foods in saudi arabia, especially those distributed within makkah city. therefore, this study aimed to determine the microbial safety of rte food items that are served in some cafeterias in makkah city, saudi arabia. materials and methods sample collection ready-to-eat food samples were collected randomly from different cafeterias located in different sites of makkah city during the period march-april, 2021. a total of 108 samples represented six different types of ready-to-eat food (foul, falafel, boiled egg, fried egg, shakshuka, and sheep liver slices) collected from six different cafeterias and replicated three times. collected samples were handled in sterile plastic bags and directly transferred to the microbiology lab for investigation. microbiological analysis isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ten grams of each experimental sample was mixed with 90 ml nutrient broth (biotech, uk), and serial dilutions of each food sample homogenate were prepared to reach 10-3 dilutions. a 1 ml aliquot portions of the prepared dilutions were precisely distributed onto duplicate sterile plates of nutrient agar (himedia, india), eosin methylene blue (emb) agar (titan biotech, india), and mannitol salt agar (msa) (india mart, india) for total microbial load, escherichia coli, and staphylococcus aureus, respectively. counting of bacterial colonies was performed after incubation of agar plates at 37 °c for 24 to 48 h, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 13 by using the colony counter (gallenkamp, england). bacterial colonies were expressed as colony-forming units per ml of sample homogenate (cfu/ml). isolation and enumeration of fungi. for fungal isolation, 10 grams of each sample were mixed in sabouraud broth (india mart, india), and the same dilutions were prepared. a 1 ml portion of the dilution (10-3) was poured onto sabouraud agar (india mart, india) medium supplemented with 0.005 gram/liter of rose bengal (sigma aldrich, usa) for suppressing bacterial growth. the agar plates were incubated at 28 °c for 5-7 days; then, the developed colonies were counted and identified. identification of microbial isolates. the developed bacterial colonies were counted using colony counter, purified, and stored on nutrient agar slants at 4 °c for identification. identification based on cultural morphology and biochemical tests, including carbohydrate utilization on tri-sugar iron (tsi) medium, imvic test, starch hydrolysis, gelatin liquefaction, nitrate reduction, oxidase urease activity, and motility test were employed to confirm the purity of the isolates. the fungal morphology was studied macroscopically by observing the colony features (color, shape, size, and hyphae) and microscopically by a compound microscope according to the following references gaddeyya et al. (2012), domsch et al. (1980), and barnett & hunte (1972). results and discussion bacterial species isolated from ready-to-eat foods samples a total of 108 food samples, including 6 types (foul, falafel, boiled eggs, fried eggs, shakshuka, and sheep liver slices), were evaluated. the results showed in table 1 that the highest aerobic plate counts were found in sheep liver slices sold by cafeteria no 5 with the value of 8.4 × 103 cfu/ml, while the lowest value was detected in foul sold by cafeteria no.2 with a value of 0.5 × 103 cfu/ml. s. aureus appeared in all food samples collected from all cafeterias. the highest count (9.8 × 103 cfu/ml) for s. aureus was detected in shakshuka sold by cafeteria no.6, while the lowest count (1.2 × 103 cfu/ml) was observed in falafel sold by cafeteria 1. generally, it could be reported that all the tested samples were highly contaminated with s. aureus, and 42% of the samples were contaminated with e. coli. the total counts for s. aureus and e. coli (in shakshuka and sheep’s liver slices) exceeded the recommended levels by the international commission on microbiological specifications for foods (icmsf, 1996). the icmsf (1996) recommends that ready-to-eat foods between 0-103 cfu are acceptable, 104105 cfu is tolerable, and 106 cfu and above are unacceptable. table 1. mean total counts (cfu/ml) of each bacterial species isolated from ready-to-eat foods samples sold in makkah city. vendors samples station food types bacteria aerobic plate count s. aureus count e. coli count cafeteria 1 foul 2.4 ×103 3.6 ×103 nd falafel 3.5 ×103 1.2 ×103 nd boiled egg 1.2 ×103 4.6 ×103 nd fried egg 2.5 ×103 1.3 ×103 nd shakshuka 5.7 ×103 4.3 ×103 0.4 ×103 sheep liver slices 6.3 ×103 3.1 ×103 0.5 ×103 cafeteria 2 foul 0.5 ×103 3.4 ×103 1.2 ×103 falafel 3.4 ×103 5.2 ×103 nd global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 14 boiled egg 3.2 ×103 2.5 ×103 nd fried egg 1.5 ×103 3.3 ×103 nd shakshuka 4.3 ×103 6.4 ×103 2.3 ×103 sheep liver slices 5.9 ×103 3.6 ×103 0.6 ×103 cafeteria 3 foul 1.5 ×103 3.5 ×103 nd falafel 3.2 ×103 4.1 ×103 nd boiled egg 1.1 ×103 3.2 ×103 nd fried egg 0.9 ×103 3.7 ×103 1.1 ×103 shakshuka 5.9 ×103 7.5 ×103 2.4 ×103 sheep liver slices 4.5 ×103 7.5 ×103 1.6 ×103 cafeteria 4 foul 4.2 ×103 8.7 ×103 nd falafel 3.4 ×103 4.3 ×103 nd boiled egg 2.8 ×103 4.9 ×103 nd fried egg 2.1 ×103 3.5 ×103 nd shakshuka 4.8 ×103 6.7 ×103 nd sheep liver slices 5.6 ×103 6.8 ×103 2.3 ×103 cafeteria 5 foul 5.2 ×103 5.2 ×103 nd falafel 2.8 ×103 5.5 ×103 nd boiled egg 2.1 ×103 4.3 ×103 0.3 ×103 fried egg 1.1 ×103 4.2 ×103 nd shakshuka 4.7 ×103 6.4 ×103 4.2 ×103 sheep liver slices 8.4 ×103 7.9 ×103 2.3 ×103 cafeteria 6 foul 2.8 ×103 4.2 ×103 nd falafel 4.4 ×103 9.1 ×103 nd boiled egg 1.4 ×103 4.2 ×103 0.2 ×103 fried egg 0.9 ×103 2.2 ×103 nd shakshuka 5.9 ×103 9.8 ×103 1.7 ×103 sheep liver slices 4.8 ×103 7.5 ×103 0.7 ×103 % of contaminated samples 100% 42% note. nd not detected, apc aerobic plate count. the consumption of cooked rte foods analyzed herein might increase the risk of food-borne illness caused by various microorganisms, especially s. aureus and e. coli. the highest aerobic plate counts recorded in this study might be caused by different environmental factors, such as contaminated air, water, and utensils used in the meal global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 15 preparation. poor personal hygiene practices in the cafeterias could have also led to the contamination of these pathogens. bezirtzoglou et al. (2000) reported that rte food exposure to air or dust at the vending point is likely to increase loads of the bacteria as it appears that most bacteria are carried in aerosols by dust and wind. contamination by the food producer or handlers is also the most common means of transmitting this germ. s. aureus could be transmitted through the dirty hands and mouths of the producers and customers. similarly, burt et al. (2003) stated that food contamination by s. aureus originates from man’s respiratory passages, skin, and uncovered wounds. thus, its persistence in cooked rte foods might cause many health risks to consumers. several reports indicate that most strains of s. aureus are known to be pathogenic due to their excreted heat-stable enterotoxins in direct relationship to their inoculum level (adebayo-tayo et al., 2012). s. aureus produces enzymes incorporated with staphylococcal invasiveness and many extracellular substances, which are enterotoxins that are stable at high temperatures and turn the food riskier even though it appears normal (prescott et al., 2019). the appearance of the symptoms may differ with the quantity of the contaminated food consumed and the susceptibility of the people to the toxin. some symptoms of staphylococcal food poisoning include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain (amusan et al., 2010). e. coli was not detected in most tested food samples, but it appeared in shakshuka and sheep’s liver slices from most cafeterias. the highest count was 4.2 × 103 recorded in shakshuka samples vended in cafeteria no. 5—a report by idowu and rowland (2006) showed that the highest aerobic plate numbers were found in a fang soup sold by street vendors with a count of 2.80 × 106 cfu/ml while the lowest count was observed in stew sold by stationary food vendors with shade (svws) with several 1.20 × 106 cfu/ml. moreover, the highest value of s. aureus was obtained in moimoi sold by a street vendor with the count of 4.30 × 106 cfu/ml, and the lowest count was observed in stew sold by svws with the count of 1.20 × 103 cfu/ml. e. coli counts were detected most in moimoi sold by mv with the value of 2.20 × 106 cfu/ml. the presence of e. coli in cooked rte foods indicates secondary contamination, as e. coli is known to be correlated with the gastrointestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and not found in the environment as a natural flora (amusan et al., 2010). however, contamination can take place by the use of contaminated water. e. coli has been detected in foods sold at fast foods in a report by fowoyo and baba-ali (2015). in this study, direct or indirect fecal contamination may be the leading cause of e. coli., and e. coli belong to the enterobacteriaceae genus, the leading causal agent for diarrhea, gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, meningitis, nosocomial pneumonia, and dysentery. the strain of e. coli named enterohaemorrhagic e. coli can cause food-borne diseases similar to the e. coli o157h7 strain, which causes a severe and potentially fatal illness called hemorrhagic colitis which is characterized by bloody diarrhea and severe abdominal pain (evans & evans, 1996). following the public health laboratory service (uk) criteria, the count of e. coli in rte food was defined as <20 cfu/ml (satisfactory), 20– <100 cfu/ml (acceptable), ≥100 cfu/ml (health protection agency, 2009). in our findings, the counts of e. coli in the samples of shakshuka and sheep’s liver slices can be considered unacceptable. fungal species isolated from ready-to-eat foods samples data shown in table 2 indicated that 21 fungal species belonging to 7 genera were identified. the number of isolated fungi varied according to different meals. the least fungal number (9 species) appeared in fried egg sandwiches followed by 12, 14, 15, 18, and 20 species in shakshuka, boiled egg, falafel, sheep's liver slices, and foul samples, respectively. aspergillus appeared in most samples collected from cafeterias, represented by six species. among aspergillus, a. flavus was the highest, and its occurrence ranged between 50-83% of samples. also, a. niger and a. parasiticus were among the common aspergillus species found in the samples. among global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 16 samples analyzed herein, shakshuka samples were highly contaminated by aspergillus species (50% by a. flavus, 83% by a. niger, 100% by a. ochraceus, and 50% by a. parasiticus). mucor racemosus emerged in remarkable count in falafel samples (50%) and did not emerge in shakshuka. four species of penicillium were isolated, and among them, p. aurantiogresum was the most commonly isolated. it encountered 72%, 50%, 67%, and 83% in foul, falafel, boiled egg, and sheep’s liver slices, respectively. p. cyclopium appeared in 5 types of samples with remarkable accounts. rhizopus nigricans were found in high occurrence in foul (72%) and falafel (52%). about 100% of foul and 89% of falafel samples were contaminated by stachybotrys chartarum. trichoderma sp. was found in five samples, mostly foul (83%) and fried egg (50%). uzeh et al. (2009) revealed that microorganisms found in salad constitute raw vegetables include mucor sp., aspergillus fumigatus, trichoderma, neurospora crassa, and aspergillus niger. barnett et al. (2000) reported several mycotoxins isolated from various foods. for instance, aspergillus and penicillium produced aflatoxins. the aflatoxins have been found in legumes, grains, fruits, meats, spices, cheeses, milk, rice, corn, cotton seeds. other toxins with carcinogenic, hemorrhagic, hepatotoxic, neurotic uterotrophic effects have been found in foodstuff and recorded as metabolites of fungi (jeswal & kumar, 2015). ochratoxins are toxins excreted by aspergillus ochraceus, a. sulphureus, a. malleus, and a. ochraceus can be found in soils and decaying vegetation, grains, wheat, corn, cotton seeds, legumes, peppers, onions, and pears (adams & moss, 2002). table 2. mean total count and occurrence remarks (o.r.) of each fungal species (cfu/ml) isolated from ready-to-eat food samples sold in makkah city. fungal genera & species cfu/ml o.r. out of 6 sites foul falafel boiled egg fried egg shakshuka sheep liver slices (% count of each isolate out of 18 samples) alternaria alternata 11 h 00 00 3(17%) 3(17%) 3(17%) 2(11%) aspergillus a. flavus 56 vh 9(50%) 4(22%) 7(39%) 15(83%) 9(50%) 12(67%) a. niger 42 vh 11(61%) 00 6 (33%) 9(50%) 15(83%) 1(5.6%) a. ochraceus 32 h 3(17%) 00 3(17%) 00 18(100%) 8 (44%) a. parasitus 27 vh 6 (33%) 3(17%) 14(78%) 00 9(50%) 4(22%) a. sydowi 26 h 10(56%) 00 7(39%) 00 4(22%) 5(28%) a. ustus 14 l 7(39%) 3(17%) 00 00 00 4(22%) cladosporium sp. 12 l 6(33%) 00 00 00 10(56%) 6(33%) mucor racemosus 36 vh 4(22%) 9(50%) 5(28%) 4(22%) 00 4(22%) fusarium f. culmorum 16 m 2(11%) 5(28%) 6(33%) 00 00 3(17%) f. solani 3 r 3(17%) 00 00 00 7(39%) 00 penicillium global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 17 p. aurantiogriseum 62 vh 13(72%) 9(50%) 12(67%) 6(33%) 00 15(83%) p. digitatum 29 h 5(28%) 8(44%) 7(39%) 00 5(28%) 9(50%) p. citrinum 21 h 8(44%) 4(22%) 4(22%) 00 00 00 p. cyclopium 33 vh 10(56%) 4 (22%) 7(39%) 7(39%) 00 9(50%) rhizopus nigricans 38 vh 13(72%) 5(52%) 6(33%) 4(22%) 4(22%) 6(33%) stachybotys chartarum 40 vh 18(100%) 16(89%) 7(39%) 6(33%) 00 5(28%) trichothicium roseum 17 m 8(45%) 4(22%) 00 00 00 00 phoma sp. 8 r 4(22%) 4(22%) 00 00 00 00 trichoderma sp. 44 vh 15(83%) 6(33%) 00 9(50%) 5(28%) 2(11%) verticillium sp. 7 l 2(11%) 4(22%) 00 00 00 1(0.06%) no. of isolated fungi 20 15 14 9 12 18 note. rare (r) = appeared in 1 site, low (l) = appeared in 2 sites, medium (m) = appeared in 3 sites, high (h) = appeared in 4 sites, and very high (vh) = appeared in 5 -6 sites. patulin is the primary toxic metabolite produced by penicillium (bennett & klich, 2003). fusarium culmorum and trichothecium roseum appeared moderately, and the least encountered fungal species were a. ustus, cladosporium sp., and verticillium sp. (table 2). the isolation of s. aureus, aspergillus niger, aspergillus fumigatus, mucor sp, and penicillium sp, are consistent with the findings of attiya et al. (2015), taulo et al. (2008) and oranusi, et al. (2013), in which these microorganisms were found in rte foods. molds like mucor sp and aspergillus sp. contaminated food samples through dust and soil as they disperse in the form of spores abundant in the environment (apinis, 2003). molds in food samples are a severe health threat due to mycotoxin production (makun et al., 2009). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 18 picture 1. most common isolated fungi and bacteria. a). aspergillus niger (black), a. fumigatus (olive colony), and a. ustus (brown colony); b). a. flavus (yellow-green) mixed with stachybotrys chartarum (black); c). curvularia lanata (black color) and a. ustus (grey colonies); d). alternaria alternate (black) and trichoderma sp. (green); e). mixed cultures of s. aureus (golden) and e. coli (white); f). pure culture of stachybotrys chartarum. conclusion ready-to-eat foods (rtes), especially of animal origin, could be considered as potential sources for microbial infections in humans. this study revealed that rte foods served in cafeterias in makkah city had unsatisfactory microbiological contamination; thus, it may increase the potential risk of food-borne poisoning and diseases among consumers. accordingly, it is a priority for relevant public health and food safety agencies to establish training programs on food safety and sanitary in cafeterias, especially following the regulations of hazard analysis and critical control points (haccp) principles during all food processing steps. all staff members, including administrators and the people who work in the kitchen, must be trained. acknowledgment the authors appreciate the cooperation of the faculty of health and health informatics, umm al -qura university, and cafeteria owners for consent and facilitating sampling. conflict of interest. the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper. orcid id ramadan ali mohamed badran: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3932-7396 mutasim mohamed khalafalla: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8214-9698 hatim abdullah natto: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2570-6264 references adams, m.r. & moss, m.o. 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(2009). the microbial quality of pre-packed mixed vegetable salad in some retail outlets in lagos, nigeria. african journal of food science, 3(9), 270-272. creating computer confidence : an investigation into current privacy and security concerns of the senior demographic global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 1 bridging the digital divide: enhancing the technological literacy of the elderly population for safe internet navigation caroline hillier department of computer science, university of guelph, ontario, canada abstract: the senior population is facing an increasing need to adapt to the technological advancements that have been rapidly reshaping the society. however, despite their willingness to use the internet, a lack of adaptability to new methods has placed them at a disadvantage in keeping up with the evolving technological landscape. in the wake of the covid-19 pandemic, the need for the elderly to have the necessary skills to navigate the internet has become more pressing. this paper aims to investigate the current behavior of the elderly on the internet and identify knowledge gaps and specific areas where support is needed. the paper explores the importance of equipping the elderly with the skills necessary to safely navigate the internet, beginning with an understanding of security threats that may be encountered online and how to react to them. the paper also provides insights into the current privacy and security concerns of the elderly and highlights specific tools and resources that can be utilized to address identified knowledge gaps. the paper concludes by emphasizing the need for promoting the conversation around available resources and encouraging the use of available tools to build user confidence among the elderly. keywords: elderly, technological literacy, internet use, privacy, security, knowledge gaps, resource utilization, user confidence. 1. introduction members of the senior demographic often hesitate to integrate technology into their daily lives. while this demographic is often familiar with device functions such as making phone calls, they are often found missing out on the valuable capabilities that devices can offer [1]. most devices have capabilities to track medications, request goods and services, and search current news topics, all within just a few clicks [1]. unfortunately, older adults are an overlooked population as technology is advancing in a way that is not easily adaptable for the older generation [2][3]. previous research has shown that the older demographic is using the internet for common tasks, but with a very different perspective compared to a younger generation [4]. while many people have been raised with device use in their daily lives, this is not the case for many seniors. interfaces that seem quite intuitive to an average person, may be quite intimidating and difficult for another to approach. many seniors prefer to have a real human assist them when using technology as they are accustomed to in person learning experiences and can comfortably engage in the experience [5][6]. because of the familiarity of this type of interaction and the connection that can built by reading another’s physical behavior, this learning method has been preferred by many individuals [5][6]. additionally, when seniors engage in global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 2 learning from a technologically literate individual, they get an understanding of how to use the device and get to observe the user’s behaviour and thought process [3]. 1.1. covid-19 influence the covid-19 pandemic completely changed human behaviour as the globe was forced to remain inside their homes to try and conquer the virus. the elderly and many other groups were categorized as especially vulnerable and required extra protection from the virus [7]. though there is consistent improvement in medicine, the best course of action for these groups is to remain in isolation [7]. over two years later, there are still social restrictions on individual’s behaviours. people are required to maintain limited contact from others and are suffering the consequences of isolation. [8]. while in isolation many individuals have utilized the internet to complete daily tasks. in hopes to maintain regular behaviours, organizations enhanced and broadened user capabilities on their websites. the additional functions commonly include pre-ordering and online payment, as well as online appointment bookings [9]. seniors traversing these new online services are also challenged with the lack of human connection available to them. confused customers, resource shortages, and employee illness has overwhelmed companies and their customer service departments [10]. resultingly, consumers have the option to endure the extended wait for a customer service representative or navigate the interface on their own. moreover, individuals were restricted from visiting other households and were required to maintain social distance when communicating with another person. a large population of seniors lost their connection to their family, friends, and caretakers. the encouraged use of technology and deprivation of human connection has left the senior demographic especially vulnerable to the risks present on the internet. personal information is often required to access certain functionalities online and many users may not consider where this data is transmitted or to who. it is necessary that users understand that there are real security threats online, even if they do not seem as dangerous as a crime in real life [11]. while the internet may be overwhelming for seniors, it is important that they have the knowledge to maintain their security and privacy. before learning how to use new apps and websites, it is crucial to understand the threats that may be encountered and how to react. once the senior demographic has the knowledge and resources to identify and avoid risks, they will be able to confidently ease into learning how to use emerging technologies. this paper aims to develop a deep understanding of how elders’ perception of privacy and behaviour on the internet has changed during the covid-19 pandemic. the analysis will be completed by first understanding the trends and changes that are influencing behaviour and the associated potential attacks. once this background is developed, a survey will be conducted to get current perspectives from the target demographic. using the background and survey results a list of prominent knowledge gaps can be identified. finally, a comprehensive collection of resources and tools will be complied to address the knowledge gaps. 2. background to maintain some normalcy, many individuals transferred their daily activities to an online platform. a canadian survey found that 75% of individuals engaged in more internet related activities since the global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 3 beginning of the pandemic, and almost half of canadians started using the internet for new tasks [12]. within these statistics, it was found that more than half of canadian senior citizens increased their internet usage [12]. a previous study identified that as the elder demographic migrates their actions to online platforms, they will be at a higher risk to be a victim of cyber crime. this population is less tech-savvy than younger demographics and is more prone to becoming a victim to internet fraud ploys [4]. previous research has identified that there is a need for a sufficient teaching system to assist elders in technology security, and with the modern societal changes this need is escalated drastically [2]. it is of paramount importance that each person is educated on the information and resources required to protect themselves. the typical internet behaviour of elders has previously involved bonding over social media sites, consulting healthcare websites, and searching for a booking travel and tourism experiences [13][14]. elders are becoming more dependent on their devices and are comfortable within their established routine [13]. as they use their preferred websites more frequently, and observe their peers doing the same, there is a deeper level of trust for the website [13]. similar work has shown that elders prefer to use a tool they are familiar with, and do not feel a need to use other tools if it is not necessary. regardless of this opinion, many new tools are required for daily tasks, to reduce the amount of human interaction during the pandemic [15]. these new systems require that all individuals have the technological literacy requited to successfully use these tools. 2.1. adapting to current structures because of its ease of use, the internet has become a necessary part of people’s routine [16]. when the global quarantine forced internet dependency, elders did their best to quickly adapt. the pandemic caused high levels of uncertainty and the internet provided great information sources [17]. despite the benefits, seniors are sometimes not comfortable with new applications and are hesitant to use them [3]. it has previously been found that elders are comfortable using websites that someone else has taught how to use [3]. for example, elders could independently use a booking site that a travel agent had demonstrated to them but were not comfortable downloading and using a newer app like uber [3]. the hesitation to explore new tools is driven by fear of misuse and the possible resulting consequences [3]. unfortunately, the lack of use has led to an increase in potential vulnerabilities as there is a high level of unfamiliarity [15]. 2.2. common attacks because of the understood behaviours of the senior demographic there are certain attacks that are target towards these individuals. 2.2.1. phishing attacks seniors are a prime target for phishing attacks based on their financial standing, trusting demeanor, lack of knowledge, and poor response procedures [4]. this population is typically unsuspecting of fraudulent messages as they are used to in person transactions and have a more stereotypical perception of a criminal [18]. because of elders generally trusting demeanor, they have been identified as the most susceptible target for phishing messages [19]. currently many individuals are trying to make meaningful connections using the internet which escalates the potential of being a victim to phishing [20] [21]. 2.2.2. illegitimate websites illegitimate websites can be seen as stand-alone sites, popups, or overlays of otherwise legitimate sites [22]. the malicious sites are typically showing false security alerts, giveaways, or mocking real websites [22]. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 4 elders usually have low experience interacting with obscure websites so it is unlikely they will have success identifying fraudulent websites [4]. 3. methods this work aims to investigate the knowledge and perspectives of the senior population regarding their current internet interactions. previous work has noted that firsthand information is essential to obtaining accurate data [18]. an online survey was created and distributed to a group of elders. using the data from the survey, the main knowledge gaps were identified, and a collection of useful resources was compiled. 3.1. survey of knowledge and perspectives the survey was created to gain a deeper understanding of elder’s perception of privacy and behaviour on the internet has changed during covid-19. the topics of the survey include privacy concerns, privacy attitude, perceived threat, confidence to protect self, and the cost of security [2] [14]. the categorization of the “elder demographic” has been listed as many different ages. many technologies related studies have established this age as 55, so that is the threshold used in this survey [23]. the survey was developed with each of the established concern areas as the discovery goal. the question structure asks general questions on knowledge and perception, as well as how the pandemic has changed the related behaviour. the online website qualtrics was used to assemble and share the survey to the public. when the survey completed, the results were interpreted using r for analysis and visualization. the results were interpreted using r for statistic analyses and the results are presented as percentages to maintain anonymity of the participants. the responses were recorded in multiple choice and text entry format for quantitative and qualitative analysis. 4. survey results 4.1. general information figure 1. age distribution of survey participants the survey was available to the public from november 15 to 25 of 2021 and 11 participants completed the survey. the demographics of the survey included 100% females, with ages ranging from 55-80 (fig. 1). the most common devices of the participants include laptops, smart and tablets/ ipads (fig. 2). the “other” in figure 2 are one apple watch and one smart doorbell. all participants claimed that they currently use the global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 5 internet every day and 70.8% of participants expressed that they use the internet more frequently than prior to the pandemic (tab. 2 in 7.7.2). the most common uses of the internet are to purchase goods and services, as well as watch streamed video content (fig. 3). the increase of internet purchases is most prominent for privacy related concerns. figure 2. percentage of participants that own each device participants answered that the internet is extremely beneficial to daily life and have provided personal notes stating that they have been able to learn new hobbies and make global connections using the internet. 72.7% of respondents said they do prefer to use the internet for their daily tasks, while only 9.1% said that they did not (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). some participants said that using the internet is the easiest way for them to check traffic and search for other information, as well as stay entertained while completing other activities. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 6 figure 3. change of internet use during the covid-19 pandemic 4.2. privacy attitude 100% of the survey participants said that privacy and security on the internet are absolutely to them, with many comments regarding that they prioritize keeping information safe and a high concern regarding cyber attacks (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). when visiting frequently used sites over half of the participants said that they are more willing to trust the links or information requests from that website. 45.5% said that they are somewhat more willing to trust, and 36.4% expressed that they are absolutely more willing to trust these sites (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). when asked about trusting websites that are suggested by family or peers 54.5% said that they are absolutely willing to trust, and 36.4% said that they are somewhat more likely to trust the website (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). 4.3. privacy knowledge the survey results showed that 81.8% of participants regularly update their devices, and 63.6% understand why these updates are (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). the direct feedback was very promising with many participants explaining that the updates can fix bugs and security, with one participant even explaining how patches are deployed. when asked about the diversity and strength of passwords, 72.7% said that they use both and understand the reasoning for the requirement (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). the participants expressed an understanding of preventing hackers and maintaining security. though some participants did note that it was difficult to remember all their passwords for each site. 4.4. perceived threat figure 4. perspective on potential threats global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 7 the participants of the study all expressed that they feel nervous about their privacy on the internet and face the risk of a privacy breach whenever they do share personal information (fig. 4). more than a few participants shared that they had been victim of a financial scam on the internet and are nervous of it happening again. when asked about personal knowledge of phishing scams 63.6% said that they do know what they are, and 27.3% said that they somewhat understand them (fig. 4). though only 9.1% stated that they are worried about being victim to phishing scams, with 63.3% stating that they are somewhat worried (fig. 4). 4.5. confidence to protect self looking into the participants desire to protect self, majority stated that they want to protect themselves from the potential scams (tab. 1 in 7.2.1). it was expressed that the pandemic has not changed the level of concern regarding potential scams on the internet. 54.5% said that they do not know how to verify the legitimacy of emails or messages, and only 27.3% said that they are confident in their verification methods (fig. 4). similarly, 45.5% of participants stated that they do not know how to verify the legitimacy of websites, with 18.2% sure of their verification techniques (fig. 4). some promising verification techniques were explained including immediately deleting unrecognized messages, running anti-virus software, and looking for ‘https’ in the url. participants have also used separate email accounts for sensitive accounts and ones that may be less legitimate. 4.6. expected cost of security regarding the perceived cost of privacy there are many barriers that may keep individuals from achieving their goals. when asked if internet security is personally attainable 54.5% stated that they believe it is possible, but they have not achieved it. 36.4% stated that they have achieved it, and 9.1% said that they do not believe that internet security is attainable. despite this array of answers, 100% of participants said that they would increase their security of they were provided with the resources (tab. 3 in 7.2.3). participants stated that there are both knowledge and monetary barriers keeping them from attaining internet security (tab. 3 in 7.2.3). from a list of options of potential resources 100% said that they would like access to a software that alerts to scams of viruses, 72.7% said that they would utilize education resources, and 63.6% said that laws or legislation specifically regarding the internet safety of seniors on the internet would be beneficial (tab. 3 in 7.2.3). 5. discussion there have been efforts to assist elders and protect them from cyber crime, but these measures are insufficient for proper protection [4]. for over half a century there has been a conscious effort to engage and empower older adults to learn about technology and the internet, yet there are still shortcomings [24]. many different methodologies have been proposed, and significant progress has been made. there was a high level of enthusiasm regarding the participants willingness to use the internet for their daily tasks. i believe that elders have become more adapted to using the internet compared to previous studies [2]. the results of the survey show that elders are commonly using the internet for purchasing goods or services and accessing bank and government sites. because of the high sensitivity of information associated with these tasks, there is a higher importance to better protection systems. the most prominent concerns include confidently securing online financial transactions, identifying fraudulent websites, messages and other scams, and the memory of passwords. additionally, the participants had a strong awareness of many of the threats online, global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 8 but there was an optimistic bias present that participants did not think it would happen to them. overall, participants had an impressive amount of personal knowledge and provided strong techniques that are currently used. 5.1. identifying suspicious sources a significant level of trust in family and friend recommended websites was expressed from the results of the survey. this trust is not always unwarranted, but individuals should always do some independent inspection of the site to look for malicious components. the survey results showed that participants were unfamiliar with what to look for when trying to verify websites, emails, and other messages (fig. 4.4). though navigating to a new area of the internet can be intimidating, avoiding it all together can be more dangerous. using a browser extension (7.1.2) to alert suspicious websites when browsing will provide reassurance while navigating a search page [25]. additionally, there are ways to manually verify a website. techniques include searching the url to ensure that there is an “s” in “https” or that a lock symbol in the url [26]. another tactic is to take a moment to really look at what is on the website. poor grammar or low-quality logos are a good indication that the website is fraudulent [26]. when verifying the legitimacy of an email or message it is important to take a step back and consider what the content is. typically, if a message is “too good to be true”, it is not true [27]. if someone receives a suspicious message from a known or unknown contact, it is wise for them to contact that person or company via a different method [27]. for example, if a friend suddenly emails begging for thousands of dollars for an emergency, it is smart to use another platform, such as calling to confirm their identity. during financial transactions it is especially important to understand that relatives and banks usually do not put an intense time pressure on individuals. if there is a short time-period given with the message, it is most likely fraudulent [27]. a collection of useful resources to learn more about identifying and responding to scams on the internet can be found in section 7.1.1. many of the participants explained that they are aware of scams, but there was a drastic difference in responses when asked about the worry of the scam happening to them. figure 4.4 shows how the proportion shifts between knowledge of scams and the idea of it happening to them. this optimistic bias is a major downfall as it suggests people may not take their privacy as serious as they claim [28]. though participants claimed that privacy is a concern there is still a nuance that the attack won’t happen to them. in the future i hope to see similar results to those questions but driven by an increase of confidence to protect oneself. 5.2. securing financial transactions contradictory to the optimistic outlook many of the participants expressed that they had been victim to a financial scam. these breaches can occur from many different attacks such as phishing, fake transfers, or even physically stealing your card [29]. to prevent the attack there are an array of methods that can be taken such as using prepaid cards, or a middleman such as paypal [30] [31]. a prepaid card acts almost exactly as a credit card does and can be used for online transactions without having to share your real banking information. though there are some fees involved this method can be beneficial, especially for unfamiliar websites. another option for secure payment or transfer is a middleman tool that encrypts your banking information and limits the amount of accessible funds. these tools are listed in 7.1.3. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 9 in the case of a successful breach, it is important that the user has no liability for the unauthorized charges [29]. if you are using your banking card online, it is important to contact your financial institutions and inquire about this feature. 5.3. password security the survey showed that many participants did use strong and diverse passwords, but some did have difficulty remembering each of them. one participant said that they use mostly numerical passwords for security, but this may be more difficult to remember. using a tool such as a password manager can be very beneficial for maintaining accounts. password managers securely encrypt all sensitive information that is needed to login to a site [32]. the password manager also has capabilities of generating long and complex passwords when registering for a new account or updating current accounts [32]. this information is locked in the secure vault and can only be accessed using a master key [32]. by having the password manager in place, the user only has to remember one password but maintains the security that a diverse set of passwords provides. some recommended password managers are listed in 7.1.2. 5.4. learning tools many respondents of the survey said that they struggled with the monetary barrier of ensuring security. many operating systems offer a free built-in firewall, but some need to be installed and enabled [33]. learning how to enable and effectively use these can be a challenge for some elders. a group of technological women realized they were spending countless hours teaching older adults to develop their computer skills [34]. this team developed a website where volunteers offer tutorials and live help sessions to teach computer topics to elders (7.1.4). overall, there have been many developments in resources and tools to assist all people and seniors in achieving privacy and security while on the internet. some legislation has been established to penalize cyber criminals, but these efforts had little effect [20]. there is such a rapid change in technology and tools, that legislation and other protective measures may not be able to keep and maintain protection. the best way to protect elders is by providing a strong education so they can use their devices confidently [4]. previous research has provided feedback stating that elders do want to learn how to use new apps and services but feel like they have a lack of resources for learning how to use them so avoid them all together [3]. by increasing awareness and providing trustworthy tools will encourage elders to become more involved in the technology world. there will never be an absolute way to ensure security but encouraging a privacy mindset promotes users’ success [35]. 6. conclusions since the beginning of the pandemic, we have seen major changes in peoples’ interaction and reliance on technology. though the world has moved to a more technology integrated atmosphere, elders have had little opportunity to make the necessary adaptations. it is difficult to make accurate assumptions about a demographic we are not a part of. to assist the senior demographic in their transition into the evolving technology landscape it is necessary to understand where their needs lay. getting direct feedback from this demographic allowed for genuine understanding of the knowledge gaps that need attention. the results of the survey show that this demographic has a great foundational knowledge of using the internet and governing their privacy and security. the most prominent obstacle is the lack of awareness of the tools that are available for elders to ensure their privacy and security global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 10 on the internet. promoting the conversation of the resources available and the need for them will increase awareness of the subject and give more opportunity for involvement. individual’s will be able to build their confidence to protect themselves with the utilization of the tools provided. once user confidence is built, i expect that this demographic will be able to adapt to current technology trends and ultimately thrive in the digital environment. 6.1. future work the survey group in this project provided valuable information regarding the current knowledge gaps of the elder demographic. future research could further explore this demographic by involving a larger sample with a more diverse range of participants. this study would provide deeper insight to more specific needs of seniors using technology. deploying a large-scale project could bring more attention to the actual needs of seniors and provide developers with the incentive and necessary topics needed to build a comprehensive site for seniors. the development of one platform that encompasses the information and attributes of the previously listed resources would be extremely beneficial for educating the senior demographic. incorporating personal connection into learning platforms would also restore some normalcy to the participants learning style. for example, in an online class for technology education it would be interesting to see a feature that allows the participants to connect with other students to discuss their takeaways from the lesson and further deepen their knowledge. a system that connects similar participants for collaborative engagement in a e-learning environment would be extremely beneficial in this setting. additionally, investigation into what the technologic landscape will look like after the pandemic would be an interesting topic for further work. many of the newly created interfaces may be abandoned and left with copious amounts of personal information. a study on personal information management techniques would compliment the resource suggestions in this work. 7. appendix 7.1. resource topics and links 7.1.1. identifying scams • senior fraud protection kit this document includes some information about why seniors are targeted for attacks, as well as a check list for identifying a scam and a plan of action in the case of an incident. https://www.caregiverstress.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/1 seniors fraud protection kit_ us.pdf • internet safety guide for seniors this blog post discusses phishing, password theft, social media scams, and banking fraud. https://www.safetydetectives.com/blog/the-ultimate-internet-safety-guide-for-seniors/ • the little black book of scams the author explains that “knowledge is power” and understanding these concepts can help improve personal security. https://www.competitionbureau.gc.ca/eic/site/cb-bc.nsf/eng/04333.html • seniors’ guide to staying cyber safe during covid-19 this brochure includes some techniques for making secure passwords as well as scam avoidance and response. https://www.getcybersafe.gc.ca/en/resources/seniors-guide-staying-cyber-safeduring-covid-19 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 11 • recent scams and fraud a lists of scams currently targeting individuals and businesses that are sorted by delivery mechanisms as well as information of procedures if you are a victim. https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm 7.1.2. security tools • 1password the most intuitive password manager and has the option to schedule a demonstration of its functions, though this does come with a monthly fee. https://1password.com/ • bitdefender a free alternative is bitwarden, which only requests an annual fee when you choose to upgrade to apremium package. https://bitwarden.com/ • bitdefender traffic light a free browser extension that scans the pages you visit for malware and phishing attempts. https://www.bitdefender.com/solutions/trafficlight.html 7.1.3. securing online payments • visa reloadable prepaid cards these cards have the zero-liability feature that ensures compensation in the event of an unauthorized transaction. https://www.visa.ca/en ca/pay-with-visa/cards/prepaid-cards.html • paypal securely send money to other users or complete online transactions with services to help remediate fraudulent transactions. paypal.com/ca/home 7.1.4. learning new tools • connected canadians this organization provides a wide array of groups and individual help sessions, covering many topics. https://www.connectedcanadians.ca/ 7.2. survey results 7.2.1. yes/no questions \ https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm https://antifraudcentre-centreantifraude.ca/index-eng.htm global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 12 table 1. general results from the survey global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 13 7.2.2. internet use and recent changes table 2. frequency of internet use and influence from the pandemic 7.2.3. future resources table 3. feedback on the future of privacy and security resources acknowledgements the authors would like to thank everyone that participated in the survey as well as the family members that inspired this research! references m. myint, “safestart: simplifying technology for seniors,” 2020 intern reports, apr. 2020. available: https://digitalcommons.imsa.edu/intern_reports_2020/31 chakraborthy, rajarshi, s. bagchi-sen, rao, r. h, upadhyaya, andshambhu, “an exploration of security and privacy behavior of elders on the internet and comparison with younger adults,” wisp 2012 proceedings., p. 16, 2012. https://digitalcommons.imsa.edu/intern_reports_2020/31 https://digitalcommons.imsa.edu/intern_reports_2020/31 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 14 m. shirgaokar, “expanding seniors’ mobility through phone apps: potential responses from the private and public sectors,” journal of planning education and research, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 405– 415, 2020, publisher: sage publications inc. e. l. carlson, “phishing for elderly victims: as the elderly migrate to the internet fraudulent schemes targeting them follow note,” elder law journal, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 423–452, 2006. f. molloy, “the teachers experience of practice-based education in hybrid delivery mode,” international journal on integrating technology in education (ijite), vol. 10, no. 4, art. no. 4, dec. 2021, doi: 10.5121/ijite.2021.10401. g. yaw koi-akrofi, e. owusu-oware, and h. tanye, “challenges of distance, blended, and online learning: a literature based approach,” ijite, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 27–39, dec. 2020, doi: 10.5121/ijite.2020.9403. kuy, tsai, raymond, bhatt, jaychu, q. d., g. pritesh, gupta, rohit, gupta, reshma, hole, m. k., hsu, b. s., hughes, l. s., l. jarvis, s. jha, a. annamalai, m. kotwal, j. v. sakran, s. vohra, t. l. henry, and c. ricardo, “focusing on vulnerable populations during covid-19,” academic medicine, p. 10.1097/acm.0000000000003571, 2020. hagerty and williams, “the impact of covid-19 on mental health: the interactive roles of brain biotypes and human connection,” brain, behavior, & immunity health, vol. 5, p.100078, 2020. s. kohli, b. timelin, v. fabius, and s. m. veranen, “how covid-19 is changing consumer behavior –now and forever,” p. 6. a. haleem, m. javaid, and r. vaishya, “effects of covid-19 pandemic in daily life,” curr med res pract, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 78–79, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.cmrp.2020.03.011. a. p. sethi and r. subramoniam, “use of technology in education, but at what cost?,” ijite, vol. 08, no. 01, pp. 13–18, mar. 2019, doi: 10.5121/ijite.2019.8102. s. c. government of canada. internet use and covid-19: how the pandemic increased the amount of time canadians spend online. last modified: 2021-06-24. available: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm m. j. kim, w. g. kim, j. m. kim, and c. kim, “does knowledge matter to seniors’ usage of mobile devices? focusing on motivation and attachment,” international journal of contemporary hospitality management, vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 1702–1727, 2016, publisher: emerald group publishing limited. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00027-eng.htm global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 15 sheng, xiaojing, simpson, and p. m., “seniors, health information, and the internet: motivation, ability, and internet knowledge,” cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 740–746, 2013, publisher: mary ann liebert, inc., publishers. s. c. government of canada. evolving internet use among canadian seniors. last modified: 2019-07-10. available: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2019015eng.htm[16]k. zickuhr and m. madden, “older adults and internet use,” pew research center, p. 23, 2012. e. m. suh, “culture, identity consistency, and subjective wellbeing.”journal of personality and social psychology, vol. 83,no. 6, p. 1378, 2002, publisher: us: american psychological association. r. chakraborty, r. rao, v. sankaranarayanan, and s. upadhyaya, “mediated internet experience for senior citizens,” cyberpsychol behav soc netw., p. 11, 2008. t. lin, d. e. capecci, d. m. ellis, h. a. rocha, s. dommaraju, d. s. oliveira, and n. c. ebner,“susceptibility to spear-phishing emails: effects of internet user demographics and email content,” acm trans comput hum interact., vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 32:1–32:28, 2019. m. s. clark, r. oullette, m. c. powell, and s. milberg, “recipient’s mood, relationship type, and helping.” journal of personality and social psychology, vol. 53, no. 1, p. 94, 1987, publisher: us: american psychological association. x. li, m. zhou, j. wu, a. yuan, f. wu, and j. li, “analyzing covid-19 on online social media: trends, sentiments and emotions,” arxiv:2005.14464 [cs], 2020 what are scam websites and how to avoid scam websites. section: resource center. available: https://www.kaspersky.com/resourcecenter/preemptive-safety/scam-websites c. w. phang, y. li, j. sutanto, and a. kankanhalli, “senior citizens’ adoption of e-government: in quest of the antecedents of perceived usefulness,” in proceedings of the 38th annual hawaii international conference on system sciences, 2020, pp. 130a–130a, issn: 1530-1605. [24]c. c. sharpe, online resources for senior citizens. mcfarland, 2003, bitdefender trafficlight free add-on for secure web browsing. available: https://www.bitdefender.com/solutions/trafficlight.html?sm id=siteshare 11 ways to check if a website is legit or trying to scam you | home bank of california. available: https://www.hbc.bank/11-ways-to-check-if-a-website-is-legit-or-trying-to-scam-you/ scam alert: that text from your bank about possible fraud may not be from your bank. section: newschannel 5 investigates. available: https://www.newschannel5.com/news/newschannel-5investigates/scamalert-that-text-from-your-bank-about-possible-fraud-may\\-not-be-from-yourbank “it won’t happen to me”: the optimism bias. available:https://ekuonline.eku.edu/blog/psychology/optimism-bias/ https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2019015-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2019015-eng.htm https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2019015-eng.htm https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/scam-websites global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 16 a. white. here’s how credit card fraud happens and tips to protect yourself. section: select: resources. available: https://www.cnbc.com/select/credit-card-fraud/ prepaid credit cards. [online]. available: https://www.visa.ca/en ca/pay-withvisa/cards/prepaidcards.html send money, pay online or set up a merchant account -paypalca. available: https://www.paypal.com/ca/webapps/mpp/home m. fukumitsu, s. hasegawa, j.-y. iwazaki, m. sakai, and d. takahashi, “a proposal of a password manager satisfying security and usability by using the secret sharing and a personal server,” in 2016 ieee 30th international conference on advanced information networking and applications (aina), 2016, pp. 661–668, issn: 1550-445x. j. mora. best antivirus software protection for seniors (2021). available: https://dailyhomesafety.com/antivirus-for-seniors/connected canadians. available: https://www.connectedcanadians.ca r. gross and a. acquisti, “information revelation and privacy in online social networks,” in proceedings of the 2005 acm workshop on privacy in the electronic society, ser. wpes ’05. association for computing machinery, 2005, pp. 71–80. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 8; august-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 15 throwing body mechanics and well-being among discus throwing students 1li zhuowei article info abstract keywords: throwing body mechanics, well-being, discus throw doi 10.5281/zenodo.13600146 this study investigated body mechanics, psychological well-being, and discus throw performance of 154 university students enrolled in a physical education (pe) course at a university in china during the first semester of ay 2023–2024. a nonrandomized selection process was employed to ensure that participants met predetermined criteria, including enrollment in a pe course involving discus throwing, absence of health conditions, and a minimum trial throw of 20 meters. the majority of participants were male, aged between 18 and 21 years, and comprised sophomores from various schools within the university. a descriptive analysis of students’ throwing body mechanics revealed a proficient performance level based on the assessed indicators: holding the discus (advanced), approach (proficient), throwing (proficient), and follow-through motion (proficient). students exhibited moderate agreement with statements related to psychological well-being dimensions, indicating room for improvement. the discus throws performance of students demonstrated good performance but with notable variability among individual performances. a correlational analysis revealed significant associations between throwing body mechanics and discus throw performance, psychological well-being, and discus throw performance, and throwing body mechanics and psychological well-being. these findings underscore the importance of holistic approaches to student development, emphasizing both physical and psychological aspects. targeted interventions aimed at enhancing throwing techniques and promoting psychological well-being could optimize discus throw performance and overall student well-being. this study provides valuable insights for educators and practitioners seeking to 1 adamson university graduate school https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 16 optimize athletic performance and holistic student development in university settings. 1. introduction introduced in ancient greece as early as 708 bc, the discus throw is one of the most popular track and field events. it is a sport in which an individual throws a heavy disc (the discus) as far as possible. it is a complex movement that requires a combination of physical strength, technique, coordination, and body mechanics. several studies have investigated how variables like angle, velocity, and body positioning affect discus throw performance. similarly, numerous studies have revealed the significance of well-being and mental health in optimizing athlete potential and promoting holistic health. however, the relationship among all these important variables remains to be fully explored, particularly concerning non-athletes. considering physical education students performing discus throws as part of their course, what is the relationship between their discus throw performance and their well-being? how do body mechanics affect throwing performance? exploring these questions could help uncover more innovative ways to maximize student potential and encourage healthy lifestyles. 1.1. background of the study apart from well-being, which is a psychological component, it is commonly acknowledged that the interaction between athletes and their body mechanics when throwing has a significant influence on their overall performance (frossard, 2012). body mechanics encompasses various parameters, including the movement patterns, coordination, and biomechanical principles involved in executing an effective discus throw. proper body mechanics optimize energy transfer, generate power, and ensure efficient energy transfer. numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the body mechanics, techniques, and technical tasks associated with discus throwing, with the aim of optimizing athletes’ performance and overall success in sports. more specifically, biomechanical analyses have been conducted in recent years, focusing on different parameters, such as kinematic and kinetic variables like release angle, speed, and body positioning, which affect performance. frossard et al. (2012) examined foot and body positioning and found that these two characteristics are essential mechanics in discus throwing. tangkudung (2015) examined the relationship between arm muscle explosive power, body core flexibility, achievement motivation, and discus throw skill and found that there was a positive relationship among the variables. maeda (2018) focused on hip-shoulder and shoulder arm separation angles. hirose et al. (2017) analyzed the load characteristics of the discus, and (maeda 2021) also examined motion factors like angle and velocity in discus throwing. however, these studies have predominantly focused on athletes, highlighting the need for further exploration of throwing body mechanics in the context of non-athlete learning and discus throwing. there is a need for more evidence about the relationship among throwing body mechanics, psychological well-being, and discus throw performance. a discus throw can be performed in a standing position, but better performance can be achieved when the discus is thrown following a turn. detailed analysis of the throwing technique allows us to divide the discus throw into five phases: preparation—a double support phase; entry—a single support phase on the left foot; airborne phase (after the left foot breaks contact with the support); transition—a single support phase on the right foot (which ends as the left foot touches the ground) and delivery—a double support phase, which ends at release of the discus (shestakov, 2019). well-being has gained increasing recognition as a significant global public health concern, according to motevalli (2022). eren and kilic (2017) pointed out that recent research has shifted its focus from solely addressing the global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 17 absence of psychiatric conditions like anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. instead, there is a growing emphasis on psychological well-being, which encompasses broader aspects such as happiness, pleasure, positivity, pain avoidance, and overall well-being. moreover, the literature has emphasized the importance of exploring factors that contribute to the well-being and sports performance of young athletes (oliveira, 2022). the following describes several studies related to well-being and sports. athletes, despite their role as sport performers, are fundamental human beings whose physical, mental, and social well-being directly impacts their overall health (giles et al., 2020). the well-being and mental health of athletes are crucial for their development and performance (schinke et al., 2018). by and large, studying well-being in sports is of great importance because it offers valuable insights into the factors that contribute to athletes’ holistic health, satisfaction, and overall quality of life, thereby influencing their performance and success in sports. furthermore, understanding the relationship between well-being and sports can guide the development of interventions and strategies that support athletes’ well-being and foster their long-term physical and psychological well-being. 1.2. statement of the problem this research explored body mechanics and well-being in the context of discus throwing in physical education classes. specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: 1. what is the level of psychological well-being of students learning the discus throw? 2. how did the students perform in the discus throw? 3. is there a significant relationship between throwing body mechanics and discus throw performance in students? 4. is there a significant relationship between psychological well-being and discus throw performance? 5. is there a significant relationship between throwing body mechanics and students’ psychological wellbeing? 1.3. significance of the study this study aimed to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by investigating the relationships among discus throw performance, well-being, and body mechanics among students performing discus throwing as part of their course. the findings are expected to benefit these stakeholders: students and student-athletes: understanding proper techniques and body mechanics can improve students’ performance and increase their chances of success in physical education classes or competitions. furthermore, knowledge about the relationship between discus throw and well-being can help students and athletes maintain optimal physical and mental health, leading to a better overall sporting experience. physical education instructors, coaches, and trainers: physical education instructors, coaches, and trainers play a vital role in the development and training of students and athletes in sport, specifically discus throw. this study on body mechanics and well-being will provide valuable insights that instructors, trainers, and coaches can use to refine training programs, design effective exercise regimens, and prevent injuries. moreover, the knowledge gained from this study can help coaches better support athletes under guidance and maximize their potential. sports institutions and organizations: athletic associations and other sports institutions and organizations can benefit from research on discus throw, body mechanics, and overall well-being. the findings of this study can inform the development of training and injury prevention strategies and contribute to the overall growth and success of discus throw as a sport. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 18 academic institutions and future researchers: this research is expected to contribute to body mechanics, performance optimization, and well-being. it can also provide a foundation for further research and innovation in these areas. 1.4. scope and delimitation the study focused on discus throws as the chosen athletic event and examined how performance in this sport relates to student well-being and body mechanics. the study involved students at a university in china performing discus throws as part of their pe course. data were collected during the first semester of ay 2023–2024. additionally, the data relied on self-report measures of psychological well-being; thus, there are likely limitations related to self-reporting as biases and subjectivity may be present. psychological well-being touches on autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relationships with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. furthermore, throwing body mechanics was observed and scored using an observational protocol; thus, observer subjectivity may be present. the system had four indicators—holding, approach, throwing, and following through motion. the discus throw performance in this study is referred to the distance reached when the discus is thrown in the field; it does not include the accuracy of the throw or the technique of the thrower. 1.5. theoretical framework this study uses ryff’s six-factor model of psychological well-being with a few modifications. this model provides a comprehensive theoretical framework for investigating the positive functioning of individuals— adolescents or adults. the model proposes that psychological well-being is best assessed by six core components: self-acceptance, positive relationships with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose. according to the scholarly community encyclopedia (2023), each criterion in the ryff inventory provides a specific definition, example statement, and measure as follows: autonomy: high scores suggest that individuals can rely on themselves to fulfill their goals, regardless of external assistance. a corresponding example statement would be “i have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the consensus.” environmental mastery: high scores indicate respondents’ capacity to adjust to different situations and take advantage of opportunities. a proficient individual in this area will have the ability to control his/her life and work toward his/her own goals “in general, i feel i am in charge of the situation in which i live.” personal growth: high scores indicate that respondents embrace new experiences, notice their own evolution, and value self-improvement. an example of this is as follows: “i think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think about yourself and the world.” positive relations with others: high scores indicate that the individual is involved in relationships that are characterized by mutual understanding, close connection, and love. an example statement for this criterion is “people would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others.” purpose in life: high scores reflect respondents’ focus on their ambitions and belief that life has significance. an example of this criterion is “some people wander aimlessly through life, but i am not one of them.” self-acceptance: high scores reflect the respondent's positive attitude about himself or herself. an example statement for this criterion is “i like most aspects of my personality.” in addition, this study uses jarver’s model (2014) to assess one’s body movement and coordination during discus throw. the model provides an assessment rubric in which a set of evaluation criteria is composed of relevant theories ranging from grasping the discus to the further stages after the throw (jarver, 2014), which have been corroborated by past studies (sinulingga, 2018). the process is done in four steps: the student gets ready sideways, global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 19 circles the disc in a certain attitude, gets into a prefix attitude, throws the disc, and finally releases it from the hand. after this, the student has three chances to throw the disc, and failure is indicated if the thrower is outside the predetermined area or the disc does not land on a specified sector. 2. methodology this chapter presents the research method used in this study. 2.1. research locale changsha university of science and technology is a multi-disciplinary university focusing on engineering, with coordinated development of engineering, science, management, economics, literature, law, philosophy, art, and other disciplines, with undergraduate and graduate education as its main body, and with post-doctoral research mobile stations, doctoral degree awarding rights, and master’s promotion rights. the school is an advanced grassroots party organization in china, a national university under the “central and western university basic capacity construction project,” one of the first batch of “top 50 national universities with typical experience in innovation and entrepreneurship,” a “domestic first class university construction university” (class a) in hunan province, a model unit for civilization in hunan province, and a demonstration school for hunan province’s rule of law schools. 2.2. sample and sampling technique the researcher considered students currently enrolled in physical education classes at changsha university of science and technology, his home university, during the first semester of ay 2023-2024. there were nine pe classes that the researcher was handling, with an estimated 35-40 students per class. these pe students came from different schools within the university: the school of mathematics, school of hydraulic engineering, school of economics and management, and school of engineering. a nonrandomized selection with prespecified inclusion and exclusion criteria was used to recruit participants in this study. to qualify, students had to meet the following requirements: (1) be currently enrolled in a pe course that included discus throwing during the data collection period, (2) have no existing health conditions, and (3) pass the screening trial by throwing the discus at least 20 meters in the field. 2.3. data gathering procedure the researcher submitted a formal request to changsha university of science and technology to obtain permission to conduct the study. once approval was obtained, the researcher personally communicated with potential participants regarding their anticipated involvement in the data collection process. the participants then underwent a screening process to ensure they met the predetermined criteria. this research occurred during the first semester of ay 2023-2024. the pwbs questionnaire was transformed into an electronic version using the google forms platform. subsequently, the researcher administered the pwbs questionnaire to the eligible participants. separately, a designated performance day was scheduled to evaluate the participants’ throwing body mechanics (movement and coordination) and their discus throw performance. the assessment of throwing body mechanics was conducted by a researcher or discus throw observer using the electronic body mechanics assessment rubric (bmar) tool. the process for assessing the throwing body mechanics involved four steps: the student got ready sideways, circle-holding the disc in a certain attitude, got into a prefix attitude, threw the disc, and finally released it from the hand. this was carefully observed before the three discus throw attempts. each student had three attempts to throw the discus, and any failure was noted if the thrower landed outside of the predetermined area or if the discus did not land within the specified sector. the distance achieved in each discus throw (in feet and inches) was measured, scored, and recorded using an electronic scoring sheet. for the global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 20 discus throw performance of the students, the best score (longest distance thrown) achieved from the three attempts was considered. all data were aggregated, summarized, and analyzed for final output. 2.4. statistical analysis the researcher used spss version 26 to conduct descriptive analysis to examine the distribution, central tendency, and variability of the variables; calculated correlation coefficients to assess the strength and direction of the relationships among discus throw performance, well-being, and body mechanics; and explored any potential patterns or trends in the data. in summary, the researcher employed the following statistical tools and treatments based on the research questions: rq 1: throwing body mechanics (tbm) mean and standard deviation rq 2: psychological wellbeing (pwb) mean and standard deviation rq 3: discus throw performance (dtp) mean and standard deviation rq 4: relationship between tbm and dtp: pearson r rq 5: relationship between pwb and dtp pearson r rq 6: relationship between tbm and pwb pearson r using a significance level of 0.05, the analysis of the hypotheses was carried out, and the findings were interpreted in light of the research questions and objectives. students’ scores for the three variables were made unidirectional for correlational analysis to facilitate interpretation. that is, their scores from the pwb scale were reverse-coded so that “high” scores would correspond to higher values on the scale of 1 to 8, mirroring the scale system of the two other variables. the observed relationships between the variables were explored, and the type of relationship (positive, negative, or non-significant) was determined. potential explanations that may explain the relationships between the variables were also considered. 3. results and analysis this section presents the results of the collected, analyzed, and interpreted data according to the problem statements. psychological well-being of student discus throwers this study relied on self-reported measures of psychological well-being (pwb) using the psychological wellbeing scale (pwbs). the pwbs questionnaire was transformed into an electronic version using the google forms platform. subsequently, the researcher administered the pwbs questionnaire to the eligible participants. the pwbs includes six aspects: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relationships with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. overall psychological well-being table 1 underlines students’ overall scores on the psychological well-being scale, indicating the six subscales and their corresponding statistical summaries. table 1. students’ self-acceptance subscale scores subscale mean score standard deviation qualitative description rank autonomy 3.01 1.64 a little agree 1 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 21 environmental mastery 3.46 1.77 a little agree 5 personal growth 3.19 1.90 a little agree 2 positive relations with others 3.23 1.81 a little agree 3 purpose in life 3.46 1.72 a little agree 6 self-acceptance 3.29 1.68 a little agree 4 average 3.27 a little agree legend: 1.00–1.50 strongly agree; 1.51–2.50 somewhat agree; 2.51–3.50 little agree; 3.51–4.50 neither agree nor disagree; 4.51–5.50 little disagree; 5.51–6.50 somewhat disagree; 6.51–7.00 strongly disagree the analysis of student participants’ scores on various subscales of psychological well-being provides valuable insights into their overall psychological health and adjustment. the average mean score across all subscales was 3.27, with a standard deviation ranging from 1.64 to 1.90, indicating a moderate level of psychological wellbeing. although all subscales received a response of “a little agree” from the students, it is evident that students believe they have autonomy in their lives, as indicated by their highest mean score. they also strongly value selfgrowth, followed by positive relationships with others, self-acceptance, and environmental mastery. on the other hand, their sense of purpose in life received the lowest mean score. across the individual subscales, students tended to express a moderate level of agreement with statements related to different aspects of psychological well-being. specifically, they reported a moderate level of agreement with statements related to autonomy (m = 3.01), environmental mastery (m = 3.46), personal growth (m = 3.19), positive relations with others (m = 3.23), purpose in life (m = 3.46), and self-acceptance (m = 3.29). students generally reported a moderate level of agreement with statements related to different aspects of their psychological well-being. they felt they had some degree of autonomy, control over their environment, personal growth, positive relationships, a sense of purpose, and self-acceptance. however, the responses indicate that students do not strongly endorse these aspects of well-being, suggesting room for improvement in various areas. overall, although the student participants demonstrated a moderate level of psychological well-being, there may be areas where interventions and support services could be targeted to enhance specific aspects of well-being, such as promoting autonomy, fostering positive relationships, and facilitating personal growth. this insight underscores the importance of holistic approaches to student well-being that address multiple dimensions of psychological health and functioning. as mentioned by fruchart (2020), the findings of this study can aid health educators and health promotion specialists in developing individual sports programs that promote feelings of well-being. additionally, it suggests the necessity for educators to consider individuals and the importance of the feeling of competence, affiliation, autonomy, and vitality in promoting sports to fight ill-being. this is consistent with haan et al.’s (2021) study, which emphasizes the importance of proactive engagement with professional athletes, coaches, trainers, and sports councils. engagement is essential for promoting understanding and awareness, optimizing processes, and providing consistent training, psychosocial support and occupational therapy programs. these efforts are crucial for maintaining the health and well-being of athletes while reducing their occupational stress. discus throwing performance the discus throw performance was solely based on the distance achieved when the discus was thrown in the field, excluding considerations of throw accuracy and the technique of the thrower. a designated performance day was scheduled for discus throw. each student had three attempts to throw the discus, and any failure was noted if the thrower landed outside of the predetermined area or if the discus did not land within the specified sector. the distance achieved in each discus throw (in meters) was measured, scored, and recorded using a spreadsheet. for the discus throw global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 22 performance of the students, the best score (longest distance thrown) achieved from the three attempts was considered. to qualitatively describe discus throw performance among students, the following matrix for throw performance in pe classes was used. scores (distance in meters) qualitative description above 40 elite 36.01–40.00 excellent 32.01–36.00 excellent 28.01–32.00 good 24.01–28.00 average 20.01–24.00 below average below 20 unsatisfactory table 2 presents the students’ mean scores and other summary measures from their discus throw performance. table 2. students’ discus throw performance scores n minimum maximum mean std. deviation discus throwing performance 154 21.35 35.88 29.39 2.90 as shown in table 2, the descriptive analysis of discus throw performance revealed the students’ mean score of 29.39 meters (sd = 2.90), which was within the “good” category. this suggests that, on average, discus throw performance is good. however, the range of scores extends from “below average” to “excellent,” which indicates several performance levels among students. the standard deviation of 2.90 meters indicates that there is moderate variability in the students’ performances. this suggests that while the mean performance is “good,” there are considerable differences among individual students’ performances, with some students achieving scores that are significantly higher or lower than the mean. differing from other prior studies in terms of participants, the findings of the study offer a unique perspective by investigating the discus throw performance of non-elite discus throwers, specifically chinese students. most previous research has focused on athletes ranging from advanced to elite levels. for instance, frossard’s studies (2012 & 2014) involved elite discus throwers at the 2002 ipc athletics world championships, while kollias (2012) investigated techniques used by elite male discus throwers. maeda’s research compared the performances of world elite and japanese discus throwers. this study is particularly significant because it addresses the performance of students aspiring to become elite discus throwers, highlighting substantial room for improvement. this approach not only expands the scope of discus throwing research and provides valuable insights for coaches and trainers working with non-elite athletes. by focusing on these demographics, the study underscores the importance of tailored training programs that can help aspire athletes realize their potential and progress toward elite performance. relationship between body mechanics and discus throw performance table 3 presents the results of the correlation analysis conducted between the pair of variables: throwing body mechanics and discus throw performance. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 23 table 3. correlation between students’ body mechanics and discus throw performance variables throwing body mechanics discus throwing performance interpretation decision h0 throwing body mechanics pearson correlation 1 0.458* significant reject sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 n 154 154 discus throwing performance pearson correlation 0.458* 1 significant reject sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 n 154 154 *. correlation was significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). using pearson correlation analysis, the results revealed a significant positive relationship between throwing body mechanics and discus throw performance (r = .458, p < .05). the null hypothesis was rejected at a significance level of 5%. hence, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant relationship between discus throw performance and throwing body mechanics among students. specifically, the finding indicates a moderate positive correlation between the students’ proficiency in throwing body mechanics and their discus throw performance scores. throwing body mechanics play a crucial role in optimizing the execution of discus throws. proficiency in throwing body mechanics, including holding the discus, approaching, throwing, and following through, is essential for generating power and accuracy in the throw. the significant, moderately positive correlation suggests that students who exhibit better throwing body mechanics tend to achieve higher discus throw performance scores. the findings of this study are related to those of tangkudung et al. (2015), who demonstrated that explosive power in the arm muscles, a key biomechanical parameter, significantly enhances discus throwing skills. however, this study’s approach to evaluating discus throw performance using four specific throwing indicators differs somewhat from the parameters used in previous studies. for example, chen (2021) examined motion (velocity) for correcting the jumping throwing technique, while maeda et al. (2020) investigated motion factors such as weight shift, velocity acquisition, leg sweeping, hip and shoulder rotations, trunk twisting and untwisting, and velocity acquisition and extension of the knees, all of which directly or indirectly influence the velocities achieved by various body segments. additionally, alhumaid and atta (2022) analyzed the kinematic and kinetic characteristics of discus throwing at the paralympic games for the f33 category. despite these differences, all of these studies converge on one point: these biomechanical parameters positively impact the performance of discus throwers. relationship between psychological well-being and disc throw performance table 4 shows the results of the correlation analysis conducted between the pair of variables: psychological wellbeing and discus throw performance. table 4. correlation between students’ psychological well-being and discus throw performance global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 24 variables psychological well-being discus throwing performance interpretation decision h0 psychological wellbeing pearson correlation 1 0.716* significant reject sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 n 154 154 discus throwing performance pearson correlation 0.716* 1 significant reject sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 n 154 154 *. correlation was significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). using pearson correlation analysis, the results revealed a strong positive relationship between psychological wellbeing and discus throw performance (r = .716, p < .05). the null hypothesis was rejected at a significance level of 5%. hence, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant relationship between discus throw performance and the psychological well-being of students. specifically, the finding indicates that students with higher levels of psychological well-being tend to exhibit better discus throwing scores. the strong positive relationship found in this study between well-being and sports performance, such as discus throwing, aligns with literature indicating that one’s sports performance is influenced by their psychological wellbeing. one possible explanation for the strong correlation observed in this study is the role of psychological factors in facilitating effective skill execution and technique refinement. students who experience higher levels of psychological well-being may be better equipped to overcome performance obstacles, adapt to changing conditions, and maintain consistency in their throwing mechanics. as noted by schinke et al. (2018, cited in oleviera, 2022), well-being and mental health are key components of the development and performance of athletes. as fruchart (2020) confirmed, a positive relationship between sport and well-being has been established in young people and adults of all ages. oliveira (2022) reported that athletes with higher levels of social safety tend to exhibit higher psychological well-being and perceived performance, which can be attributed to lower levels of self-criticism. in addition, positive psychological states such as confidence, motivation, and focus enhance athletes’ ability to perform optimally under pressure. in the context of discus throwing, psychological well-being may contribute to improved concentration, reduced anxiety, and increased resilience, all critical factors for successful discus throwing. these findings underscore the critical role psychological well-being plays in enhancing sports performance. coaches, trainers, and athletes themselves should prioritize their well-being in addition to rigid physical training. relationship between throwing body mechanics and psychological well-being table 5 presents the results of the correlation analysis conducted between the pair of variables: psychological well-being and throwing body mechanics. table 5. correlation between students’ psychological well-being and their throwing body mechanics variables psychological well-being throwing body mechanics interpretation decision h0 psychological wellbeing pearson correlation 1 0.673* significant reject global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 25 sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 n 154 154 throwing body mechanics pearson correlation 0.673* 1 significant reject sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 n 154 154 *. correlation was significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). using the pearson correlation analysis, the results revealed a significant positive relationship between psychological well-being and throwing body mechanics (r = .673, p < .05). the null hypothesis was rejected at a significance level of 5%. hence, there is enough evidence to conclude that there is a significant relationship between throwing body mechanics and the psychological well-being of students. specifically, the finding indicates that students with higher levels of psychological well-being tend to exhibit better proficiency in throwing body mechanics. the connection between psychological factors and physical performance has been extensively studied in sport psychology. psychological well-being encompasses aspects such as confidence, focus, and emotional resilience, all of which can influence an athlete’s ability to execute complex motor skills effectively. in the context of throwing body mechanics, positive psychological states may lead to improved coordination, precision, and fluidity in movement. references aguinaga san josé, i., martinez-pampliega, a., santamaría, t., and merino ramos, l. 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(2022). kinematic diagnosis of the throwing motion of chinese elite female discus athletes preparing for the tokyo olympic games. journal of environmental and public health. volume 2022. doi: 10.1155/2022/3334225 http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1875399x-v15-e2208101 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203123355.ch41 https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13020093 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3334225 global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 29 influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone rev.fr. barr onubuleze franklin kelechi (ph.d) department of educational management, faculty of education, enugu state university of science and technology (esut) enugu, nigeria keywords: school environment, academic performance, adequate infrastructure, quality of teachers abstract this study examined the influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. the design of the study was a descriptive survey. three research questions and three null hypotheses were formulated and also guided the study. the population of the study was 481 made up of 31 principals and 450 teachers in the secondary schools in enugu education zone. the researcher purposively sampled 12 secondary schools from the total number of 31 in that zone. 10% was used in getting the sample size of the teachers’ population. however, the total sampled size was 57. questionnaire was used for data collection. mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses. one of the findings of the study was that; the lack of quality teachers has really affected the academic performances of secondary school students in enugu education zone. among the recommendations, there is need for enugu state government to embark on the recruitment of qualified teachers in order to meet up with the latest academic standards in other areas. introduction a school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or “pupils”) under the direction of teachers. a school is a place where children are educated. it is also defined as any institution at which instruction is given in a particular discipline. every school has to be located in a place called environment. a positive school environment is defined as a school having appropriate facilities, well managed classrooms, available school based health supports and a clear, fair disciplinary policy. the school environment, which include the classrooms, libraries, technical workshops, laboratories, teachers’ quality, school management, teaching methods, peers, etc are variables that affect students’ academic performance (ajayi, 2001 and oluchukwu, 2000). hence, the school environment remains an important area that should be studied and well managed to enhance students’ academic performance. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 30 academic performance refers to the degree of a student’s accomplishment on his or her tasks and studies. the most well-known indicator of measuring academic performance is grades which reflect the student's "score" for their subjects and overall tenure. success is measured by academic performance in most educational institutions. in this case, how well a student meets standards set out by an institution itself or an external examination body either set up by the government or an independent outfit signifies success or good performance (ajao, 2011). today’s modern society expects students to be a high achiever. the key criteria to judge one’s true potentialities and capabilities are perhaps academic performance which has become an index of a student’s future. as a result, there is a great pressure on the minds of the child and their parents on how to attain the societal expectations. the school that is charged with the responsibility of impacting teaching and learning processes does not exist in a vacuum. since, it has been discovered that the student’s academic performance is a function of various factors based on the learning environment which comprises of all the student is exposed to in the school and outside the school that can facilitate or inhabit learning. the issue of poor academic performance of students in nigeria has been of much concern to the government, parents, teachers and even student themselves. the quality of education not only depends on the teachers as reflected in the performance of their duties, but also in the effective coordination of the school environment for an efficient and effective education (ajao, 2001). education remains the bedrock of development but in nigeria, there is consensus about the falling educational standards (adesehinwa, 2013). the poor performance of secondary school students in different subjects as observed in the yearly results of senior school certificate examination conducted by waec and neco which are external bodies justifies this claim of dwindling academic performance of secondary school students in both internal and external examinations (ajayi, hasstrup & osalusi, 2010). the increasing fall in the quality of manpower and the negative implication of this on the posterity of nigeria is making this issue of learning environment and academic performance a concern (aremu, 2000 cited in unanma, abugu, dike & umeobika, 2013). specifically, alimi, ehinola & alibi (2011) posit that, secondary school is pivotal in human capital formation and development. put differently, secondary education is an instrument for national development in that it moulds and forms the individual who after advances the society (national policy on education, 2013). the physical characteristics of the school have a variety of effects on teachers, students, and the learning process. poor lighting, noise, high levels of carbon dioxide in classrooms, and inconsistent temperatures make teaching and learning difficult. poor maintenance and ineffective ventilation systems lead to poor health among students as well as teachers, which leads to poor performance and higher absentee rates (frazier, 2002, lyons, 2001; and ostendorf, 2001). these factors can adversely affect student behaviour and lead to higher levels of frustration among teachers, and poor learning attitude among student. beyond the direct effects that poor facilities have on students’ ability to learn, the combination of poor facilities, which create an uncomfortable and uninviting workplace for https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 31 teachers, combined with frustrating behavior by students including poor concentration and hyperactivity, lethargy, or apathy, creates a stressful set of working conditions for teachers. because stress and job dissatisfaction are common pre-cursors to lowered teacher enthusiasm, it is possible that the aforementioned characteristics of school facilities have an effect upon the academic performance of students. this study takes a critical look on the influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary school students. it is a fact that, the surrounding environment of students influences their performances, for example, the quality of the school building has the direct impact on students performance, students perform better in better academically in better building (oluchukwu, 2011). school environment which include classroom spaces planning, administrative places planning, circulation spaces planning, spaces for conveniences planning, general infrastructure planning, the teachers as well as the students themselves are essential in teaching-learning process. the extent to which students’ learning could be enhanced depends on their location within the school compound, the structure of their classroom, availability of instructional facilities and accessories. it is believed that a school with adequate learning environment contributes to stir up expected outcomes of learning that will facilitate good academic performance by encouraging effective teaching and learning (frazier, 2002, lyons, 2001; and ostendorf, 2001). beyond the direct effects that poor facilities have on students’ ability to learn, the combination of poor facilities, which create an uncomfortable and uninviting workplace for teachers, combined with frustrating behaviour by students including poor concentration and hyperactivity, lethargy or apathy, creates a stressful set of working conditions for teachers. because stress and job dissatisfaction are common pre-cursors to lowered teacher enthusiasm, it is possible that the aforementioned characteristics of school facilities have an effect upon the academic performance of students. statement of the problem emphasizing the importance of school environment to students academic performance, it was asserted that school environment is an essential aspect of educational planning and unless schools are well suited, buildings adequately constructed and equipment adequately utilized and maintained, much teaching and learning may not take place. the high levels of students’ academic performance may not be guaranteed where instructional space such as classrooms, libraries, technical workshops and laboratories are structurally defective. however, little is known on the impact of school environment on students’ academic performance in enugu education zone. the magnitude of environment problems on teaching and learning school is very difficult to determine because so many extraneous variables impinges on the teaching skills and learning capabilities of teachers and students in the classroom at different times. the time between school environment and home environment is hard to define and varies from person to another. purpose of the study the general purpose of the study was to examine the influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary schools https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 32 students in enugu education zone. specifically, the study sought to determine the: i. influence of adequate infrastructure on the academic performance of secondary school students; ii. influence of quality teachers on the academic performance of secondary school students; and iii. the influence of school facilities on the academic performance of secondary school students. research questions the following research questions guided the study: i. to what extent does adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students? ii. to what extent does the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students? iii. to what extent does the school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students? hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested at p<0.05; ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students. ho3: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the provision of school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students. research method this study adopted the descriptive method of research design. this study was carried out in the 31 secondary schools in enugu education zone. enugu education zone is one of the six education zones in enugu state. it comprises of three local governments areas namely; enugu north, enugu east and isiuzo l. g. a. the population of the study was all the 31 principals and 450 teachers in the zone. the researcher purposively sampled 12 public secondary schools out of the 31 in the education zone. however, the researcher got a sampled size of 12 principals and 45 teachers. in the aspect of the teachers’ sampled size, the researcher made used of 10% of the total population of the teachers. this 10% is in line with uzoagulu (2011) which stated that if the population for the study is known and it is made up of different groups, each group receives allocation based on its proportion to the population. the instrument used for data collection was a researcher made structured questionnaire titled “influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary school students questionnaire (iseapssq)”. it was validated by three experts in the faculty of education, esut. the instrument comprised 15 questionnaire items divided in clusters according to the three research questions. reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach alpha reliability estimate, at the end of which a reliability index of 0.82 was obtained. the copies of the questionnaire were administered to all the principals and teachers by the researcher. mean and standard deviation was use to analyse data related to the research https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 33 questions. the criterion mean of 2.50 was gotten by summing up the weighted options (4+3+2+1=10) and dividing it by total number of response options (4) as follows; 10/4=2.50. the t-test statistics was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant. the decision rule for the hypothesis were that, hypothesis was not rejected when the tcalculated value is less than the critical table value, but rejected when the t-calculated value is greater than the critical table value. research question 1: to what extent does adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students? table 1: mean response scores of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students items principals teachers s/n indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement below: x sd dec. x sd dec. 1 there are enough classrooms in the school for adequate teaching and learning. 2.42 0.90 le 2.30 0.88 le 2 there are conducive offices for every staff in the school. 2.33 0.93 le 2.45 0.92 le 3 there is an accommodation for staff members. 2.28 0.91 le 2.34 0.95 le 4 the electrical infrastructure in the school is very good. 2.51 0.82 ge 2.62 0.88 ge 5 there is enough office furniture in the school. 2.60 0.99 ge 2.57 0.79 ge cluster mean 2.43 0.91 le 2.46 0.88 le table 1 above shows the responses of principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of public secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the general response of the respondents was to a low extent. the principal’s mean ranged from 2.28 to 2.60 while that of teachers ranged from 2.30 to 2.62. the cluster means of 2.43 and 2.46 for principals and teachers and standard deviations of 0.91 and 0.88 respectively. these imply that infrastructural development is very important in any school environment in order to increase the academic performances of the secondary school students in enugu education zone owing by the responses of the respondents. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 34 research question 2: to what extent does the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students? table 2: mean response scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students items principals teachers s/n indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement below: x sd dec. x sd dec. 6 the teachers in my school are qualified based on their disciplines. 2.91 0.98 ge 2.92 0.99 ge 7 our teachers are all nce holders with little or no much teaching experience. 3.06 0.99 ge 2.66 1.14 ge 8 the teachers are professionals with many years of experience. 2.78 0.94 ge 2.86 0.99 ge 9 our teachers are graduates from notable universities in and out of nigeria. 2.75 1.04 ge 2.78 1.02 ge 10 some of our teachers are msc holders. 2.89 1.04 ge 2.83 1.03 ge cluster mean 2.88 1.00 ge 2.81 1.03 ge table 2 above shows the responses of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of public secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the general response of the respondents was to a great extent. the principal’s mean ranged from 2.75 to 3.06 while that of teachers ranged from 2.66 to 2.92. the cluster means of 2.88 and 2.81 for principals and teachers and standard deviations of 1.00 and 1.03 respectively. these imply that there are quality teachers in the secondary schools but they have to improve on their teaching skills in order to increase the academic performances of the secondary school students in enugu education zone owing by the responses of the respondents. research question 3: to what extent do the school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students? https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 35 table 3: mean response scores of principals and teachers on the extent the availability of school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students items principals teachers s/n indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement below: x sd dec. x sd dec. 11 there are good sporting facilities for the school. 2.55 0.83 ge 2.59 1.11 ge 12 there is a health care facility in my school. 2.56 0.99 ge 2.58 0.78 ge 13 there is a training facility for both the staff and students. 2.20 0.88 le 2.21 0.89 le 14 there is a research facility or library for the students. 2.53 0.94 ge 2.65 0.92 ge 15 there is an e-learning facility in my school. 2.30 0.93 le 2.42 1.01 le cluster mean 2.43 0.91 le 2.49 0.94 le table 3 above shows the responses of principals and teachers on the extent the availability of school facilities can influence the academic performance of public secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the general response of the respondents was to a low extent. the principal’s mean ranged from 2.30 to 2.56 while that of teachers ranged from 2.21 to 2.65. the cluster means of 2.43 and 2.49 for principals and teachers and standard deviations of 0.91 and 0.94 respectively. these imply that there is need for the availability of school facilities in the secondary schools in enugu education zone. hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested at p<0.05; ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 36 table 4: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision principals 12 2.43 0.91 55 0.103 2.021 not rejected teachers 45 2.46 0.88 table 4 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. the result showed that the calculated t-value of 0.103 was less than the critical value of 2.021. the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the responses of the principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students. table 5: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision principals 12 2.88 1.00 55 0.700 2.021 not rejected teachers 45 2.81 1.03 table 5 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. the result showed that the calculated t-value of 0.700 was less than the critical value of 2.021. the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the responses of the principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 37 ho3: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the provision of school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students. table 6: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision principals 12 2.43 0.91 55 0.340 2.021 not rejected teachers 45 2.49 0.94 table 6 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions of principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. the result showed that the calculated t-value of 0.340 was less than the critical value of 2.021. the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the responses of the principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. summary of findings from the results of the findings, it was found out that: i. principals and teachers respondent to a low extent on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. ii. principals and teachers respondent to a great extent on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. iii. principals and teachers respondent to a low extent on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. iv. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. v. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. vi. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 38 discussion of findings it was found out in research question one that, there was a low extent to which infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. this study agrees with a good school indulges in building better learning environment which enables the students to excel especially their examinations. in schools the researcher visited, classrooms, student class ratio, cleanliness, staff room and others were not really in order. this study disagrees with ajao (2011) who posited that, for an effective teaching and learning to take place, the environment must be conducive. ajao further posited that, a well equipped classroom makes a student to feel relax and fully concentrates in the teaching activity. from the evidenced of hypothesis 1, there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. in the results of research question 2, it was found out that, the quality of teachers influences the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. this study is in accordance with the adesehinwa (2013) who posited that, education which is the bedrock of development must have people who are qualified to be in-charge of the day to day activities especially in the area of teaching staff. it is a noted fact that, quality teachers impact quality knowledge to the students. but in a school where there are teachers who are not qualified, the resultant effect is to bring out half-baked graduate. however, the evidenced of hypothesis 2 shows that, there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. conclusion based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that the learning environment in secondary schools in nigeria has significant relationship with academic performance of secondary school students. it was also concluded in the study that quality teachers are needed in the secondary school system in order to improve the academic performances of the secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the public secondary schools which accommodate more student population suffer from infrastructural neglect as the principal do not control any budget even to maintain the existing structure. recommendations of the study based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are made. 1. the study recommends provision of facilities like modern laboratories, functional libraries, and comfortable classrooms for better academic performance; in addition to effective maintenance or renovation of old buildings, chairs, desks, recreational equipment among others should be part and parcel of the schools system. 2. the enugu state government should pay more attention to education by employing qualified teachers to teach the students in order to get a good result. references adesehinwa, o. a. (2013). effects of family type (monogamy or polygamy) on students academic achievement in nigeria. international journal of https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research | issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 11; november 2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 39 psychology and counselling 5(7), october. pp.153-156. ajao, t. (2011). school facility conditions and student academic achievement. a research report”. prepared by ccla’s institute for democracy, education and access. october 2002, document wwwsrr008-1002. ajayi, i. a., h.t. haastrup & f.m. osalusi (2010). “learning environment and secondary school effectiveness in nigeria”. stud home comm. science, 4(3) pp. 137-142. alimi, o. s., g. b. ehinola & f. o. alabi (2012) “school types, facilities and academic performance of students in senior secondary schools in ondo state, nigeria”. international education studie 5(3), june. pp. 44-48. federal republic of nigeria, (frn), (2013). national policy on education. abuja: federal ministry of education. frazier, e. (2002; lyons, c. 2001 and ostendorf, f. 2001). making better decisions about school problems: how administrators use evaluation to find solutions. california: corwin press uzoagulu, a. e. (2011). practical guide to writing research project reports in tertiary institutions. published and printed in nigeria by cheston ltd. enugu. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear exploring the potential use of game walkthrough in education: comparison of various forms of serious games global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 17 exploring the potential of game walkthroughs in education: a comparison of various forms of serious games 1xiaohan feng and 2makoto murakami 1graduate school of information sciences and arts, toyo university, kawagoe, saitama, japan 2dept. of information sciences and arts, toyo university, kawagoe, saitama, japan abstract: serious games, specifically vr narrative games, have demonstrated their effectiveness in motivating students and improving cognitive skills in educational settings. however, due to the pervasiveness and convenience of gaming, game walkthroughs have become a popular alternative for gamers to experience and enjoy gameplay without the commitment of time and effort demanded by fullfledged games. this paper investigates the possibility of using game walkthroughs as an educational tool and compares their efficacy in improving learning outcomes with respect to actual gameplay. the study analyzes the information that subjects remember from game walkthroughs and gameplay, examines the strengths and weaknesses of both these mediums, and evaluates the impact of vr technology on the results. the findings suggest that game walkthroughs enable students to follow the experiences of actual game players with a degree of empathy but are limited in promoting critical thinking skills. additionally, the study demonstrates that game walkthroughs of vr games are not efficient in facilitating situational memory performance. however, game walkthroughs are still a feasible educational option outside the classroom due to their accessibility and prevalence. the document also delves into the meaning and evolution of serious games while underscoring the significance of immersion and narrative in enhancing situational memory performance. the paper concludes with certain limitations of the study and recommendations for future research in this area. keywords: game walkthroughs, serious games, education, virtual reality, memory performance. introduction in recent years, there has been a growing body of research on the gamification of education. some studies use the elements and aesthetics of games to motivate students to learn [1], while others claim the advantage of gamification that games are a familiar medium for students and are more interesting than written media [2]. in addition to this, there is already abundant evidence that video games have a more or less positive impact on the cognitive domain. for example, games can improve visual spatial resolution [3], reaction time [4], spatial awareness [5], probabilistic reasoning [6], and visual short-term memory [7]. overall, games have been shown to lead education into a new realm. according to game scholar markus fried, there are three theories of interactivity in video games [8]. the interaction in games can evolve into a user-news game, user-technology platform (phone or computer), and user-user relationship. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 18 the interaction between the user and the news game can be thought of as a process of information transfer. in the user's game activity in a news game, there is a role for the user to receive news content in the game and a role for the user to select and discard news content in the doi :10.5121/ijite.2022.11303 game. the end result is a different outcome for the user: a "secondary creation" for the user. in this interaction, the user becomes a character in the game, and the psychological experience that emerges from this interaction is called "immersion. the user extracts information through the game, and the game experience is acquired by evoking emotional empathy. immersion is a special phenomenon in the human psyche, characterized by the concentration of attention on a certain situation or thought activity by the person involved. in traditional newspaper articles, readers often let their imaginations run wild by reading. news games create a virtual environment with news events based on actual events, giving users a strong sense of reality. this makes it easier for users to become emotionally involved in the news story and to develop strong empathy; murray j h has stated that the more realistic the immersive environment of an interactive work, the more actively immersed the user will become [9]. games are "multi-directional interactive." especially when compared to written media, which are still the most used in education. this means that the results obtained are also comprehensive. if the importance of a particular attribute in a game needs to be examined, the results can be made clearer by focusing the sample on that attribute of the game. in previous studies, we have chosen "narrative" and "immersion". in other words, we created a sample of serious vr games with narrative content. the reason for this choice is that serious and educational games are closely related. both are trying to use some aspect of the game to achieve some goal other than entertainment[10].the concept of serious games was first proposed in 1970. at the time, the main goal of defining serious games was to use simulations and games to improve education inside and outside the classroom. at the time, the video game industry was not established, so most serious games were pen-based [11]. since then, many teachers have been inspired to continue creating serious games. serious games were redefined by sawyer.b in 2002, who argued that serious games are games that aim to acquire knowledge and skills [12]. building on this definition, definitions of serious games have been continuously refined, for example, according to chen & michael (2005), a serious game is "a game whose primary purpose is not entertainment, enjoyment, or fun" [13]. although the definition of serious games seems to have gained a lot of support, the scope of serious games is still debatable. first of all, serious games have been easily confused with educational games since their inception. second, sawyer b. argues that the scope of serious games has become increasingly broad, attracting participants from a wide range of disciplines, including education, defense, advertising, politics, scientific inquiry, medicine, emergency management, urban planning, engineering, and journalism, and that for participants from different disciplines, serious games will always have they argue that there are areas of the game that do not overlap with their own. this leads participants in these particular domains to further restrict the definition of serious games based on their own needs [14]. despite these domain-specific arguments, there is a common point shared by all disciplines. that serious games are designed to engage people for a variety of purposes beyond pure entertainment [15]. this definition is similar to the definition of news games. news games use people's interest in games to draw attention to a news or concept and to explain it from a multimedia perspective. because the satirical nature https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11303 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 19 of news games is consistent with serious games, researchers believe that news games are included in the category of serious games. in addition, since the concept of serious games has been related to education from the beginning, it is easy to confuse serious games with educational games. however, the main purpose of educational games is to disseminate educational knowledge, while the purpose of serious games is not only to disseminate; according to djaouti's model, serious games have other purposes such as information dissemination, training, and data exchange [16]. therefore, researchers believe that educational games are also included in the category of serious games. on the other hand, according to neurologist michael smith, when people watch narrative images that induce empathy, the brain automatically filters out external influencing factors to focus on learning and cognition, indicating that the human mind wants to know the unknown from a narrative perspective. he believes that without a narrative connection, people cannot stay in the brain for long [17]. there is also considerable research showing that memories of events with a strong narrative component are more likely to be remembered [18]. and many studies have revealed that an immersive virtual reality system can better facilitate situational memory performance [19], [20]. consequently, we reinforce memory through narrative and immersion, and bring players into an independent worldview in the form of vr games to increase the target ability of information transfer and reduce the psychology of distributed responsibility. our previous research proposes that using virtual reality technology to gamify narrative contents is a way to make information more deeply memorable. previous studies have confirmed the above. in the case of a vr game that presents the story in images versus a game that presents the story in text, that presents the story in images is a better way to remember the information. the study also found a positive correlation between subjects' experience and their selfreported confidence in their memory. the researchers believe that gaming experience and short text reading experience are the reasons for the subjects' better selfperceived confidence [21]. this result and the information provided in the subject interviews have attracted the attention of researchers. in previous experiments, subjects in the non-vr group watched game walkthrough more often than they played the games themselves. game walkthrough is when players record their own gameplay, and the video content is often uploaded to video sharing sites (such as youtube) or streamed live on streaming sites (such as twitch). there are millions of potential recipients for these contents [22]. the researchers conducted additional interviews with all groups of subjects and found that 95% of the subjects had watched game walkthrough, 74.16% watched at least 7 hours per week, and they were in the habit of watching them while eating. their reasons for watching game walkthroughs were as follows: • watching game walkthroughs allows them to be exposed to games anytime and anywhere. • they don't have the hardware for a particular game, or the hardware doesn't meet the requirements of the game. so they can only get to know a game by watching it. • they have some game walkthrough players who are particularly fond of. • by watching the game, they can find the hidden elements of the game quickly, or see the hidden ending without having to play the game for long time by themselves. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 20 • finally, the most common reason was that the videos can be viewed at any time on cell phones. from these reasons, it is clear that video media is certainly more accessible to users' fragmented time compared to game media. from the above survey, we found that game walkthrough is convenient and accessible, so why not use it in the educational field. the main theoretical idea of this study is based on self-determination theory (sdt) [23]. this means that it is argued that the essence of behavior is motivated by interest and enjoyment [24]. through our survey, we found that most college student gamers are interested in game walkthrough. in addition, the data on the time spent watching game walkthrough suggests that they are not just a way to pass the time, but that they enjoy them. against the above background, this study investigates whether game walkthrough of serious games can have the same learning effect as serious games. use game creation (samples) and questionnaires, this study will compare the information that viewers remember from game walkthrough and actual game play, analyze their strengths and weaknesses, and examine the impact of the vr format on the results. 1. methods we create a vr game and a not vr game and record the game walkthroughs. and we divide the subjects into four groups: who play a not vr game (nvr group), who watch the walkthrough of the not vr game (group gw), who play a vr game (group vr), and who watch the walkthrough of the vr game (group gwvr). a questionnaire will be used to find out which group's subjects remember the game story. the sample is based on actual events. more than 80% of the text is taken directly from the news interviews. references are to newspaper articles about the incident from 2006 to 2015. these news stories were distributed across diverse media platforms over a long period of time. they were selected as scenarios for the serious game because of their integrative nature and the narrative nature required for this experiment. 1.1. sample since the subjects were intended to be chinese university students, the researchers first selected two chinese news stories. each was news about the greening of the kubuqi desert and news about a trafficked woman becoming a local teacher. the kubuqi desert is the seventh largest desert in china, located on the northwestern edge of ordos city. 2000, a group recruited workers to plant trees in the kubuqi desert, and many applied. ten years later, the workers have gradually learned how to plant trees and grasses, gained a lot of experience, and become familiar with sandy plants. in addition, the technology continues to develop, and the pv photovoltaic photothermal sand control power generation demonstration project is actively adopting a combined model of "sand control + grass planting + agriculture + power generation + poverty alleviation" and "cleaning pv modules + maintenance of under-board planting" to provide a new channel for increasing farmers' and herders' incomes by it offers: in 2017, as a result of years of efforts, the ecological environment in the area has improved, and migratory birds such as the common kookaburra are now visiting the desert. another news story is that in 1994, gao, a woman who worked outside her home, was trafficked by two women under the pretext of "looking for work" as she stood in line at the train station to buy a train ticket home. the buyer's village had a population of over 400, including 30-40 women who had been trafficked from other areas as "brides". ms. gao, the only middle school graduate in the village, was asked by the global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 21 principal in 2000 to be the only substitute teacher at the village elementary school, where she taught a dozen students in two grades for a monthly salary of 200 yuan. in addition to her regular classes in language, math, and science, gao gave art classes to the children and often played with the students; in 2006, a photographer visited the village to take pictures and posted her story on the internet, and she was later named "2006 hebei province's inspiring person". in july 2015, an article published in 2013, "the most beautiful rural teacher: kidnapped woman becomes female teacher in a mountain village," was discovered by an internet user, which described gao's harrowing experience in a few pages and praised her for remaining in the countryside as a teacher the incident from a few years ago has once again attracted attention and caused a great deal of controversy. the local government decided to fire ms. gao on the grounds that the news about her exposed the lack of efforts to combat traffickers and rescue abducted women, the dropout of school-aged children, and the lack of investment in education, which was later rescinded after a public outcry. ultimately, the researcher chose the second news article. the reasons: 1. the second news story was more narrative; the first story was a simple story curve from valley to mountain, whereas the second story was a more complex story curve from valley to mountain and back again; 2. the second story had by far the greater number of news stories; 3. the second story had a more complex story curve from valley to mountain, and back again; 4. the first story had a more complex story curve from valley to mountain, and back again. interviews with ms. gao in particular are very plentiful, and these reports allow for a more realistic reconstruction of the story from the victim's perspective. the sample is divided into four stages in total, each with 1-2 enemies and 2 key items, and the player must collect the key items while avoiding enemy pursuit. the enemies are designed to symbolize hostility or the protagonist's fears, such as "husband," "fear of forced childbirth," or "local government". key items in each stage are related to the storyline of that stage. first, design the game characters and draw the front and side views of the characters for modeling. after completing the design of the game's characters and scenes, modeling is done in 3ds max. before modeling, import the front and side views into the background to build the character model more accurately. once the modeling is complete, create the texture. in order to make the texture position correspond to the model position, the model is introduced into unfold3d and the texture is expanded. the next step is to import the model into mudbox and draw the texture. back in 3ds max again, bound the bones, moved the bones in the model, and used keyframe animation to animate the character walking, running, and attacking. finally, import the characters and scenes into unity to create the game. screenshots of the game are shown in figure1. also, the game walkthrough is actually divided into various genres. for example, “speedrun” [25], which aims to finish a game as quickly as possible. “longplay” [26] focuses on completely documenting the gameplay process, with little commentary from the player. “let's play” [27] focuses on the player's in-game experience and sharing. considering the possibility of experimentation, research first consider eliminating the live broadcast type of play. next, according to the interviews with the subjects, most of the game walkthrough they watch are of the “let's play” type. and in “let’s play” type the player’s comments and reactions will be more sympathetic to the audience than in the other types. so in the “let’s play” type game walkthrough the viewers can be able global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 22 to relate to the players more than in the other types. and the researchers expect that the “let’s play” type can reduce the lack of immersion which is one of the problems of using game walkthrough. therefore, the game walkthrough used in this project is of the "let's play" type. the game walkthrough will be recorded by inviting two female game walkthrough players who post videos, and they have never been exposed to the sample information until the game walkthrough is recorded. figure 1. screenshots of the game 1.2. questionnaire all subjects were recruited through convenience sampling and snowball sampling. the original plan was for some subjects to experience the vr face-to-face with the researchers, but this was all changed to online for the new corona. subjects were asked to download the samples themselves through a link provided by the researcher, experience the samples on their respective devices, and mail in a questionnaire and recording. all subjects were aware of and consented to the experiment before it was conducted. the questionnaire is divided into four written questionnaires and one recorded questionnaire. the written questionnaire consists of basic information, recognition check, correctness check, and empathy check, while the recorded questionnaire consists of subjects telling a story and giving their impressions of the sample. the basic information questionnaire asks the subjects their age, gender, major, gaming experience, experience using vr, and the theme of the sample. the recognition check and the correctness check use the same 10 questions. the purpose of the recognition check is to find out how much the subjects themselves think they know about the sample story, and their actual cognitive status is not important in this research. in the empathy check, the strength of the empathic emotion for each subject is investigated through a selfreport questionnaire. questionnaire as shown in figure 2. basic information age gender game experience major have you ever used vr? no yes have you paid attention to the news o female population sales? f no yes global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 23 have you read related articles on thi game? s no yes recognition check question get it maybe get it not sure maybe don't get it don't get it where the protagonist was kidnapped? who bought the protagonist? what is the attitude of the protagonist 's husband towards her? what are the protagonists' means of suicide? why the protagonists left the village? what reminds the protagonist of life's hopes? how is the protagonist known to the public? why doesn't the local government want the public to know about the protagonist? what is the attitude of the villagers towards this? did you understand the ending? correctness check full score 100 correct answer +10 score: empathy check stage no feeling felt a strong emotion 1 2 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 24 3 4 ：no feeling ：feeling emotions, but not enough to take action. ：feels emotional and takes short-term/single/simple actions. ： feels emotional and takes long-term/ continuous/ /complex actions. figure 2. questionnaire 2. experimental results and analysis 2.1. basic information the subjects were 120 university students (62 females, 59 males, mean age 21.183 years, age range 18-24 years, sd=1.402). 120 subjects were divided into 4 groups of 30 each: group nvr: 19 females, 11 males, age range 19-23 years, mean age 20.733 years, sd=1.263. group vr: 13 females, 17 males, age range 19-23 years, mean age 20.833 years, sd=1.240. group gw: 15 females, 15 males, age range 18-24 years, mean age 21.3 years, sd=1.486. group gwvr: 14 females, 16 males, age range 19-24 years, mean age 21.866 years, sd=1.309). the overall gender ratio is basically the same, but the gender ratio of each group is different; as can be seen from the gender ratios of the four groups, the sex ratio of the game walkthrough group appears to be average when compared to the large number of females in the group and the large number of males in the group. in a gender survey on vr and ar device ownership rate conducted in 2017 [28], 43% of device owners were female and 31% of those planning to purchase a device were female. according to data from another u.s. gamer gender survey, the highest percentage of female gamers has only been 48% since 2006 [29]. combining the data from this survey and its collection process, we can assume that although the number of women who own vr devices is smaller than men, the number of women interested in gaming is not small. the majors of the 120 subjects included 21 in science and engineering, 20 in education, 18 in arts, 14 in management, 12 in architecture, 12 in literature, 9 in economics, 6 in sociology, 3 in physical education, 3 in philosophy, and 2 in history. the diversity of the subjects' majors is beneficial in obtaining more diverse perspectives in the recording survey. when the subjects self-reported their gaming experience, 71 said they had "a lot of gaming experience," 15 said they had "normal gaming experience," and 34 said they had "little gaming experience. overall, the subjects had a lot of gaming experience. 2.2. recognition check figure 3 shows the percentage for each option chosen by each group. overall, group nvr is the most confident in their own memory, followed by group gw, then group vr, and finally group gwvr. as can be seen from figure 3, the selection tendencies of group nvr and group gw are very close. more than half of the respondents chose "get it", and around 30% of the respondents chose "maybe get it". "not sure" was selected slightly more often by group gw, but the difference between the two groups was not global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 25 large. group vr and group gwvr not only differed from these two groups, but even in the same vrrelated sample, their selection trends were not consistent. the options for group gwvr are distributed on average compared to the other groups. the percentage of times group gwvr chose "not sure" was the highest among all options for this group, reaching 3%. the number of times they chose "get it" and "maybe get it" was equal, both accounting for 25%. "get it" was chosen the most by the other three groups, with 18%, three times as many as the group vr chose the same item. studies have shown that the more experienced a person is, the more confident he or she is in identifying memories [30]. this may explain the greater confidence in self-recognition of memories in group nvr and group gw. although the subjects in this experiment had more gaming experience, in daily life, visual media is more accessible than gaming media and does not require more energy or two hands. in addition, chinese college students, the age group of the subjects, spend less time in contact with game media than video media. by combining the data of group nvr, group gw and group vr, it was proved that the memory discrimination and experience of the test takers are positively correlated [31]. the data of group gwvr shows different characteristics from this. the researchers made an additional visit to the group on this issue. "more than half of the subjects who chose "not sure" said that they could not concentrate on the gwvr sample throughout. there are two main reasons for this: 1. they are not used to vr game walkthroughs from the beginning. these subjects found it more distracting to watch a vr game walkthrough than to watch a regular game walkthrough. 2. at first, they were able to enjoy the vr game walkthrough, but later in the video, they felt uncomfortable due to the constant shaking of the camera. researchers believe that these two cases, especially the former one, reaffirm the positive correlation between media experience and subjects' memory. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 26 figure 3. the percentage of times each option was selected in each group 2.3. correctness check the same question is used for the recognition check and the correctness check. there are five levels of correctness depending on the subject's answer. the score for each level is: "more than correct": 5, "correct": 4, "mostly correct": 3, "somewhat correct": 2, and "incorrect": 1. the total score is 1500. as figure 4 shows, the total score of each group is group nvr: 1153 points, group gw: 1141 points, group vr: 1248 points, group gwvr: 1060 points. the scores are, in order from highest to lowest, vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. it is clear that the overall score of the game sample is higher than the game walkthrough, but contrary to expectations, the difference in scores between group nvr and group gw is only 2 points. the highest and lowest scores were significantly different from those of adjacent groups, with a difference of 95 points between group vr and group nvr, and 81 points between group gw and group gwvr. taken together with the recognition check in the previous section, this indicates that group nvr and group gw are not only similar in their tendency to select for memory recognition, but also have very similar levels of the actual memory component. the score ranking for the subjective questions again matches the overall score ranking: vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. higher scores on subjective questions require more empathy from the subjects. if the genre is one that stimulates empathy, it may be better to have people play the game directly rather than deliver it using a game walkthrough to achieve the goal. therefore, if subjective feedback from viewers is needed, the vr sample can provide the most feedback among the four groups. next is nvr games. in global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 27 terms of ownership rate of vr and pc devices, nvr may be a more suitable medium. on the other hand, game walkthroughs did not provide comparable subjective responses, especially for vr games. in other words, if the subject matter requires empathy, it may be better to have the audience play the game directly rather than deliver it through a game walkthrough to achieve the goal. figure 4. the total score a for each group 2.4. empathy check as shown in figure 5, overall, group nvr tends to start high and end low. group vr and group gw have very similar fluctuating trends, both starting high and ending low until stage 3, but increasing in empathy until stage 4. group gwvr shows a steep decrease from stage 1 to stage 2, and a slower decrease in the other stages. the scores for nvr and vr do not change so much, whereas the scores for gw and gwvr are more variable. with the exception of stage 3, group vr consistently led the other three groups in empathy, followed by group nvr, then group gw, and finally group gwvr. this is the same ranking as for the correctness check. the ranking of the overall score for the empathy survey is vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 28 figure 5. empathy for each stage 3. limitations and conclusion the self-report of the four groups in the recognition check was nvr>gw>vr>gwvr in order from highest to lowest. in the correctness check, the total score ranking of the four groups was: vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. the ranking for the empathy check was the same as the correctness check: vr>nvr>gw>gwvr. negative emotional keywords such as "scary" appear frequently in the recordings. a number of studies have confirmed that empathy plays a role in the construction of our memories [32,33]. coupled with the fact that it is an experimental result, it further proves that empathy is positively correlated with memory correctness. in other words, group vr, which ranked first in both the empathy and correctness surveys, and the vr serious game with a storyline are the means by which recipients can remember the most information. group nvr's sample narrative vr serious game is also a good medium for environments where vr conditions are not feasible or where vr device ownership rate is a consideration. although slightly inferior to group nvr, the group gw data was very close to group nvr in all surveys and the selection trends were similar. if the recipients want to memorize a single message or multiple messages, or if they value the convenience of game walkthroughs, gw is considered more suitable than nvr. however, group gw scored lower in questions that required subjective thinking, if the receiver is required to think subjectively, gw is less suitable. finally, gwvr, which is also a game walkthrough sample, does not perform well. in particular, compared to the similarity between group nvr and group gw, group gwvr and group vr have large differences in each survey. according to additional interviews with subjects in this group, the major reason for this is that the shaking lens distracts the subjects' attention and the subjects are not used to the walkthrough of vr game. therefore, the walkthrough of vr game is not a suitable medium to make the receiver memorize the information. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 29 in the case of game media, it is known from previous studies that empathy is positively correlated with memory correctness [34]. based on the above data, this rule is not completely true for game walkthrough media. although the group gw game walkthroughs can empathize to some extent with the game walkthrough players about their gaming experiences, they are limited compared to actual game plays, especially when it comes to the questions they have to think about. researchers believe that this is because the quality of empathy that the receiver feels differs from the empathy that is guided by the game walkthrough players. game walkthroughs often allow the receiver to experience the game by empathizing with the medium of the game walkthrough players. a game walkthrough, on the other hand, allows the viewer to empathize directly with the game's protagonist; in a game walkthrough, the player is constantly verbalizing his or her feelings as the game progresses, thus reducing the need for the gw viewer to perceive his or her own feelings. therefore, group gw is inferior to group nvr in terms of the need to think and construct their own words, which has lost its empathic mediation. there are also limitations to this study. one is that the data reads that while the percentage of correct answers for gw group is not bad, it is slightly lower than nvr group. this is most likely due to the fact that as a video medium, games walkthroughs are still less interactive than game media. if the comments were used to increase the participation and interaction of the recipients, a higher percentage of correct answers might be obtained. at the same time, however, some of the comments undermine the convenience of the game walkthrough, as recipients who are eating have to put down their cutlery and use both hands to control the game. therefore, the viewers of the game walkthrough are not able to empathize in a positive way through the game walkthrough players, or the accuracy and precision of the game content is not guaranteed due to the lack of interactivity of the visual media. in order to increase interactivity, the game walkthrough needs to sacrifice convenience. there may be ways to increase interactivity while maintaining the convenience of the game walkthrough, such as voice input of comments. however, it is difficult to guarantee the interactivity and convenience of the game walkthrough in the current mainstream way. second, the sample in this study is narrative oriented and has a weak gaming aspect in comparison. different samples may yield different results, and subsequently, a sample that focuses more on gaming than narrative will be the next research topic. some scholars believe that the fact that the primary purpose of serious games is not entertainment does not imply that they cannot be entertaining. in many cases, education and entertainment overlap and use each other to achieve their respective goals[35].at the same time, serious games are always controversial. its entertainment, its interactivity, its necessity. for a long time and even now, most people consider games to be pure entertainment. therefore, games that lack entertainment value are subject to criticism. it remains to be seen if the games walkthrough can compensate for the lack of gameplay. the results of this study indicate that serious games walkthrough is a viable educational option outside the classroom, especially given the prevalence and convenience. with the rapid development of technology, students' interests are constantly changing, according to self determination theory, education can be constantly updated to stimulate students' interest in learning. on the other hand, game walkthrough, a by product of educational gamification, give students more options. students will be able to experience global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 30 educational games in class, and also learn outside the classroom by watching game walkthrough anytime, anywhere. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank everyone, just everyone! references zimmerling, e.; höllig, c.e.; sandner, p.g.; welpe, i.m. exploring the influence of common game elements on ideation output and motivation. j. bus. res. 2019, 94, 302–312. loganathan, p.; talib, c.; thoe, n.; aliyu, f.; zawadski, r. implementing technology infused gamification in science classroom: a systematic review and suggestions for future research. learn. sci. math. 2019, 14, 60–73. green, c. s., and bavelier, d. 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"rag-longplay announcement". recorded amiga games. archived from the original on july 24, 2011. retrieved march 3, 2008. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.1, number 1; march-2023; published by: zendo academic publishing https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear 14131 alder st nw, andover, minnesota, usa zapjournal@gmail.com, editorial@zapjournals.coom global journal of education and allied research (gjear) pg. 32 white, patrick (2013-04-18). "fan fiction more creative than most people think". kansas state collegian. retrieved 2013-04-21. clement, virtual reality (vr) and augmented reality (ar) device ownership rate and purchase intent among consumers in the united states as of 1st quarter 2017, by gender.(2021) clement, distribution of video gamers in the united states from 2006 to 2020, by gender.(2021) cichoń, e., gawęda, ł., moritz, s. et al. experience-based knowledge increases confidence in discriminating our memories. curr psychol 40, 840–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-00118, (2021) xiaohan feng, makoto murakami, “combining of narrative news and vr games: comparison of various forms of serious games” signal & image processing : an international journal (sipij), volume 12, number 5, 2021-10 spreng, r. n., & grady, c. l. patterns of brain activity supporting autobiographical memory, prospection, and theory of mind, and their relationship to the default mode network. journal of cognitive neuroscience, 22(6), 1112–1123. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21282, (2009) spreng, r. n., mar, a. r., & kim, a. s. n. the common neural basis of autobiographical memory, prospection, navigation, theory of mind, and the default mode: a quantitative meta-analysis. journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(3), 489–510. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.21029 ,(2009) xiaohan feng, makoto murakami, “combining of narrative news and vr games:comparison of various forms of serious games” signal & image processing : an international journal (sipij), volume 12, number 5, 2021-10 michael d. and s. chen (2006), serious games. games that educate, train, and inform, boston, thomson course technology. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 4; april-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 academic achievement in enugu's secondary schools: unmasking the impact of school environment 1dr. chika adebayo okafor, 2prof. ngozi emeka onwuka, 3dr. ifeoma chukwudi okonkwo 1 department of educational management, faculty of education, enugu state university of science and technology (esut) nigeria article info abstract keywords: school environment, academic performance, educational standards, secondary education, teaching methodologies this study investigates the significant impact of school environment on students' academic performance. a school's environment, encompassing physical facilities, classroom management, health support, and disciplinary policies, plays a pivotal role in shaping students' educational outcomes. recognizing the diverse variables that influence academic performance, such as classroom settings, library resources, teacher quality, and teaching methodologies, this research addresses the need for a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between these elements. academic performance, often gauged through grading systems and external examinations, serves as a critical measure of students' achievements. the pressure to excel in an increasingly competitive society has amplified the importance of academic success. in nigeria, concerns persist over declining educational standards, evidenced by subpar performance in national examinations. the deteriorating quality of education threatens the nation's human capital development. secondary education holds particular significance in shaping individuals for societal advancement. however, inadequate school infrastructure, characterized by poor lighting, noise pollution, and insufficient ventilation, hinders effective teaching and learning. these conditions lead to health issues among both students and teachers, resulting in absenteeism and diminished performance. this research underscores the urgent need to optimize the school environment for enhanced academic outcomes, aligning with the broader goals of national development and human capital formation. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 2 introduction a school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or “pupils”) under the direction of teachers. a school is a place where children are educated. it is also defined as any institution at which instruction is given in a particular discipline. every school has to be located in a place called environment. a positive school environment is defined as a school having appropriate facilities, well managed classrooms, available school based health supports and a clear, fair disciplinary policy. the school environment, which include the classrooms, libraries, technical workshops, laboratories, teachers’ quality, school management, teaching methods, peers, etc are variables that affect students’ academic performance (ajayi, 2001 and oluchukwu, 2000). hence, the school environment remains an important area that should be studied and well managed to enhance students’ academic performance. academic performance refers to the degree of a student’s accomplishment on his or her tasks and studies. the most well-known indicator of measuring academic performance is grades which reflect the student's "score" for their subjects and overall tenure. success is measured by academic performance in most educational institutions. in this case, how well a student meets standards set out by an institution itself or an external examination body either set up by the government or an independent outfit signifies success or good performance (ajao, 2011). today’s modern society expects students to be a high achiever. the key criteria to judge one’s true potentialities and capabilities are perhaps academic performance which has become an index of a student’s future. as a result, there is a great pressure on the minds of the child and their parents on how to attain the societal expectations. the school that is charged with the responsibility of impacting teaching and learning processes does not exist in a vacuum. since, it has been discovered that the student’s academic performance is a function of various factors based on the learning environment which comprises of all the student is exposed to in the school and outside the school that can facilitate or inhabit learning. the issue of poor academic performance of students in nigeria has been of much concern to the government, parents, teachers and even student themselves. the quality of education not only depends on the teachers as reflected in the performance of their duties, but also in the effective coordination of the school environment for an efficient and effective education (ajao, 2001). education remains the bedrock of development but in nigeria, there is consensus about the falling educational standards (adesehinwa, 2013). the poor performance of secondary school students in different subjects as observed in the yearly results of senior school certificate examination conducted by waec and neco which are external bodies justifies this claim of dwindling academic performance of secondary school students in both internal and external examinations (ajayi, hasstrup & osalusi, 2010). the increasing fall in the quality of manpower and the negative implication of this on the posterity of nigeria is making this issue of learning environment and academic performance a concern (aremu, 2000 cited in unanma, abugu, dike & umeobika, 2013). specifically, alimi, ehinola & alibi (2011) posit that, secondary school is pivotal in human capital formation and development. put differently, secondary education is an instrument for national development in that it moulds and forms the individual who after advances the society (national policy on education, 2013). the physical characteristics of the school have a variety of effects on teachers, students, and the learning process. poor lighting, noise, high levels of carbon dioxide in classrooms, and inconsistent temperatures make teaching and learning difficult. poor maintenance and ineffective ventilation systems lead to poor health among students as well as teachers, which leads to poor performance and higher absentee rates (frazier, 2002, lyons, 2001; and ostendorf, 2001). these factors can adversely affect student behaviour and lead to higher levels of frustration among teachers, and poor learning attitude among student. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 3 beyond the direct effects that poor facilities have on students’ ability to learn, the combination of poor facilities, which create an uncomfortable and uninviting workplace for teachers, combined with frustrating behavior by students including poor concentration and hyperactivity, lethargy, or apathy, creates a stressful set of working conditions for teachers. because stress and job dissatisfaction are common pre-cursors to lowered teacher enthusiasm, it is possible that the aforementioned characteristics of school facilities have an effect upon the academic performance of students. this study takes a critical look on the influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary school students. it is a fact that, the surrounding environment of students influences their performances, for example, the quality of the school building has the direct impact on students performance, students perform better in better academically in better building (oluchukwu, 2011). school environment which include classroom spaces planning, administrative places planning, circulation spaces planning, spaces for conveniences planning, general infrastructure planning, the teachers as well as the students themselves are essential in teaching-learning process. the extent to which students’ learning could be enhanced depends on their location within the school compound, the structure of their classroom, availability of instructional facilities and accessories. it is believed that a school with adequate learning environment contributes to stir up expected outcomes of learning that will facilitate good academic performance by encouraging effective teaching and learning (frazier, 2002, lyons, 2001; and ostendorf, 2001). beyond the direct effects that poor facilities have on students’ ability to learn, the combination of poor facilities, which create an uncomfortable and uninviting workplace for teachers, combined with frustrating behaviour by students including poor concentration and hyperactivity, lethargy or apathy, creates a stressful set of working conditions for teachers. because stress and job dissatisfaction are common pre-cursors to lowered teacher enthusiasm, it is possible that the aforementioned characteristics of school facilities have an effect upon the academic performance of students. statement of the problem emphasizing the importance of school environment to students academic performance, it was asserted that school environment is an essential aspect of educational planning and unless schools are well suited, buildings adequately constructed and equipment adequately utilized and maintained, much teaching and learning may not take place. the high levels of students’ academic performance may not be guaranteed where instructional space such as classrooms, libraries, technical workshops and laboratories are structurally defective. however, little is known on the impact of school environment on students’ academic performance in enugu education zone. the magnitude of environment problems on teaching and learning school is very difficult to determine because so many extraneous variables impinges on the teaching skills and learning capabilities of teachers and students in the classroom at different times. the time between school environment and home environment is hard to define and varies from person to another. purpose of the study the general purpose of the study was to examine the influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary schools students in enugu education zone. specifically, the study sought to determine the: i. influence of adequate infrastructure on the academic performance of secondary school students; ii. influence of quality teachers on the academic performance of secondary school students; and iii. the influence of school facilities on the academic performance of secondary school students. research questions the following research questions guided the study: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 4 i. to what extent does adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students? ii. to what extent does the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students? iii. to what extent does the school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students? hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested at p<0.05; ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students. ho3: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the provision of school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students. research method this study adopted the descriptive method of research design. this study was carried out in the 31 secondary schools in enugu education zone. enugu education zone is one of the six education zones in enugu state. it comprises of three local governments areas namely; enugu north, enugu east and isiuzo l. g. a. the population of the study was all the 31 principals and 450 teachers in the zone. the researcher purposively sampled 12 public secondary schools out of the 31 in the education zone. however, the researcher got a sampled size of 12 principals and 45 teachers. in the aspect of the teachers’ sampled size, the researcher made used of 10% of the total population of the teachers. this 10% is in line with uzoagulu (2011) which stated that if the population for the study is known and it is made up of different groups, each group receives allocation based on its proportion to the population. the instrument used for data collection was a researcher made structured questionnaire titled “influence of school environment on the academic performance of secondary school students questionnaire (iseapssq)”. it was validated by three experts in the faculty of education, esut. the instrument comprised 15 questionnaire items divided in clusters according to the three research questions. reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach alpha reliability estimate, at the end of which a reliability index of 0.82 was obtained. the copies of the questionnaire were administered to all the principals and teachers by the researcher. mean and standard deviation was use to analyse data related to the research questions. the criterion mean of 2.50 was gotten by summing up the weighted options (4+3+2+1=10) and dividing it by total number of response options (4) as follows; 10/4=2.50. the t-test statistics was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant. the decision rule for the hypothesis were that, hypothesis was not rejected when the t-calculated value is less than the critical table value, but rejected when the t-calculated value is greater than the critical table value. research question 1: to what extent does adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students? global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 5 table 1: mean response scores of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students items principals teachers s/n indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement below: x sd dec. x sd dec. 1 there are enough classrooms in the school for adequate teaching and learning. 2.42 0.90 le 2.30 0.88 le 2 there are conducive offices for every staff in the school. 2.33 0.93 le 2.45 0.92 le 3 there is an accommodation for staff members. 2.28 0.91 le 2.34 0.95 le 4 the electrical infrastructure in the school is very good. 2.51 0.82 ge 2.62 0.88 ge 5 there is enough office furniture in the school. 2.60 0.99 ge 2.57 0.79 ge cluster mean 2.43 0.91 le 2.46 0.88 le table 1 above shows the responses of principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of public secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the general response of the respondents was to a low extent. the principal’s mean ranged from 2.28 to 2.60 while that of teachers ranged from 2.30 to 2.62. the cluster means of 2.43 and 2.46 for principals and teachers and standard deviations of 0.91 and 0.88 respectively. these imply that infrastructural development is very important in any school environment in order to increase the academic performances of the secondary school students in enugu education zone owing by the responses of the respondents. research question 2: to what extent does the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students? table 2: mean response scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students items principals teachers s/n indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement below: x sd dec. x sd dec. 6 the teachers in my school are qualified based on their disciplines. 2.91 0.98 ge 2.92 0.99 ge 7 our teachers are all nce holders with little or no much teaching experience. 3.06 0.99 ge 2.66 1.14 ge 8 the teachers are professionals with many years of experience. 2.78 0.94 ge 2.86 0.99 ge 9 our teachers are graduates from notable universities in and out of nigeria. 2.75 1.04 ge 2.78 1.02 ge 10 some of our teachers are msc holders. 2.89 1.04 ge 2.83 1.03 ge cluster mean 2.88 1.00 ge 2.81 1.03 ge global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 6 table 2 above shows the responses of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of public secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the general response of the respondents was to a great extent. the principal’s mean ranged from 2.75 to 3.06 while that of teachers ranged from 2.66 to 2.92. the cluster means of 2.88 and 2.81 for principals and teachers and standard deviations of 1.00 and 1.03 respectively. these imply that there are quality teachers in the secondary schools but they have to improve on their teaching skills in order to increase the academic performances of the secondary school students in enugu education zone owing by the responses of the respondents. research question 3: to what extent do the school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students? table 3: mean response scores of principals and teachers on the extent the availability of school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students items principals teachers s/n indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement below: x sd dec. x sd dec. 11 there are good sporting facilities for the school. 2.55 0.83 ge 2.59 1.11 ge 12 there is a health care facility in my school. 2.56 0.99 ge 2.58 0.78 ge 13 there is a training facility for both the staff and students. 2.20 0.88 le 2.21 0.89 le 14 there is a research facility or library for the students. 2.53 0.94 ge 2.65 0.92 ge 15 there is an e-learning facility in my school. 2.30 0.93 le 2.42 1.01 le cluster mean 2.43 0.91 le 2.49 0.94 le table 3 above shows the responses of principals and teachers on the extent the availability of school facilities can influence the academic performance of public secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the general response of the respondents was to a low extent. the principal’s mean ranged from 2.30 to 2.56 while that of teachers ranged from 2.21 to 2.65. the cluster means of 2.43 and 2.49 for principals and teachers and standard deviations of 0.91 and 0.94 respectively. these imply that there is need for the availability of school facilities in the secondary schools in enugu education zone. hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested at p<0.05; ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure influence the academic performance of secondary school students. table 4: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision principals 12 2.43 0.91 55 0.103 2.021 not rejected teachers 45 2.46 0.88 table 4 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions of principals and teachers on the extent adequate infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. the result showed that the calculated t-value of 0.103 was less than the critical value global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 7 of 2.021. the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the responses of the principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers influence the academic performance of secondary school students. table 5: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision principals 12 2.88 1.00 55 0.700 2.021 not rejected teachers 45 2.81 1.03 table 5 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. the result showed that the calculated t-value of 0.700 was less than the critical value of 2.021. the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the responses of the principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. ho3: there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent the provision of school facilities influence the academic performance of secondary school students. table 6: t-test of significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students group n mean sd df t-cal t-crit decision principals 12 2.43 0.91 55 0.340 2.021 not rejected teachers 45 2.49 0.94 table 6 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean difference in the response opinions of principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. the result showed that the calculated t-value of 0.340 was less than the critical value of 2.021. the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there was no significant difference between the responses of the principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. summary of findings from the results of the findings, it was found out that: i. principals and teachers respondent to a low extent on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. ii. principals and teachers respondent to a great extent on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. iii. principals and teachers respondent to a low extent on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 8 iv. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. v. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. vi. there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent school facilities can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. discussion of findings it was found out in research question one that, there was a low extent to which infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. this study agrees with a good school indulges in building better learning environment which enables the students to excel especially their examinations. in schools the researcher visited, classrooms, student class ratio, cleanliness, staff room and others were not really in order. this study disagrees with ajao (2011) who posited that, for an effective teaching and learning to take place, the environment must be conducive. ajao further posited that, a well equipped classroom makes a student to feel relax and fully concentrates in the teaching activity. from the evidenced of hypothesis 1, there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent infrastructure can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. in the results of research question 2, it was found out that, the quality of teachers influences the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu education zone. this study is in accordance with the adesehinwa (2013) who posited that, education which is the bedrock of development must have people who are qualified to be in-charge of the day to day activities especially in the area of teaching staff. it is a noted fact that, quality teachers impact quality knowledge to the students. but in a school where there are teachers who are not qualified, the resultant effect is to bring out half-baked graduate. however, the evidenced of hypothesis 2 shows that, there was no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent the quality of teachers can influence the academic performance of secondary school students. conclusion based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that the learning environment in secondary schools in nigeria has significant relationship with academic performance of secondary school students. it was also concluded in the study that quality teachers are needed in the secondary school system in order to improve the academic performances of the secondary school students in enugu education zone. however, the public secondary schools which accommodate more student population suffer from infrastructural neglect as the principal do not control any budget even to maintain the existing structure. recommendations of the study based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are made. 1. the study recommends provision of facilities like modern laboratories, functional libraries, and comfortable classrooms for better academic performance; in addition to effective maintenance or renovation of old buildings, chairs, desks, recreational equipment among others should be part and parcel of the schools system. 2. the enugu state government should pay more attention to education by employing qualified teachers to teach the students in order to get a good result. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (4) pg. 9 references adesehinwa, o. a. (2013). effects of family type (monogamy or polygamy) on students academic achievement in nigeria. international journal of psychology and counselling 5(7), october. pp.153156. ajao, t. (2011). school facility conditions and student academic achievement. a research report”. prepared by ccla’s institute for democracy, education and access. october 2002, document wwws-rr0081002. ajayi, i. a., h.t. haastrup & f.m. osalusi (2010). “learning environment and secondary school effectiveness in nigeria”. stud home comm. science, 4(3) pp. 137-142. alimi, o. s., g. b. ehinola & f. o. alabi (2012) “school types, facilities and academic performance of students in senior secondary schools in ondo state, nigeria”. international education studie 5(3), june. pp. 44-48. federal republic of nigeria, (frn), (2013). national policy on education. abuja: federal ministry of education. frazier, e. (2002; lyons, c. 2001 and ostendorf, f. 2001). making better decisions about school problems: how administrators use evaluation to find solutions. california: corwin press uzoagulu, a. e. (2011). practical guide to writing research project reports in tertiary institutions. published and printed in nigeria by cheston ltd. enugu. internship assessment and evaluation in higher education global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 1; january-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 10 a holistic methodology for assessing internship learning outcomes in higher education 1maya farid abi nassif, 2elias karim müller article info abstract keywords: internship evaluation, comprehensive assessment, higher education institutions, holistic approach, comparative analysis this study introduces a comprehensive approach to evaluating internships that transcends the conventional focus on singular aspects, aiming to assess the entire internship process. a distinctive feature of this research lies in its proposal of aggregating results, thereby reducing the impact of personal reflections, beliefs, and experiences of interns and supervisors. this approach fosters a more objective and unbiased assessment of internships. furthermore, the study innovatively underscores the roles of higher education institutions (heis), students, and supervisors in the evaluation process. it advocates for a comparative analysis between interns' perceptions and supervisors' evaluations, achieved through regression analysis of preand postinternship phases. this analytical technique facilitates the identification of outcomes, program weaknesses, curriculum gaps, and internship objectives, enabling targeted enhancements. the study also integrates the internship process with performance metrics encompassing input, process, and output indicators, offering a holistic framework for evaluation. in conclusion, this research contributes a novel methodology that holistically evaluates internships, bridging gaps in assessment and providing avenues for comprehensive improvements. 1. originality/value evaluation of internships usually focus on one aspect of the internship. this study suggests an evaluation of all aspects of an internship throughout its whole process. it also proposes an aggregation of results that minimizes the influence of personal reflections, beliefs and experience of both interns and supervisors for a more objective and unbiased assessment. another novelty is that this study equally emphasizes on the roles of the hei/student/supervisor in evaluating the internship. it suggests a cross-comparison between the intern’s own perception towards the internship and the supervisor’s evaluation. it addresses this gap by calculating the regression between before and after, and it compares results between supervisors and students’ evaluations allowing hei to identify internships’ outcomes, 1 lebanese german university, faculty of public health, biomedical technologies department, sahel alma, lebanon2 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 11 weaknesses/shortages in the program/curricula/internship objectives and to pinpoint problematic topics that would require improvement. lastly, it links the internship process to performance measures (of input, process and output indicators) and corrective actions, providing a holistic approach to internship evaluation. 2. introduction internship is integral to many undergraduate degree programs that require practical skill application. it prepares students prior to their professional experience (ebner, soucek, & selenko, 2021), makes explicit links between the practice-based setting and what is taught in the classroom through reflective activities, provides industry feedback to identify areas of weakness and strategies for improvement, encourages students to develop critical perspectives of work practices and how they can be improved and incorporates reflection to consider personal strengths and career aspirations (jackson, 2017). assessment of students’ performance and evaluation of courses and teaching are critical elements in the teaching and learning environments and are central to each higher education institution's mission of preparing students for the future (balla & boyle, 2006). while a vast knowledge-base exists to inform good practice in assessment of student performance in classroom-based courses, the literature on effective practice for internships, however, appears to be sparse. internships are a growing presence on the higher education landscape. they have long been a feature of professional programs or practical disciplines at the graduate and undergraduate levels and often serve as capstone experiences in those programs as well. internships are often a requirement for certain degrees and tend to be facilitated either through the academic program itself or a centralized academic internship center or career service on campus. lately, even in the liberal arts and sciences fields, internships have grown in response to pressure for career-ready graduates and as a result of research on effective practices for deep learning. the gained importance of internship was paradoxically accompanied by an absence of systematic and clear procedures related to its assessment. while quality assurance promotes a greater role to be given to students and accountability and advocates a closer and constantly renewed assessment of learning outcomes, evaluating internships’ outcome and feedback seem to have been left out of the equation. some researchers have proposed internship assessment methods involving coordination with the industry, selfevaluation by the students or peer assessment. however, none of these methods actually give a holistic view of the internship’s performance in terms of assuring quality and guaranteeing the expected learning outcome (baartman, gulikers, & dijkstra, 2013) (el-mowafy, 2014) (della volpe, 2017). thus, the novelty of this work resides in the development of a clear methodology to assess the internship learning outcomes based on clearly defined input measures, learning objectives, gap identification coupled with corresponding corrective actions. while it is easy to demonstrate that internship experiences are pertinent and important to students’ learning, assessing those work-placements or experiences can be quite problematic. in fact, unlike other theoretical courses, students or trainees are often in diverse settings, away from the university, with little or no direct oversight. assessment in this case has to accommodate a wider range of activities than that of campus-based courses. designing effective assessment practices remains one of the most challenging issues that universities face when implementing workintegrated learning. practicing workplace activities only are not sufficient to ensure effective learning. on one hand, the addition of conventional university assessment methods (such as examinations, essays, reports) could potentially conflict with the richer and complex learning that often takes place during an internship, on another hand, good internship assessment design rests on managing the complexity of including a third stakeholder (the internship field) and on having a good partnership between the university and the company (ajjawi, et al., 2020). ensuring that students’ assessment is complete, authentic and fair brings forth many challenges. therefore, higher education institutions should make sure that their students’ experience and competence assessment is adequate on several levels all while not relying on a single assessment method. george miller’s work in assessing competence of clinical skills aptly portrays this complexity when he introduced four layers of assessment regarding internships: (1) assessment of knowing, (2) knowing how, (3) showing how global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 12 and (4) doing in a realistic and complex context (baartman, gulikers, & dijkstra, 2013). developing, implementing and evaluating practical knowledge is clearly not straight-forward and requires a careful and critical reconsideration of current assessment practices. the main purpose of this work is to propose an adequate and relatively simple model for defining pre-requisites and input measures, selecting the right training field, assessing students’ skills and learning outcomes during or following the internship, and identifying the corrective actions eventually needed while taking into account the full complexity of such an evaluation. the model is based on quality assurance principles and demonstrates a commitment to continuous improvement of curriculum and learning goals. this work is part of a larger endeavor that aims to address assessment and performance measurement issues in higher education for both accreditation and internal improvement purposes. 3. literature review on internship’s role in higher education and its evaluation internship is defined by cambridge dictionary as being “a period of time during which someone works for a company or organization in order to get experience of a particular type of work” (mcintosh, 2013) and by the business dictionary as a “period of supervised training required for qualifying for a profession that follows a specified number of academic credits or classroom years” (friedman, 2012). whether it is called internship, training, placement, professional field experience or work-integrated learning, practical hands-on trainings are a crucial component of many higher education undergraduate programs. initially limited to technical and applied disciplines, internships have gained popularity throughout the years as a result of the positive outcomes they had on graduates. today, many undergraduate programs entail practical training as an integral part of the curriculum. the weight, duration and requisites of internships may vary from a program to another and from a country to another, however, its assessment remains complex and problematic as it involves parties and settings external to the university, combined with difficulties to align learning activities with what is or can be assessed by the university (ajjawi, et al., 2020). internship has the potential to incorporate the domains of knowledge, skills, and values. the knowledge dimension focuses on understanding factual information, terminology, principles, concepts, and theories, while the dimension of skills focuses on what the intern will learn to do. skills can be physical or intellectual. the domain of values focuses on habits, beliefs, and motivations an intern may wish to develop or improve, such as being more patient or being less defensive about criticism. assessing an internship should therefore assess the student’s progress in all those areas in a non-subjective manner. an internship can be a powerful vehicle for a variety of outcomes with several dimensions of learning and development: through the professional dimension, an internship is an opportunity to take the next step in career readiness, to acquire more of the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values of a profession or an academic discipline and to explore how well those fit with personal interests and strengths. the internship also offers the opportunity to understand the world of work in a more complete way and become socialized into the norms and values of a profession. the academic dimension emphasizes the applied learning of a particular academic discipline, thereby deepening understanding of key disciplinary concepts. there are also important essential abilities across disciplines that can be strengthened in an internship, including the ability to look critically at information, think creatively, work in a team, perceive issues from multiple viewpoints, develop analytical abilities, and communicate clearly both verbally and in writing. the personal dimension is an opportunity for intellectual and emotional development important to a student’s life, regardless of occupation. internship offers an opportunity to develop qualities such as flexibility, sensitivity, and openness to diversity. the internship can also be a powerful catalyst for developing a sense of potential, testing creative capacities, and exercising judgement. the opportunity to advance self-understanding and self-awareness is a crucial dimension and can include clarifying values and understanding reaction patterns, cultural profiles, ways of thinking, and styles of communicating. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 13 the civic dimension emanates from the need for students to acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that will allow them to function as productive citizens in a democratic society. the internship is a chance to learn about the public relevance and social obligations of a profession and about how those obligations are (or are not) carried out at the internship site (king & sweitzer, 2014). in their study, ajjawi et al. identified three key misalignments that led to inauthentic experiences of internship assessment: (1) misalignment between assessment activities creating dissonance between current and future selves, (2) misalignment between work placement activities and assessment activities, and (3) misalignment between the university and workplace roles. common to these three misalignments is a lack of shared endeavor and coordination among the key stakeholders: student, university and industry (ajjawi, et al., 2020). in general, involving both students and workplace (through internship supervisors) in the evaluation process is considered the ideal way of assessing the performance of an internship. indeed, the combination may facilitate the principles of quality assessment which include having regular feedback among all parties, utilizing both formative and summative assessment pieces, and incorporating critical reflection [23]. there are, however, longheld concerns for the reliability and validity of such assessments. evaluations conducted by workplace supervisors are largely related to leniency bias, poor rating reliability, lack of engagement, resistance to be directly involved in the assessment process, and inappropriate skills to assess accurately (jackson, 2017). there can also be difficulties in incorporating supervisor’s grades into students’ formal grades rendering standardized assessment tools problematic. moreover, while self-evaluation is a type of assessment that should drive accountability and self-improvement, basing an assessment solely on students’ self-evaluation is a very sensitive and risky method as it assumes that students have the needed training and maturity to perform such a task. therefore, a multi-dimensional approach to internship assessment is essential if we are to overcome those challenges, recognize the biases in students’ self-evaluation and supervisors’ evaluation while focusing on internship quality and learning outcome. 4. place of internship evaluation in quality assurance and accreditation one of the multiple definitions of quality assurance in higher education is the systematic management and assessment procedures adopted by a higher education institution or system, to monitor performance and to ensure achievement of quality outputs or improved quality. quality assurance aims to give stakeholders confidence about the quality of management and of the achieved outcomes. accreditation is defined in cambridge dictionary as “the fact of being officially recognized, accepted, or approved of, or the act of officially recognizing, accepting, or approving of something” (mcintosh, 2013). webster defines the word accredit as the fact “to give official authorization to or approval of something or to consider or recognize as outstanding” (webster, 2017). as for oxford, accreditation is an “official approval given by an organization stating that somebody/something has achieved a required standard” (oxford university press, 2014). accreditation in higher education refers to a process of assessment and review which enables a higher education program or institution to be recognized or certified as meeting appropriate standards. accreditation is performed by accreditation agencies that evaluate the quality of an institution or one of its programs based on a set of standards. agencies can be national covering one country like those operating in china, india, or bangladesh (natarajan, 2011) (song, 2018) (samal & bharati, 2019) (chowdhury, alam, kanti biswas, islam, & islam, 2013) or international, covering several countries or a continent as it is the case in europe, usa and most of the developed countries (teichler, 2018). the quality debate in higher education is not a new topic. in the past, higher education institutions and governments used different terminology, such as academic standards, standards of degrees and diplomas, student assessment, audit and accountability. at that time, the main concerns were largely about maintaining academic standards according to some national or international norms, the maintenance and improvement of levels of teaching and learning, and ensuring sufficient financial and other resources to achieve the institution’s mission. many of these issues are still important today, but the new quality debate focuses now on achieving quality outcomes, assessing the suitability of graduates for the workforce, providing information to stakeholders in order global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 14 to assure them of the quality and credibility of outputs, and establishing appropriate management processes to monitor achievement and to monitor the extent to which specified goals and objectives are being met (meek & harman, 2000). in other words, today’s concerns are more about management processes and their effectiveness, the assessment of outputs, outcomes, monitoring performance, and demonstrating how well outputs/outcomes meet employers’ and others’ needs. this brings us to question the place and role of internship, its process management and its assessment in the midst of quality and accreditation efforts. while answering to accountability of graduates’ practical learning outcomes and meeting workplace requirements are essential to assuring quality, the translation of this priority into clear actions and accreditation standards is still vague. acknowledging the important role of internship in the learning process is one thing. establishing clear and comprehensive assessment methods is something else. following a quick review of several institutional accreditation agencies like ace (accreditation institution denmark), evalag (evaluation agency baden-württemberg germany), acquin (accreditation, certification and quality assurance institute germany), aneca (agencia nacional de la evaluación de la calidad y acreditación spain), qaa (quality assurance agency for higher education – united kingdom), eduqua (swiss quality label for further education institutions switzerland), neasc (middle states commission on higher education usa), and hlc (higher learning commission usa) (eaton, 2010), it was striking to notice the dearth of standards dedicated to internship assessment. in fact, none of the abovementioned agencies proposes a specific method to assess internships’ objectives, learning outcomes, or internship’s impact on the student’s academic and professional development. moreover, when scanning the standards of programmatic accreditation agencies such as cti (commission des titres d'ingénieurs france), abet (accreditation board for engineering and technology usa), or aacsb (association to advance collegiate schools of business), the only mention about students’ practical work is that there should be direct measures to assure learning. in other words, to have evidence from learner’s work such as examinations, quizzes, assignments, and internship or externship feedback that is based on direct observation of specific performance behaviors or outcomes. some have mentioned that assessment should lead to curricular and process improvement (aacsb, 2020). the german fibaa (foundation for international business administration accreditation) requires the program to be systematically oriented towards meeting the anticipated requirements of the dynamic job market and makes use of the results of graduate evaluations. as for highly practical programs with extensive clinical work like nursing, acen (accreditation commission for education in nursing) standards state that student clinical experiences and practice learning environments are evidencebased, reflect contemporary practice and nationally established patient health and safety goals, and support the achievement of the end-of-program student learning outcomes. as much as all this is true and important, yet it remains very theoretical. in fact, internship assessment is required by most accreditation standards however, none has put forward clear standards and guidance that explicitly elaborates on the performance measure on which institutions can rely for evaluating their activities (whether internship or class teaching) and providing evidence of their conformity (asif & searcy, 2014). internship evaluation allows us to analyze and assess the matching between the theoretical and laboratory knowledge acquired on-campus on one side, and the practical and technical skills required in the workplace on the other (bender, 2021). closing the gap (between education and industry’s needs) in terms of learning outcomes, program’s objectives and content will be gradually reached. 5. methodology several management tools and methods already exist to measure and evaluate quality performance in general; check sheet, grids, flowcharts, balanced scorecard, cause and effect diagram, performance indicators, etc. (cave, hanney, henkel, & kogan, 2006). many higher education institutions have adopted those tools from the industry to assess the performance of teaching and research. while we will not delve into the risks and challenges of implementing http://acedenmark.eu/ http://acedenmark.eu/ http://acedenmark.eu/ http://acedenmark.eu/ http://acedenmark.eu/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/commission_des_titres_d%27ing%c3%a9nieur http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/commission_des_titres_d%27ing%c3%a9nieur http://www.abet.org/ http://www.abet.org/ https://www.chea.org/accreditation-commission-education-nursing https://www.chea.org/accreditation-commission-education-nursing https://www.chea.org/accreditation-commission-education-nursing https://www.chea.org/accreditation-commission-education-nursing https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#clinicalpracticumlearningexperiences https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#clinicalpracticumlearningexperiences https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#practicelearningenvironments https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#practicelearningenvironments https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#evidencebased https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#evidencebased https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#evidencebased https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#evidencebased https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#contemporarynursingpractice https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#contemporarynursingpractice https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#patient/client https://www.acenursing.org/acen-accreditation-manual-glossary/#patient/client global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 15 “borrowed” methods from the industry, it is important to mention that none of these tools were specifically developed for higher education and even less for assessing the performance of workintegrated learning. the performance evaluation method suggested in this paper takes into account the context of higher education in general and the particularities of evaluating practical learning. we will start by presenting the process of internship before proposing evaluation tools and indicators to assess the internship’s performance at each step of the process. figure 1. internship process we will start by describing the steps: 5.1. pre-requisites and inputs the first idea in the internship process is to clearly define the objectives and learning outcomes that the student and the institution aim to reach upon internship completion. the second is to make sure that all input measures are adequate and fulfill the internship’s mission. typically, internship learning outcome is to develop students’ professional identities and capability through the integration of different forms of knowledge and reflection on the nature of work. internship should help students see the relevance of their study, contextualize learning outcomes, and promote engagement in learning (devedzic, et al., 2018). input measures designate the human, financial and physical resources involved in supporting the internship’s purpose. in fact, it is believed that when a set of input resources is demonstrated to be available (and in the presence of institutional will), it indicates a good chance that current conditions favor the creation of quality education (manning, 2018). 5.2. internship classification and selection this step allows an efficient classification and selection process of internship venues. it informs about the variety, availability and profile of the available internship venues, the expected dedicated assistance and supervision the student would receive and the diversity of tasks, size of projects, etc. to which the student would be exposed. students who perform their internship at exceptional institutions will benefit from the experience more likely than those who did it in a merely adequate one. 5.3. internship period this is the actual period where students are doing their practical work under the supervision of an internship supervisor. 5.4. gap identification following the internship period and the assessment of students’ learning outcomes, it is crucial to compare the outcomes to the intended objectives set in the first step. when those gaps are identified, measured, interpreted and corrected, it allows continuous improvement. managing the performance of internships is in fact the process where actual performance, targets and gaps are reviewed to ensure that timely preventive and corrective actions take place. 5.5. control variables and corrective actions assessing a performance without taking the right improvement measures or corrective actions is a waste of resources. the goal is to detect areas of low performance and improve them by implementing the necessary global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 16 corrective measures when meaningful gaps between the actual internship performance and the desired results are identified. control variables represent the potential list of actions that can or should be realized when the actual results do not satisfy the pre-defined objectives. as one performance indicator cannot paint a complete picture of an internship’s performance, let alone explain the gaps and identify corrective actions, the method proposed in this paper suggests an aggregation of several performance measurements that assess an internship throughout its full process allowing to develop an objective, quantifiable and holistic judgment in the purpose of continuous improvement. the foundation of a successful internship is the alignment between the internship’s intended learning outcomes, learning activities and assessment while considering the following criteria: o students should engage in reflection on their personal goals and learn how to perform selfassessment; o the internship’ learning outcomes are clearly defined and consistent with the program’s learning outcomes; o prerequisites to the internship are well defined and achieved prior to enrollment; o alignment between the institution’s intended outcomes and the workplace expectations should be done prior to the internship, when defining objectives; assessing the internship is therefore a continuous process based on qualitative and quantitative measurements of performance, followed by gap identification and corrective actions. performance measures or performance indicators (pis) are qualitative or quantitative measures used to evaluate the performance of a company, an activity, a process or an educational program. they are also used to determine whether predefined objectives have been met. pis in higher education are an important measurement tool used to assess the performance of the institution, a department, a program or an activity, academically, strategically or financially. they can evaluate input measures, processes, outputs or outcomes. based on their results, the institution would have a clear understanding of the present situation, how effectively it is meeting its objectives and would be able to set up improvement plans. this practice, whether it is part of an accreditation process or self-imposed, is necessary to assure quality and continuous improvement (roubtsova & michell , 2013). several methods and techniques exist to define and to calculate pis. although it is not the subject of the present paper, a quick review of literature regarding performance management and the use of pis in higher education showed that very few authors have addressed the specific context of higher education when proposing this management tool. while some measurements have been developed throughout the years to assess research performance, students’ graduation, retention rates or even satisfaction, none has attempted to specifically assess students’ internship performance. in this paper several quantitative and qualitative pis are proposed with the purpose of evaluating the performance of an internship throughout its whole process. by using pis aligned with the program’s learning objectives, it is possible to evaluate effectiveness and measure the achievement of the internship’s learning outcomes quantitatively and qualitatively. this achievement should then be compared to a target, whether a previous result, an average of results, a certain threshold (predefined objectives) or if available, a benchmark. 5.6. internship’s evaluation method for each step of the process we will detail the evaluation method and suggest pis that will help assess and monitor the process’ effectiveness. the pis and their calculation method are detailed in the table at the end of the article. 1pre-requisites and inputs are related to academic pre-requisites that students should acquire prior to their enrolment in the internship and to requirements (academic, human and physical) that the higher education institution should secure in order to maximize the benefits of internships. the following areas are of particular importance:  curriculum and courses’ regular updates. it is important to continuously update the program’s curriculum and courses as part of quality and continuous improvement efforts. the update consists in the addition/removal of courses, modification of preand co-requisites of courses, significant changes in the courses’ objectives and content, establishment of minors (subfields), etc. in other terms, it involves taking in account any adjustment or global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 17 enhancement made as a response to an expressed need or corrective action or to the introduction of new technologies that affect the program. frequency of curriculum and courses updates (pi1 in the table);  qualification of faculty members. the profile of the faculty members teaching and doing research at the department (degrees and experience) reflects the added values that they can bring to the department. those who hold professional positions in the industry are able to provide students with many opportunities in terms of job placements, participation in industrial projects, real case-studies and most importantly, alignment between theoretical knowledge and practice. faculty members holding a phd might not bring industry expertise, however, they offer deep scientific knowledge and research competence. a high ratio of professional experience indicates a high number of faculty members who are involved in the industry, and consequently, higher chances for students to acquire practical know-how prior to their internships and consequently more chances to highly perform qualification of the faculty members (pi2 in the table): i. percentage of full timers and part-timers having a professorship degree; ii. percentage of full timers and part-timers having a ph.d. degree; iii. percentage of full timers and part-timers having a master degree; iv. percentage of full timers with a professional experience; v. percentage of part timers who presently hold a position in the industry.  student’s gpa and prerequisite courses. this parameter indicates that the prerequisites that students should acquire prior to their internship (such as a minimum cumulative gpa, prerequisite major courses or minimum earned credits) should be clearly defined and validated before allowing the students to enroll in the internship in order to fully benefit from the internship experience (pi9);  program’s relation with the industry. a program that is designed and taught in collaboration with the business sector is more likely to produce graduates who possess up-to-date and adequate skills to succeed in the job market (pi10);  clear definition of internship learning outcomes. it is probably the most important action. the department should have a clear list of skills, attributes and knowledge that students should acquire by the end of their internship period, linked to a detailed assessment scheme. the internship’s evaluation (through forms and questionnaires) will be based on that assessment scheme. assessment of learning outcomes guarantees to stakeholders that students have reached various knowledge and skills and that they are ready for employment or further study (pi11);  societal and professional impact of the program. the impact of the program on its environment can be assessed by the extent of its collaboration and engagement with the community through the organization of professional development activities. in fact, workshops, conferences, seminars and continuing education programs tend to close the gap between higher education and labor market needs that undergraduate curricula don’t seem to fully cover. it includes also the program’s participation in presenting findings or innovative techniques and methods that are newly being implemented in the industry and not yet integrated in academic programs through conferences holdings and experts gathering. societal impact of the program is also translated in the number of joint research projects with the industry (refer to pi3 in the table); 2classification and selection of internship venues is important as it guarantees that students will be performing their training in a suitable organization. the proposed indicator allows an efficient selection and ventilation process of internship venues internship venue selection criteria (pi4 in the table); 3the internship period is the period during which the students are physically based in a professional setting for a defined period. in general, internship experience is assessed through questionnaires filled by the students themselves or by the internship supervisor. many forms and concepts of satisfaction questionnaires and evaluation sheets are used to assess internships, however, it was concluded that they were subjective and lacked accuracy. the study of baartman et al. is one of many studies that established that the involvement of the workfield in training assessment is usually weak. as a result, the assessments are less authentic, the work-field does not know and understand the assessment criteria, does not accept the assessment, and professionals from the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 18 work-field are not involved as assessors. another finding was that the translation of the competences to be assessed into assessment criteria understandable by students to be used and actually be assessed in appropriate assessment methods is not always available (baartman, gulikers, & dijkstra, 2013). this can result in students’ leaning outcome being inappropriately assessed because of the lack of understanding. in our proposal, both the students and the supervisors will fill an evaluation form. these same evaluations will be filled at two different points in time: before and after the internship for the trainee, after the first week and at the end of the internship for the supervisor. those questionnaires are based on the list of skills and aptitudes determined in the learning objectives of the internship in terms of technical, managerial, personal and soft skills (devedzic, et al., 2018). using two evaluation forms at two different points in time based on learning outcomes minimizes the risks of subjectivity and biases. at the same time, students’ performance in theoretical courses taken during or after the internship will be evaluated and compared to their performance in related courses taken before the internship. this comparison is an indirect manner to assess the added value of the internship on success in theoretical courses. an improvement of the student’s academic performance following an internship indicates a beneficial and effective internship experience. influence of the internship on the student’s performance in theoretical courses (pi5 in the table) questionnaires results (pi7 in the table) i. questionnaire filled by the student and the beginning of the internship ii. questionnaire filled by the supervisor and the beginning of the internship iii. questionnaire filled by the student at the end of the internship iv. questionnaire filled by the supervisor at the end of the internship 4identifying the gaps between the intended learning outcomes and the achieved ones is the most important step of the process. as assessing learning outcomes is already an arduous practice that still needs to be done more efficiently (coates, 2015), assessing practical learning in off-campus settings is even more difficult and tricky. therefore, we suggest several indirect indicators that when combined, would give a holistic and more accurate picture of the extent of learning outcomes achievement.  students’ employability. this indicator informs about the employability of the graduates in general and as a result of a successful internship (recruitment in the same institution where the student performed the internship). this adapted employability rate serves as a proxy to assess the level of satisfaction of the internship field. the higher the ratio, the higher the degree of satisfaction of the training field and/or the realization of the internship’s objectives and/or the higher the whole program outcome. employability of graduates (pi6 in the table);  achievement of internship’s learning outcomes. this indictor studies the matching between the internship’s learning objectives and the actual learning outcome by cross-comparing the four evaluation forms filled by the trainee and the internship’s supervisor (as presented in step 3 above). evaluation of the internship’s learning outcomes as compared to the objectives (pi7 in the table);  a general satisfaction questionnaire is distributed to the students and to the internship fields to evaluate their contentment in the training regardless of the student’s technical performance. it actually assesses the students’ satisfaction with the internship venue in terms of opportunities, follow-up and supervision. the supervisor’s satisfaction evaluates the personal competencies of the students and the quality of follow-up provided by the higher education institution. technical and scientific skills are covered in pi7. the satisfaction rate and its evolution are to be compared periodically by batches of students and by training field. it enables the assessment of the satisfaction level from two different perspectives, and eventually identifies improvement areas outside purely academic matters. students’ satisfaction/ internship’s venue satisfaction (pi8 in the table); 5at this level, corrective actions can be launched based on the gaps’ identification from the previous step. we suggest the below action means along with their deployment method: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 19 a1. appointing a steering committee, consisting of faculty members, experts and partners from the industry, to review the courses’ objectives/content and the internship’s objectives and/or assigning a students’ committee (currently enrolled students and alumni) to collect their feedback, comments and suggestions; a2. assigning a faculty council to review the number of allocated hours/credits for key courses/laboratory work/internship, the pre-requisite courses/gpa needed before starting the internship, etc. and any other academic prerequisite deemed meaningful; a3. conducting meetings with the training fields (direct supervisors and directors), in order to describe the internship’s objectives, and/or collect additional feedback regarding the students’ behavior and knowledge, shortages, and/or come-up with common actions; a4. reviewing the evaluation and assessment methods on theoretical and laboratory courses; a5. organizing targeted workshops and seminars on-campus delivered by industry specialists; a6. reviewing the profile of the faculty members and laboratory assistants. table 1. performance indicators title of the performance indicator calculation method pi1 curriculum and courses’ frequency of updates the ratio of curriculum and/or courses frequency of update should be calculated over several years (for more representativeness). , and where n the total number of courses in a given curriculum, ng the number of general courses, nc the number of core courses and nm the number of major courses. let nug the number of updated general courses, nuc the number of updated core courses and num the number of updated major courses. pi2 qualification of faculty members where npti and nfti are, respectively, the number of part time and full time instructors of the program and nii is the number of part time and full time instructors having a professorship degree for the “percentage of full timers and part-timers having a professorship degree indicator”; nii is the number of part time and full time instructors having a ph.d. degree for the “percentage of full timers and parttimers having a ph.d. degree”; nii is the number of part time and full time instructors having a master degree for the “percentage of full timers and parttimers having a master degree”; where npfi is the number of full time instructors having a professional experience; where nppi is the number of part timers time instructors holding a position in the industry correlation through linear regression. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 20 table 2 shows the interconnections between the pis and the control variables. this summary table is important to ensure the coherence between the pi’s (level of performance achieved) and the control variables to identify the adequate corrective actions that should be applied upon gap identification. this also ensures that the chosen pi’s are not redundant in their usage and that none are missing. lastly, it serves as a quick reference for the users of pis to facilitate and prompt the process of gap identification and launching of corrective actions. table 2. interconnection between the pis and the control variables pis pi1 pi2 pi3 pi4 pi5 pi6 pi7 pi8 pi9 pi10 pi11 controlvariables a1 x x x x x x x x x x a2 x x x a3 x x x x x x x x x x a4 x x x a5 x x x x x a6 x x x x to conclude, figure 2 summarizes the overall evaluation methodology throughout the whole internship process used as a roadmap for internship assessment. figure 2. summary of internship process and assessment 6. conclusion and future works in this paper, eleven pis were proposed in order to evaluate the performance of an internship throughout its whole process and through several angles. we compared the internship’s learning outcomes with its expected objectives, studied the influence of the internship on the student’s academic performance, assessed the satisfaction of the internship fields and whether it was translated into actual recruitment, studied the profile of the internship fields as well as that of the faculty members, and lastly, calculated the frequency of curriculum updates and professional development activities. on another hand, six control variables were proposed to be launched as corrective actions to close the gaps between expectations and actual performance whenever needed. at a first stage those corrective actions aim to continuously improve the internship’s performance, at a second stage, they will help to enhance the overall program learning outcomes and their coherence with the labor market requirements. as a future work, this scheme should be tested and applied to several academic programs, especially to those where practical work holds an important place, in order to verify its validity. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (1) pg. 21 references [1] aacsb. 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(2017). merriam-webster's advanced learner's english dictionary. massachusetts: merriamwebster, inc. www.ijmsssr.org global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 1; january-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 11 venture capital dynamics: exploring profitability boosts for companies in crisis 1dr. amanda sofia johnson and 2prof. david alexander williams article info abstract keywords: covid-19 pandemic, venture capital, profitability, finance companies, financial performance the covid-19 pandemic has exerted substantial impacts on various facets, notably health and economics. companies have adopted diverse strategies, including seeking external financing, to enhance resilience and performance during these turbulent times. this study investigates the effects of venture capital infusion on a company's profitability in the context of the pandemic. drawing from ratna (2013) and kurniawati (2017), the study emphasizes the critical role of finance companies, particularly amidst intense business competition, as essential sources of funds for investment, working capital, and economic growth. profitability serves as a cornerstone for a company's sustenance and advancement, influencing operational and maintenance aspects as articulated by marlinah (2014). analyzing financial statements and profitability ratios, the study assesses the relationship between venture capital injection and net income generation, which indicates managerial efficacy and overall company performance. a case in point is presented through pt buana finance tbk, highlighting the industry's challenges and experiences during the initial wave of the pandemic (agustine, 2015). this research contributes to understanding the dynamics of financial strategies during crises and offers insights into sustaining profitability within the financing sector. by evaluating the correlation between external financing and company performance, this study provides actionable insights for firms navigating uncertain economic landscapes. 1 faculty of economic business, universitas mecu buana indonesia 2 faculty of economic business, universitas mecu buana indonesia https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 12 1. introduction as we now know that the impact of the covid-19 pandemic is very influential in all aspects, especially on health and economic conditions. in order to maintain its existence and improve its performance, various efforts have been made by the company, one of which is by increasing capital by seeking financing from outside the company. the addition of venture capital aims to increase the company's profit which in the end the company is able to survive in this very unstable condition ratna (2013). the role of finance companies is now felt very much needed, in line with the development of the business world and intense competition. financial institutions can be an alternative for the development of several business sectors. the role of the financing services industry is to provide funds for people who need sources of financing funds, both for investment, working capital, and consumption purposes, which are expected to be useful in boosting the national economy. finance companies are business entities outside banks and non-bank financial institutions that are specifically established to carry out activities that are included in the business field of financing institutions. a finance company is also one of the business entities of a financing institution consisting of the finance company itself, venture capital company, and infrastructure finance company. as an institution financing is a business entity that carries out financing activities in the form of providing funds or capital goods kurniawati(2017). profitability allows companies to survive and thrive, even profitability can be said to be a benchmark for the establishment of a company. with profitability, companies can turn on elements in it such as operations and maintenance marlinah (2014). the company's profitability is the company's ability to generate net income from activities carried out in the accounting period. profit is a description of the performance achieved from the general transaction process carried out by the company during a certain period. profit is used as an indicator for stakeholders to assess the extent to which management is performing in managing a company. the level of the company's ability to earn profits can be seen and measured by analyzing financial statements through profitability ratios. this ratio shows the success of a company in generating profits. profitability is also important to strengthen the financial position. according to the ojk, the financing industry is currently facing quite a tough challenge. in the last 2 years, the financing industry only grew by 4%. there is a phenomenon regarding the decline in net profit at the financing institution by 22.9% in the first quarter of 2015. one of the multi-finance companies that experienced a decrease in profit in the first quarter of 2015 was pt buana finance tbk. antoni muljono, finance director of buana finance said that his party experienced a 25% decrease in net profit to rp25.83b when compared to the same period in 2014 of rp34.45b (agustine, 2015) (source: https://finansial.bisnis.com accessed on 7 november 2020). furthermore, the phenomenon of a decline in net profit at the performance financing institution pt verena multi finance tbk declined in the third quarter of 2018. this multi-finance company had to be satisfied with the revenue and profit that fell significantly from 2017. based on the company's financial statements, as of september 2018, verena multi finance recorded revenue of rp 177.98 billion own 26.7 percent from last year. this decline was also followed by the company's profit performance, which was minus rp 171.26 billion, whereas in september last year it was still positive at rp 4.04 billion. president director of verena multi finance, andi harjono, said the decline in the company's revenue and profit performance was due to a decline in the financing portfolio. “the decline occurred due to a decrease in the financing portfolio. however, the company's liquidity condition is still good, because funding comes from panin bank and other banks," andi told kontan.co.id, tuesday (6/11). the decline in profit and revenue performance has resulted in a 32.5 percent decline in the company's assets to rp global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 13 1.18 trillion. this condition was further exacerbated by the 50.72% increase in the company's expenses, rp. 357.92 billion. verena multi finance decided to increase capital by conducting a rights issue ii or preemptive rights ii (hmetd). the company offered 3.1 billion ordinary shares with a nominal value of rp 100. the offering price was rp 140 per share, meaning that verena could reap fresh funds of rp 434.3 billion. ibj leasing company (ibjl), a japanese financing company will act as a standby buyer. furthermore, the phenomenon regarding debt policy is alternative funding for a company in increasing productivity and financing business expansion in the future, the financial services authority (ojk) will provide relaxation for the issuance of debt securities to strengthen the financing for finance companies or multi-finance companies. this new rule is a refinement of pojk no. 35/2018 concerning the implementation of financing company business. with this regulation, he hopes that finance companies can take advantage of this relaxation to support productive financing in the micro, small and medium enterprise (msme) sector during limited funds from banks. researchers use the roi indicator to analyze the profitability data as a whole and to measure the level of profit invested by the company in capital. roi is relatively simple, it can be seen from the formula that if you want to increase your return on investment, you only need to reduce costs and increase profits. this study will look at how to find out the effect of funding from long-term debt, short-term debt, and own capital either simultaneously or partially on the level of profitability in companies engaged in financing institutions where the company is engaged in financing institutions, especially during the pandemic finance company. need the ability to survive. which of the long-term debt, short-term debt and capital is the most dominant influence on the profitability of a finance company. 2. theoryandhypothesesdevelopment 2.1. packing order theory. pecking order theory according to saputra (2012) pecking order theory assumes that the company aims to maximize shareholder welfare. pecking order theory predicts that external debt financing is based on an internal funding deficit. the following is the order (hierarchy) in selecting funding sources, namely: a. the company prefers to use internal funding sources or internal funding rather than external funding. the internal funds are obtained from retained earnings generated from the company's operational activities. b. if external funding is needed, the company will choose first from the safest securities, namely the lowest risk debt, down to riskier debt, hybrid securities such as convertible bonds, preferred stock, and finally common stock. c. there is a constant dividend policy, namely the company will set a constant amount of dividend payments, regardless of how much the company gains or loses. e. to anticipate a cash shortage due to a constant dividend policy and fluctuations in profit levels, as well as growth opportunities, the company will take an investment portfolio that is readily available. 2.2. modigliani-miller (mm) theory according to brigham (2011) mm theory is divided into 2 conditions, namely: 1) no tax by assuming that there is neither corporate tax nor tax and based on the assumptions previously mentioned, mm uses the following prepositions: a) preposition i modigliani and miller (mm) explain that there is no effect of financial leverage on firm value. according to mm 1 theory, changes in capital structure do not affect the value of the company in other words global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 14 there is no optimal capital structure for the company b) mm ii proposition which states that the expected value of the rate of return on capital / return on equity (roe) increases in line with the increase in the debt-to-equity ratio (der). the increase in roe expectations is driven by an increase in financial risk that will be borne by corporate investors due to increased debt (der), so that if financial leverage increases, the cost of capital/equity will also increase linearly because shareholders are faced with greater risk. 2) with the company tax a) preposition i state that the value of a company with debt will be greater than the value of a company without debt. the value of the company that will have the debt is equal to the value of the company without debt plus the tax savings. the theory of the mm proposition underwent a change with the inclusion of the tax element by miller. mm admits that an increase in the amount of debt has a positive effect on firm value. b) preposition ii states that the cost of equity in companies that have debt is equal to the cost of equity of companies without debt plus a risk premium. so, the mm theory with corporate tax states that the value of the company will increase in line with the increase in the use of debt. debt interest costs can reduce taxes so that a larger portion of the company's income becomes the investor's share. this implies that organizations that issue debt are sending out favorable signals about their future prospects. in contrast, fresh equity is issued with the goal of distributing risk among shareholders; therefore, this is the last option for corporations seeking to acquire cash.(endri,e., et.al.2021). 2.3. trade-off theory (tot) according to ferdiansya .et,al(2013) trade-off theory has the implication that managers will think in terms of trade-offs between tax savings and bankruptcy costs in determining capital structure. according to ferdiansya .et.al (2013) in reality, there are things that prevent companies from using as much debt as possible. an important thing is that the higher the debt, the higher the probability of bankruptcy. this theory incorporates the effects of personal taxes, agency costs, and financial distress costs as a counterbalance to the benefits of using debt. according to the trade-off model, the optimal capital structure is a balance between tax savings on the use of debt and the costs of financial difficulties due to the use of debt, because the costs and benefits will cancel each other out (trade-off). the optimal level of debt is achieved when the effect of the interest tax shield reaches the maximum amount on the expected cost of financial distress. at the optimal level of debt, it is expected that the value of the company will reach the optimal level, and conversely,, there will be a change in the level of debt until it passes the optimal level or bankruptcy costs, and financial distress costs are greater than the interest tax shield effect, debt will have a negative effect on firm value. thitrade-offff theory recognizes the existence of a targeted debt level 3. researchmethods 3.1. research design financing companies are are listed on the indonesia stock exchange (idx) 2015-2020 through the website (financial and annual report, 2020) which is the official website of the indonesia stock exchange (idx) and the website of the financing company. to obtain data and answer the problem to be studied, the authors use secondary data. secondary data is a data source that does not directly provide data to data collectors, for example through other people or through documents sugiyono, (2016). the data used in this study is company data on the indonesia stock exchange which has been published in 2015-2020. the population is a generalization area consisting of: objects/subjects that have certain qualities and characteristics determined by the researcher to be studied and then draw conclusions sugiyono, (2017) the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 15 population used in this research is a financing institution sub-sector company listed on the indonesia stock exchange sugiyono, (2017). bei) in 2015-2020 as many as 16 companies. the sample is part of the number and characteristics possessed by the population. if the population is large, then researchers can use samples taken from that population, for that samples taken from the population must be truly representative sugiyono, (2017). the sample in this study is part of the total population of financing institutions subsector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange (idx) in 2015-2020 as many as 13 companies. 3.2. variable operational definition according to siregar,(2017) the definition of a variable is a construct whose properties have been numbered (quantitative) or it can also be interpreted that a variable is a concept that has various values, both quantitative and qualitative, which can change in value. the variables used in this study are: 1. dependent variable (y) the dependent variable is often referred to as the output variable, criteria, and consequent. in indonesian, it is often referred to as the dependent variable. the dependent variable is a variable that is influenced or becomes a result because of the independent variable sugiyono, (2017). the dependent variable in this study is profitability. profitability is a ratio to assess the company's ability to seek profit. the level of company profitability is expressed in return on investment (roi). 2. independent variable (x) independent variables are often referred to as stimulus, predictor, and antecedent variables. in indonesian it is often referred to as the independent variable. the independent variable is the variable that affects or is the cause of the change or the emergence of the dependent (bound) variable sugiyono, (2017). the independent variables in this study are: a. short term debt according to harahap saputra, (2012) short-term debt as a variable cl (current liabilities), where in this variable current assets can pay current liabilities. b. long-term debt according to kaunang, (2013) the calculation of the long term debt to equity ratio is the same as the calculation of the debt to equity ratio, where the long term debt to equity ratio measures how much equity or own capital is used as collateral for long-term debt. c. owner's equity according to harahap in saputra, (2012) own capital as a variable se (shareholder's equity), to analyze the effect of own capital with profitability, the ratio that will represent own capital. (depreciationexpense+oci)/total 4. resultsanddiscussion 4.1. researchresult 4.1.1. descriptivestatistics table1.descriptivestatisticaltest cr ltdter pr roi mean 10.83473 2.030462 0.349911 0.009566 median 6.734996 1.632596 0.268174 0.021459 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 16 maximum 47.94564 11.71173 1.000000 0.139314 minimum 0.680385 -3.285551 -0.367760 -0.682442 std. dev. 11.06105 2.217365 0.249166 0.096353 s skewness 1.387783 1.537089 0.741256 -4.964839 kurtosis 4.402719 7.101546 3.683532 35.50420 jarque-bera 31.43202 85.38806 8.661446 3754.145 probability 0.000000 0.000000 0.013158 0.000000 sum 845.1087 158.3760 27.29307 0.746179 sum sq. dev. 9420.711 378.5866 4.780433 0.714861 observations 78 78 78 78 source: statisticaltesttool according to the data processing results in table 1 above, the following observations or the amount of data studied and processed in this study amounted to 78 samples, namely 13 companies with a research period of 6 years, consisting of variable data short-term debt, long-term debt length, own capital, and profitability. indomobil multi jasa tbk has a minimum cr value of 0.680385 in 2018, while buana finance tbk has a maximum value of 47.94564 in 2018. intan baruprana finance tbk's minimum value of ltdter in 2020 is 3.285551. intan baruprana finance tbk also has the highest valuation in 2017, which is 11,71173. intan baruprana finance tbk 2020 has the lowest pr value, which is -0.367760. radana bhaskara finance tbk has a maximum value of 1,000000 in 2016. intan baruprana finance tbk has a minimal roi value of -0.682442 in 2020. batavia prosperindo finance tbk has the highest value in 2017, which is 0.139314. 4.1.2. normalitytest according to the normality test findings, the probability value is 0.358188 > 0.05, indicating that the data was regularly distributed and free of the normalcy problem. the data sample in this study was reduced from 78 to 52 due to the deletion of data (outliers) on various variables, which reduced the number of data samples, and data improvement with the chocrane orcutt technique. 4.1.3.multicollinearitytest multicollinearitytestresultsbasedonthecollinearitystatisticscolumntoleranceandvarianceinflationfactor(vif)ob tainedthemulticollinearitytestresultshaveavaluecloseto1andvarianceinflationfactor(vif)worth<10forallindepen dentvaria blesx.thus,regressionmodel analysiscanbeusedinthisstudy. 4.1.4. heteroscedasticitytest there are results of the chi-square prob on obs*r-squared 0.4501 > 0.05, then h0 is accepted or it means that the regression model is homoscedasticity or in other words there is no problem with the assumption of heteroscedasticity. 4.1.5. coefficient of determination test (r²) the coefficient of determination (r2) measures the influence of the independent variables, cr, ltdter, and pr, on the dependent variable, roi. based on the analysis of data, the random effect test findings of 72.72 percent indicate that these variables may explain each other's relationships. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 17 4.1.6. hypothesis testingresults the probability value of 0.2301 is larger than the significance threshold of 0.05, h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted. this demonstrates that the cr variable has a limited impact on productivity (roi) between 2015 and 2020. h0 is rejected since the probability value of 0.1041 is larger than the significance threshold of 0.05, but h1 is accepted. this demonstrates that ltdter has a limited impact on productivity (roi).and the pr variable has a t-count value of 3.250265 and a probability value of 0.0021, both of which are less than the significance level of 0.05, h0 is accepted and h1 is rejected. this demonstrates that the pr variable has a limited impact on the profitability (roi) of the financing institutions sub-sector between 2015 and 2020. 4.2. discussion a) the effect of short-term debt on profitability based on the results of the output, the coefficient value is -0.015754, the t statistic value is -1.215560 with a probability of 0.2301 > 0.05, then h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, short-term debt has no effect on profitability in the financing institutions sub-sector in the 2015-2020 period. houston and brigham (2011) suggest that modigliani and miller's theory shows the relationship between profitability and the use of debt in the company. the value of the company with debt is higher than the value of the company without debt. the increase in value was due to tax savings from the use of debt. companies with a high level of profitability will try to reduce their taxes by increasing their debt ratio.in this study, it is proven that short-term debt has no effect on the profitability of the financing institutions sub-sector in the 2015-2020 period. the results of this study are supported by research conducted by sunaryo (2018) which states that short-term debt has no impact on profitability. b) the effect of long-term debt on profitability based on the results of the output coefficient 0.219504, the statistical t value is 1.656726 with a probability of 0.1041 < 0.05, then h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted, long-term debt has no effect on profitability in the financing institutions subsector in the 2015-2020 period. long-term debt is considered as one of the driving factors for the profitability of a company. the relationship between debt and profit is that more debt, both shortterm and long-term, will result in increased interest costs which will ultimately result in reduced company profits. this study's findings are confirmed by studies by sunaryo (2018) and irawan (2012), which show that long-term debt influence on profitability. c) effect of equity on profitability based on the output coefficient value of 3.325453, the statistical t value is 3.250265 with a probability of 0.0021 < 0.05, and h0 is accepted while h1 is rejected. own capital has an impact on the profitability of the financing institutions subsector from 2015 to 2020.conceptually, the relationship between working capital and profitability is that if the capital itself is not sufficient, it will affect the decline in profitability. if excessive working capital results in inefficiency or waste, it will ultimately affect the level of profitability. in other words, one's own capital must be managed properly. and you cannot go wrong with the placement. increasing the proportion of the use of own capital funds rather than debt used in investment will reduce the amount of interest costs that must be borne by the company. so, if additional capital alone can increase the company's net profit, then profitability will increase. so, in this study, it is proven that own capital influences the profitability of the financing institutions sub-sector in the 2015-2020 period. the results of this study are supported by research conducted by dewi (2012) and suartika et al. (2013), which states that equity influences profitability. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 18 4.2.8. research findings the results showed that the short-term debt and long -term debt variable had no relevance to profitability. so, profitability is dominated by the influence of equity. 4.3. conclusion equity affects the profitability (roi) of financing institutions and sub-sector companies listed on the indonesia stock exchange (idx) for the 2015-2020 period. company capital can partially affect the company's net profit because, with optimal capital, the company will be able to carry out company activities while both buying and selling debt payments on time, so that it also has an impact on company profits or profitability. by increasing the proportion of own capital funds used in investment over debt, the company's costs are reduced. so if additional capital alone can increase the company's net profit, then profitability will increase. 4.4. recommendation companies in the financial institutions sub-sector must continue to improve the effectiveness of their use of debt, both short-term and long-term debt, so that the use of debt can be maximized, which will increase the company's profitability. research can take samples of companies with different sectors and can be added related to the period or after the pandemic. bibliography ahmad, et.al.2021. analisis struktur modal berdasarkan perspektif pecking order theory. jurnal imiah manajemen dan bisnis jambura, 3 (3),171-182. brigham, eugenef,danhoustonf.joel.(2011).dasar-dasarmanajemenkeuangan (edisikesebelas).salembaempat,jakarta. dewi,d.p.(2012).analisispengaruhhutangjangkapanjang,hutangjangkapendekdanmodalkerjabersihterha daplabapadapt.griyaasri prima.jurnal sekretari universitaspamulang,1(2),1–18. endri, e., ridho, a.m., marlapa, e., susanto, h. 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(2013). pengaruh aktiva tetap , hutang jangka panjang , danmodal terhadap laba bersih perusahaan agribisnis indeks lq 45 yang terdaftar di bursa efekindonesia.jurnalmanajemen agribisnis, 1(2), 76–97. sugiyono.(2016).metodepenelitiankuantitatifkualitatifdanr&d.bandung:cvalfabeta. sunaryo,d.(2018).pengaruhutangjangkapendekdanutangjangkapanjangterhadapprofitabilitaspadaperus ahaan industri makanan dan minuman yang terdaftar di bursa efek indonesia (bei) periodetahun2013-2017. jurnalsainsmanajemen, 4(1), 1–11. the potential of data collection and analysis activities for preschoolers: a formative study with teachers global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 7; july-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 22 shaping early mathematical minds: a study of data collection and analysis in preschool 1dr. emily grace johnson and 2dr. benjamin michael thompson article info abstract keywords: preschool, mathematics, computational thinking, data collection and analysis, intervention, hands-on activities. this formative study initiates a series aimed at informing the design and evaluation of an innovative intervention fostering mathematics and computational thinking (ct) engagement among preschoolers. a design-based research approach was adopted to develop and assess hands-on curricular investigations along with a teacher-centric digital app, emphasizing collaborative control rather than autonomous play. the project seeks to determine the developmental appropriateness of data collection and analysis (dca) aligned with preschool curricula, while also investigating the potential of hands-on activities and the accompanying app to stimulate data-driven exploration for enhanced mathematics and ct learning. the intervention's curriculum involves preschoolers in dca processes through interactive investigations, facilitated by a teacher-oriented digital app supporting data collection, graph creation, and comparison. these activities leverage mathematical concepts such as counting, sorting, and classifying, grounding them in real-world problem-solving contexts to lay the groundwork for mathematical and computational thinking skills development. by employing the app, teachers assist students in inputting and interpreting data, while diverse representations like pictographs, object graphs, and body graphs enrich the learning experience. the study encompasses three iterative cycles of intervention development and testing. this paper details the first cycle, focusing on a formative interview and survey study conducted with preschool teachers. the study elicited feedback on the developmental appropriateness and alignment of dca investigations and the teacher-oriented digital app with preschool curricula and routines. moreover, the study explored design elements promoting usability and learning, alongside the potential benefits and challenges associated with employing dca investigations and the app for educational support. 1education development center, 96 morton street, 7th floor, new york ny 10014, usa 2education development center, 96 morton street, 7th floor, new york ny 10014, usa https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 23 1. introduction this formative study is the first in a series intended to inform the development and testing of an intervention to promote preschoolers’ engagement with and learning of mathematics and computational thinking (ct). this was the first of several iterative cycles within a design-based research [1] approach focused on developing and testing the hands-on and play-based curricular investigations and accompanying teacher-facing digital app. by teacher-facing, we emphasize that this is a tool intended for teachers to primarily control, as opposed to a game or simulation that children play independently. this innovative project aims to build critically needed knowledge about the extent to which preschool teachers think that data collection and analysis is doi: 10.5121/ijite.2022.11101 developmentally appropriate and aligns with preschool curricula and routines. also, the elements of handson, play-based activities and accompanying app will likely engage preschoolers in collecting and analyzing data, and ultimately supporting the learning of mathematics and computational thinking. the intervention’s curricular investigations are designed to engage preschoolers in the data collection and analysis (dca) process to answer questions of interest. a key component of the intervention is a teacherfacing digital app to support the collaboration of preschool teachers and children in collecting data, creating simple graphs, and using the graphs to compare data, make pre-dictions, and answer questions. the curricular investigations offer an applied context for using mathematical knowledge (i.e., counting, sorting, classifying, comparing, contrasting) to engage with real-world problems and lay the foundation for developing math and computational thinking skills. the intervention includes a series of nine hands-on and play-based problem-solving investigations. the use of a digital app by teachers with their students scaffolds the investigation process and sup-ports specific data collection and organization steps (i.e., collecting, recording, and visualizing data). to be clear, the use of the technology here is to make the process easier, not to in any way to automate the teaching process that should remain focused on developing children’s conceptual understanding [3, 4]. as part of each investigation, teachers work with children to input their data into the app and use the resulting digital graphs to help children interpret and discuss the results and answer authentic research questions. the activities also include opportunities to represent data with pictures (pictograph), hands-on manipulatives (object graphs), and with children’s bodies (body graphs). this project includes three iterative cycles of development and testing of the intervention. this paper reports on the first cycle of development and testing in which researchers conducted a formative interview and survey study with preschool teachers to elicit feedback on: (1) the extent to which the data collection and analysis investigations and a teacher-facing digital app are developmentally appropriate and aligned with existing preschool curricula and routines; (2) the design elements of the investigations and teacher-facing digital app that teachers think will foster usability and learning; and (3) the affordances and challenges of using dca investigations and a teacher-facing digital app to support learning. 2. literature review there is a pressing need to invest in preschool stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education, as research shows early childhood is a time when learners begin to develop positive attitudes toward science and mathematics [5] and form their stem identity and professional interests [6]. early exposure to high-quality inquiry-based stem experiences also boosts children’s motivation, persistence, and selfefficacy, which can spark and sustain children’s interest in pursuing stem opportunities later in life [7, 8, 9]. this is critical, as there is an urgent need for highly skilled workers in stem fields that include a 21st century data-capable workforce [10]. this has led to a growing interest in computational thinking (ct) [11, 12] and spurred recent efforts to prepare students from the early grades through high school by developing curricula to foster ct in prekindergarten through grade 12 education. although definitions for ct vary, it is generally https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11101 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 24 understood to be a problem-solving process that requires the collection and use of data to answer authentic questions. a literature review of apps to support coding for pre-schoolers found that apps do positively support learning in this domain [13]. the common elements of ct for preschoolers are inquiry-based and include asking questions and then collecting, organizing, representing, and analyzing data with the goal of efficiently addressing authentic, real-world problems [14, 15]. 2.1. data collection and analysis (dca) for preschoolers it is fair to ask: is data collection and analysis (dca) a developmentally appropriate content area for preschool-aged children? the results of this study help to answer this question, though prior research also supports the use of dca content with preschool children [11 clements 2008]. in fact, recent research suggests that the development of mathematical knowledge and early statistical reasoning begins at a younger age than is typically acknowledged [12 english 2013]. educational interventions that are designed based on an understanding of young children’s cognitive development can support children’s engagement with complex mathematical concepts while they are still quite young [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. very little research exists on how to teach data collection and analysis (dca) during the preschool years, despite the fact that the mathematics education literature indicates that preschoolers can engage in simple, teacher-led investigations. in fact, dca activities are not new to early childhood classrooms, as instances can be found of teachers and children engaging in dca activities, such as measuring each child’s height and then displaying the varying heights on a chart. children are also often found sorting and counting objects and then displaying them so that they can easily see and “analyze” which set has more. but to do this well, teachers need to set up the activity and scaffold which variables to consider, which data to collect, and how to represent the data in such a way that children can use it to effectively answer questions and draw conclusions [19,22]. to guide the process, each investigation in the intervention follows a simple set of steps that include formulating the question, collecting data, analysing data, and interpreting results [23]. this study puts a renewed emphasis on dca activities in preschool and investigates the promise of dca as developmentally appropriate activities that can support preschoolers’ mathematics and ct learning. future studies will investigate how implementation aides in the learning process [2]. table 1 shows descriptions of the proposed classroom investigations, which were shared with teachers during this study. table 1. description of proposed investigations investigation description of investigation data shuffle the goal of the data shuffle investigation is for children to use their bodies to make two object graphs. the first graph is an animal graph and the second is an animal movement graph. hungry caterpillar using the very hungry caterpillar story, children make object graphs using their bodies and pictographs to represent the fruit and food eaten by the caterpillar each day. children then use the app to make additional graphical representations of the data. clothing investigation the goal of the clothing investigation is to use attributes (qualities) of clothing to sort children into groups that can then be represented graphically and discussed. children then use the app to make additional visual representations of the data. centers investigation the goal of the centers investigation is for children to recognize, count, and compare the colors, shapes, and materials at three center time stations. children then use the app to make additional visual representations of the data. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 25 feelings freeze the goal of the feelings freeze investigation is for children to collect data to answer the question, “how are the members of our class feeling?” children graph the data and compare the graphs over time to notice changes. measurement investigation the goal of the measurement investigation is for children to collectively use their bodies – full bodies arms outstretched, full bodies narrow, and their shoes – to measure distance. their measurements are entered into the app to create a pictograph or bar graph for analysis and discussion. 2.2. the use of technology with preschool children using data collection and analysis to solve problems involves a multi-step process that places a heavy cognitive load on young children. to effectively engage young children in the steps of data collection, data organization, and interpretation of data can be challenging, and requires thoughtful scaffolding. to be successful, children must collect and organize their data and then represent that data in a way that allows them to directly compare quantities across categories [24]. prior research indicates that preschool teachers regularly use tablets for multiple purposes [25], but that teacher’s attitude toward and confidence with using technology affects its implementation and use [26]. digital tools can support teachers to effectively scaffold this process by breaking it down into discrete steps and in recent years, preschool teachers have reported more positive attitudes toward using technology with young children [27]. having the ability to quickly and easily create graphs also enables teachers to focus on viewing and discussing the data with children, rather than spending time drawing and representing the data by hand. yet, it is critical to ensure that the developed technology meets the needs of teachers, a goal for this particular study. yet, research about how the features of digital representations help or hinder preschoolers’ engagement in dca activities is lacking. while there is evidence that preschoolers can understand graphs as representations of quantity, clements and sarama [28] note a lack of evidence as to what supports young children’s data analysis competencies; though importantly, subsequent work has suggested that computers hold promise for helping young children learn dca. likewise, as [29] suggests, we focus on how to design learning experiences with technology. with this focus in mind, this study seeks to leverage teacher experience to design this intervention help teacher implement and engage pre-schoolers in dca, ultimately, helping to inform the ongoing intervention development and inform the literature base about how to foster dca skills with technology. 3. methods this study was the first in this project’s overall design-based research approach [1]. building off the designbased research approach [1], our work used an evidence-based curricular design framework [30] to guide the process of intervention development. by including multiple perspectives in the iterative design process, we hope to increase the usefulness and quality of the resulting intervention. prior to this study, the research team created a “learning blueprint” that articulated the targeted learning goals based on prior descriptions of the learning trajectory for young children [28]. the learning blueprint serves as a “anchor” that is tied directly to each learning activity and assessment task children experience. the primary goals of the study were to (1) investigate teachers’ perception of data collection analysis as developmentally appropriate and aligned with preschool curricula and routines; (2) identify the design elements of learning activities and teacher-facing digital app that foster usability and support the teaching and learning of dca; and (3) elicit teacher perceptions of the affordances and challenges to using the investigations and teacher-facing digital app to support children’s learning, including the educators’ perception of the comprehensibility of the dca activities and their willingness to implement the dca global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 26 activities. this survey and interview study followed an initial phase of development that produced the prototype versions of both the curricular investigation activities and the digital app. our team then leveraged this information to inform curricular revisions prior to two classroom-based implementation studies [e.g. 2]. 3.1. research questions this study focused on the following research questions: 1. developmental appropriateness and curricular alignment: to what extent do preschool teachers perceive the use of data collection and analysis as developmentally appropriate and aligned to preschool curricula and routines? 2. design elements to foster use and learning: what design elements of the learning activities and digital tool (such as collaborative data collection and visual data display) do teachers think will increase (a) usability and (b) preschoolers’ ability to understand how to use data to answer questions? 3. affordances and challenges: what do teachers view as the potential affordances and challenges to successful engagement in data collection and analysis? 3.2. participants teachers were recruited from head start and state-funded prekindergarten programs in massachusetts, rhode island, and new york. participants included 29 teachers who work with children ages 4 and 5 (n=10 participated in an interview with a researcher; n=19 completed an online survey). participating teachers completed either the interview or the survey, but not both, to provide feedback on the hands-on curricular investigations and digital app. teachers were recruited in the spring of 2020 at the beginning of the global pandemic so recruitment, survey administration, and interviews were conducted digitally or virtually. demographic data about participating teachers was not collected. 3.3. instruments teacher interview (n=10). during a 45-60-minute interview conducted via remote meeting software (e.g. zoom, ring central), researchers showed participants a series of powerpoint slides and short videos that demonstrated the hands-on, play-based lessons and teacher-facing digital app prototype for each curricular investigation. participants then responded to questions about the appeal of using the investigations, anticipated challenges, ease of implementation, developmental appropriateness, and curricular alignment. teacher survey (n=19). teachers completed the online survey independently. teachers viewed the same videos that were included in the teacher interview, as well as written summaries focused on the preparation and materials needed for each investigation. for each investigation, teachers then answered a combination of multiple choice and open-ended questions about the appeal of the investigation, anticipated challenges, ease of implementation, developmental appropriateness, and the extent to which they perceived the investigation as meetings its learning goals. because of time limitations, each teacher viewed four of the six investigations during their interview, with the investigations counter-balanced across participants. 3.4. analysis this mixed methods analysis included qualitative summarization of interview responses nad open-ended survey responses, in addition to descriptive quantitative findings from survey ratings. audio recordings of teachers’ interview responses were transcribed and then analyzed such that teachers’ closed-ended responses were descriptively summarized and their open-ended (transcribed) responses were qualitatively analyzed. researchers qualitatively coded and examined the responses to each open-ended item, looking for patterns that emerged, and summarized participants’ responses. to examine the intersection of qualitative and quantitative data, we used a mixed method analysis involving the creation of a “joint matrix” [31] to highlight patterns of implementation and suggest modifications [30]. these findings provided feedback about the investigations’ usability and comprehensibility, and informed program revisions in preparation for a classroom-based study. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 27 4. results 4.1. teachers’ overall feedback results of the interview and survey indicated that data collection and analysis activities are an authentic part of early childhood classrooms that provide an effective way to introduce computational thinking in preschool. specifically, a majority of teachers indicated that they view data collection and analysis as being engaging for children, relevant to their preschool curricula and learning standards, and feasible to implement in early childhood settings. a large majority of teachers also viewed the prototyped curricular investigations as fun, related to their curriculum, and feasible to do in their classrooms. teachers noted that dca content builds on and extends the mathematics that children are already learning, and they felt the play-based and real-world elements of the investigations would be engaging for children. importantly, some teachers mentioned that they currently have learning standards related to dca that their school requires them to meet, but they were often unsure of how to meet those requirements in practice. these teachers noted that the investigations provided them with a better understanding of what developmentally appropriate dca activities can look like. in addition, teachers noted that they felt the investigations could support formative assessment (e.g., gauging where individual children are in developing their counting or sorting skills) while simultaneously engaging learners across developmental levels. this is particularly important in head start classrooms where students can range in age from 3-years-old to 5-years-old, making activities that effectively engage all learners particularly valuable. for example, one teacher stated “these all seem like really great ideas and i think it would be so helpful for teachers to have this supplemental app to help with assessment purposes and just in general to make this area of learning more fun to learn for younger children!” as part of the survey, teachers also rated how well each investigation meets its focal learning goals. learning goals varied across the investigations and included mathematics goals such as classifying, sorting, and counting data to answer questions; and computational thinking goals such as describing what different parts of data visualizations represent, making comparisons between individual parts of data visualizations, and using data visualizations to answer questions. teacher feedback strongly indicated that the dca investigations successfully met the targeted learning goals. across all investigations, the majority of teachers responded that each learning goal had been met by the proposed activity. after reviewing four investigations, one teacher wrote in their survey: “i feel this activity and all the ones viewed so far are giving me new and creative ways to introduce graphing and the app would be very helpful.” 4.2. developmental appropriateness and curricular alignment (research question 1) developmental appropriateness results suggest that—with the right scaffolding—teachers felt that introducing computational thinking (ct) through data collection and analysis (dca) is developmentally appropriate for preschool children and is well aligned to preschool curricula and routines. teachers noted that the content of the investigations aligned with their mathematics curricula, specifically in the areas of number sense, operations, and measurement. with regard to how well this would fit into their curriculum, teachers said: they have to use their words to describe the graphs, and as far as science, they’re learning about animal characteristics, different body parts, different movements of animals. and then math, they’re comparing, they’re sorting. you can take away from a number on the graph, you can add a number. it fits perfectly within all realms of what we need in our curriculum. something i always look for in activities is to see if they are adaptable to our curriculum…i think that’s a strong suit of this activity, that it is very adaptable. anticipated difficulty of dca content in order to better understand how developmentally appropriate dca investigations are for preschool learners, we asked teachers to evaluate how easy or difficult it would be for children to complete particular activities global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 28 (or aspects of activities) within each investigation. our analysis focused on a set of common themes related to sorting, representing, and interpreting data, as well as making predictions. for each investigation, teachers were asked to rate how difficult they anticipated the mathematics demands within the investigations’ activities would be for preschoolers (see table 2 with anticipated difficulty levels for selected activities). these ratings varied, with some rated as being very easy (ranging from 6-50% of activities) and others rated as being difficult (ranging from 1122%). the teachers’ ratings matched the expected levels of difficulty for each investigation based on early mathematics learning progressions [32]. however, no activities were rated as being “very difficult,” suggesting that the mathematics demands included in each investigation are developmentally appropriate for this age group. further, the perceived difficulty of the activities rated as being “difficult” could be intertwined with the perceived challenges related to behavior management during the activities, which is not a trivial concern for teachers working with young children. table 2. levels of anticipated activity difficulty by investigation mathematical skill investigation very easy easy difficult very difficult identify colors and shapes of items in a box frame (n=18) centers 22% 78% - - count objects in box frame (n=18) centers 17% 83% - - sort their own clothing (n=18) clothing 50% 50% - - sorting themselves (n=19) data shuffle 21% 68% 11% - sort dress up clothing (n=18) clothing 11% 78% 11% - body graph (n=19) hungry caterpillar 10% 74% 16% - collect data in small groups (n=18) centers 11% 72% 17% - analyze data in small groups (n=18) centers 11% 67% 22% - represent data by arranging data points on the graph (n=18) centers 6% 71% 23% - comparing graphs (n=18) clothing 5% 67% 28% - make predictions (n=18) centers - 61% 39% - sorting data. although most teachers reported that the number of sorting categories within a particular investigation or activity (ranging from 2-7 categories across investigations) was appropriate, responses varied and teacher comments offered additional insight into determining the “just right” number. for example, 95% of teachers rated the number of categories in hungry caterpillar (5-7 categories) as being “just right” and 79% of teachers said the same about data shuffle (3-5 categories). in their responses, teachers indicated three key considerations for sorting: children’s previous experience with sorting and where they are developmentally, teacher scaffolding and support, and the steps required to complete the sorting process. for example, teachers said: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 29 depending on what level they’re at, they can just do it [sorting] by color and then we can go through the different shapes, or do it by shapes and then advanced ones would start doing it by size, so that would fit all levels throughout the year. it’s a very easy thing to tie into anything that we are teaching or playing. sorting the dramatic play costumes can be done in few or many groups depending on how advanced the students are who are doing it. you can keep it simple or get as challenging as you feel necessary. i really love how this ties right into their play. i think children learn best through play and sorting clothes in dramatic play is just that! representing data. results suggest that the dca investigations provide engaging and developmentally appropriate opportunities for preschool children to graphically represent data. teachers liked the use of body graphs (with four teachers reporting that they already use them) and felt that – with help from their teacher – children would be able to use the app to graph the data they have collected. as with sorting data, the process of representing data can be messy, especially if multiple children are doing it at the same time. but teachers also expressed confidence that children would be able to create data representations with scaffolding and support. moreover, multiple teachers felt children would eventually be able to complete most of the graphing steps independently. one way to support this process, while minimizing the potential for chaos and confusion, is to arrange children in smaller groups at the start of an investigation, allowing the teacher to more easily individualize the supports that their students may benefit from. interpreting data. results suggest that interpreting data may pose more of a challenge to children than sorting and representing data; however, teachers generally agreed that the dca investigations provide important opportunities for children to develop this skill in age-appropriate ways. six teachers indicated that children may initially struggle with comparing different graphs that represent the same data; 10 teachers reported that children would struggle with identifying changes in data over time; and 7 said it would be difficult for children to use graphed data to answer questions. teacher comments also suggest that interpreting data could be particularly challenging for english language learners (ells). however, for each of these areas, teachers expressed confidence that most children could experience success with scaffolding and targeted teacher supports. finally, as noted earlier, teachers reacted positively to the idea of creating body graphs and felt that having children use their bodies to represent data is a great way to engage young and tactile learners. one teacher remarked that when using body graphs, it is important to give children opportunities to see the full picture of the graphed data. one way to support this is by employing a “fishbowl” strategy, where one group of students stands outside the body graph and observes another group of students inside the body graph. the students would then switch roles, giving each child opportunities to both participate in creating the body graph and seeing the graph overall. another way to allow children to observe a body graph that they personally participated in is to take a photo of the graph and allow children to examine the photo after the activity is complete. making predictions. as part of interpreting data, children are asked to make predictions based on the data patterns that they see. teachers’ responses were mixed as to how difficult it might be for children to make predictions. six teachers noted that they ask children to make predictions during other learning experiences; nine reported that many preschoolers are not yet ready to do so. as with the number of sorting categories, predictions may be another example of a skill to target later in the school year or with higher levels of teacher scaffolding and modeling. for example, one teacher noted, “this may be a tough concept for the children to grasp because the children would have to comprehend what a prediction is. however, with modeling and examples and repetition they would grasp it in time.” adaptability of content teacher comments also highlighted the natural variation in developmental trajectories that exist in early childhood mathematics. yet overall, the results indicated that the teachers viewed the investigations, and the topic of data collection and analysis more generally, as being flexible enough to be adapted for learners at global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 30 different stages of mathematical development. for example, teachers mentioned liking that they could begin an investigation with only a few sorting categories, and incorporate more categories in later activities to increase the level of challenge. designing the investigations with such flexibility is critical for allowing teachers to assess and adapt the lessons to their students’ developmental readiness to engage in dca. for example, each investigation can be implemented at various times of the school year, in different group arrangements, and with different available materials. importantly, teachers also felt that the levels of difficulty could be modulated with teacher support and flexibility. for example, teachers said: with teacher support such as encouraging the children to persist with examination of the clothing, this will be an easy task. with teacher help and the right questions i feel that the children would be able to look at the graphs and notice things that might be the same and notice if there are things that are different, especially with the picture one. i think if the teacher is helping and the graph is very clear in what it is looking for, then children will not have a problem. curricular alignment teachers noted that the investigations build on what they already do in their classrooms and are well-aligned to their curricula, both in mathematics and in other content strands. one teacher interviewee remarked: “we’re always looking to do things that will fit into the standards we’re teaching. fitting this into number sense, operations, and measurement fits well with what we’re doing already.” 4.3. design features of the intervention (research question 2) 4.3.1. key features of activities investigations are hands-on. teachers appreciated that the investigations were hands-on and provided opportunities for children to not only engage with visual representations of data, but also to participate in creating these representations. children are very hands-on; they like to do things that are interactive. having them sort themselves into groups, they’re taking the lead. we’re always trying to have them lead an activity. i really enjoy that it includes physical movement to involve the children and give them a sense that they are all collecting data that is meaningful rather than coming up one at a time to put a mark on a chart paper. i think it has great involvement, there isn't any long periods of wait time, and it gives each child a sense of independence. i like the fact that it involves technology which is an important piece in collecting data as well. it shows children that you have to physically collect evidence first before you can create a graph. i also enjoy how the technology piece is so simple that children can help in creating the graphs. it provides enough learning for all levels of students who are just learning, to collect information, who are able to create graphs, and then showing those who are ready, how graphs can look different. teachers also liked that narrative stories and picture books were used to anchor the investigations (e.g., five creatures by emily jenkins undergirds the data shuffle investigation) and that the activities were both handson and digital, including both movement and student autonomy. materials are easily accessible. with a few exceptions, teachers appreciated that the investigations do not require special materials, allowing them to use the classroom materials they already have or can easily and inexpensively find (e.g., chart paper and name tags; printed cards with emoji faces). in a few cases, teachers noted that they would need to purchase materials (e.g., felt) or would need to modify an activity due to having a limited number of the required materials (e.g., enough fruit manipulatives for each student to participate). activities are multidisciplinary. teachers also appreciated that the investigations promoted child engagement with content and skills outside of mathematics. for example, several investigations begin with global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 31 the teacher reading a story that relates to the problem or question being investigated, which teachers viewed as being both engaging for children and supporting their emergent literacy skills. it’s seamless, it could fit into many different units. later in the year we talk about transformation and there’s a whole unit about how caterpillars transform into butterflies…it’s also applicable in the beginning when we talk about taste and the five senses. 4.3.2. key features of teacher-facing digital app teachers felt that the unique affordances of the digital app offered meaningful opportunities for children at different skill levels to easily engage in data collection, visualization, and analysis. a child who needs more support, for example, could use the app with their teacher to enter data they have collected, create a simple graph, and discuss any data patterns they see. children who are further along in their developmental trajectory could create multiple representations of the same (or different) data, sort their graphed data, make comparisons between different graphs, and make predictions based on the data patterns they see. a few digital affordances were particularly appealing to teachers. for example, the ability to use the camera feature of the tablet to create personalized category labels on graphs, and the addition of an annotation feature that allows the user to draw on graphs, were notably appealing. another theme that teachers focused on throughout their feedback related to the ways in which the digital app could allow them to individualize their use of technology to children’s ages, which range in preschool settings from three to five years old, and readiness for the mathematics content. camera feature. the majority of teachers stated that they would use the app’s camera feature, as it allows for customization and helps students to recognize an item by seeing a real photo versus a drawing or cartoon image. drawing feature. some teachers noted that they liked the app’s drawing feature, which allows users to hand draw their graph’s category icons or to annotate graphs (e.g., circling columns, writing numerals on top of columns to indicate the total number of units in those categories). these teachers found this feature relevant not only for their use, but also for allowing older or more advanced children draw their own icons. sorting categories by ascending/descending order. teachers stated that they would use the sorting feature to arrange their graphed data in ascending or descending order; however, three teachers noted that this type of arranging would be relatively advanced and would require additional scaffolding from the teacher in order for children to understand the ordering. teachers suggested using the sorting feature with older children instead of younger, or during activities that take place later in the school year. 4.4. challenges and key considerations for implementation (research question 3) space challenges. space constraints emerged as being the biggest perceived barrier to curricular implementation. specifically, two investigations (data shuffle and hungry caterpillar) require space for lifesized body or object graphs that teachers need to demarcate on the floor using masking tape prior to the lesson. although the majority of teachers said that the physical size of their classrooms would allow for this, or that they would be able to find an alternative accommodating space, a few noted that they would need to modify the activity in order to make it work in their classrooms. in addition, teachers reported the need to consider spacing more carefully as the covid-19 pandemic requires physical distancing of students within classrooms. this indicates that creating body graphs in the classroom might be more difficult currently than in typical times. ease of preparation. teachers viewed ease of preparation as an important factor in deciding whether to implement an investigation or which investigation to implement (see table 3). across all investigations, the majority of teachers reported that their perceived level of preparation would be very easy or easy, although their ratings varied by the complexity of the investigation. for example, all teachers rated the feelings freeze investigation as being very easy or easy because it required very few materials. on the other hand, investigations that required such steps as setting up a child-sized grid on the floor with masking tape (e.g., global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 32 data shuffle) or collecting different types of sorting materials (i.e., centers investigation) received a wider range of difficulty ratings. table 3. ease of preparation investigation* very easy easy difficult very difficult data shuffle (n=19) 21% 42% 37% - hungry caterpillar (n=19) 21% 68% 11% - clothing investigation (n=19) 53% 42% 5% - centers investigation (n=18) 6% 77% 11% 6% feelings freeze (n=18) 50% 50% - - * measurement investigation was omitted because it required no preparation. our analysis of teacher responses surfaced three key factors driving perceptions of the ease of preparation: space (see previous section), time, and pacing. time. the amount of time that teachers anticipated investing into their preparation emerged as an important consideration, though teachers expressed a willingness to invest the time needed to prepare for the activities that they believe will be fun and valuable for their students. for example, one teacher noted that it would her take some time to prepare the investigation materials, but she would be willing to do so because the activity seemed engaging for her children. importantly, for planning purposes, teachers recommended providing an estimate of how long it will take to read the book paired with each investigation. pacing. across all investigations, most teachers indicated that the suggested pacing (i.e., whether an investigation is spread out over 1-2 days or 2-3 days) was appropriate; however, there was notable variation (see table 4). it is likely that the best fit of pacing will vary based on individual classroom routines and length of the school day. just as the teachers felt that the developmental appropriateness of certain investigations may vary based on when in the school year teachers implement them, it is also possible that the appropriateness of the suggested pacing will vary based on this timing. table 4. pacing (n=19) suggested pacing just right too short too long unsure missing data shuffle 1 day 11 5 - - 3 hungry caterpillar 2-3 days 15 1 1 - 2 clothing 3 days 7 1 2 2 7 centers 2-3 days 7 3 1 - 8 feelings freeze 1-2 days 7 4 - 1 7 measurement 1-2 days 10 1 - - 8 5. discussion overall, findings suggest that teachers see value in engaging in dca with preschoolers, view the dca investigations as developmentally appropriate, and think the integrated teacher-facing technology offers global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 33 meaningful affordances. these findings suggest that this technology-infused approach to ct and dca is developmentally appropriate, builds on and extends what children are already learning in mathematics, has cross-curricular applications, and can be adapted to meet the needs of preschool learners along the full developmental trajectory. furthermore, the teachers viewed the digital app being developed as part of this work as affording students an easy way to visualize and interpret data they collect. teachers support the idea that young children can and should engage in meaningful data collection and analysis and computational thinking lessons. we also learned that designing flexibility into each investigation is critical to allow teachers to assess and adapt the learning to their students’ developmental readiness to engage in dca. for example, each investigation can be implemented at various times of the year, in different group arrangements, and with different available materials. teachers also valued the opportunity to make use of the variety of graphical representations built into the curriculum, using both handson materials and the app (e.g., creating a bar graph and arranging the bars on the graph from most to least). limitations. however, as the first in a series of studies in this body of work, the findings are limited. this study included interviews and surveys of a small group of preschool teachers in the united states, thus findings may be influenced by the current preschool education system and cultural context. due to the covid-19 pandemic, all data collection was done remotely, which may have affected the extent of participants’ responses. as an early step in the development process, the activities were not tested by teachers with their students; however, subsequent work testing the intervention in classrooms found positive outcomes [2]. yet, this first step is critical in the design-based research approach and improved the second version of the intervention activities and digital app. future work is intended to further test and understand the impacts on classroom teaching and student learning. 6. conclusions findings from the teacher interview and survey suggest that this technology-infused approach to addressing dca in preschool is developmentally-appropriate, builds on and extends what preschool children are already learning in mathematics, has cross-curricular applications, and can be adapted to meet the needs of young learners along the full developmental trajectory. these findings were subsequently used to inform revisions of the intervention and app, with the overarching goal of improving preschoolers’ learning about data. contributions to the field. this study is novel in two regards. first, it documents how a designbased research approach uses smaller, early studies to determine end-users, in this case teachers, needs and further designs to address those needs. it is critical to include teacher feedback in the design of research-based curricula, as development based entirely on theory is limited [33]. second, the study findings in and of themselves affirm that preschool teachers agree that (1) dca fits into the preschool classroom, (2) activities can be designed to be developmentally appropriate, and (3) that technology can help assist the process and allow teachers to foster the development of dca related skills and conceptual understanding. researchers can use these findings to better understand the scaffolds and elements of hands-on and play-based dca activities and design features of a teacher-facing digital app that support preschool teachers in teaching data collection and analysis to their students. long term, the hypothesis is that familiarizing children with data and learning how to talk about data at an early age may also positively influence children’s later math and data literacy skills—a question for future research. future studies. however, questions remain about effective practices and tools to facilitate learning these dca skills. subsequent stages of this research project involve testing the investigations in preschool classrooms. this will allow us to (1) further specify and refine our understanding of the practices and tools that support preschool children’s engagement in computational thinking through dca, and (2) refine the curricular investigations – including the digital app – to better meet the needs of preschool children and global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (7) pg. 34 teachers. findings suggest that this approach to teaching preschoolers about dca merits further study to ensure productive 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english education quality through empowering competitions for educators 1xin liu mei wang article info abstract keywords: teaching ability competition, vocational education, information-based teaching, educational reform, double-qualified teachers doi the "national vocational college teaching ability competition" emerged in 2010, an initiative by the ministry of education, with the primary objective of advancing information-based teaching in vocational colleges. in 2018, the competition underwent a comprehensive transformation, shifting from an individual-focused event solely dedicated to information-based teaching to a group competition that centers on the development of all-encompassing teaching abilities. this transformation aims to cultivate doublequalified educators with multifaceted qualities encompassing both theory and practice. as part of the national vocational college skills competition system, this competition underscores the application of information technology in practical teaching and adheres to the foundational mission of fostering ethical and capable individuals. consequently, it has significantly expedited the pace of vocational education reform and played a pivotal role in enhancing the overall quality of educators in vocational colleges. 1. introduction since 2010, the ministry of education has set up the “vocational college information-based teaching competition” to promote the upgrading of information-based teaching in vocational colleges. in 2018, in order to transform the competition from an individual competition focusing solely on informationbased teaching to a group competition focusing on the development of the comprehensive teaching ability and to promote the growth of double-qualified teachers with comprehensive quality who can “talk and do”, the competition was comprehensively upgraded and officially incorporated into the national vocational college skills competition system and was renamed “national vocational college teaching ability competition”. the competition pays more attention to the application of information technology in the practical teaching, implements the fundamental task of cultivating morality and educating people, thus greatly accelerating the pace of vocational education reform and playing an important role in promoting the development of the teachers’ quality in vocational colleges. the vocational education law promulgated on may 1, 2022 puts forward the vision of “building a skills-based society”, which is also an important and logical starting point in the field of vocational education. the new development concept and the new height of the pattern as well as the inherent requirements of high-quality 1suzhou vocational health college, suzhou, 215009, china https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 2 development have pointed out the direction for the construction, reform and development of the modern vocational education system. therefore, how to improve and develop the teachers’ comprehensive teaching quality and skills has become an important research topic for the sustainable development of the vocational colleges. the teaching ability competition is not only a platform for the construction and development of the teachers, but also an important part in promoting the reform and development of teaching in vocational colleges. to be more concrete, the competition can promote the reform of the teachers, teaching materials and teaching methods, improve the teachers’ teaching ability, professional level and innovation ability of the teaching team in an allround way, and then build a high-level and structured teaching team. 2. the changing trend of the teaching ability competition 2.1 the continuous expansion of the influence of the competition in recent years, the competition system of higher vocational colleges in china is constantly improved and perfected. the attention and reputation of the teaching ability competition have been continuously promoted. with the continuous expansion and radiation of the influence of the teaching ability competition, the effect of the competition continues to extend in breadth and depth. under the influence of the national teaching ability competition, higher vocational colleges in various provinces attach great importance to it and it has been included in the hard indicators of the teachers’ teaching evaluation and professional title evaluation. the coverage of the competition continues to expand and the participating teams are constantly optimized, so the quality of participating works is gradually improved. it is estimated that more than 200,000 teachers from 34 provinces, municipalities, autonomous regions and municipalities participate in school-level teaching competitions in various higher vocational colleges in 2023. through these competitions, the direction of the teaching reform in vocational colleges has been guided and the influence of vocational education has been expanded and enhanced. [1] 2.2 continuous optimization and innovation of the competition in order to encourage the teachers in vocational colleges to constantly explore new teaching methods, innovate teaching knowledge and skills and cultivate the students’ independent inquiry ability and innovative thinking, the teaching ability competition has been continuously optimized and adjusted. before 2018, the information-based teaching competition focused on the teachers’ ability to make reasonable and full use of information technology, digital resources and information-based teaching environment. it also highlighted the teachers’ abilities to deal with the key points, solve the teaching difficulties, optimize teaching process systematically and complete the teaching tasks. the teaching design follows the cognitive law of the students, scientifically and reasonably arranges various links and elements and innovates in the assessment of the teachers’ roles, teaching contents, teaching methods and interactive methods. in the reform of the competition system in 2019, the teaching ability competition has been adjusted from simply examining the teachers’ application ability of information-based teaching to focus on the teaching team’s comprehensive teaching ability in organizing modular courses and implementing project-based teaching. it emphasizes the implementation of the fundamental task of strengthening moral education and cultivating people and building the “three-in-one education”, which refers to all personnel education, whole process education and all-round education. it actively explores the integrated education model of “post-class-competition-certificate” and promotes the teachers’ professional teaching ability and the comprehensive education ability. besides, it promotes the digital transformation and development of the vocational education, constantly improves the teachers’ ability, continuously promotes the teachers’ ethics and improves their professional teaching ability, digital literacy level, comprehensive education ability and self-development ability. it helps to strengthen the ideological and political education, improve the level of curriculum construction, optimize the classroom ecology and deepen the application of information technology. throughout the teaching ability competition in the past five years, the competition system seeks truth while maintaining stability, the content seeks iterative novelty and the implementation seeks changes. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 3 2.2.1 competition length the duration of the teaching ability competition has been increased from 10-15 minutes of teaching video recorded by each team member in 2019 to 40-45 minutes of teaching video recorded by each team member in 2023. 2.2.2 competition content the teaching ability competition highlights the characteristics of vocational education and further expand the depth and breadth of the teaching content, which should reflect the ideological, scientific, fundamental, professional and contemporary characteristics. in 2022, the national vocational college teaching ability competition program suggests the course content should connect with the new industries, new forms of business, new models and new occupations. in 2023, it advocates that the course content should be connected with the new methods, new technologies, new processes and new standards, reflecting teaching upgrading and digital transformation. it encourages the design of modular courses, integrates scientific spirit, innovation consciousness and digital literacy into the actual teaching and focuses on cultivating the spirit of labor, craftsmanship and model workers. 2.2.3 teaching implementation the competition pays attention to the effectiveness, highlights the solutions and strategies for the key and difficult points of teaching, carries out the effective interaction between teachers and students and between students, promotes deep learning, uses the real data of modern information technology in the teaching process and adjusts the teaching strategies appropriately according to the reflected problems. in 2023, the teaching ability competition program requires the implementation of educating people and attaches much importance to the cultivation of the students’ ideological and political quality and comprehensive professional quality. the classroom teaching should focus on the key points and break through the difficulties effectively, so the teachers should rationally use the information-based teaching resources and effective teaching methods to promote indepth learning and improve the students’ taskbased analysis and problem-solving abilities. 2.2.4 teaching evaluation the teaching ability competition not only focuses on the realization of the teaching objectives, pays attention to the combination of the process evaluation and the result evaluation, but also continues to carry out teaching diagnosis and improvement, focus on examining students’ ability to analyze and solve practical problems and explore value-added evaluation. in order to accurately evaluate the students’ learning effectiveness and test the teaching quality, the 2023 competition plan encourages participating teachers to rely on online platforms and software tools and use modern information technologies such as big data and artificial intelligence to carry out accurate analysis of the teaching and learning behaviors. 3. improvement of teachers’ quality the teaching ability competition is a dream journey to improve the comprehensive quality of higher vocational teachers under the background of internet+ education ecology. education reform has gradually regarded the teacher development as one of the core elements and the heart of the innovation of school education and teaching. therefore, the improvement and development of the comprehensive quality of english teachers cannot be ignored. the purpose of the higher vocational teachers’ teaching ability competition not only focuses on the construction of the high-quality teachers and cultivates the ecological basis of education and teaching, but also standardizes the management of the teaching order and the development of the teaching resources, information technology, the integration of production and education and the other policy supports. besides, it can adjust the microeducation ecology and improve the teachers’ professional ability, management ability and team structure ability, thus determining the quality of the development of strengthening moral education and cultivating people. [2] adrian underhill, expert from british teacher training college, defines the teachers’ quality improvement as the following: teacher development is a process by which the individual who teaches becomes the best teacher possible. it’s a process that can start but never end. it is an evolving process. [3] this requires the english teachers to have a more open mind and become learning teachers. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 4 3.1 curriculum integration ability curriculum quality is the lifeline of higher vocational education. the teachers’ teaching integration ability is the most direct and basic factor affecting the teaching effect. improving the teachers’ curriculum integration ability is an effective way to optimize the teaching effect and a positive strategy to improve the teachers’ teaching behavior. the vocational english teachers should highlight the characteristics of the workplace and the comprehensive teaching design should fully consider the needs of the students for the workplace english. the english teaching should rely on the tasks of the workplace situations, focus on the three major theme categories of career and individual, career and society and career and environment, and then select language activities suitable for these situations from the textbooks. besides, the teachers should create the communicative situations and highlight the language application in the workplace situations through the situational teaching activities with different themes so as to guide the students to transform their english knowledge into the english application ability and lay a good foundation for their future career needs. the teaching ability competition has set up an efficient platform for the teaching reform and innovation. the teaching content of the entries should be consistent with the content of the vocational education planning textbooks used in the actual teaching of the course. the competition team must pay more attention to the new processes and new norms and make personalized adjustments to the vocational english courses in order to meet the learning needs of the students and the demand for talents. in the teaching practice, the teachers should select the appropriate teaching materials from a large number of resources, reorganize relevant knowledge to enrich the teaching content so as to conform to the teaching rules and the students’ cognitive ability, enhance the attractiveness of language teaching, tap students’ ability of independent inquiry and group cooperation and cultivate their team spirit. only by doing so can the participating teachers’ ability in curriculum development and teamwork be significantly improved. [4] 3.2 practicing ability practicality is the natural attribute of vocational college education. however, it can increase the difficulty of vocational teachers to control classroom teaching, requiring them to continuously develop the teachers’ teaching ability, adapt to the actual needs of teaching and improve their vocational education teaching ability. the feature of practicality requires vocational education teachers to take students as the center and make a comprehensive analysis of the students’ learning ability, personality characteristics, interests and hobbies. the teachers should design teaching and implementation activities according to the requirements of the students’ individuality, autonomy and cooperation and combine with the information teaching technology to create the interactive mechanisms and platforms between teachers and students, students and students. according to the output data of the network platform and intelligent terminal, they can choose the appropriate teaching organization modes and activity implementation methods to solve the problems and improve the efficiency of the classroom teaching. under the leadership of the teachers, the right to speak in class is handed to the students, and the teacherstudent and student-student interaction is enhanced by being problem-oriented. [5] the english teachers are sure to gain valuable experience from participating in the teaching ability competition. they can promote their teaching and learning from the competition. in the process of preparing for the competition, the english teachers are the practitioners of the new ideas and new methods. the participating teachers continuously optimize their teaching design and practice each teaching link. the team members can help each other to polish their teaching and put forward suggestions for modification so that they can constantly reflect and improve their english teaching ability. therefore, teachers who participate in the competition can help to understand and learn the new trends, new requirements, new technologies of their profession and learn from the advanced experience of their peers. participating in the competition can enrich the teachers’ teaching experience, improve their professional ability and teaching quality. 3.3 innovation ability promoting teaching by competition, promoting construction by competition and promoting reform by competition is the original intention of the teaching ability competition. imitation, application and regeneration are the three necessary stages for higher vocational teachers to participate in the teaching ability competition. in other words, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 5 the improvement of the teaching quality of the participating teachers in higher vocational colleges is reflected in “learning”, “enlightenment” and “creation” in the competition. for the teachers participating in the teaching ability competition, the specific performance is reflected in the rethinking of the concept, characteristics, framework and the logical structure of the teaching design in vocational education. in the process of preparing for the competition the participating teachers consult the materials, watch the award-winning videos, discuss a certain topic in-depth, divide the tasks, determine the content, the important points and the difficult points, exchange views, carefully analyze every link of the teaching activities, review and evaluate, revise and modify, improve and innovate, which will undoubtedly improve the teaching energy reserve of the teachers. the teachers’ teaching methods are also constantly being perfected in the process of trial and error, revision and reflection. [6] through the free exchange and collision of the different ideas, they can check and revise their way of thinking and constantly understand, regulate and improve themselves, thus entering a realm full of intellectual challenges in order to achieve the purpose of improving their teaching level. to give full play to the advantages of teamwork, they can enlighten each other and learn from each other. besides, some external factors, such as the expert guidance, teaching experience of the colleagues and the special knowledge and skills from the competition team members continue to overlap so that the teaching design and implementation are constantly spiraling upward in rethinking, perception, experience and innovation. through the internal learning and external training, the participating teachers can get good guidance and comprehensive promotion. 3.4 information ability with the rapid development and popularization of the information technology in the field of education, it has brought great changes to the way of knowledge acquisition and imparting. the information-based teaching ability of the vocational college teachers is the comprehensive embodiment of the integration and application ability of the professional vocational ability, teaching ability, information technology and vocational education under the information-based teaching environment. [7] the ability of the teachers’ information literacy refers to the ability of the teachers to form an attitude towards the information activities and solve the problems based on the practice of transmitting information according to the requirements of the social information and development. [8] based on the teaching ability competition, the teachers integrate their informatization teaching ability, professional ability and excellent teaching ability into the whole teaching process so as to improve the teaching effect and teaching quality, therefore improving the teaching effect and teaching quality and finally achieving the teaching goal. in order to meet the requirements of the times, the english teachers should strengthen their information literacy and improve their ability to skillfully use the modern teaching means. in the teaching practice, the english teachers in our college integrate the network platforms such as xuexitong, pigai system and word master as well as some applications such as tik tok, microsoft xiaoying and igrammar with the teaching contents. these network terminals can create a simulated english learning environment for the students, improve their interest in learning english and make classroom teaching more vivid. generally speaking, the students’ online learning needs to rely more on the guidance of the teachers, who must carefully design the online learning objectives and tasks. in addition, the teachers should set the interaction between the teachers and students appropriately and strengthen their online supervision. and then make adjustments in time according to the data they monitor. with the help of these information-based teaching means, the english teachers can better play the role of facilitator, organizer, collaborator, monitor and evaluator in the teaching process. in addition, the english teachers can optimize the teaching contents, teaching methods and teaching means so as to mobilize the students’ learning enthusiasm more effectively. 4. conclusion the teaching ability competition provides a stage for the english teachers in higher vocational colleges to show themselves and compete together. it plays an important role in connecting the quality and excellence of vocational education in the new era, adding value and integrating production and education. it not only strengthens the education function of the curriculum, optimizes the classroom ecology and enhances the comprehensive teaching ability of the teachers, but also improves the level of curriculum construction and promotes the development and utilization of the high-quality teaching resources. through various kinds of training and learning, the english global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 6 teachers can effectively improve their professional level and teaching quality. the improvement of the high-level structured teaching teams can promote the construction of a good ecology for the continuous improvement of vocational education, therefore realizing the goal of cultivating talents with both good morality and technical skills. in general, the national vocational teaching ability competition is an intelligent competition for the improvement of english teachers’ quality in vocational colleges under the background of the internet + education. the teaching ability competition is not just an efficient platform for the construction and development of teachers, but an important part in the reform and development of the vocational colleges and universities. it has promoted the all-round improvement of the comprehensive quality, professional level and innovative ability of the teachers’ teaching ability. references xiuyan liu, the improvement of young teachers’ teaching skills from the teaching skills competition [j]. journal of jilin institute of education, 2015, 31(july): 11-13. lingyun gong, a study on the universality of teaching ability competition in higher vocational skills competition [j]. heilongjiang higher education research, 2022 (2): 117, 120. yueyao liang, on improving the quality of college english teachers in e era [j]. era education, 2008 (may): 38. weiwei liu, the effect of the teaching ability competition on the improvement of teachers [j]. journal of harbin vocational and technical college, 2021 (2): 3. lingyun gong, a study on the universality of teaching ability competition in higher vocational skills competition [j]. heilongjiang higher education research, 2022 (2): 120. ying shi, the improvement of the quality of vocational english teachers through the national vocational college teaching ability competition [j]. science and education guide, 2020 (24). wenjing tang, on the driving effect of the information-based teaching competition on the improvement of vocational education teachers’ ability [j]. china vocational and teaching education, 2015 (20): 53. qingdong zhang, a discussion on the quality of college english teachers and the ways of inservice selfdevelopment [j]. education and career, 2011. (5). knowledge and perceptions of students regarding their teachers' ict integration in secondary schools in benin global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 3; march-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 24 uncharted technological territory: examining secondary students' understanding of ict integration in benin 1dr. marie-claire adelaide kpodar article info abstract keywords: ict integration, education, secondary schools, students' perceptions, professional development the integration of information and communication technologies (icts) in educational settings has gained momentum worldwide, transforming teaching and learning practices. this study examines the current state of ict integration in benin's secondary school classrooms and explores students' perceptions of their science teachers' utilization of ict tools. despite the global trend toward incorporating icts, some educators remain hesitant due to factors such as limited training and technological apprehension. in this context, the republic of benin's commitment to ict integration in its education system holds particular significance. drawing upon the project piies, which aimed to equip secondary and primary schools with computers, and subsequent government efforts, this research evaluates the impact of ict adoption in benin's classrooms. the research delves into students' insights about their science teachers' use of ict tools and the challenges they perceive in this integration. by investigating students' perspectives, this study not only contributes to the design of tailored professional development programs for teachers but also provides insights for international partners investing in benin's education sector. the study sheds light on the effectiveness of past initiatives and the extent to which they have fostered a conducive environment for ict-based learning. through examining the realities of ict integration and identifying obstacles faced by both teachers and students, this research offers valuable recommendations for enhancing the educational landscape in benin and beyond. 1. introduction throughout recent years, in developed countries as well as in developing countries, students of all ages have become accustomed, in their daily life, to information and communication technologies (icts) and all inherent 1teacher trqining school of natitingou, unstim, bénin https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 25 devices. school curricula and teaching strategies are therefore being revised to help students learn using icts for their daily activities, assignments and projects. educators around the world are encouraged to find innovative and creative ways to incorporate this technology into classroom learning [1, 2]. icts tools used in classroom settings comprise computers, laptops, television sets, video projector, video camera, usb keys, software package, etc. the reference indicated that these devices help teachers to communicate effectively to the students in a unique way of understanding that facilitates learning. on the one hand, the integration of this technology in the classroom motivates students’ engagement in the learning process, develops their information processing, stimulates their critical thinking skills and their problem solving competencies. on the other hand, students are eager to get involved in the teaching-learning process because they are accustomed to icts devices used by teachers in the classroom. however, despite the call to integrate icts in school settings and the benefits students are gaining throughout this integration, many teachers are reluctant to perform this incorporation. the reference [4] assert that some educators do not use ict in their teaching because they are computer-phobic. students are in a good position to talk about how their teachers are integrating technology and the obstacles hindering the incorporation of these devices in the classroom. in their study, the reference [5] investigated middle school and high school students’ perceptions of their teachers’ use of ict and their learning. students in the study revealed that despite training and professional development programs received by many doi :10.5121/ijite.2022.11206 educators, they are still struggling to incorporate the latest technologies in their learning environments for many reasons such as lack of classroom time to train students in these skills and their own lack of knowledge and training. the republic of benin was the first country in west africa to connect to the internet in 1995 [6]. since then, many national and international ngos provided computers and ict tools to secondary schools through their programs and projects. one of these projects, the project piies (projet d’introduction de l’informatique dans les etablissements secondaires [introduction project of ict tools in secondary schools]) equipped secondary and primary schools with computers. from 2008, the government of the republic of benin, worked to equip the two sectors of education with ict devices and to improve internet access. one of the main decisions of the country’s second national forum on education in december 2014, was the integration of ict in its education system. therefore, nearly a decade after this resolution, it is suitable to investigate the state of art of ict integration in the classroom in benin and most importantly secondary schools students’ knowledge about ict and related tools and their perceptions vis-à-vis ict integration in the classroom by their science teachers. the significance of this study is twofold. it is believed that, first, the findings of this study will help secondary schools inspectors design the appropriate professional development programs for teachers; and secondly, these results could be of great interest to benin’s international partners in education to evaluate the impact of their investment in benin. therefore, this paper aims first, at investigating sciences students’ knowledge of ict and its tools. the second goal of the study is to explore their perceptions of this integration in their classroom and its advantages. three research questions are addressed in the study: • what do students know regarding ict and its use in everyday life? • what are students’ perceptions of the way teachers integrate ict in secondary schools classrooms in benin? • what are students’ perceptions related to the advantages of ict integration in classrooms in benin? 2. literature review in this literature review, two themes have been selected to check what research said about teacher’s ict integration in secondary classrooms: students perceptions related to teachers’ ict integration in classroom and the adavantages of ict integration in classroom https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11206 https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11206 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 26 2.1. students’ perceptions on their teachers’ ict integration in classroom several studies have highlighted students’ perceptions on technology integration in the classroom.indeed, in the reference’s [7] study, high schools internet-savvy students report that there is a substantial disconnect between how they use the internet for school and how they use it during the school day and under teacher direction. one of the main findings is related to how these participants perceived their teachers’ technology integration in classroom. after stressing many advantages they are getting from the use of internet, they added that they are not using this ict tool for their assignments and school activities in school as much as they use it out of school. this disconnect is based on the lack of their teachers’ internet skills and knowledge. they pleaded for the provision to their teachers of professional development programs and technical assistance for effective technology integration. in their study, the reference [5] investigate the perceptions of middle school (ms) and high school (hs) students in a united stated school district related to ict use in and out of school. in total, 67.1 % of hs and 67.6 % of ms students advance that few teachers have technology skills and are integrating ict in classroom. even though they recognized technology in school as moderate and limited, they still offered practical suggestions to help teachers learn to use ict. other studies investigate teachers’ needs to perform their job using ict. professionals in the field of education knew students were using technology outside of school to communicate [8]. therefore, teachers needed training on how to integrate technology into the curriculum in order to “fill in the gap between traditional education practices in schools and the use of technology for teaching and learning” ([9], p. 147). along with teacher expertise in teaching ict, researchers [10, 11] mentioned that there are a lot of determinants impeding teachers to perform their job. for instance, the reference [10] found that the technological equipment of the school is the first obstacle facing teachers in integrating ict in their classroom. teachers’ beliefs and attitudes for the everyday use of ict devices in teaching are other hindrances stressed in the litérature [11, 12]. 2.2. advantages of ict integration in classroom settings icts are generally accepted as the collections of technological equipment and tools as well as instructional resources used to communicate, disseminate, develop and manage information that enables the educators to modify the teaching methods they use in order to increase students interest. the literature abounds of research papers highlighting the advantages of integrating ict in the classroom. many investigators have provided evidence about the ict integration advantages for teachers’ pedagogical approaches, learners and even for teachers. in a review of literature, the reference [13] identified 20 tremedous advantages of ict integration in the classroom. we have listed some of these advantages which are : enhancement of interaction and increase of students’ engagement ; improvement of students’ learning ; amelioration of students’ knowledge retention, empowerment of teachers for further teaching differentiation; and development of new life skills such as collaboration, productivity, leadership and communication. the effectiveness of ict integration in schools was the main objective of the referrence’s [14]study. specifically, they studied the effectiveness of the integration of ict from teaching and learning perspectives and the effective elements of ict integration in teaching in public schools in kuala lumpur, malaisia. a survey questionnaire was randomly distributed to 101 teachers from 10 public secondary schools to collect quantitative data of the research. the results show that ict integration enhances both teaching and students’ learning. the authors explained that ict tools and equipment help teachers to prepare an active learning environment for students. professional development training programs for teachers were found to play a key role in enhancing students’ quality learning. using a phenomenological qualitative approach as the research method, the reference’s [15] study has two specific objectives which are : to explore teachers and students, perceptions in using ict tools in teaching and learning and to analyse the empowerment ways for the use of ict tools in teaching and learning. non-probabilitic sampling global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 27 was used for selecting ten teachers and sixteen students. the results show that teachers mention the benefits of ict tool in teaching. they attest that the ict tools increase interactivity of learners, bring children closer together in learning outcome, improve the memory of students, easily explain the complex subject matter, create the interactive classes, help to improve students' attendance, make the lesson more enjoyable and increase the student’s exposure. according to these students participants, ict tools used in classroom increase the concentration in the classroom with the help of visual materials, make environment in the classroom funny and transform the traditional classroom into the learner centered classroom. the reference [16] investigated the advantages and the challenges of ict integration in efl classrooms. they employed a qualitative descriptive design and interviewed six english teachers teaching at six different high schools in indonesia. the selection was done based on the participants’ familiarity of ict integration as well as on their use of ict in their teaching practices. the findings indicate that advantages of integrating ict in efl classrooms include: (1) meeting students’ needs and language level through adapted ict programs ; (2) improving teachers’ creativity in teaching english ; (3) providing faster access for teacher to deliver their teaching materials, (4) encouraging interactive work between teachers and students ; and (5) creating positive attitude of the students toward their learning and supporting teachers in learning-teaching process. one of the great challenges facing teachers is due to ict influences on people around the world in that, it requires them to be literate in ict and skillful in using ict tools and facilities in their teaching practices. other challenges identified comprise time management, technical supports, technical knowledge, and teachers’ self-confidence based on the literature related to ict integration in secondary schools, the present study is the first to investigate teachers’ expertise integrating ict in their teaching in an african country. again the results will constitute a baseline information on effective elements, design of professional development programs for teachers. 3. methodology 3.1. research design and participants of the study the study utilised a quantitative research method using a questionnaire as data collection instrument. since the current study sought to determine students’ knowledge about ict and its use in everyday life and explore how they discern the integration in their classroom and its advantages, this methodology was deemed appropriate. the population for the study is all secondary school students in the republic of benin. however, in the study, the participants were freshmen science students at the beginning of the academic year at the teacher training school of natitingou, a branch from the university where the researcher is a faculty member. this convenience sample of students is chosen for the study for two reasons. first, as recent high school students, they just passed the baccalaureat examination, the most important benchmark and the diploma needed to enter higher education. the researcher thinks that these entering student teachers represent the population of the high school students in the country. the second reason is, after completing a four-year middle school and a three-year high school courses, these students are supposed to have knowledge of ict, its use in people’s everyday life and how teachers integrate it into their classrooms. in total 132 (77.3 % male and 22.7 % female) participants (m = 19.63 years old, sd = 1.75) were informed that their participation was voluntary. 3.2. data collection instrument the research instrument adopted for this study was a self-designed questionnaire, segregated into three (3) parts. the first part, the general information, deals with the participants’ biographical information and computer sciences courses attended. the second part consists of a total of 24 items, comprising four subscales : students’ knowledge of ict and its tools (five items) ; students’ perceptions of teacher introduction of ict in the classroom (nine items) ; and advantages of integration of ict in classroom (ten items). the 24 items employed a five-point likert scale to measure the participants’ responses, ranging from (1) strongly agree to (5) strongly disagree. the third part of the questionnaire consists of students’ free reflections related to ict integration in classroom. they global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 28 were asked to reflect on the way they were taught using technology in their science classes during their secondary school years. the instrument had been reviewed by a panel of erudite teacher educators expert in ict usage in classroom. they validated the instrument for content and construct validity. alpha reliability was 0.855 for the second part of the questionnaire. the instrument was developed in english but the research setting was a french-speaking country. translation and back translation [17] techniques were used to translate the instrument using two bilinguals. the first bilingual was a native french-african instructor and professional translator who translated the instrument from the source (english) to the target language (french). the second bilingual was an african literature professor from benin teaching at the college level in connecticut who blindly translated the questionnaire back from the target language to the source. then, the researcher compared the two versions of the instrument, noticing if each statement was identical. 3.3. data collection and analysis procedure the questionnaire was administered to the participate science students at the same time during a class session. thirty minutes before the end of its session, the researcher handed out the questionnaire to his physical sciences students, while two other teachers, in their class, administered it to mathematics and biology and earth sciences students. descriptive statistics of percentages were used as the main descriptor of the results. quantitative data from the instrument were analysed using descriptive and comparative statistics, such as means, percentages and standard deviation (spss, 19.0). the researcher read students’ free reflections regarding ict integration in the classroom in the third part of the questionnaire, and underlined useful themes or ideas to complement the quantitave findings. 4. results for more clarity, the results collected for each question in the study are presented separately. in the first section, are presented the socio-demographic statistic of the participating students (see table 1). for the likert scale in table 2 to 4 ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ were combined as ‘acceptance’ (a), and ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘disagree’ were combined to ‘non acceptance’ (na), whereas uncertain (un) was maintained. table 1. socio-demographic statistic of participating students gender type of school attended availability of computer room computer sciences classes attended schooling area male fema (%) le (%) public private (%) (%) yes no (%) (%) yes no (%) (%) urban rura (%) l (%) 77.3 22.7 77.3 22.7 37.0 63.0 21.0 79.0 48.0 52.0 table 1 indicates that more than half (77.3 %) of the participants attended public secondary schools, while 52.0 % of them went to school in a rural area. in total, 63.0 % of the respondents mentioned that computer room was not available for practices in their school and only 21.0 % took computer sciences classes during their high school years. 4.1. research question # 1 : what do students know regarding ict and its use in everyday life? the purpose of this question was to investigate, secondary students’ knowledge of ict, and their understanding of the use of ict people’s everyday life. concerning their knowledge of ict, students indicated their strong global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 29 agreement (m = 2.19, sd = 0.66) with the items contained in this subscale. also, the results in table 2 show that participating students in this study have a good knowledge of ict and how people use them in their daily life. table 2. percentages of students’ responses related to their knowledge of ict a1 ict is a combination of data processing and telecommunications, but it is more widespread in the context of the internet network and the multimedia 96.0 0.8 3.2 a2 the use of ict also includes those of classic services as the cellphones, the tape recorders video, the fax, the radio and the tv with the numeric supports. 89.0 3.9 7.1 a3 computers, theirs softwares and networks of all shapes are very largely associated with the implementation of ict. 93.2 3.8 3.0 a4 ict nowadays, constitutes an element for the succes of the whole educational enterprise. 76.3 4.6 19.1 a5 the use of ict impacts different domains like health, education and especially economy of its different sectors. 72.3 6.2 21.5 the results in table 2 show that the respondents in the study know the definition of ict and its components : ict is a combination of data processing and telecommunications, but it is more widespread in the context of the internet network and the multimedia (a1, 96.0 %). computers, their softwares and networks of all shapes are very largely associated with the implementation of ict (a3, 93.2 %). ict also includes those of classic services as the cellphones, tape recorders video, the fax, the radio and the tv with the numeric supports (a2, 89 %). participants also know how people use ict and its significance in people’s life : ict nowadays, constitutes an element for the succes of the whole educational enterprise (a4, 76.3 %). the use of ict impacts different domains like health, education and especially economy of its different sectors (a5, 72.3 %). 4.2. research question # 2 : what are students’ perceptions of the way teachers integrate ict in secondary schools classroom in benin ? the purpose of the second question is to describe students’ perceptions about how teachers integrate ict in the classroom. the respondents indicated their strong agreement (m = 2.25, sd = 0.87) with the items contained in this subscale. they know what teachers do or perform when integrating ict in the classroom. table 3. percentages of students’responses about ict integration in classroom statement a (%) un (%) na (%) b. teacher introduction of ict in classroom the teacher introduces ict in classroom, when he/she…. b6 … uses his computer to help understand the class material. 84.8 3.8 11.5 b7 … helps us to manipulate the computer. 73.7 5.4 20.9 b8 … uses some online resources to make his course more interessing. 82.0 7.0 11.0 s tatement a ( % ) un ( % ) na ( % ) global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 30 b9 … sometimes presents his course using some powerpoint. 62.3 13.1 24.6 b10 …sometimes presents his course using a video projector. 78.3 3.9 17.8 b11 … gives us some works to do using laptops. 72.1 11.6 16.3 b12 … makes projections of movies on television as support of course. 56.0 11.8 32.2 b13 …incites us to search for online resources to complete our works. 82.0 4.0 14.0 b14 … creates a forum in which we can discuss and express our ideas on a given topic. 78.5 7.1 14.3 table 3 shows that participants in the study perceive the teachers’ introduction of ict in the classroom when he : uses his computer to help understand the class material (b6, 84.8 %) ; uses some online resources to make his course more interessing (b8, 82.0 %) ; encourages his studentsto search for online resources to complete their works (b13, 82.0 %) ; creates a forum in which they can discuss and express their ideas on a given topic (b14, 78.5 %) ; sometimes presents his course using a video projector (b10, 78.2 %) ; helps his students to manipulate the computer (b7, 73.7 %) and makes projections of movies on television as support of course (b12, 56.0 %). about 80 % of the participants mentioned, through their free reflections, that their teachers are aware of ict tools and most of the time are willing to integrate them in their teaching. however, they don’t have the useful knowledge in using ict tools. in other words, their teachers lack the skills to integrate ict into their teaching. some of them will come to class to ask for students’ help before designing a power point in order to teach a science concept. some teachers indicate that the school administration should provide them with the ict tools especially the laptop to help them prepare their lesson plans. below are three extracts from students’ free reflections: "coming from a rural area and a school that doesn’t have a computer room, i learned to use a computer and the associated softwares with the help of some of my friends. indeed, some of my school friends have their relatives abroad who provide them with computers and many other electronic gadgets. therefore, i know how this tool works and how that can help us learn better. i also noticed that some of our teachers encounter serious difficulties using their computer and usually ask assistance from some of my friends." (students’ writing up) "most of our teachers don’t know how to use their computers and other related software even though they are aware of the significance of ict integration in class. they ask for help from their students. i can attest that i usually assist my life and earth sciences teacher to find moovies on youtube to show in his classes." (student’s writing up) "some of our teachers are complaining about not having a laptop. they cannot afford it because of its high cost and their low wages. they think that the school administration should provide them this ict tool. therefore, they cannot use it in class." (student’s writing up) the first extract mentions that, even though leaving in a poor area, students are able to learn how to use computers and other related devices. as a matter of fact, students learn from each other and most importantly the way they are sensitive to what is happenin their surroundings. the two last extracts indicate some of the obtacles hindering ict integration in school settings according to these participants. again, the extracts show that teachers lack skills to use ict tools during preparation of their lesson plans and in classrooms and school administration support. 4.3. research question # 3 : what are students’ perceptions related to the advantages of ict integration in classrooms in benin ? this third research question is to explore participating students’ perceptions related to the advantages of ict integration in classroom. they demonstrated their strong agreement (m = 2.11, sd = 0.22) for the 11 items listed global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 31 in the concerned subscale. percentages acceptance of the items in table 4 confirm that students know the advantages of ict integration in the classroom. table 4. percentages of answers about advantages of ict integration in classroom statement a (%) un (%) na (%) c. advantages of integration of ict in classroom the integration of ict in classroom …… c15 …motivates me to better listen the course. 68.5 8.7 22.8 c16 … helps me to concentrate when the teacher teaches the course. 48.8 14.2 37.0 c17 … develops my abilities in learning and the resolution of problems. 76.0 12.0 12.0 c18 … increases my engagement in activities in class. 70.1 10.2 19.7 c19 … facilitates my understanding of the course. 83.9 6.5 9.7 c20 … helps me to not get bored in class. 62.7 11.1 26.2 c21 … makes me follow in live (in direct) the studied phenomena. 78.4 8.8 12.8 c22 … helps me to search for documents online. 92.0 3.2 4.8 c23 … improves the quality of the teaching. 82.6 8.7 8.7 c24 … helps me to succeed in my exams. 68.3 14.3 17.3 results in table 4 show that the integration of ict in the classroom : helps the students to search for documents online (c22, 92.0 %), facilitates their understanding of the course (c19, 83.9 %), improves the quality of the teaching (c23, 82.6 %), makes the students follow in live (in direct) the studied phenomena (c21, 78.4 %), develops their abilities in learning and the resolution of problems (c17, 76.0 %), increases students’ engagement in activities in class (c18, 70.1 %), motivates students to better listen the course (c15, 68.5 %) and helps students to succeed in their exams (c24, 68.3 %). in their free writings, first, most of the participating students (90 %) mentioned other advantages of ict integration in the classroom such as understanding of science concepts (for example magnetism in electricity and chlorophil synthesis in biology and earth sciences) and master computer softwares. others complain of not having a computer room in their school. second, they noticed that learning with ict tools in the classroom help them in their everyday life outside of the classroom. 5. discussion this research study investigates : (1) secondary schools students’ knowledge about ict and its use in people’s everyday life, and (2) explore their perceptions related to teachers ict integration in the classroom and its advantages. salient findings of this study include participants science students’ : (1) good knowledge of ict, meaning the different definitions of ict and its components, the way people use ict tools and their significances of these tools in their life ; (2) perceptions concerning teachers ict integration in the classroom and the advantages of ict integration in the classroom. consequently, the following sections discuss the findings of the study. answering the questionnaire, secondary schools students demonstrate good knowledge of ict. in fact, the participants are aware of the different definitions of ict and its components. they understand how people use ict tools and their significances in their life. this finding is consistent with other researchers’ results [3, 15]. the literature abounds of findings demonstrating the interest of secondary schools students in the technology and its global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 32 components integrated in the education. in this study, even though 52.0 % of the participants attended secondary schools in a rural area (see table 1) and are living in benin, a developing country. it is a fact that they are used to ict tools, such as computers to perform their classroom projects, cellphones to communicate, etc. they know how important these tools are in people’s everyday life in this 21st century era. related to the second research question, the respondents indicated the different activities teachers perform when integrating ict in the classroom. in other words, they know how teachers are integrating ict in their classroom. indeed, many studies studies in africa [18, 13, 3] showed how science teachers are using ict tools to prepare, design and teach classes and the effects of this teaching on students. these studies demonstrated science teachers’ eagerness to teach their subject matter using ict tools, because they are aware of the positive impacts of these tools on students’ achievement. however, it is important to mention the many obtacles hindering teachers’ willingness to integrate ict in classroom related to teachers’ training and infrastructural deficiency (electrification, computers, internet connectivity and multimedia equipments), mainly in rural areas. students mention that in those areas, their teachers are struggling to integrate ict in the classroom, because of lack of trainings and professional development programs and ict tools shortages, and in spite of the efforts of the central government to make up these deficits. we can advance that one of the great findings of this study is teachers’ humility described through the participants’ writings. teachers recognize their students’ competencies using ict tools and ask for their help to prepare the ict materials to use during their teaching. of course, students usually learn rapidly from their peers or other people and can master the use of ict software, so they could assist their teachers in class to fix the ict materials or in their home to find moovies on youtube or other useful websites to use in their lesson plans. the findings of the third question showed that participating students indicated lots of advantages of teachers’ ict integration in classroom. ict integration in the classroom enhances students’ search for scientific documents online, their understanding of the course, the study of scientific phenomena, students’ abilities in learning and the resolution of problems, students’ engagement in activities in class, students’ motivation to better listen to the course and helps students to succeed in their exams. scientific papers [19, 13, 16] written on the subject corroborate these findings. indeed, there’s no need to demonstrate the numerous benefits students are getting from ict integration in classroom. beside these benefits, ict tools are affecting negatively students’ learning and way of life. students are using the internet for plagiarism when responding to classroom activities. they are no longer making the necessary effort to properly solve problems because of the online availability of the answers to most of the problems. 6. conlusion the purpose of this study is to investigate sciences students’ knowledge of ict and to explore how they perceive their teachers’ ict integration in their classroom and its advantages. three research questions guided the data collection. the study results show that participating students have good knowledge of ict, its different meanings and components, the way people use ict tools in their everyday life. secondly, students’ perceptions of the way teachers integrate ict in secondary schools classroom in benin, the results indicate that teachers don’t have the useful knowledge in using ict tools, meaning teachers lack the skills to integrate ict into their teaching. thridly, the participants indicated lots of advantages of teachers’ ict integration in classroom including understanding of the course, the study of scientific phenomena, students’ abilities in learning and the resolution of problems, students’ engagement in activities in class, students’ motivation to better listen to the course and helps students to succeed in their exams. finally, participants mentioned n their free writing, some negative effects of teachers’ ict integration in classroom. references global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 33 assareh assareha & hosseini bidokht mohsen (2011), "barriers to e-teaching and e-learning," procedia computer science, 3, pp791-95. sanchez jaime, alvares salinas & jordan harris(2011) "education with ict in south korea and chile, » int j of ed dev, vol. 31 no. 2, pp126-49. ojo olanrewadju a. & adu emmanuel o. (2018). "the effectiveness of information and communication technologies (icts) in teaching and learning in high schools in eastern cape province," south african journal of education, vol. 38, no. 2, s1-s11. sherman kevin & howard sara k. (2012), teachers’ beliefs about firstand second-order barriers to ict integration: preliminary findings from a south african study, 23rd international conference of society for information technology and teacher education. charlottesville, va: association for the advancement of computing in education. stefl-mabry joette, radlick michael & doane william (2010) "can you hear me now ? student voice : high school and middle school students’ perceptions of teachers, ict and learning," int j of ed and dev using inform and com tech (ijedict), vol. 6 no. 4, pp64-82. agyeman o. tutu (2007) "survey of ict and education in africa : benin country report. in f. glen, s. issacs, & m. trucano (eds.). survey of ict and education in africa," vol.2, no. 53, 2007. country reports. accessed 4 august 2020 from http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/642501468194647668/pdf/414750v20revis1box0327 331b01public1.pdf levin douglas & arafeh sousan (2002), "the digital disconnect: the widening gap between internetsavvy students and their schools," in pew internet & american life project: the pew internet and american life project. ally mohamed & samaka mohammed (2013) "open education resources and mobile technology to narrow the learning divide," the international review of research in open and distance learning, vol. 14, no. 2, pp14-27. olele clara nnoduka (2013), "manpower development for information and communication technologies (icts) integration in education," j of business and behavioral sciences, vol. 25, no. 1, pp143-157. poultsakis stefanos, papadakis stamatios, kalogiannakis michail and psycharis sarantos (2021). the management of digital learning objects of natural sciences and digital experiment simulation tools by teachers. advance in mobile learning educational resesarch, 1(2), p. 58-71. vlasopoulou maria, kalogiannakis michail, & sifaki eirini (2021). investigating teachers' attitude and behavioral intentions for the impending integration of stem education in primary school. in st. papadakis and m. kalogiannakis (eds.), handbook of research on using education robotics to facilitate student learning (pp. 235-256). hershey, pa: igi global. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (3) pg. 34 papadakis stamatios, vaiopoulou julie, sifaki eirini, stamovlasis dimitri, kalogiannakis michail, & vassilakis, kostas (2021). factors that hinder in-service teachers from incorporating educational robotics into their daily or future teaching practice. in b. csapó and j. uhomoibhi (eds). proceedings of the 13th international conference on computer supported education (csedu 2021), vol 2, 55-63, online streaming, april 23-25, 2021. loveless becton (2022). 20 huge benefits of using technology inthe classroom. accessed 18 may 2020 from : https://www.educationcorner.com/benefits-of-ict-in-teaching-and-learning/ ghavifekr, simi & rosdy, wan athirah wan. (2015). teaching and learning with technology: effectiveness of ict integration in schools. international journal of research in education and science (ijres), 1(2), 175191. mishra nirmal raj (2020). ict integrated teaching: an interpretive inquiry of teachers and ssudents' perceptions on ict based teaching. researcher, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 77-90. sari suci noer wulan, pertiwi intani and sunengsih sunengsih (2017). the advantages and challenges of ict integration in efl classrooms. in proceedings of the tenth conference on applied linguistics and the second english language teaching and technology conference in collaboration with the first international conference on language, literature, culture, and education (conaplin and icollite 2017) brislin richard walter (1970) "back-translation for cross-cultural research," journal of crosscultural psychology, vol. 1, no. 3, pp185–216. abanikannda mutahir oluwafemi (2018), "effect of technology tools on students interest in biology : a survey of osun state high schools in nigeria," african research journal of education and social sciences, vol. 5, no. 3, pp32-40. azmi noureddine (2017). the benefits of using ict in the efl classroom : from perveived utility to potential challenges. journal of educational and social research vol. 7 no.1, p. 111-118. 062212-w8206--frontiers in educational research.doc global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 12; december-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 7 revolutionizing mental well-being: integrating sports elements into college mental health education 1xinyi wang mei chen article info abstract keywords: college students, mental health education, psychological well-being, sports integration, curriculum reform doi the mental well-being of college students is of utmost importance as they play a pivotal role in shaping the future of our nation. in recent times, there has been a surge in extreme events stemming from psychological challenges faced by college students. the conventional method of addressing these issues primarily involves mental health courses designed for college students. however, the prevalence of highprofile incidents highlights the pressing demand for an overhaul of college mental health curricula. this article delves into an innovative approach to foster the mental health development of college students, proposing the integration of sports elements into college mental health courses. 1. introduction college students are the builders and successors of our country's socialist cause, and their growth development are of paramount importance. currently, there have been frequent extreme events among college students resulting from psychological issues. the main approach to college student mental education is through courses on college student mental health. the occurrence of these high-profile events reflects the urgent need for reform in college mental health curricula. this article explores a new model for promoting the mental health development of college students by incorporating elements of sports into college student mental health courses. 2. current status of college mental health courses in the era of internet development, college students have constant access to various information, the environment is rapidly changing. meanwhile, college students are in a stage of psychological where they may struggle with effectively discerning and absorbing information, making them to external influences. these factors pose significant challenges to the mental health of college students. college students are valuable human resources for the nation, and their comprehensive development, both physically and mentally, is a major concern for society as a whole. in 2011, china issued the requirements for psychological health education courses for college students in ordinary of higher education," which explicitly stated the need to establish mental health courses for college students within the educational system. this has led to the gradual establishment of mental health in various universities.over the years, universities have been gradually improving the development of mental health courses. however, there are also some issues that need to be addressed. the status of mental health courses in universities is elective, meaning they carry fewer credits and may not receive sufficient attention from students. 1guangzhou huashang college, guangzhou, china https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 8 additionally, instructors often rely on a didactic teaching approach, where students passively receive the course content, which hinders the full potential of these courses in promoting the mental health of college students. on the other hand, physical activities play a crucial in promoting interpersonal communication and emotional regulation among college students. they can effectively enhance both the mental and physical well-being of students while cultivating individuals with comprehensive development in morality, intelligence, and physical fitness. therefore, curriculum reform in universities is necessary, particularly in enriching the teaching elements of mental health courses and incorporating physical activities. 2.1 the educational methods are simplistic in the process of teaching the course "college student mental health," university professors often focus on imparting theoretical knowledge related to mental health, aiming for students to grasp the theoretical foundations of mental well-being. however, this didactic approach employed during the teaching of basic theoretical knowledge results in dull and monotonous classroom experiences. students remain passive recipients of information, lacking interaction. such a teaching model struggles to capture the attention of college students. coupled with their limited life experiences, they perceive the course as lacking practical value and fail to recognize its importance, leading to a lack of interest in the subject. their motivation to study this course is primarily driven by the pursuit of credits, resulting in a deficiency of enthusiasm for learning. 2.2 the teaching methodology is limited to a single form as students transition from high school to college, they encounter significant environmental changes, and everyone's adaptability varies. moreover, teaching is primarily conducted through specialized topics, addressing the challenges encountered in each stage of university life. however, the stages faced by college students also differ. the course "college student mental health" adopts a large-class teaching format with minimal classroom interaction, leading to a decrease in both the enthusiasm of teachers and students. it becomes challenging for instructors to meet the personalized needs of each student, ultimately hindering the effectiveness of teaching and impeding the promotion of college students' healthy development. 2.3 the classroom teaching philosophy remains entrenched in traditional and conservative practices in the current teaching process of college-level mental health courses, there is a prevailing belief that these courses should be taught solely from the perspective of psychology, lacking innovation and flexibility. there is a conservative attitude that prevents the integration of elements from other disciplines, thereby impeding the development of college student mental health courses. overall, despite some degree of development, there are significant issues with current college student mental health courses. the teaching methods are simplistic, relying on a singular instructional approach, while the classroom teaching philosophy remains traditional and conservative. as a result, college students' mental health courses fail to achieve the desired outcomes, with students primarily staying at the level of affective cognition without delving deeper to address practical issues. in recent years, numerous studies have shown that physical exercise has a significant impact on both the physical and mental health of college students. therefore, incorporating sports-related elements into college student mental health courses can not only promote physical fitness but also contribute to mental well-being. consequently, integrating physical exercise into mental health education has become a key focus of reform in college-level mental health education. 3. feasibility analysis of introducing sports elements into college mental health education sports elements refer to the static entities of material nature that are potentially incorporated in campus cultural construction, forming a sports atmosphere, sports culture, sports spirit, and dynamic sports humanities landscape constituted by various sports behaviors. 3.1 the integration of traditional sports elements into college mental health education aligns with national policy requirements the "healthy china 2030" planning outline, issued by the central committee of the communist party of china and the state council, proposes the widespread promotion of nationwide health activities, the continued development and implementation of fitness plans, the popularization of scientific knowledge and methods related to fitness, and the promotion of a fitness-oriented lifestyle. with the publication of this outline, it signifies a new direction for physical education in universities, where the importance of sports for physical fitness and mental well-being will be increasingly emphasized. the "basic requirements for the teaching of psychological health global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 9 education courses for college students" published by the ministry of education in 2011 emphasizes the need to design comprehensive courses that integrate knowledge, experiences, and training. it advocates for interactive teaching in order to avoid one-way knowledge impartation. the approach of combining theory with experiential learning and combining instruction with practical training is recommended. the notice issued by the ministry of education and other seventeen departments regarding the implementation of the special action plan for comprehensive strengthening and improvement of student mental health work in the new era (2023-2035) mentions the promotion of holistic development with an emphasis on mental health. within this framework, the concept of "physical strength for mental well-being" is highlighted, recognizing the role of physical education in regulating emotions and relieving stress. it advocates for the implementation of school sports programs as a foundation-building initiative, aiming to enable students to derive pleasure from physical exercise, improve physical fitness, develop a sound character, and cultivate determination. not only does it align with national policies, but it also conforms to the world health organization's definition of health. in 1984, the world health organization stated, "health is not just the absence of disease but a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being." physical education encompasses these aspects concurrently. therefore, the incorporation of traditional elements of physical education into mental health education in universities is in accordance with national policy requirements. universities can selectively introduce traditional elements of physical education based on the specific requirements and educational objectives of physical education reform. this approach can help students develop an optimistic outlook on life and a sound character while enhancing their physical fitness through sports training programs.[1] 3.2 introducing traditional elements of physical education facilitates the development of a comprehensive model for mental health education in universities universities can adopt new teaching methods during the process of delivering mental health courses, making the teaching approach more diverse and dynamic. all available methods can be applied to various aspects of mental health education in universities. among the methods of emotion regulation, physical exercise stands out as the most convenient, effortless, and feasible way to regulate emotions. its limitations are minimal, making it suitable for all groups, particularly college students who are energetic and at a prime stage for physical fitness development. a good physical condition serves as a prerequisite for all endeavors. in addition to limited-scale psychological practices, we can incorporate physical exercise into extracurricular psychological activities to further stimulate students' motivation and promote their psychological well-being. 3.3 universities possess comprehensive capabilities to conduct diverse teaching activities in the field of mental health education the integration of physical education elements into the teaching process poses higher demands on the teaching competence of university faculty. it requires instructors to possess not only knowledge in mental health but also expertise in physical education. fortunately, universities serve as platforms that house professionals in both psychology and sports sciences, providing an environment conducive to interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition. 4. the role of incorporating physical education elements into college students' mental health courses 4.1 emotion regulation among college students most college students today come from single-child families, where they have been the center of attention for their parents, grandparents, and relatives throughout their upbringing. consequently, they may develop a selfcentered mindset. upon entering college, each student brings unique experiences and backgrounds, which can lead to conflicts and contradictions, resulting in negative emotions. furthermore, college life introduces additional pressures in terms of academic demands, romantic relationships, and social interactions, leading to significant emotional fluctuations. research has shown that physical exercise can enhance cerebral blood circulation and trigger the release of endorphins, which are neurochemical substances similar to opioids produced by the pituitary gland. these endorphins contribute to feelings of pleasure and can effectively improve mood.[2] thus, engaging in sports and physical activities plays a crucial role in promoting emotional well-being among college students. 4.2 improving interpersonal relationships among college students the emergence of many psychological issues often stems from interpersonal relationships. to promote the mental and physical well-being of college students, it is necessary to enhance their skills in managing interpersonal relationships. sports activities, being a collective endeavor, involve elements of both competition and global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 10 cooperation. through this process, college students learn healthy competition and cooperation, which allows for the formation of more positive relationships. engaging in exercise helps individuals establish trust and improve their interpersonal abilities. therefore, sports participants, regardless of their positions or cultural backgrounds, engage in exercise on an equal footing. they approach exercise with an open mind and a relaxed mood, without any mental burdens or personal agendas. this exercise process promotes the exchange of thoughts and emotions among participants, leading to a sense of intimacy and the cultivation of emotional connections with others. [3] 4.3 cultivating positive qualities in various sports activities, such as martial arts, long-distance running, and others, we need to exercise our willpower. these activities test an individual's endurance and challenge our inclination towards complacency. for college students, engaging in physical exercise can sharpen their willpower, which will have far-reaching effects on all aspects of their future lives. the development of positive qualities is crucial for individuals, as it is a necessary condition for their personal growth and success. 4.4 alleviating stress and fatigue physical exercise is, in fact, the optimal choice for alleviating stress, such as engaging in yoga practice. during the process of exercise, both your body and mind can experience effective relief, temporarily escaping the highstress state of daily life. this allows for a sense of calmness to settle in, while the fatigue accumulated throughout the day can also be alleviated. 5. incorporating elements of sports in interventions 5.1 incorporating sports elements and psychological knowledge into games in and outside the classroom we can incorporate a game of "pictionary" in the classroom, where students can experience various emotions that we encounter in our daily lives. for instance, they may feel frustrated when they struggle to convey their intended meaning through gestures, or experience surprise when they quickly communicate their ideas. by engaging in this game, college students can understand that experiencing a range of emotions is a normal part of life. furthermore, even negative emotions can be beneficial as long as they do not become excessive. to further integrate physical exercise and psychological knowledge, university professors can create specific scenarios that allow students to reflect on their experiences during physical activities and gain a deeper understanding of theoretical concepts, which can then be applied to their lives. for example, an outdoor activity called "back-to-back" can be organized, where students are divided into two groups. the last person in each group faces the facilitator, who displays a number. the participants then pass the message backward and the goal is to see which group can transmit the information most accurately and efficiently. this activity mirrors the challenges that college students often face in interpersonal relationships such as handling relationships with classmates, roommates, romantic partners, or teachers. the quality of these relationships largely depends on the accuracy of information transmission. through engaging in such games, college students can deeply appreciate the presence of communication errors in various aspects of life.by creating these innovative learning experiences, students can develop a better understanding of emotional responses, interpersonal dynamics, and effective communication skills. this holistic approach enhances their personal growth and equips them with valuable life skills beyond the confines of traditional classroom settings. we can incorporate different game activities tailored to address the needs of various student groups. this diversified approach enriches our teaching methods and allows students to experience personal growth through enjoyable learning experiences. 5.2 establishing sports and fitness programs within the mental health center in college mental health courses, it is important not to confine knowledge delivery solely to the classroom setting. engaging in sports and fitness activities outside of class allows students to apply theoretical concepts and gain a deeper understanding through practical experiences. sports and physical exercise serve as effective means for college students to alleviate stress. by establishing sports and fitness programs within the mental health center, such as having punching bags available, students can release their anger and stress through striking the bags. this approach effectively helps them manage their tendencies for self-aggression or aggression towards others, providing a scientifically-backed method for stress relief. typically, college students engage in sports and physical activities as an outlet for the stress they experience during the learning process or interpersonal global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 11 interactions. psychological counseling and guidance work can assist students in expressing their inner thoughts, allowing mental health professionals to have a better understanding of the causes behind their suboptimal wellbeing. with this knowledge, scientific stress reduction techniques can be employed to open up students' hearts, help them overcome their burdens, and continue living with optimism.[4] 5.3 promoting the growth and development of college students through diversified physical exercises in the university physical education classroom, it is important for instructors not only to assist college students in engaging in regular physical exercises but also to scientifically address negative emotions. this requires organizing diverse activities based on practical considerations to achieve this goal. [5]we can divide students into different sports groups based on their preferences, allowing students from different majors to experience personal growth within like-minded communities. additionally, we can arrange sports competitions for them to experience the allure of teamwork and develop their ability to collaborate with others in their future lives. for example, if a student has an introverted personality, they may choose to engage in solitary running. to cater to their individual habits, we can provide more opportunities for group sports activities, enabling them to experience joy through interactions in team sports and allowing them to better integrate into the collective. by implementing these strategies, we can create a supportive and inclusive environment in which college students not only engage in physical exercises but also develop essential life skills such as teamwork, communication, and adaptability. this holistic approach to physical education contributes to their overall personal and academic development. 5.4 incorporating elements from other disciplines into teaching to transform traditional pedagogical approaches raditional college courses on mental health primarily focus on teaching specialized knowledge in psychology without drawing upon beneficial elements from other disciplines. however, it is important to recognize that mental health is closely connected to physical well-being. when an individual experiences physical health problems, it can significantly impact their mental state. physical education not only promotes physical health but also contributes to psychological well-being. in recent educational reforms, there is an increasing emphasis on integrating different disciplines. therefore, it is necessary to incorporate elements of physical education into college courses on mental health. to achieve this, mental health educators should also acquire knowledge in the field of physical education. this interdisciplinary approach will enable them to better integrate and deliver instruction from various disciplines.by integrating physical education elements into college courses on mental health, students can benefit from a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. they will learn how physical exercise and activities contribute to not only their physical well-being but also their mental and emotional states. educators can explore topics such as the impact of exercise on stress reduction, the role of physical activity in promoting positive emotions, and the connection between physical fitness and cognitive function.furthermore, incorporating physical education elements into mental health courses can provide students with practical strategies for maintaining their overall well-being. they can learn about the importance of regular exercise, proper nutrition, and adequate rest for managing stress and promoting mental resilience.to implement this interdisciplinary approach effectively, collaboration between mental health educators and physical education professionals is essential. by combining their expertise, they can develop a curriculum that seamlessly integrates the two disciplines, ensuring that students receive a holistic education that addresses both their mental and physical health needs.in conclusion, by incorporating elements of physical education into college courses on mental health, educators can provide students with a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. this interdisciplinary approach recognizes the interconnectedness of mental and physical well-being and equips students with valuable knowledge and strategies for maintaining their overall health. 6. conclusion in recent years, there have been frequent occurrences of extreme events on university campuses, indicating that the role of mental health in higher education has not been fully realized. therefore, it is necessary to reform college courses on mental health education. the inclusion of physical education and health in these courses aligns with national policies and enhances the instructional elements and diversity in the classroom. respecting the diverse needs of students can effectively motivate their engagement in the classroom and promote their healthy development.while some challenges may arise during the implementation process, it is certain that a mature global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (12) pg. 12 teaching model will be developed through exploration. this model will facilitate the effective delivery of college mental health courses, ultimately providing support for the cultivation of well-rounded individuals who contribute to the nation. references niuliang xing(2021). reflections on the practical path of introducing traditional sports elements into university sports teaching. journal of jiangxi electric power vocational and technical college,34(08):pp.99-100. gong caiyan(2015). discussion on the integration of university sports teaching and mental health education for college students. contemporary sports science and technology,5(30):pp.87+90. [3] yuan yihong(2013). promoting mental health of college students through sports. journal of suzhou education institute,16(06):pp.61-63. dong jie(2019). exploration of the relationship between mental health level and physical fitness of college students. contemporary sports science and technology,9(3):pp.231-232. song xiangqin(2019). exploring the relationship between sports and mental health education for college students. psychology monthly,14(15):p.58. technopreneurship mobile application (tma): a support mechanism for flexible learning delivery system global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 3; march-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 24 technopreneurship in your pocket: creating a mobile learning app for skill development 1maria elena santos reyes, 2jose miguel dela cruz santos article info abstract keywords: mobile learning, mlearning, smartphones, education technology, collaborative learning. mobile phone technology has witnessed remarkable growth, particularly among the younger generation, catalyzing the rise of mobile learning (mlearning) in educational contexts. this paper explores the expanding role of mobile devices in education, with a focus on asia's developing countries. the prevalence of smartphones and their educational potential has led to improved learning outcomes and information access. educational institutions are embracing mobile applications as valuable tools for enhancing educational experiences. in the realm of higher education, mobile phones have become an integral part of college life, transforming the learning landscape both inside and outside the classroom. students can seamlessly access learning materials, employ educational apps, and engage in self-directed learning using their smartphones and tablets. the convenience and flexibility offered by these devices pave the way for enriched student learning and academic performance. the study also examines the challenges of integrating mobile phones in educational settings, underscoring the benefits of utilizing wireless networks and collaborative mobile applications for improved educational results. mobile learning (m learning) emerges as a dynamic platform that capitalizes on the portability, interactivity, and connectivity of mobile devices, presenting diverse learning opportunities in academic and non-academic scenarios. this research sheds light on the transformative impact of mobile technology on education and underscores its potential for fostering inclusive and effective learning environments. 1. introduction mobile phones have increased their popularity, especially among the younger generation. in asia's developing countries, mobile phones facilitated mlearning in helping to enhance educational outcomes [1]. smartphones and other mobile devices have great possibilities in education, given the rapid rise in smartphone ownership among younger age groups and these devices' teaching and learning benefits [2]. as a result, mobile phone technology continues its rapid development, and mobile applications have improved information access and the way we communicate and collaborate [3]. mobile devices have evolved into a whole suite of applications, support, and 1 college of arts, sciences, and technology, occidental mindoro state college, philippines https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 25 assistance for educational institutions. mobile devices can produce practical educational applications for present students [4]. similarly, mobile phones are being used to teach and learn in the educational sector. mobile phones are considered an integral part of college life and used overtly and covertly in a campus setting, most significantly inside the classroom. students can access or download learning materials on their smartphones and tablets, install educational apps, and study whenever and wherever they want [5]. a smartphone is a phone and a device that can educate you with your willingness and timing conveniently available for the user [6]. the device appears capable of contributing to student learning and improved academic performance. mobile devices significantly influence education and experience continuous transformation and adoption. although using mobile phones in the classroom can be difficult, multiple studies have shown that using wireless networks and mobile applications to facilitate collaborative learning can improve educational outcomes [7]. mobile learning is a new platform of learning through mobile technologies, and it has increased the penetration of smartphones and digital devices globally in a short interval of time [8]. there is a diverse learning opportunity for using m learning because the mobile phone is portable, has social interactivity, context sensitivity, connectivity, individuality, and affordance to people in academic or non-academic settings [9]. likewise, mobile learning arouses interest and helps the students acquire a better understanding of other materials. learners seemed to value those learning activities to apply learned knowledge and skills to personal situations. mobile learning is an emerging trend that brings advantages to learners in achieving their goals [10]. m-learning converts mobile applications into more diverse and provide accurate information available according to the need of students. the learners are more comfortable downloading the app, using it according to the condition, and sharing ideas and views. m-learning allows learners to engage with the learning processes in various locations, through a range of devices, and at a time of convenience [11]. in addition, mobile learning allows students to study, collaborate, and exchange ideas while using the internet and technology, which lead to a significant component in higher education [12]. the use of instructional apps has increased students' competencies in relational and communicative skills [13]. on the other hand, mobile learning enhances students' learning, and engagement improves communication between participants and provides authentic and situated learning. the results also revealed that mobile technologies positively change the modes of teaching and learning in the field of education, which speedup its use and implementation in the education sector [14]. moreover, educational techniques are changing very quickly. recent advancements in technology challenge the present educational system to develop a program that meets an ever-changing society's demands. educational apps promote active, engaged, meaningful, and socially interactive learning [15]. educational institutions are increasingly transitioning to mobile platforms and mobile application technology to communicate, advertise, and disseminate education-related information [16]. educators are then obliged to prepare the students for an increasingly technological society that will require them to search for new techniques and strategies to maximize learning. the teaching model of mobile learning can help college students get a better learning experience that can significantly improve students' learning effectiveness, skill mastery, and learning enthusiasm [17]. furthermore, occidental mindoro state college has implemented two learning modalities since 2020: flexible learning delivery and modular learning. students are now using mobile phones to engage with their teachers by accessing their google classroom, video conferencing, and communicating through facebook, email, and messenger. the use of mobile technologies to increase learning opportunities outside the school is urged by higher education teachers [19]. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 26 finally, the technopreneurship mobile application (tma) is a great help to facilitate interactions between students and teachers in the most accessible way. smartphones have emerged to assist both teachers and students in improving the quality of learning. the mobile technology will be utilized as a platform in delivering the m learning modalities of students. these mobile technologies are not only helping learners to develop new media aptitudes, but they also extend the opportunity for learners and instructors to create stronger links [20]. lastly, to help improve students' access, resources, and performance in the subject of technopreneurship. with the mobile application development, the students can access the lessons even with limited internet connectivity. the lessons are complete and accommodate a small amount of storage with their mobile phone which provides an opportunity to have an alternative way of reaching out to students following the availability of their resources. a mobile application environment with appropriate content promotes the students' scientific, analytical, and critical thinking abilities. user experience testing revealed how the tma application is used, its challenges, and its process of improvement and development. the user experience is useable, helpful, desirable, and low cost [21]. 1.1. research paradigm figure 1. ipo diagram for users the input-process-out (ipo) diagram shows the informational and graphical representation of how data is being processed to produce results. figure 1 shows the conceptual process of the application. tma lets the users register in the application to have valid access. the user can only view the topics options and menus to access the lessons, activities, and assessments. the application provides an interface where users can easily access and send their tasks and activities. 1.2. objectives of the study the study's main objective is to develop and evaluate a technopreneurship mobile application (tma): a support mechanism for flexible learning delivery system. specifically, this study aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. develop an appropriate technopreneurship mobile application with the following features:  well represented digital information;  interface interactivity;  supplementary learning material; and online activities engagement. 2. create a system using android studio (kotlin), visual studio code (javascript), database (indexed db), and for the web interface using javascript, php, mysql for the database; global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 27 3. to assess the level of acceptability of the technopreneurship mobile application by the student respondents regarding its functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, and user interface/user experience. 2. methods 2.1. project development the technopreneurship mobile application (tma) interface considers readability, functionality, and accessibility by integrating the full-screen layout and floating navigation menu. moreover, a floating navigation menu allows users to easily navigate the application's different functionalities. 2.2. system architecture the technopreneurship mobile application (tma) system architecture can be accessed by the students using their mobile android devices. all text, images, animations from lessons, assignments, and activities are visible. student registration is essential, which is stored in the learner's data. students' outputs and activities will automatically be submitted to the teachers via cloud storage using internet connectivity. figure 2. the mobile platform architecture 2.3. research design the researcher uses the descriptive research method utilizing the developmental study to attain the desired evaluation of the acceptability and effectiveness of the technopreneurship mobile application. this study utilizes the descriptive research method through the survey technique done using google forms. the evaluation seeks the respondent's permission and informs them about the conduct of the research. the questionnaires used in the data gathering involved the system's development. 2.4. respondents the respondents of this study were the ninety-five (95) information technology students who are currently enrolled and joining online classes. the application was developed for the students to access the module in technopreneurship easily. 2.5. instrument the proponents used online survey questionnaires to collect the necessary information from the respondents of this study. the questions in the survey were divided into five criteria, namely: (1) functionality, (2) reliability, (3) usability, (4) efficiency, (5) user interface/user experience, which were then subdivided into three questions global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 28 per criteria. the questionnaire used the likert scale format, where respondents rated the app, five being the highest and one being the lowest. the respondents prepared a google form to select an option from the given criteria easily. the survey questionnaire was presented clearly and only required the respondents to choose an option corresponding to their rating score. furthermore, the respondents wrote comments or suggestions about the application's accuracy and execution. 2.6. data gathering procedure the following sections explain the evaluation results of the students of bsit 1st year (ay 20212022) of occidental mindoro state college, particularly from bachelor of science in information technology. 3. results 3.1. mobile application development life cycle the study is created following the mobile application development life cycle. figure 3 shows the software's components from requirements specification, development modeling, design and development, and testing and deployment. the requirement specification is identified based on the students' availability of resources currently used. the navigation and functional requirements of the software are under the student's capabilities. identifying its purpose, needs, context, and content is essential to achieving the project objective. high quality of service (qos) and minimal latency is required for real-time mobile applications such as online gaming, audio/video conferencing, and financial transactions [22]. after analyzing and identifying the requirements, the agile development model is suited for this application. at the same time, the design includes the software's interface, including its navigational functionality. the development focuses on customizing the software with proper coding, database, and web application integration without any errors. the testing includes the participation of the faculty and students to analyze if the software is error-free. finally, the deployment consists of utilizing the software for student engagement. figure 3. mobile app development life cycle 3.2. software suited for development android studio 4.1.3 (kotlin) the android studio is considered the fastest tool for building apps. with world-class code editing, debugging, performance tooling, a flexible build system, and an instant build/deploy system, developers can focus on building unique and high-quality apps. the proponents decided to use android studio since it is proven to make solely on the development of apps for android devices, and it is also free of charge. in addition, the proponents have the fundamental knowledge needed in using the javascript programming language in developing the application. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 29 visual studio code visual code support development operations with a streamlined code editor provide quick codebuild-debug cycle tools. the proponents used visual studio code because of its scripting tools, support, source code editor, functional syntax, auto-indention, box-selection, snippets, and bracket-matching. furthermore, it has built-in support for intellisense code, semantic code, navigation, and code refactoring. in addition, the interactive debugger is handy for writing the source code. database (indexed db) the use of the database in creating programs is essential in storing data. in addition, the indexed db allows for applications to design, store and manipulate objects. the proponents used indexed db because it is intended for offline apps and is more powerful than local storage because it is built into a browser that stores multiple types of keys and values. in addition, it has transaction supports for reliability, queries, indexes, and more significant volumes of data. mysql mysql is based on sql – structured query language and is considered a relational database management system. the proponents used this as a web database to store students' activities and to be able to access by the instructors online, and it has a flexible programming environment. in addition, it is helpful because relational database stores data in separate tables, organized into physical files. 3.3. programming/scripting language php php is considered a general-purpose scripting valuable language in developing dynamic and interactive websites. php's fast and secure feature has tools and frameworks to fix vulnerabilities. in addition, the proponents considered this easy to learn and use because of its simple syntax and command functions. the web-based application for the instructors was created using php. another consideration is that it's open-source, free of charge, and has more extensive support from a wide range of communities. javascript javascript, often abbreviated as js, is a cross-platform, object-oriented, and high-level scripting language. it is considered a core technology of the world wide web and is commonly used to create interactive web pages. initially, javascript was designed to be a browser-only language, but nowadays, it is used in many other environments because of its dynamic and straightforward syntax. one of the features of mobile applications is the capability of the students to send their activities to their instructors. the proponents implemented the program coding to accomplish this feature, wherein it used javascript as its scripting language. 3.4. algorithm implementation technopreneurship mobile application (tma) can be accessed by students using their mobile phones. the lessons can be read and viewed by the students. they can answer activities or assessments provided by the instructors, which they can submit directly online once they have internet connectivity; otherwise, they can save it on their local database, as shown in figure 4. php and javascript were used to create the application's content. in contrast, the indexed db and mysql for the database help in processing systems made and integrated to handle data and processes that are continuously changing. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 30 figure 4. program flowchart for algorithm implementation 3.5. mobile application evaluation the respondents evaluated the mobile application's functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, and user interface/user experience. there were 95 randomly selected students who assessed the software. table 1. level of acceptability of the technopreneurship mobile application as assessed by the user level of acceptability mean descriptive rating 1) functionality 4.21 highly acceptable 2) reliability 4.18 highly acceptable 3) usability 4.20 highly acceptable 4) efficiency 4.16 highly acceptable 5) user interface/user experience 4.27 highly acceptable grand mean 4.20 highly acceptable table 1 shows the technopreneurship mobile application (tma) results for students. the respondents obtained excellent evaluation on the application as overall results on the five different criteria used. the mean score of 4.21 for the application's functionality is highly acceptable, and the results prove that the application is essential with effective coding capabilities. the reliability has a mean score of 4.18, utilizing the application without error. the respondents considered the application usability great help navigating with 4.20 because of its comfort and convenience. the software efficiency achieved an overall mean of 4.16, signifying that the software is beneficial. finally, the user interface and user experience obtained an overall mean of 4.20. the result proves that the software is easy to use and enjoyable for the students. the overall results of 4.20 demonstrate that the mobile application is excellent in providing informative information about technopreneurship. furthermore, the summary of mobile application evaluation results shows that user interface and user experience got the highest mean of 4.27 and were interpreted as excellent with functionality and usability with a mean of 4.21 and 4.20. at the same time, the reliability (4.18) and efficiency (4.16) were considered good. therefore, the software is a useful mobile application in flexible learning delivery that helps students interact, communicate, share information and resources. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 31 4. conclusions in conclusion, the proponents were able to meet their research requirements. they made the application function well regarding access and easy utilization of the students with the mobile application on technopreneurship. as a result, tma got positive results in the evaluation conducted involving the information technology students. the application could view lessons and activities most conveniently, and they can answer and send their activities using the mobile app. tma was able to help students and faculty to easily communicate about the lessons interact with the images, buttons, and navigation tool. the search feature with easy access to the lesson makes it easier to use. the proponents conceptualized the application to be easy to understand. most respondents agreed that they could quickly learn how the application works and use it without much effort. the application is helpful for students in the delivery of flexible learning engagement. the students can easily view the lessons at any time, even without internet connectivity. the review function works positively, where students can submit their tasks online. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the occidental mindoro state college administration, college of arts, sciences, and technology faculty, students, families, and friends. references j. h. valk, a. t. rashid, and l. elder, “using mobile phones to improve educational outcomes: an analysis of evidence from asia,” int. rev. res. open distance learn., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 117–140, 2010, doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v11i1.794. w. fatimah and w. ahmad, “designing a mobile application for children : space science.” d. m. d. oliveira, l. pedro, and c. santos, “measuring the use of mobile applications in higher education,” no. november, pp. 1–11, 2021, doi: 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https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 20 pedaling towards wellness: exploring psychological well-being and experiences of senior citizen cyclists in the philippines 1jose miguel santos de guzman article info abstract keywords: cycling, elderly adults, physical health, mental health, quality of life. cycling has emerged as a prominent recreational activity, mode of transportation, and sport among elderly adults in the philippines. this study investigates the multifaceted advantages of cycling for this demographic group. extensive research demonstrates that cycling offers substantial physical health benefits, serving as a means to stave off depression, anxiety, and other mental health challenges (grant, 2022). moreover, zander et al. (2013) assert that cycling has the potential to enhance the quality of life for older individuals, fostering feelings of empowerment, pride, and seamless integration into daily routines. gladwin and duncan (2022) further underline cycling's association with achievement, enjoyment, heightened self-esteem, and an increased sense of freedom. the present research seeks to comprehensively examine the holistic impact of cycling on the overall well-being of elderly adults in the philippines. through an exploration of the physical, psychological, and sociocultural dimensions, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the role of cycling in promoting healthy aging and improving the quality of life for the elderly population. the findings hold implications for healthcare practitioners, policymakers, and advocates, highlighting the potential of cycling as a holistic intervention to address various health-related and psychosocial challenges faced by older adults. introduction cycling is one of the typical recreational activities, transportation, and sport among elderly adults in the philippines. based on the study, cycling provides many benefits to physical health and is an excellent way for elderly adults to prevent depression, anxiety, and other mental health issues (grant, 2022). in addition, zander et al. (2013) explained that cycling might also contribute to improved quality of life for older people through a sense 1 jesus is lord colleges foundation, inc. philippines https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 21 of empowerment and pride, and it can be incorporated easily into a daily routine. on the other hand, gladwin and duncan (2022) stated that cycling was associated with achievement, enjoyment, improved self-esteem, and enhanced freedom. despite the benefits of cycling among older adults, a study shows that those above 60 commonly experience injuries due to physical health, calcium deficiency, physical activity, and bone mineral density (kane, 2022). however, cycling is still an option for many seniors as long as they take the necessary precautions and wear protective gear to ensure their safety while cycling (kane, 2022). thus, unemployment or retirement was positively associated with the likelihood of taking up recreational cycling during the covid-19 pandemic (nguyen, 2022). furthermore, as cycling becomes popular during pandemics, the road has been transformed to include building more bicycle lanes. still, unfortunately, the infrastructure, policy, and enforcement are yet to catch up, resulting in increased bicycle road crashes and risk of injury (pena, 2020; luna, 2022). according to the metro manila development authority (mmda) 's reported data, 82 cyclist deaths and 4,588 injuries were recorded from 20192021 (luna, 2022). based on the written article by luna (2022), the statement by non-profit altmobility ph advocates for humane transport policy said that national bike lanes are generally substandard and risk the safety of users. therefore, stricter enforcement should be implemented to meet the needs of the cycling community. on the other hand, as a person ages, they must rediscover life’s purpose because the original has altered. engaging with life and finding activities to keep busy are the keys to finding purpose, which aids seniors in discovering meaning and improving their quality of life (yen & lin, 2018; morgan et al., 2019). according to erik erikson's stages of psychosocial development (mcleod, 2018), person of different ages is experiencing a psychosocial crisis that could have positive and negative results for personality development; in the seventh stage of this theory which is generativity was stated that during middle adulthood ages 40 to 65 years old, the person was looking for the meaning of life through developing or nurturing things that will outlive an individual. moreover, this study aims to explore the lived experiences and psychological well-being among senior citizen cyclists, their challenges, and how they cope with their situation to continue pedaling their passion despite their age. thus, this study will serve as a foundation for program development to create a program that will raise awareness and address problems in the cycling community. research questions this study explores the lived experiences and psychological well-being among senior citizen cyclists. specifically, this sought to answer the following questions: 1. what are the lived experiences of a senior citizen cyclist? 2. what are the challenges faced by a senior citizen cyclist? 3. what are the coping mechanisms of a senior citizen cyclist? methodology this study employed heideggerian phenomenology to explore the participant's lived experiences. participants of the study the study's participants included fifteen (15) senior cyclists. therefore, purposive sampling was used in this study. the following inclusion criteria were used to find participants: the participants had to be: • senior filipino cyclists; • 60 years of age or older; and • willing to participate in the study and give their informed consent. instruments of the study using a semi-structured interviewing process approved by a professional panel, it was possible to gather information about the senior cyclists' experiences and difficulties. this aids the researchers in providing relevant global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 22 information about the participants. each participant completed the consent form the researchers gave as proof of participation and receipt of the information disclosed. following the validation, the interview focused on three parts of the participants' experiences: their experiences as senior cyclists, their challenges, and their coping methods. these three components were based on the following codes: (1) their lived experiences; (2) the challenges faced by senior cyclists; and (3) their coping mechanisms. ethical considerations the proposed data collection procedure and data collection tools will be reviewed and approved for this study. ethical requirements are meticulously followed to ensure that approval is guaranteed. before the study and the chosen research subjects, support will also be sought. as soon as the application is approved, respondents who meet the requirements for participation and have been identified will be requested to provide explicit consent in the form of written informed permission. the data privacy act of 2012's standard procedure is followed, and written informed permission is discussed to protect the fundamental human right to privacy and communication while allowing the free flow of information to support innovation and progress. senior cyclists are informed about their voluntary work and the nature and goals of the study. they are also aware that they can withdraw their interview at any moment and are informed of the study's personality and goals. furthermore, confidentiality is covered; participants are assured that all information gathered for the study will be utilized only for research purposes and will not reveal their identities. it also requested additional permission for the voice tape of the interviews. data analysis procedure (ipa) the overarching meaning of a phenomenon was found and described in this study using interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa), a qualitative research method. since it suspends the researchers' prior assumptions about the phenomenon and instead focuses on everyday human experiences, the ipa technique is particularly well suited for researching challenging, puzzling, or emotionally charged subjects. in addition, a collection of communication is interpreted using a procedure called theme analysis, which typically results in some thematic framework. neuendorf et al. (2018) state that the content analyst must choose between manifest and latent content before continuing to more complex stages of data analysis. vaismoradi et al. (2016) thematic analysis researchers consider both when analyzing data. the three main steps in data analysis are coding, organizing codes under potential subthemes or themes, and comparing the emergent coding's clusters with one another and the entire data set. results and discussion the following part will present the analysis of the data gathered after a complex process. the following themes— the satisfaction, the absorbers, and the unbothered—were discovered in this study based on the data gathered. the following subthemes were determined throughout the collection of data. the satisfaction life satisfaction is one of the most significant factors affecting an individual’s mental well-being and social relationships. sourjah (2021) stated that high life satisfaction leads to improved psychological wellbeing, including mood stability, positive thoughts, optimism, and a clear sense of purpose in life. additionally, according to studies, people who have a high level of life satisfaction have a 46% lower risk of depression (university of british columbia, 2021) most senior cyclists choose cycling as an exercise to keep their health in check. based on the participants, they are satisfied when they achieve or obtain something they desire or consider necessary. furthermore, wilhelmson et al. (2013) show that older adults are almost as satisfied with life as younger people. overall health, financial standing, recreational activities, community interactions such as volunteering, social global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 23 relations, living situation, work status, and demographic characteristics have all been linked to life satisfaction in old age ( park & kang, 2022). reaching destination with happiness according to britannica (2022), defined happiness is a state of psychological well-being that individual experiences, either in its most basic form, when favorable events occur at a specific time or, more broadly, as a positive review of one's life and achievements over all—that is, subjective well-being. furthermore, according to the study conducted by researchers, the senior cyclist participants describe their feelings toward cycling as an enjoyable experience once they reach the destination, which is pretty fulfilling according to participant number 11 and the majority of the participant’s answers. “enjoy. sobrang enjoy yun kapag lalo’t narating mo yung destinasyon mo, yung pupuntahan niyo. napaka saya”. (enjoy. it’s really fun when you finally reach your destination. quite fulfilling.) in addition, according to cotnam 2020, cycling improved participants' health significantly, and happiness was associated with the preservation of quality of life among older cyclists. feeling fulfilled maslow's hierarchy of needs includes selfactualization as one of its central themes. selfactualization is defined as the full realization of one's potential, as seen in peak experiences that involve the full development of one's skills and appreciation for life (perera, 2020) based on the responses provided by participant 5, when the interviewer asked what his realization in life as a senior cyclist he just answered with overflowing emotions that despite his age, he is still happy and proud to be a senior; he can still do his part as an older adult and can also do things like cycling, walking, and jogging, which makes him happy and satisfied. “well, i’m happy. i’m proud to be a senior. and until now, i can do my part as a senior, and at the same time, i’m cycling, walking, and jogging. so i’m happy.” in addition, according to pausanos, 2022 elderly individuals reported greater levels of emotional intelligence, life satisfaction, and spiritual growth, all of which contributed to self-actualization. the study concludes that the realization of self-actualization in older adults contributed to their capability as a human beings and their life insight. self-actualization can be positive, emotionally comfortable, and optimistic to fully realize one's potential and live a more satisfying life. feeling well connected the majority of participants stated that they meet many people and make friends while cycling. as participant 11 said: “marami akong nakikilalang mga ibang tao. nagiging kaibigan ganun.” (i met a lot of people that i became friends with.) according to miura et al., 2022 social connections are essential component of successful aging in older adults. connecting with peers, relatives, and society can give life meaning, contribute significantly to happiness, and improve a person's psychological wellbeing. in addition, based on lindsay (2018), cycling can also catalyze belongingness and a dynamic tool for combating a sense of isolation. it allows individuals to broaden their spatial networks and more easily engage with their surroundings, thereby increasing the possibility of social connection. the absorbers emotions are essential in every situation and experience that a person has. it enables an individual to prepare for behavior and significantly influences human cognitive processes such as perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problemsolving (tyng et al., 2017). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 24 according to gu (2019), stated that fundamental emotions are internal states that are controlled by neuromodulators. these internal states are expressed externally as certain stereotypical behaviors, such as intuition, which is thought to be one of the earliest mechanisms of survival. happiness, sadness, fear, and anger are the four basic emotions. they are variously correlated with the three core effects of reward (happiness), punitive measures (sadness), and stress (fear and anger). it was a close call. near-death experiences are too overwhelming to handle, and they can be emotionally difficult for those who experience them. participant 15 claims that a negligent driver nearly caused him to lose either of his legs. rather than offering assistance, the driver hit the participant and fled. “yan isa pa yan yung mga motor na yan kase naaksidente ako ehh tinakbuhan ako ng motor yung isang bisikleta ko talagang wasak yun buti kamo hindi sa gitna tumama kung sa gitna yun ehh baka yung isang paa ko ehh putol kaya ang nangyari tinakbuhan pa ako non siya na ang may kasalanan siya pa yung ano non kaya ang nangyare ang mahirap sa may mga motor naka bike ka lang siya sumisingit ayaw nilang magbibigay ayaw nilang mag bibiggay ng ano kaya mangyayare niyan minsan humihinto ako”. (i got an accident because of a reckless motorcyclist who never really mind their driving, and they left me after causing such trouble. the good thing is i wasn’t hit in the middle for it would really cost me my other leg. it’s a shame on their side for “hit-and-running” me.) an instinctive, intense, and primary human emotion is fear. it involves both a solid individual and emotional response. fear makes us aware of the danger or the potential for harm, whether that danger is psychological or physical (fritscher, 2022) in addition, participant 15 revealed that after that event, he make sure to slow down and stop to avoid any situation like that again. “yung ano non kaya ang nangyare ang mahirap sa may mga motor naka bike ka lang, siya sumisingit ayaw nilang magbibigay ayaw nilang mag bibiggay ng ano kaya mangyayare niyan minsan humihinto ako”.(that’s why whenever i got to pass such sort of drivers, i make sure to slow and stop, to avoid that ever happening to me again.) losing one’s comfort. philippines roads frequently have potholes. most roads that last received maintenance a while ago have them. this road issue develops when the pavement ages and creates a hole. it can be brought on by bad weather, heavy traffic, and a lack of cold patch pothole repair. as a result, these potholes serves as a danger and inconvenience among senior cyclist. as participant 3 stated that bumpy roads are huge trouble for them. “yan yan pa ang isa pag baku kabo ehh laging malaking abala sa siklista yan dahil unang una pag baku bako ehh masisiraan ka mapa flat ka tapos yung mga pyase ng bike o mababago magluluwagan yan kaya kailangan i che check mo pagka uwi mo”. (bumpy roads really are a big trouble for us cyclists because, first of all, it causes our tires to flatten and some unexpected damages from our bikes, that’s why after cycling, i should always check it.) barata et al., 2016 stated that an emotional state known as irritability is characterized by a propensity to feel unpleasant affective states like anger, annoyance, and frustration, which may or may not be expressed in public. what a hard-headed! according to the department of public works and highways (2021), the construction of a dedicated road bike lane is intended to promote active transportation in the "new normal." the department of public works and highways (dpwh) has constructed bike lane separators, reflectorized thermoplastic pavement markings, and road signage along important routes in metro manila, metro cebu, and metro davao to make it simpler for global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 25 cyclists to go on them. the construction of dedicated lanes with concrete delineators, rubber bollards, steel railings, and solar studs on significant highways was another effort to encourage people to commute to work by bicycle. the bike lane network aims to promote active transportation, improve safety, and promote a fair distribution of road space. they further asserted that bicyclists needed a convenient and safe area. therefore the metropolitan bike lanes network, which links cities, municipalities, and provinces, was established. some bikers, however, are dissatisfied with how motorist dominates the bike lanes and prevents them from being used effectively. he stated that according to what participant 4 said in an interview; “marami kaseng nagmomotorsiklo matitigas ang ulo dun sa bike lane ahh dinaanan nila hanggang ngayon na dapat ibigay na nila yon sa mga siklista” .( there were a lot of motorcycle riders who are so hard headed because they are passing on the bike lanes which they should give to the cyclists). according to topgear philippines (2021), numerous drivers have been caught abusing the bike lanes on visayas avenue, luzon avenue, and katipunan avenue. the quezon city bike patrol flagged every type of vehicle, including motorcycles, tricycles, suvs, and vans, without a single car being spared. this article, supports the participant’s complaint that those circumstances happened up until now, and it is still a nuisance for most cyclists that need the existing bicycle lanes. the unbothered the idea that elderly adults are slow, weak, and frail is a common stereotype. however, the stories of senior cyclists demonstrate that their ability to ride to their passion is unaffected by their old age. functional constraints and obstacles to independent living can affect life satisfaction—attitudes and beliefs about the quality of life. in addition, optimism can positively impact life satisfaction and lessen the detrimental effects of activity restrictions on life satisfaction (usán supervía et al., 2020). additionally, patience enables the person to maintain composure in the face of difficulties, suffering, or setbacks. a decrease in depression and other negative emotions is one of the many positive health outcomes associated with this virtue (goldfarb, 2018). don’t mind at all some seniors have various attitudes regarding life, some of which appear to be based on their advanced age. according to chateau la jolla (2022), it seems as though we are being subtly taught that getting older is a bad thing that must be endured or that it renders us less capable. however, based on participant 11's statement, he claimed that; “sa akin hindi naman balakid yung pagiging matanda e. basta yung good health ko lang ma-maintain ko. maipagpapatuloy ko yung pagbabike ko.” (for me, my age is not a hindrance. as long as i maintain my good health. i can continue my cycling) this response from one of our participants shows that their age is not a barrier to their passion for riding. the optimism effect also claims that age is a number without boundaries. the only restrictions you place on yourself are those you set. those brave never age; henry ford once remarked, "whether you think you can, or you think you can't-you're right” (chateau la jolla, 2022). a placid nature. being patient, understanding, and forgiving are some of the characteristics that an individual possesses. it is essential to have these qualities in ourselves, especially when we are put in a situation that will test our patience and how we will handle these situations by being understanding and, at the same time, forgiving others. as what participant 3 stated in his interview, he said that; global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (1) pg. 26 “pag ako ay nalalapit sa aksidente sabi ko nga. sayo nag aareglo yan naaksidente ako gaya ng sinabi ko sayo pagka yung bisikleta ko ehh nasaktan na ako ehh talagang ganon eh ang tao naman ehh hindi naman sabi nga sayo walang taong sasadyain ka ehh yun ang taong pinagpapasensyahan.” (as i told you, if i get close to an accident, it was unintentional. it can be solved through talking and agreement. if my bicycle and i got hurt, that’s part of cycling. we’re only human, no one does it intentionally and those people can be understood) ernst (2018) said that research has shown that people's behavior in many settings can be strongly predicted by their patience. in addition, patience enables you to take a step back and reassess rather than retaliating violently or hastily giving up on someone aggravating you. intuition lets you see things from a bigger, more compassionate perspective and choose the appropriate course of action (orloff, 2012). conclusion based on the research findings, the following conclusion was discussed: cycling has a positive impact on senior cyclists' quality of life, mainly because it makes them happy, which is a significant factor in helping them feel empowered and revitalize their social networks as well as have a high level of life satisfaction and enjoyment. additionally, most elderly cyclists had the support of their loved ones, who thought cycling would be an excellent activity for elderly adults to have successful aging and independence. moreover, senior citizen cyclists are strongly encouraged to keep up their passion for cycling. their motivation to keep pedaling to their destination can be increased by joining and participating in cycling organizations and groups. it was also advised that they enter a riding group to improve their social connections, boost their self-confidence, and increase their sense of safety while riding on the road. further, the family of senior cyclists should continue to support their loved ones who are passionate about cycling. according to the researchers, encouraging loved ones to pedal together would be a great activity to spend quality family time, foster mindfulness, and offer a great way to lower household carbon footprints and learn sustainable living practices. references abc australia (2021).78-year-old man feels 50 after clocking up 520,000km cycling worldwide.https://youtu.be/p85r-w0ck6w algorani, e. b., & gupta, v. 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http://www.spin.ph/life/cars-and-tech/viral-senior-citizen-cyclist-gil http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210303091405.htm http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210303091405.htm a multidimensional artistic approach to enhance understanding of julia sets through computer programming global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 3; march-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 art as a catalyst: unlocking mathematical creativity with julia sets 1maria sofia gonzalez martinez article info abstract keywords: art integration, mathematics education, computer-generated art, julia sets, educational practices this paper addresses the integration of art and mathematics in education as a means to transcend traditional teaching methods. historically, both the incorporation of art into mathematics and computer-generated art into the art realm have faced resistance. however, recognizing art's potential for resistance and transformation, this study proposes innovative educational practices at the intersection of art and mathematics. section 1.1 provides an overview of the integration of mathematical, artistic, playful, and computational dimensions, focusing on julia sets, computer-generated art, and education. section 1.2 outlines essential mathematical definitions for the proposed approach. additionally, section 1.3 outlines a method for creating graphical representations of julia sets using the cfdg language. section 2 introduces four examples of computer-generated artworks based on julia sets, serving as foundational templates for the proposed practices. sections 3 and 4 detail the applied methodology and present empirical findings. ultimately, section 5 engages in a comprehensive discussion of the obtained results. 1. introduction there is a relatively recent tendency to incorporate art into the teaching of mathematics that criticizes mathematics education in the sense of overcoming the perspective of traditional teaching [1]. however, over the years, there has been rejection of incorporating art into the mathematical world [2], and there has also been rejection of incorporating computer-generated art into the art world [3]. but, as ferreira and lessa [1], the author believes in the potential of art as an element of struggle and resistance, in the sense of breaking with the reified reality, pointing to horizons of transformation. so, as called by [1], this paper proposes some ideas for the dissemination of educational practices that mobilize the art and mathematics interface, also considering the discussions provoked. 1 department of mathematics, university of el salvador, el salvador https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 2 section 1.1 presents a general background reference on the integration of mathematic, artistic, playful and computational dimensions, particularly on julia sets, computer-generated art, and education. then, in section 1.2, the mathematical definitions necessary to develop this proposal are presented. section 1.3 briefly explains how to generate graphical representations of julia sets using the cfdg language. section 2 presents four examples of computer-generated artworks based on julia sets to use as a starting point for the proposal. sections 3 and 4 explain the applied methodology and some of the empirical results obtained. finally, section 5 presents the discussion of the results. 1.1. background as bergweiler [4] explains, the study of iteration theory is fundamental in mathematics, and its classic problem is the study of the iterative behaviour of a family of functions that depend on a parameter. in this sense appears the study of what we now know as julia sets in the early twentieth century. of course, at the time there were no computers and the study of these sets was very difficult. however, julia sets play a critical role in the understanding of the dynamics of families of mappings [5]. in recent decades, as hitt [6, p. 214] points out: “technological advancement has significantly influenced the development of theoretical notions that were previously taken into account but were not considered crucial in terms of explaining the learning of mathematical concepts. these theoretical aspects are the basis for understanding the study of the different representations of mathematical objects and their role in the construction of concepts. now, with technology, it is important to study the different representations of mathematical objects in environments very different from those that were followed in the past”. the study of many areas of mathematics and mathematics education have been modified with the popularization of different technologies such as personal computers, including fractal geometry. so, building multiple computer-generated images to form a richer mental image (“mental image” in the vinner’s [7] sense) of fractals like julia sets is quite affordable for the students of our day. one way to implement this construction to achieve a better understanding of julia sets (and other types of fractals) is by artistic means, motivating the learner in a purely playful process to build (in the sense of creating) images not only aesthetically pleasing but also endowed with some meaning through computer programs. this pathway is not widely used in our time in mathematics in general, because although mathematics and art have been very close since the first manifestations of rationality of the human species, unfortunately, we have seen that these two areas of knowledge have distanced in school programs [8]. in his book, d’amore [9] makes a brilliant exposition of the presence of mathematics at the dawn of humanity. the playful dimension is more common. bishop [10, p. 21] discusses the role of games in mathematics education and notes: “educators in mathematics have discovered through their experience, and they have supported with theoretical research, that playing can be an integral part of learning. this has made the act of playing and the idea of gaming a much more widespread teaching and learning activity than it had been before”. for further reading, in the literature review made by gonzález peralta, et al. [11], one can find possible research lines about gaming in mathematics education. there is also the computational dimension, which is becoming more common. for example, hoffmann [12] presents a sixth-grade primary experience using a monte carlo simulation for introducing the concept of area of a unit circle (which is the approximation of the number π). there is also the experience of dejarnette [13] in which students use the scratch programming environment to help themselves understanding of how distances travelled by certain objects are functions of time. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 3 so, we have the seemingly strange conjunction of the four dimensions: mathematic, artistic, playful and computational. this conjunction is not directly welcomed by mathematicians, artists and art critics, or traditional computer scientists. in fact, pioneers in computational art faced rejection by the mathematical community, as mumford, et al. [2, p. viii] emphasizes: “what to do with the pictures? [...] they were unpublishable in the standard way. there were no theorems, only very suggestive pictures. they furnished convincing evidence for many conjectures and lures to further exploration, but theorems were the coin of the realm and the conventions of that day dictated that journals only publish theorems”. a similar marginalization (and/or misunderstanding) occurs to rani and kumar [14] whose article was published under series d journal, “research in mathematical education” and not under series b journal, “the pure and applied mathematics” of the same organization (http://www.ksme.info/eng/), despite their article is not about education at all, but about superior mandelbrot set. this paper is clearly about pure mathematics even though there are no new theo rems. it has “only new pictures and conjectures”. there are also problems with artistic acceptance according to franke [3, p. 186]: “[images] were considered [only] drawings from the plotter, the main problem was the uncertainty of the experts, the art historians and the critics, and above all the gallery owners. the problem was that the computer can produce an arbitrary number of equally good ‘originals’, which can be a detriment in the business world of art”. on the apparent incompatibility between science and art, and referencing the peitgen and richter’s book [15], eilenberg [16, p. 175] offers a conciliation: “it is rather unusual for natural [physical and mathematical] scientists to endeavour with such tenacity to bring their results and insights to the general public, [...] instead of giving an abstract presentation in so many dry words, they have chosen pictures with a direct, universal appeal – a combination of mathematics and art!”. that is, scientific art (whether mathematical art or computational art) can be used primarily to publicize results to the general public. on the confusion between computational art and standard art, franke [3, p. 187] proposes the following reflection: “the art of every age has used the means of its time to give form to artistic innovation. [...] why shouldn't the computer, that universal medium of information and communication which has even invaded our private homes [and our lives], be used as a medium and instrument of art?”. moreover, zaleski filho [8] tells us: “thus, true art, which has no end in any of its external realizations, has as its identification a spiritual principle that enlivens and surpasses all of them”. so, after all, computational art, mathematical art and scientific art in general, as well as all other types of art, need no more justification than their ability to encourage human beings to rejoice in the artworks themselves. this is how various collections and producers of computer generated mathematical art have proliferated, such as the peitgen and richter’s [15] collection which includes many fractal graphics of complex dynamic systems, such as the bridges organization [17] which annually holds an international exhibition and competition for mathematical art (not just computergenerated), such as aslaksen's [18] collection of university courses about art and mathematics, such as the computer-generated mathematical art collection presented by navas-lópez [19] which includes various types of fractals and other types of computer graphing techniques, etc. (explained in their catalogue [20]). there are also other less formal but not less impressive collections, such as nylander's [21], the context free art [22] community gallery, and math munch's [23] blog which included not only mathematical art but many interesting things. there are some collections that are very specific like ross' [24] mathematical analyses from the sacks number spiral. speaking now of mathematical art in the classroom and in the curriculum in general, the author supports the reasoning of figueiras, et al. [25, p. 46]: “in the mathematics that are taught, those that in obligatory education global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 4 it is said that they will serve to acquire what is needed in life, who can deny a place to beauty? do we intend to let ourselves be carried away only by the dubious pragmatism of a mathematics cut short both in the time available for its teaching and in the potentiality of its values?”. moreover, “the study of fractals is a motivating element in students, due to the implicit aesthetics in their constructions and the suggestive that their designs can be” [25, p. 47]. for bosque, et al. [26, p. 20]: “[...] aesthetics transcends the philosophy of art finding a place in the philosophy of science. in this way, if aesthetics is a component of knowledge and also has a role in scientific and mathematical activity, it makes sense to study its influence on the teaching and learning of mathematics”. the proposed fractal geometry activities in the redondo and haro [27, 28] high school classroom are an excellent source of ideas for planning outreach activities to different types of fractals, including julia sets (see [28, p.17]). however, in this vast and general overview, the artistic approach and colours are scarce. the presentation of the mandelbrot and julia sets by varona [29] explains technical details about how to graph them in mathematica(r), which is proprietary software, and proposes the inclusion of colour palettes to enhance the images although it can only display them in grey-scale due to the type of publication. this is an example that although there is acceptance of the subject, not all journals, editors or publishers are interested or prepared to accept “mathematics with colours”. so, this paper then aims to expand the part of redondo and haro's [27, 28] proposal on the julia sets topic, using computer programming as in the varona’s [29] paper, but with the following differences: (a) emphasizing the artistic approach and not the mathematical one, (b) not reducing to the aesthetic dimension but incorporating the communicative and didactic dimensions, (c) adding colour, and (d) using free software, in this case the contextfree software (www.contextfreeart.org). 1.2. julia sets we can take the definition of julia set from [4, p. 153]: let be a meromorphic function, where is de complex plane and . […] we shall always assume that is neither constant nor a linear transformation. denote by the th iterate of , that is, and for . the basic objects studied in iteration theory are the fatou set and the julia set of a meromorphic function . roughly speaking, the fatou set is the set where the iterative behaviour is relatively tame in the sense that points close to each other behave similarly, while the julia set is the set where chaotic phenomena take place. the formal definitions are: and is defined and normal in some neighbourhood of however, here will be chosen the most simplified version of [30, p. 263]: “julia set of a function with seed , denoted by , is the set composed by all , such that the sequence is bounded, where and [for ]. where , in its simplest . global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 5 form, uses ”. nevertheless, many other different functions can be used that provide interesting results such as those presented by entwistle [31], garijo, et al. [32], liu, et al. [33], peitgen and richter [15], pickover and khorasani [34], rochon [35] and rani and kumar [14]. the criterion used to determine whether the sequences diverge is if , for some , has a modulus greater than 2, that is . since it cannot be evaluated to infinity, a bound is used: . if the sequence does not “diverge” before reaching the th term (when ), it is considered not divergent, that is, it is bounded. the larger , the greater the precision of the set [30, p. 263]. 1.3. implementation of julia sets pictures on cfdg language the cfdg language, version 3, of context free (https://www.contextfreeart.org/) software and adapted computer graphics techniques from [36] and some from [37] (from their respective chapters on fractal graphing) are used for implementation here. no extra libraries are needed. the cfdg language is not a programming language properly. it is actually a language in which can be defined a particular type of context-free grammars whose terminal symbols are primitive figures: squares, circles and triangles. different related transformations (displacement, scaling, rotation, etc.) can be applied to these figures. however, cfdg language supports functional programming when it is needed, especially for numerical algorithms. for further reading, visit the context free art documentation page [38]. the basic geometric object to use in the examples is the square, that will be each pixel of images. this is constructed using the following primitive in cfdg language: square [ x <x_offset> y <y_offset> size <width><height> # can be abbreviated as s hue <tone> # can be abbreviated as h saturation <saturation> # can be abbreviated as sat brightness <bright> # can be abbreviated as b ] where <x_offset> and <y_offset> indicate the displacement from the origin, <width> and <height> determine the size of the figure, <tone> is an angle between 0° and 360° indicating the colour of the figure according to the hsv colour model, and <saturation> and <bright> indicate the corresponding. for more information about hsv colour model, see [39]. the function required to determine the convergence of a point (z_r, z_i) in the complex plane in cfdg language is in listing 1 (lines 3–8). where maxsteps is the value of in the criterion described in section 1.2. the initial call must be in the form steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i), where (c_r, c_i) is the seed value. this call returns the number of iterations executed from which the sequence diverges, or returns maxsteps if the sequence has not yet diverged at the nth iteration. listing 1: basic source code for julia set in cfdg language 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. https://www.contextfreeart.org/ global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 6 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. then a julia set figure must be implemented, determined by the seed, with the definitions in lines 10–38 from listing 1. the startshape directive is used to indicate which is the generating/starting shape (see listing 1, line 1). result of execution of listing 1 source code with maxsteps values equal to 40, 60, 80 and 100 is presented in figure 1. startshape julia(-0.381966, 0.618034) maxsteps = 40 steps(numsteps, z_r,z_i, c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) limit = 1000 # image resolution # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = -1.4 limright = 1.4 limtop = 1.4 limbot = -1.4 # width and height of the squares that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtop-limbot)/(limit-1) shape julia(c_r,c_i) { loop i = (limit) [] { z_i = (limtoplimbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit [] { z_r = (limright-limleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) if (numsteps==maxsteps){ # black square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b 0] } else { # gray square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b 0.9] } } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 7 2. artworks raised as examples it is a recommended collection of examples as a proposal for experiment with the parameters like seed number, viewport (drawn interval), colours, bright, saturation and hue formulae, etc. 2.1. frozen fjords this artwork (figure 2) shows an aerial view of snow-capped fjords, its thin dark sand shores and the deeply blue sea. the motivation is that fjords have a natural fractal shape. figure 1. basic julia set image generated by cfdg code, with values of =40 , 60, 80 and 100. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 8 figure 2. frozen fjords from a technical point of view, it is a view of a julia set in the range of [0.01, 0.09] [0.02i, 0.1i], with see −1.384286+0.004286i. the colouration of this artwork has a constant hue as well as saturation, but the brightness is variable depending on the number of steps in which it is determined that the point belongs or does not belong to the set. see listing 2. listing 2: cfdg source code for frozen fjords 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. # this file is free software released under the gnu gplv3 license or # its latest version: # http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html # to generate the image run the following line: # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 fjords.cfdg fjords.png startshape fjords(-1.384286,0.004286) limit = 1000 # image resolution maxsteps = 300 # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = 0.01 limright = 0.09 limtop = 0.10 limbot = 0.02 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 9 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 2.2. the wail of the pripyat forest this artwork (figure 3) shows a sick forest around the city of pripyat. this ghost town is known for being affected by the worst accident in nuclear power history on april 26, 1986, when the chernobyl nuclear power plant reactor number 4 was overheated and exploded during a shutdown test. the motivation came after seeing a detailed documentary about the nuclear disaster at the chernobyl nuclear power plant. figure 3. the wail of the pripyat forest from a technical point of view, it is a view of a julia set in the range [−0.052857, 0.188571] sizey = (limtop-limbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) shape fjords(c_r,c_i) { fill[h 214 sat 0.89 b 0.95] # blue ocean loop i = (limit) [] { z_i = (limtoplimbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit [] { z_r = (limrightlimleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) if(numsteps<maxsteps){ square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey h 30 sat 0 b (1+(1-numsteps)/(maxsteps-1))] } } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 10 [−0.105714i, 0.135714i] with see d −0.381966+0.618034i. the colouration of this artwork has a random variable hue between 60 and 74, a variable random saturation between 0.41 and 0.66, and a variable random maximum brightness between 0.32 and 0.35 for points that do not belong to the set. see listing 3. listing 3: cfdg source code for wail of the pripyat forest 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. # this file is free software released under the gnu gplv3 license or # its latest version: # http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html # to generate the image run the following line: # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 -v pajbha forest.cfdg forest.png limit = 1000 # image resolution maxsteps = 200 minmaxbright = 0.32 maxmaxbright = 0.68 startshape forest # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = -0.052857 limbot = -0.105714 limright = 0.188571 limtop = 0.135714 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtoplimbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) numblocks = 8 # the number of columns and rows shape forest{ loop i = numblocks []{ loop j = numblocks [] { julia2( -0.381966, 0.618034, j*(limrightlimleft)/numblocks+limleft, i*(limtoplimbot)/numblocks+limbot, rand(minmaxbright,maxmaxbright) ) [h rand(60,74) sat rand(0.41,0.66) b rand(0.32,0.35)] } } } shape julia2(c_r,c_i, xi,yi, maxbright) { xf = xi+(limrightlimleft)/numblocks yf = yi+(limtoplimbot)/numblocks loop i = limit/numblocks [] { global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 11 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 2.3. ragnarök this artwork (figure 4) shows a rough, sharp and nordic scenario illustrating the cataclysm of the ragnarök, which is the viking apocalypse. the motivation comes from the story of the violent viking apocalypse. z_i = (yf-yi)*i/(limit/numblocks-1) + yi loop j = limit/numblocks [] { z_r = (xfxi)*j/(limit/numblocks-1) + xi numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b ( maxbright+maxbright*(1-numsteps)/(maxsteps-1) )] } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 12 figure 4. ragnarök from a technical point of view, it is a view of a julia set in the range of [−0.6, 0.6] [−0.6i, 0.6i], with seed −1.4+0.0i. the colouration of this artwork has a higher variable white brightness the faster it is determined that the dots do not belong to the set. the points that do belong to the set are black. see listing 4. listing 4: source code for ragnarök 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. # this file is free software released under the gnu gplv3 license or # its latest version: # http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html # to generate the image run the following line: # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 ragnarok.cfdg ragnarok.png startshape ragn(-1.4, 0.0) limit = 1000 # image resolution maxsteps = 100 # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = -0.6 limright = 0.6 limtop = 0.6 limbot = -0.6 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtop-limbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) shape ragn(c_r,c_i) { loop i = limit/2 [] { z_i = (limtoplimbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit/2 [] { z_r = (limright-limleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) bright = (1+(1numsteps)/(maxsteps-1)) # symmetry when imag part of seed is zero and viewport is centred: square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b bright] square[x (-z_r) y z_i size sizex sizey b bright] square[x z_r y (-z_i) size sizex sizey b bright] square[x (-z_r) y (-z_i) size sizex sizey b bright] } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 13 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 2.4. the battle for smolensk here (figure 5) what i want to represent is a blood bath on the icy ground of smolensk at the end of 1941, early winter. the motivation comes from a series of documentaries about world war ii, particularly about operation barbarossa and how the facts of the german advance on soviet ground developed in the period 1941-1943. figure 5. the battle for smolensk from a technical point of view, it is a view of a julia set in the range of [−0.21, 0.63] [−0.865714i, −0.025714i], with center 0.21−0.445714i and seed 0.39−0.252857i. the colouration of this artwork are red dots and maximum brightness with lower saturation for the points the faster it is determined that they do not belong to the set, and the higher the longer it takes to determine not belonging. the dots that do belong to the set are painted as intense red. listing 5: cfdg source code for the battle for smolensk 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 14 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 3. methodology an informal 8-hour on-line course (4 saturdays) was implemented with a small group of university students, where the basic elements of the cfdg language were studied. see [38]. in addition, the examples in section 2 were explained. they went back to these examples and made modifications to the source code according to their own creative process or parameter changing experimentation, without a plug-in formula or plug-in solution (in the sense of [40]). # this file is free software released under the gnu gplv3 license or # its latest version: # http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html # to generate the image run the following line: # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 battle.cfdg battle.png limit = 1000 # image resolution maxsteps = 400 startshape julia3(0.39, -0.252857) side = 0.84 # side of the viewport square cx = 0.21 # center x cy = -0.445714 # center y # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = cx side/2 limbot = cy side/2 limright = cx + side/2 limtop = cy + side/2 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtop-limbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) shape julia3(c_r,c_i) { loop i = limit [] { z_i = (limtoplimbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit [] { z_r = (limright-limleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b 1 sat ((numsteps-1)/(maxsteps1))] } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 15 after the 6-hour course (3 saturdays), they were asked in the fourth session (last one) to make their own artwork based on julia sets and using cfdg language. the best results are presented in the next section. 4. some results the students experimented a lot with the basic elements and then combined much of them to achieve some interesting patterns. however, only the best results of the final activity are shown here. 4.1. under the shade of leaves this artwork (figure 6) shows a view from under some leaves. as the author say “i imagined myself lying under a tree looking up at the clear sky.” figure 6. under the shade of leaves he based on source code from listing 2, and changed the colours and the brightness calculation formula. he also reduced the maximum number of steps (maxsteps) to make borders more similar to leaf borders. see listing 6. listing 6: cfdg source code for under the shade of leaves 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 16 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 4.2. the crucified this artwork (figure 7) is based on figure 4, and the author saw some crucified people, and changed seed number, viewport of the complex plane (borders) and some other parameters from listing 4. # under the shade of leaves. # to generate the image run the following line: # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 leavesshade.cfdg leavesshade.png startshape leaves(-1.384286,0.004286) limit = 1000 # image resolution maxsteps = 60 # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = 0.01 limright = 0.09 limtop = 0.10 limbot = 0.02 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtop-limbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) shape leaves(c_r,c_i) { fill[h 214 sat 0.7 b 0.95] # water loop i = (limit) [] { z_i = (limtop-limbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit [] { z_r = (limright-limleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) if(numsteps<maxsteps){ square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey h 120 sat 1 b ((numsteps-1)/(maxsteps1))] } } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 17 figure 7. the crucified moreover, she had to change the optimization of listing 4 (lines 37–41) since in her new viewport she did not have the symmetry of figure 4. this was a major problem for her, but she persisted, and with the teacher assistance, she was able to make the necessary modifications. see listing 7. listing 7: cfdg source code for the crucified 1. # the crucified 2. # to generate the image run the following line: 3. # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 crucified.cfdg crucified.png 4. 5. startshape crucified(-1.39, 0.0) 6. 7. limit = 1000 # image resolution 8. maxsteps = 200 9. 10. # borders of the complex plane to show: 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. limleft = -0.02 limright = 0.02 limtop = -0.315 limbot = -0.355 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtoplimbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) shape crucified(c_r,c_i) { fill[b 1 h 0 sat 1] #red body loop i = limit [] { z_i = (limtop-limbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit [] { z_r = (limright-limleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) if (numsteps<maxsteps) { bright = (1+(1-numsteps)/(maxsteps-1)) square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b bright h 40 sat 0.5 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 18 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 4.3. blood sprinkle the inspiration for this artwork (figure 8) was figure 5, but the author said it was too neat a pattern for a blood sprinkle. so, he thought of superimposing the set of figure 5 three times with different angles. figure 8. blood sprinkle triplicating the figure and rotating them was not a big problem (see listing 8, lines 31–37). but the result was not as expected, because in the source code of listing 5, the white dots (squares) are not transparent. so, he had to add a conditional (see listing 8, lines 7 and 44) to prevent the almost white dots (squares) from being generated. the result (figure 8), while equally symmetrical as the original (figure 5), is less neat, as the author targeted. listing 8: cfdg source code for blood sprinkle 1. 2. 3. # blood sprinkle # to generate the image run the following line: # $ cfdg -b 0 -s 1000 blood.cfdg blood.png global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 19 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. limit = 1000 # image resolution maxsteps = 150 proportion = 7/10 startshape blood(0.39, -0.252857) side = 0.84 # side of the viewport square cx = 0.21 # center x cy = -0.445714 # center y # borders of the complex plane to show: limleft = cx side/2 limbot = cy side/2 limright = cx + side/2 limtop = cy + side/2 # width and height of the boxes that will discretize the image: sizex = (limright-limleft)/(limit-1) sizey = (limtop-limbot)/(limit-1) steps(numsteps,z_r,z_i,c_r,c_i) = if((numsteps < maxsteps) && (z_r*z_r+z_i*z_i<4), steps(numsteps+1, z_r*z_r z_i*z_i + c_r, 2*z_r*z_i + c_i, c_r, c_i), numsteps) shape blood(c_r,c_i){ sprinkle(c_r,c_i)[x -cx -cy] sprinkle(c_r,c_i)[[r 120 x cx -cy ]] sprinkle(c_r,c_i)[[r 240 x -cx -cy ]] } shape sprinkle(c_r,c_i) { loop i = limit [] { z_i = (limtop-limbot)*i/(limit-1) + limbot # y loop j = limit [] { z_r = (limright-limleft)*j/(limit-1) + limleft # x numsteps = steps(0, z_r, z_i, c_r, c_i) if (numsteps>proportion*maxsteps) { square[x z_r y z_i size sizex sizey b 1 sat ((numsteps-1)/(maxsteps-1))] } } } } global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 20 47. 48. 49. 50. 5. discussion after the course, the students expressed being a little surprised by this strange mix-of-maths-andart sessions, where they were free to experiment and play with the parameters. moreover, students noted that the fine structures of these images are manifestations of the fact that the smallest variations (mainly the value of the seed) at the beginning of a procedure can result in huge differences later (the different julia sets are very different from each other), and as [16] tells us, the research of dynamic systems indicates that this is typical of natural processes. as gonzález peralta et al. [11] say, there is certainly potential in the inclusion of playful activities in teaching but precautions must be taken to make the sessions useful for the purposes of the curriculum. so, this type of activities should be done mainly in extracurricular spaces, since students have different levels of aptitude and artistic sensitivity. artistic activities in general are very enriched thanks to the computer offering the possibility of experimentation, since one can check the influence of parameters on the results, one can check the result of the transformations, the limiting values of interactively applied calculations, etc. [3]. “modern art studies have shown, however, that meeting the classical definition of beauty is not in itself sufficient to create a work of art. in addition, there must be something to stimulate interest, demand involvement, and motivate further thoughts [3, p. 184]”. so, it is not enough to “create” complicated fractal images that are aesthetically beautiful, but they must have a more transcendent meaning. so, as sethi and subramoniam [40] claim, this proposal is meant to accomplish a type of a holistic understanding of julia sets and colour variation models, for students to discover meaningful relationships, and develop new knowledge that was difficult to do in the past. also, this proposal aims to mobilize students in the sense of developing critical capacities with a view to emancipation, like call ferreira and lessa [1]. finally, we can echo mccabe and reisz's [41] documentary and say that we can extract art from mathematics since “mathematics is an inherent part of nature”. references e. ferreira dos santos, and h. j. lessa gonçalves, “a interface entre arte e matemática: em busca de perspectivas curriculares críticas e criativas”, bolema: boletim de educação matemática, vol. 34, no. 68, pp. 1144– 1173, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-4415v34n68a15. d. mumford, c. series, and d. wright, indra's pearls: the vision of felix klein. cambridge university press, 2002. h. w. franke, “refractions of science into art”, in the beauty of fractals: images of complex dynamical systems. springer-verlag: berlin, heidelberg, pp. 181–188, 1986. w. bergweiler, “iteration of meromorphic functions”, bulletin of the american mathematical society, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 151–188, 1993, https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4. j. m. aarts, and l. g. oversteegen, “the geometry of julia sets”, transactions of the american mathematical society, vol. 338, no. 2, pp. 897–918, 1993, https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-19931182980-3. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-4415v34n68a15 https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-4415v34n68a15 https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-4415v34n68a15 https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-4415v34n68a15 https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-4415v34n68a15 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0273-0979-1993-00432-4 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 https://doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9947-1993-1182980-3 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (3) pg. 21 f. hitt, “una reflexión sobre la construcción de conceptos matemáticos en ambientes con tecnología”, boletín de la asociación matemática venezolana, vol. x, no. 2, pp. 213–223, 2003, https://emis.dsd.sztaki.hu/journals/bamv/conten/vol10/fernandohitt.pdf. s. vinner, “concept definition, concept image and the notion of function”, international journal of mathematical education in science and technology, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 293–305, 1983, http://doi.org/10.1080/0020739830140305. d. zaleski filho, matemática e arte. coleção tendências em educação matemática, autêntica: belo horizonte, 2017. d'amore, b. 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https://github.com/mtnviewjohn/context-free/wiki https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=modelo_de_color_hsv&oldid=135310952 https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=modelo_de_color_hsv&oldid=135310952 http://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2019.8102 http://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2019.8102 http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4254160/ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4254160/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 18 beyond the gym: harnessing information technology for innovative transformations in university physical education xin mei wang wuhan huaxia institute of technology, wuhan, 430223, china article info abstract keywords: multilevel teaching, physical education, information technology, pedagogical innovation, student engagement doi 10.5281/zenodo.11120955 : multilevel teaching, a dynamic pedagogical approach distinct from traditional methods, redefines and enhances the educational process by incorporating diverse content, organizational structures, and teaching techniques, all aligned with curriculum requirements. traditional physical education programs at universities often follow fixed curricula and procedural norms, fostering an incremental and uninspiring learning environment. the rigidity of this approach dampens students' enthusiasm for physical activities, compromising the overall teaching quality. to address these challenges, the integration of information technology into university physical education classes emerges as a promising solution. this article explores the development of multilevel teaching models for university-level physical education, enhanced by information technology. by capitalizing on the benefits of information technology, this research not only revitalizes physical education instruction but also fuels students' engagement and holistic well-being, ultimately enhancing the quality of physical education in higher education. introduction multilevel teaching is a teaching mode that differs from traditional methods of education. it optimizes and improves the teaching process and achieves teaching objectives through diverse teaching content, organization, and methods in accordance with the requirements of the teaching syllabus. the traditional physical education teaching work in universities has fixed teaching content and procedures, and students learn knowledge and train in a step-by-step manner. in this dry learning mode, students' enthusiasm for sports is suppressed, and the quality of teaching cannot be guaranteed. the application of information technology in physical education classroom teaching in universities provides technical support for innovation in teaching work. therefore, the current research on the construction of multi-level teaching models for physical education in universities based on information technology can not only leverage the advantages of information technology to innovate physical education teaching work, but also stimulate students' interests, strengthen their physical and psychological qualities, and improve the quality of physical education work in universities. 1. overview of multilevel teaching the so-called multi-level teaching refers to the classroom teaching in which teachers allow students to have differences and fully consider the differences among students. they design and teach teaching content https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 19 differently, providing targeted learning guidance for different types of students, so that each student can achieve the best development. although the traditional classroom teaching system has shown great advantages, its drawbacks are gradually exposed with the modernization of education and teaching work. one of the drawbacks is the "one size fits all" approach to teaching, where teachers design unified teaching content, requirements, and progress for the entire class, and the concept of individualized teaching is not reflected; the second drawback is that although individual teaching incorporates the concept of individualized teaching, there is a problem of low efficiency. under the traditional classroom teaching mode, whether it is individual teaching, collective teaching, or group teaching, there are many drawbacks[1].the multi-level teaching model is different, which is a comprehensive approach to individual teaching, group teaching, and collective teaching. it mainly focuses on students, advocates promoting strengths and avoiding weaknesses, and organizes group teaching and individual teaching in an orderly manner within the framework of collective teaching. for example, in designing teaching objectives, focus on maximizing the improvement of the entire class of students; in terms of teaching organization design, comprehensive collective teaching, group teaching, and individual teaching are included; in terms of teaching effectiveness, seek the individual development of students at different levels[2]. 2. application advantages of information technology in college physical education teaching, the application of information technology has a strong advantage in information resources, which helps to innovate physical education teaching work. firstly, in terms of information transmission, under the traditional face-to-face teaching mode, a large amount of manpower and material resources are required to provide students with certain sports knowledge. in the context of the rapid development of network technology, teachers can use information technology to obtain and transmit information, reducing the cost of information transmission [3].secondly, in terms of information quality, the application of internet systems can provide students with a platform for sharing educational resources. teachers and students can use the internet platform to obtain high-quality educational resources, which can not only improve the teaching level of physical education teachers, but also enhance students' learning efficiency. once again, in terms of information costs, the existence of shared education can reduce educational costs and alleviate the burden on students. finally, in terms of information exchange, the emergence of information-based teaching mode has broken through the limitations of one-way mode and provided advantages for interactive teaching. the interactive function of the network has shortened the distance between teachers and students, implementing the student-centered education concept [4]. 3. the application value of information technology in college physical education teaching 3.1 mobilize students' active participation in previous physical education classroom teaching in universities, although the teaching content was systematic and complete, the entire teaching process lacked consideration for students' needs, often only focusing on the teaching steps and various teaching links, resulting in the physical education curriculum being too serious and lacking in liveliness, ultimately making the physical education classroom atmosphere too dull and difficult to mobilize students' active participation. in college physical education teaching activities, flexible use of information technology means can present dull and tedious physical education knowledge and sports skills in an intuitive way, stimulate students' interest in participating in learning, and enable them to experience the joy and success of physical education learning during the participation process, thereby mobilizing students' initiative and creativity, and enhancing their classroom participation [5]. 3.2 improve the teaching efficiency of physical education courses at present, the teaching of physical education in universities is based on the foundation of junior high school, leading students to further learn sports skills. however, during the university period, there were many sports projects, and the structure of each project was complex. there were many complex technical activities that needed to be completed in an instant, which is a new challenge for students with poor foundation. during specific teaching, the teacher's understanding of the essentials of the movements, age, physical condition, psychological factors, and other factors have a strong subjectivity and arbitrariness in their demonstration actions. in addition, due to limitations in students' observation perspectives and timing, it is difficult for them to master all the teacher's demonstration processes, which will inevitably affect their learning efficiency. during the implementation of physical education teaching in universities, teachers can use information technology to organize teaching activities through modern educational technology, decompose action essentials through global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 20 animated demonstrations, demonstrate action processes, highlight key and difficult teaching, shorten the teaching process, and improve the efficiency of physical education curriculum teaching[6]. 3.3 enhance students' sports skills at present, one of the main tasks of physical education teaching in universities is to help college students master and possess certain sports skills. in the process of implementing this task, if students want to help them master a new action, they need to understand and understand the process of the learned action through listening and watching. seeing is the source of information for students, and information technology can help them quickly establish audio-visual representations and effectively help them master motor skills. information technology means have audio-visual functions. by applying modern information technology means in college physical education classes, students can be guided to learn and master sports skills in new ways, improve the overall learning efficiency of students, and promote the improvement of student activism 'sports level. 4. the importance of multi-level teaching of physical education in universities based on information technology since the new era, with strong national support, china's education work has been further developed, and the higher education system has been gradually improved, highlighting the effectiveness of education. as an important component of the higher education system, physical education plays an important role in promoting education. at present, in order to further unleash the educational value of physical education, chinese physical education educators have begun to explore new directions and models of physical education teaching reform. at present, through theoretical research and practical exploration of physical education educators in colleges and universities in china, and based on the reform of teaching organization level, we have explored the application of multi-level teaching in physical education, and provided theoretical and practical basis for multi-level teaching based on teaching practice. after testing the new education methods, they are progressiveness, reasonable, and effective in educating people. therefore, in the current stage of physical education teaching in universities, researching a multi-level teaching system based on information technology is not only a demand for the reform of physical education teaching in universities, but also a demand for talents to meet the needs of social development. 5. multi-level teaching strategies for physical education in universities based on information technology 5.1 transforming teaching thinking and respecting students' subjectivity at present, in the context of the information age, the informatization and modernization construction of higher education and teaching work has become an inevitable development trend. in the process of informatization and modernization transformation of physical education teaching in universities, the most crucial task is to update and transform teachers' thinking. under the trend of educational informatization development, physical education teachers in universities need to understand the methods and applications of information technology in various teaching activities, familiarize themselves with the goals of physical education teaching in the new era, and also understand students' sports level and knowledge foundation, in order to design hierarchical teaching content, guide students to understand sports skills, exercise their physique, hone their minds, and achieve sustainable and healthy development. therefore, in the new era of educational concepts, physical education workers in universities need to update their own thinking concepts, respect students' subjective status, transform their roles, transform from knowledge imparters to organizers of knowledge learning, and thus put the initiative of learning in the hands of students, comprehensively mobilize their learning initiative, and stimulate their enthusiasm for learning. in specific teaching, with information technology as the foundation and multi-level teaching as the design direction, teachers should play the role of guides in physical education teaching activities. 5.2 reasonably set teaching objectives based on students' level in the application of multi-level teaching mode, for the formulation of teaching objectives, it is not only necessary to have uniformity, but also to have certain differences. therefore, physical education educators should not only comprehensively consider basic technologies, skills, and knowledge, but also consider the breadth of teaching materials, teaching efficiency, theoretical knowledge level, practice level, and depth. through targeted and comprehensive analysis, scientific teaching objectives should be formulated. therefore, in the process of carrying out physical education teaching activities in universities, teachers need to formulate corresponding teaching objectives based on certain criteria, such as dividing students into different levels according to their global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 21 psychological, physical, sports, and physical abilities, and setting teaching objectives in order, namely innovative teaching objectives, developmental teaching objectives, and basic teaching objectives. firstly, the innovation goal requires students to have a complete understanding of the content they are learning, and to expand and deepen the scope of the teaching content and syllabus; secondly, developmental teaching objectives require students to be familiar with the required physical education knowledge and have a certain understanding of the expanded content; the final basic teaching objective requires students to be very familiar with the outline regulations. because there are many learning tasks involved in physical education courses in universities, the stratification of teaching objectives is not fixed. this requires physical education teachers to prepare for reorganization before class, deeply understand the actual situation of students, and make the design of physical education teaching objectives more targeted, planned, and hierarchical, so that every student can complete the learning objectives and obtain a successful experience. 5.3 grasp students' basic information through their learning situation in the field of physical education teaching in universities, the application of multi-level teaching models based on information technology requires physical education teachers to conduct in-depth research on students' learning situation, understand and master the basic situation of each student. because in the process of organizing physical education teaching activities, students play an important role as the main participants. due to the differences in learning interests, motivation, and methods among each student, the selection of course types, differences in student situations, teaching content, and venue equipment will all have a certain impact on the organization of physical education teaching activities. therefore, in the process of using information technology to organize physical education teaching activities, teachers need to pay attention to the hierarchical changes of students, adjust teaching methods in a timely manner, and carry out targeted teaching. in addition, due to the differences in physical education textbooks in universities, there may also be differences in the organizational form of teaching. even the same textbooks may have differences in organizational form. therefore, during specific teaching, physical education teachers need to calculate the scores of students at different levels in the previous semester, compare all test scores of this semester, and preliminarily determine the level of students. then, they need to make a comprehensive assessment of students' physical fitness and sports ability. looking at students from a developmental perspective, accurately assessing their level, thus laying the foundation for multilevel teaching supported by information technology. 5.4 reasonably grouping and developing team collaboration relationships due to the existence of differentiation, not all students have a solid foundation in sports knowledge. students have differences in sports skills, personality characteristics, and other aspects, which is also the main reason for implementing multi-level teaching in physical education. carrying out multi-level physical education teaching is to pursue "seeking common ground while reserving differences", and to maximize individual development on the basis of improving the overall teaching quality. with the practice and development of multi-level teaching models in physical education teaching in universities, many students have also developed their own views on the training of sports projects. therefore, when facing team cooperation projects, students can also consciously carry out division of labor and cooperation. therefore, based on information technology research in multi-level teaching of physical education, teachers need to pay attention to cultivating the spirit of teamwork among students in the process of dividing student levels, grouping students according to certain principles, and guiding group members to achieve common improvement and progress in the process of reasonable division of labor, fulfilling their respective duties, and unity and cooperation. 5.5 increase teaching content to promote students' personality development the application of information technology has broadened the channels for obtaining physical education resources, enriched physical education resources, and effectively improved the quality of education. the application of information technology provides a rich and diverse teaching content for physical education courses in universities, and with the support of information technology, the collection, organization, and analysis of physical education resources have been achieved, making physical education teaching content more practical and contemporary. based on the research of multi-level teaching of physical education in universities using information technology, teachers need to use the physical education curriculum as a basis and select open learning content from rich teaching resources to make up for the knowledge deficiencies in physical education textbooks. at the same time, when organizing students to participate in sports activities, physical education global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 22 teachers need to flexibly use information technology, leverage the advantages of internet resource acquisition, collect a large amount of teaching content in a short time, and combine multi-level teaching design to integrate and layer the teaching content, so as to keep the teaching content consistent with the teaching objectives and better meet the physical education learning needs of college students. 5.6 innovative teaching mode to stimulate students' enthusiasm the application of modern educational technology has not only improved the quality of physical education teaching, but also diversified the presentation of teaching content, enhanced interaction and communication between teachers and students, and created a more harmonious classroom learning atmosphere, enabling the smooth implementation of multi-level teaching models. taking the application of online classrooms as an example, in the process of physical education teaching activities in universities, physical education teachers use internet platforms to organize learning. teachers first upload teaching content to the online learning platform, and students use terminal devices such as mobile phones and computers to preview teaching content. during the preview process, students need standard questions or leave messages in the discussion area. physical education teachers collect and organize students' existing problems, provide detailed answers in class to enhance the relevance of classroom teaching. at the same time, teachers design different teaching plans for students' problems in physical education classrooms, providing corresponding learning plans for students at different levels, and enhancing teaching effectiveness. taking the teaching of table tennis as an example, when teachers guide students to learn a certain serving technique, they will require students to serve from a specific angle. the teacher will shoot a video of the students' serving process and reproduce it in the form of a video, leading students to analyze the problems involved. alternatively, teachers can use dartfish software to lead students in comparing and analyzing serving videos of professional athletes and students, understand serving skill templates, and stimulate students' enthusiasm and enthusiasm for participation. 5.7 gradually improving the evaluation system and optimizing the effectiveness of graded teaching in the process of physical education teaching in universities, teachers can use information technology to optimize the multi-level teaching assessment and evaluation system, enhance the fairness and objectivity of assessment and evaluation. the assessment and evaluation system is an important part of guiding physical education teaching work. however, in traditional teaching, too much emphasis is placed on the assessment of theoretical knowledge, which weakens students' practical enthusiasm. therefore, in the process of combining information technology with physical education teaching in universities, it is necessary to highlight the application of information equipment in the assessment and evaluation of physical education teaching. taking volleyball teaching as an example, the core evaluation elements are basic skills, competition rules, practical training, etc. therefore, when evaluating, teachers need to adhere to the examination of basic theories while requiring students to master corresponding practical skills. at the same time, in order to ensure the fairness of assessment and evaluation, teachers also need to use information technology equipment to optimize the details of the assessment, in order to provide a basis for teachers to objectively evaluate students. for example, the edge ball often appears in volleyball, which is prone to misjudgment when viewed from a long distance. high speed cameras can be used to shoot and analyze frame by frame to help students understand the edge ball problem, accurately grasp the game rules, and help students correct their shortcomings in practical operation evaluation, improving their practical skills. 6. conclusion in summary, in the reform of physical education teaching in universities, researching multi-level teaching models based on information technology can not only enrich teaching content, but also innovate teaching methods and promote the optimization of physical education teaching in universities. with the infiltration and application of modern teaching concepts in college physical education teaching, as well as the flexible adjustment of college physical education teaching work, the high-quality development of college physical education teaching supported by information technology has been achieved. therefore, physical education teachers in universities need to update their work philosophy, respect the dominant position of students, innovate teaching models with the help of information technology, formulate scientific and clear teaching objectives, highlight the pertinence and planning of physical education teaching activities, and at the same time, judge the level of students based on their basic situation, reasonably increase teaching content, and improve evaluation mechanisms to build a comprehensive multi-level teaching system, improve the level of physical education teaching in universities. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 23 references guo h. (2023) reflections on the reform of physical education teaching in universities under the informationization of education. health and beauty, 5, 107-109. xu z. (2023) the application of "internet plus" in college physical education. sports fashion, 2, 107-109. yong g. (2021) research and reflection on the integration of information technology and college physical education teaching. research on innovation in ice and snow sports, 8, 62-63. li q. (2021) innovative research on the impact of information technology on the teaching mode of physical education in universities. contemporary sports science and technology, 11 (9), 68-70. liu y. (2021) literature review on the application of information technology in physical education teaching in universities. contemporary sports science and technology, 11 (6), 141-144. zhang h. (2020) application countermeasures of information technology in physical education curriculum teaching in universities. neijiang science and technology, 41 (11), 125+130. teaching strategies based on generational teacher cohorts global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.14, number 6; july-2023; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 17 navigating education eras: generational cohorts' approach to teaching strategies in dominican republic's secondary education 1maría isabel gonzález santos, 2carlos eduardo ramirez peralta article info abstract keywords: teaching strategies, active learning, generational cohort theory, instructional techniques, secondary schools effective teaching strategies play a pivotal role in the dynamic process of learning and education. these strategies serve as essential tools to facilitate the transmission of knowledge and skills from teachers to learners. the spectrum of teaching strategies spans from active to passive methodologies, where active approaches engage learners directly in instructional activities, fostering deeper comprehension. this study examines the application and impact of teaching strategies across various subjects and educational levels. key determinants influencing the selection of these strategies include resource allocation, technological integration, and instructional design. drawing inspiration from generational cohort theory, this research focuses on secondary school educators, investigating their employed teaching strategies. a comparative analysis is performed in relation to the generational groups of teachers, exploring shifts in instructional techniques and skills in the 21st century. this work extends the findings of romanes & veniegas and bharati, delving into the variances among generational cohorts concerning attitudes, lesson preparation, and teaching approaches. the insights gained from this study contribute to the enhancement of teaching methodologies, catering to diverse learner preferences and the evolving educational landscape. 1. introduction teaching strategies is an essential component of the teaching learning process. teaching strategies are tools, resources used by teacher for facilitate the learning process. this learning process can be active or passive. according to orlich et al. [1], “active learning encompasses a wide range of teaching strategies, all of which engage the learner in the actual instruction that takes place. seat-work is passive. students working on problems in small groups is active” (p.40). 1 dominican institute for educational quality evaluation and research (ideice), santo domingo, dominican republic https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 18 teaching strategies have a general application it can be applied in all subject and for all level. the use of those strategies depend on many factors like the investment in tools and resources, etc. we apply generational cohort theory on teachers to describe the teaching strategies used in secondary schools. the work most closely related to this paper is romanes & veniegas [2] which “explores the differences in the 21st century teaching and skills practices among generational groups of teachers.” another work is bharati [3], which “examines teacher attitudes, teaching strategy lesson preparation, etc.” 1.1. generation cohort theory the concept of generational differences was developed by the hungarian born sociologist, karl mannheim who published his treatise on the “problem of generations” in the 1920s [4]. the main idea is that each generation are influenced by historical, social events, and people born within the same generation share similar characteristics. doi:10.5121/ijite.2022.11401 there is not a general consensus regarding the cohort for each generation. in table 1 shows some basic characteristics of each generational cohorts. table 1. a comparison of generational cohorts (adapted from [2]) baby boomers generation x generation y (millennials) generation z (igeneration) characteristics hardworking, loyal, confident, cynical, competitive anti-authority, highly individualistic, self-reliant, family focused confident, digital thinkers, sense of entitlement, needy realistic, creative, hyper-connected why they are the way they are the wealthiest, healthiest, largest generation of their time. raised to pursue their dreams children of workaholics and divorce; the arrival of cable television and computers. raised to be self sufficient micro-managed by their parents, technology, always rewarded for participating. raised to be high achievers raised in a culture of fear, mobile technology, helicopter parents, social media communication styles prefer communication personal or via phone prefer concise communication and email prefer frequent feedback and problem solving via technology prefer virtual communication instead of inperson meetings problems they are facing now retirement, rising health care debt, caring for children and aging parents debt, unemployment lack of job opportunities flaws no always open to new ideas have difficulty committing short attention spans over-confident in their knowledge, lack of interpersonal skills 1.2. education in the dominican republic the origins of the dominican republic education system can be traced back to the american discovery. spaniards requires, the native inhabitants of the island to get basic and rudimentary knowledge to facilitate the evangelization of america process [5]. however, the formal or school education on the island of santo domingo began in 1502. by then the basic curriculum included classes like reading, writing, calculation and christian doctrine. already in the period between 1822 and 1844 there were few elementary schools and almost zero coverage of secondary education. https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11401 https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11401 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 19 on may 12, 1845, the organic law of public instruction was promulgated, with which the first public schools called first-letter schools were created. this law provides for the construction of a school in each common or town and two, in each head of province with primary and higher levels. the public education law of 1867 meant the consolidation of the educational system, organized the dominican educational system for the first time, creating the superior board of studies and established the obligation of the state to promote public education, the sciences and the arts and free primary education. nowadays, in the dominican republic children are enrolled into preschool from the age of 3 to 6 years the primary schools last for 6 years, then they enrolled into secondary school for 6 years [7]. 1.3. secondary education it is the period after the primary level. it last for 6 years divided in two cycles. each cycle lasts 3 years. it offers general training and options to respond to the aptitudes, interests, vocations and needs of the students, to insert themselves efficiently in the world of work and further studies. it includes the ages of 12 and 18 years. it is made up of two cycles. the first cycle lasts three (3) years and is common to the different modalities. the second cycle of this level has a duration of three (3) years and is developed in the modalities: academic, professional technical and arts [7]. the main goal of this study is to describe the teaching strategies use in secondary education based on the generational teacher cohort. this paper also examines whether gender, location and types of schools got some impact in the results. according to new strategist press [7], “differences among generations are too often buried in statistics that look only at the population as a whole.” we want to examine if there are any differences in choosing a teaching strategy for instance, between a baby boomer teacher and a igeneration teacher. in this study we use the generational cohorts as described in [5], baby boomer born 1946 -1964, generation x born 1965-1976, millennials born 1977-1994 and igeneration born 1995-2009. the rest of the paper is organized as follow. section 2, explains the methodology. in section 3, we present the results and the final conclusions are presented in section 4. 2. methodology the research is descriptive and a mixed approach that will measure the strategies used in secondary schools and the frequency with which they are used in the classroom. 2.1. population and sample according to educa [8], in the dominican republic educational schools are grouped into 18 educational regions and 122 school districts. 248 schools distributed in the 18 educational regions of the nation were probabilistically selected. a stratified random sampling was used, choosing two teachers per school. 2.2. data collection instrument to achieve the objectives set, the questionnaire was selected as a measurement instrument, in which likert scales and dichotomous questions with open answers predominate so that participants can deepen about the strategies used in the teaching-learning process. the ethical guidelines of the research were followed, the participants gave their consent and participated freely and voluntarily. it should be noted that for this reason in some schools only one teacher participated. table 2. survey dimensions global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 20 dimensions details class planning • class goals • topic relevance • daily tasks class introduction • prior knowledge assessment • class summary • justification and important of the class class development and practice • teams organizations • presentations, debates, mind maps • blackboard • glossary • motivation • questionnaire and comprehensive reading • analogies • summary of the topic • problem solving learning approach • synchrony between topic and students capacities closing and knowledge evaluation • socratic method • complementary activities • oral and written evaluation • supervision of the daily tasks • feedback • decision making based on the evaluation results • final questions • clarification of doubts technology planning learning experiences and the use of information technologies (ict) to measure the strategies used by the teachers, they were segmented into dimensions such as: lesson planning, class introduction, class development and practice, closure and evaluation of learning and use of technology (table 2). 3. results we present results for each generational teacher cohort such as “baby boomers, baby boom or bb”, “generation x or gx”, “millennials or m” and” igeneration or ig”. we also present results based on gender, school location, etc. 3.1. sample feature the sample mean is 40.38 years, with a standard deviation of 10.38 with an asymmetry coefficient of 0.20. with a minimum age of 21 years and a maximum age of 75 years. table 2 shows the summary of descriptive statistics of the sample based on the age variable of the complete sample in column 2 and segmented in columns 3 and 4 based on the gender variable and in columns 5 and 6 based on public and private school. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 21 table 3. sample sex school age female male public private mean 40.38 41.21 38.57 40.60 40.12 error 0.47 0.570 0.82 0.57 0.77 median 40 42 39 41 40 mode 43 52 43 45 40 standard deviation 10.38 10.35 10.30 9.30 11.56 variance 107.89 107.06 106.04 86.55 133.52 range th54 47 53 45 54 mín. 21 21 22 22 21 max. 75 68 75 67 75 total 489 329 157 265 224 figure 1 shows the distribution of the sample based on the generational teacher cohorts. millennials got the 56% of the sample in contrast with baby boomer, with just the 5% of the sample. figure 1. sample distribution by age generation the basic descriptive statistics in details for each generational cohort are shown in table 4. table 4. sample generational cohorts age baby boomers generation x millennials igeneration mean 61.65 51.11 37.60 25.02 median 60 51 38 25 mode 58 52 43 26 standard deviation 4.36 3.32 5.30 1.60 variance 19.05 11.04 28.06 2.58 total 24 124 273 224 figure 2 ilustrates the gender proportion of the sample. for all generations female outperformed male. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 22 figure 2. sex distribution by generation figure 3, show the proportion of the gender in both public and private school. most of the baby boomers and igeneration teachers work on private schools, 74% and 67% respectively. figure 3. school distribution by generation there is not a baby boomer teacher working in a rural school (figure 4), and urban schools have more teachers than rural school, this is because in our sample most of teachers works in the city. figure 4. school location by generation global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 23 most of the teacher got a university degree the 85% of the igeneration got a bachelor degree and the 37% of the generation x have postgraduate education. (figure 5). figure 5. education 3.1 pedagogical strategies the results of the teaching strategies are presented according to their dimensions and the aspects related to each dimension (see table 2). 3.1.1. class planning table 5 presents the results for the dimension class planning the 89% of the baby boomers that works in the public schools always plan the class, and just 69% of the igeneration teacher always prepare the class. table 5. class planning gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 83% 71% 89% 76% 80% 0% 80% gx 82% 78% 82% 79% 81% 80% 81% m 82% 79% 82% 78% 80% 81% 81% ig 68% 70% 70% 69% 69% 71% 69% frequently bb 13% 24% 11% 18% 16% 0% 16% gx 17% 21% 17% 19% 18% 20% 18% m 17% 20% 16% 20% 18% 16% 18% ig 26% 29% 25% 29% 28% 27% 28% sometimes bb 2% 5% 0% 4% 3% 0% 3% gx 1% 1% 0% 2% 1% 0% 1% m 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% 1% 1% ig 4% 1% 6% 1% 3% 2% 3% never bb 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% gx 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% m 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% ig 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% legend: gen: generation, bb: baby boomers, gx: generation x, m: millennials and ig: igeneration. 3.1.2. class introduction for the class introduction, the 85% of millennials working in a rural school always introduce the class (table 7). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 24 table 6. class introduction gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 77% 76% 78% 76% 77% 0% 77% gx 77% 74% 79% 72% 76% 80% 76% m 82% 77% 82% 79% 79% 85% 80% ig 75% 80% 83% 75% 77% 80% 77% frequently bb 23% 19% 22% 22% 22% 0% 22% gx 21% 18% 18% 23% 20% 17% 20% m 17% 21% 17% 19% 19% 14% 18% ig 21% 17% 13% 22% 21% 13% 19% sometimes bb 0% 5% 0% 2% 1% 0% 1% gx 3% 8% 3% 5% 4% 3% 4% m 1% 2% 1% 2% 2% 1% 1% ig 4% 3% 4% 3% 2% 7% 3% never bb 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% gx 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% m 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% ig 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 3.1.3. class development and practice in contrast with the results presented both in table 5 and 6, the mean of the dimension class development and practice the attribute always is less than the 50% for all generations as shown in table 7. for the closing and knowledge evaluation dimension (table 8), the 79% of the igeneration teachers working in rural schools always evaluate the knowledge of the students. the igeneration teachers use always the technology (table 9) in the classroom (73%), however, no as we expected and no very distant from the millennials. table 7. class development and practice gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 44% 40% 46% 41% 43% 0% 43% gx 43% 43% 41% 47% 44% 36% 43% m 47% 43% 46% 46% 46% 46% 46% ig 43% 48% 48% 44% 45% 48% 45% frequently bb 37% 37% 33% 38% 37% 0% 37% gx 37% 35% 39% 34% 36% 41% 37% m 35% 35% 34% 36% 35% 34% 35% ig 31% 30% 33% 29% 30% 31% 31% sometimes bb 19% 21% 18% 21% 20% 0% 20% gx 18% 18% 18% 17% 18% 19% 18% m 15% 20% 17% 16% 17% 16% 17% ig 21% 18% 15% 22% 20% 18% 19% never bb 0% 2% 2% 0% 1% 0% 1% gx 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% m 1% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% ig 4% 4% 3% 4% 4% 2% 4% global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 25 3.1.4. closing and knowledge evaluation table 8. closing and knowledge evaluation gen female male public private urban rural general bb 65% 66% 76% 64% 67% 0% 67% gx 64% 64% 65% 67% 66% 67% 66% always m 69% 66% 68% 72% 70% 69% 69% ig 75% 75% 78% 75% 75% 79% 76% bb 28% 29% 20% 30% 27% 0% 27% frequently gx 27% 28% 25% 26% 26% 25% 26% m 22% 25% 22% 23% 23% 19% 22% ig 18% 21% 15% 20% 20% 14% 19% bb 7% 5% 5% 6% 6% 0% 6% sometimes gx 8% 6% 8% 6% 7% 6% 7% m 6% 6% 7% 5% 6% 6% 6% ig 3% 3% 4% 3% 3% 4% 3% bb 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% gx 1% 0% 1% 0% 0% 1% 1% never m 1% 2% 2% 0% 1% 3% 1% ig 2% 1% 3% 1% 1% 2% 2% 3.1.5. technology table 9. technology gen female male public private urban rural general always bb 50% 21% 33% 44% 41% 0% 41% gx 47% 48% 43% 54% 48% 40% 48% m 55% 62% 59% 54% 61% 45% 57% ig 61% 56% 65% 55% 55% 73% 59% frequently bb 44% 50% 50% 44% 46% 0% 46% gx 38% 23% 41% 26% 34% 40% 35% m 33% 27% 29% 34% 30% 35% 31% ig 22% 32% 20% 30% 31% 13% 27% sometimes bb 6% 21% 8% 12% 11% 0% 11% gx 14% 25% 14% 18% 15% 20% 16% m 12% 9% 11% 12% 9% 17% 11% ig 14% 11% 11% 14% 13% 13% 13% never bb 0% 7% 8% 0% 2% 0% 2% gx 1% 2% 1% 1% 1% 0% 1% m 0% 2% 1% 0% 0% 2% 1% ig 3% 0% 4% 0% 2% 0% 1% global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 26 3.2. resources available in the classroom we evaluate the resources and tools used in the classroom, the origin of the resource, as well as the frequency of use of the resource or tool. then we present the general results, expressed in percentages for each generational teacher cohort. figure 6. resources available in the classroom figures 6 shows the resources available for each generation group. the 75% of the baby boomers uses a laptop, the 83% got internet and 92% use the blackboard. the 71% of the generation x uses a laptop(a), the 62% have access to internet and 88% use the blackboard. the 80% of the millennials uses a laptop, the 74% have access to internet and 93% use the blackboard. the 76% of the igeneration uses a laptop, the 79% have access to internet and 96% use the blackboard 3.3. platforms online platforms and tools use for virtual classes. those platforms and tools are: zoom, skype, google meet, teams, google classroom, moodle, blackboard and edmodo. the 57% of the male baby boomers use zoom as their primary tool for online class. skype is not widely use. the 70% of the generation x teacher who works in a rural use google meet. table 10. platforms global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 27 gen female male public private urban rural general bb 50% 57% 33% 59% 52% 0% 52% zoom gx 52% 50% 50% 53% 53% 30% 51% m 48% 42% 49% 42% 47% 43% 46% ig 50% 45% 30% 57% 52% 33% 48% skype bb 6% 29% 17% 12% 13% 0% 13% gx 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% m 2% 1% 2% 1% 2% 2% 2% ig 0% 6% 0% 4% 4% 0% 3% bb 56% 29% 50% 47% 48% 0% 48% gx 47% 50% 61% 32% 47% 70% 48% google meet m 45% 49% 54% 36% 45% 54% 47% ig 29% 35% 43% 26% 28% 47% 32% teams bb 38% 14% 17% 35% 30% 0% 30% gx 9% 21% 10% 13% 12% 0% 11% m 16% 19% 16% 18% 17% 16% 17% ig 16% 13% 13% 15% 15% 13% 14% bb 50% 14% 33% 41% 39% 0% 39% google gx 48% 63% 59% 43% 51% 60% 52% classroom m 56% 56% 58% 52% 59% 46% 55% ig 47% 52% 48% 50% 50% 47% 49% moodle bb 13% 0% 17% 6% 9% 0% 9% gx 8% 13% 3% 17% 10% 0% 9% m 15% 17% 15% 17% 19% 5% 15% ig 8% 13% 4% 13% 13% 0% 10% bb 0% 14% 0% 6% 4% 0% 4% gx 7% 13% 6% 11% 8% 10% 8% blackboard m 4% 5% 3% 7% 5% 3% 4% ig 8% 3% 4% 7% 6% 7% 6% edmodo bb 13% 0% 17% 6% 9% 0% 9% gx 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 0% 4% m 6% 4% 6% 4% 5% 6% 5% ig 5% 10% 4% 9% 7% 7% 7% 4. conclusions teaching strategies contribute to the development of students' skills. this study was carried out to analyze the use of teaching strategies by teachers at the secondary level based on the generational teacher cohorts. based on the study carried out, it can be concluded that: secondary school teachers in the dominican republic use different strategies when teaching, the most used always being those belonging to the dimensions of class planning and class introduction. a possible explanation global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (6) pg. 28 for this would be that both dimensions have only three aspects to deal with compared to the other dimensions which have more than 8 dimensions. it should be noted that the dimension related to the use of technology is an exception to what was expressed in the previous paragraph, since it only has two aspects. but it could be explained by the fact that some teachers do not have a laptop in the classroom or internet access available. it is clear that this would affect the number of teachers using technology as a strategy. teachers who work in the public sector use more strategies than teachers who work in the private sector, with the exception of the closing dimension and evaluation of learning. an unexpected finding was that the igeneration teachers uses traditional tools and strategies as the baby boomers. plat form most used by teachers is google classroom, excepting the baby boomers that prefers zoom. teachers in schools located in rural areas have access to platforms and tools for online teaching at almost the same level as those located in urban areas. the covid-19 pandemic speed up the investment in technology in all types of school, public, private in urban and rural area. in general, teachers employ strategies and use tools to facilitate student learning. we did not find out significant differences amongst the generational teacher cohorts. in the future, we would like to extend the study to include student perception data to evaluate how effective are those teaching strategies. references orlich, d., harder, r, trevisan,m. & a. brown (2017). teaching strategies. cengage learning. romanes, m. & veniegas, s. (march, 2018). differences among generational groups of teachers in a public school district in their practice of 21st century teaching-learning skills. the asian conference on education & international development 2018. bharati, s. (2014). teaching strategies used by secondary teachers in teaching english as a second language in rural odisha. international journal of science and research (ijsr). 3(6), 542-543 mckercher, b., lai, b., yang, l., & wang, y. (2020). travel by chinese: a generational cohort perspective. asia pacific journal of tourism research, 25(4), 341–354. https://ezproxy.unibe.edu.do:2085/10.1080/10941665.2019.1709877 [5] ministerio de educación (2019), memoria institucional 2019. https://siie.minerd.gob.do/storage/app/uploads/public/5f1/4f1/77c/5f14f177c2ced973744833.pdf [6] morrison r. (1993). historia de la educación dominicana. cenapec. new strategist press. (2018). american generations: who they are & how they live: vol. 9th edition. new strategist press, llc. educa (julio 2022). sistema educativo dominicano en números. info educativas. 1(1), p.4. 061913-fa2074-frontiers in educational research.docx global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 48 grammar in action: a task-based approach to portuguese language instruction mei ling zhang university of international business and economics, beijing, china article info abstract keywords: task-based teaching, portuguese grammar, second language acquisition, communicative language teaching, chinese universities. doi 10.5281/zenodo.11120948 the task-based teaching approach, rooted in communicative language teaching, has gained prominence in second language acquisition. advocating that language learning is best facilitated through the completion of communicative tasks, this method has captured the attention of language educators worldwide. in recent years, there has been a growing interest in the field of portuguese grammar teaching. basic portuguese grammar courses are integral to portuguese majors in chinese universities. however, there is a dearth of research exploring the application of the task-based teaching method to portuguese grammar instruction in the chinese higher education context. presently, traditional teaching methods dominate portuguese grammar classrooms, which can be discouraging for many students. in light of this situation, there is a compelling need to introduce the task-based teaching method into the realm of grammar instruction for portuguese. this paper aims to bridge this gap by investigating the potential benefits and challenges of implementing a task-based approach in portuguese grammar classes, shedding light on a novel pedagogical approach that could enhance the learning experience for chinese university students studying portuguese as a second language. introduction the task-based teaching approach, which emerged in the 1980s, has become a hot topic in the field of second language acquisition. task-based teaching method belongs to communicative teaching method, which advocates that using language to complete communicative tasks can promote language learning. in recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the study of portuguese grammar teaching. the course of portuguese basic grammar is one of the important courses for portuguese majors in colleges and universities in china. however, no research has been found to apply this teaching method to portuguese grammar teaching in chinese universities. nowadays, the portuguese grammar class, which takes the traditional teaching method as the main mode, has deterred many students. in view of this situation, it is necessary to apply task-based teaching method to grammar classroom. 1. task-based teaching method the task-based approach developed on communicative approach has gradually changed the perspective of language teaching at home and abroad. in order to enable students to naturally acquire a new language, it https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 49 emphasizes that language should be “learned by doing”, with the goal of completing meaningful language communication tasks jointly by teachers and students, to tap learners' language use potential and stimulate language creativity [1]. chinese foreign language majors lack the context of the target language, and their access to foreign language information is limited. even many learners only take learning a foreign language as an examination tool. the task-based approach has been recognized and advocated by linguists and foreign language teachers in china since it was proposed. the introduction of this new teaching method plays an important role in changing the inefficient “cramming” foreign language classroom in china and injects new vitality into foreign language teaching in china. the task-based approach focuses on the use of language, rather than simply based on the form of language. it requires learners to use the language they have learned to solve communication problems in real life. teachers choose teaching content close to students' life and complete the task through the interaction between students and students and between teachers and students. 2.1. definition according to cai lanzhen (2001) [2], “task-based teaching method means that in classroom teaching, students and teachers jointly complete certain tasks to enable second language learners to naturally learn and acquire language, expand the chinese language system and promote foreign language learning progress.” in general, task-based teaching method is to use “tasks” throughout “teaching”, and acquire knowledge by means of cooperation and interaction in the process of performing tasks, fully mobilize learners' initiative and naturally feel, explore, understand and apply the target language in practice. 2.2. task “task” is an important concept throughout the whole language teaching theory. it is closely related to teaching design, textbook development, teaching assessment, etc. since the task-based teaching method was proposed, the definition of “task” has been hotly discussed in the academic circles at home and abroad. nunan (1989:10) [3] believes that "task" is what is done in the classroom using the target language, including the understanding, operation, application and interaction of language. it is worth noting that the task should have complete meaning and be able to act independently as a communicative activity. skehan (1998) [4] summarized the characteristics of the “task”: the task is based on meaning; the problems in the task need to be solved through language communication; there is some connection between tasks and activities in the real world; the task should be completed first; evaluate the task according to the teaching results. 3. characteristics of portuguese grammar teaching in chinese universities grammar teaching has been neglected by some second language teaching researchers. portuguese majors in colleges and universities in china generally offer basic grammar courses in sophomores or juniors. by sorting out the grammar knowledge they have learned, they can digest the relevant contents of basic portuguese courses, and also pave the way for learning translation, interpretation and other courses in the future. generally, students have mastered most of the basic grammar before the portuguese grammar class. the grammar course can help students systematically sort out the grammar knowledge they have learned and carry out targeted written exercises, which helps to consolidate the grammar foundation and improve the portuguese level. however, china's colleges and universities generally have problems in teaching methods, teaching content, practical application and other aspects, which lead to a significant reduction in learning efficiency. 3.1. single teaching method although the teaching of portuguese is deeply influenced by western teaching theories, many teachers have introduced communicative methods, task driven methods and other methods into the classroom, and the classroom atmosphere has become more active, the grammar classroom is still dominated by traditional teaching ideas, continuing the “top-down” teaching mode, that is, the old teacher is the main teaching method, and students passively accept knowledge, ignoring the applicability and situational nature of language knowledge. 3.2. the teaching content is boring grammar teaching is highly theoretical. if it is only scripted and lacks practical exercises such as teacher-student and student interaction, it will not only make students unable to digest the grammar points they have learned in time, but even make them feel tired after a class and have a resistance to grammar learning. most portuguese teachers put the theoretical explanation of grammar knowledge in the first place, ignoring the interaction and the cultivation of grammar application ability, resulting in boring teaching content and low interest of students. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 50 at the same time, grammar knowledge is trivial. taking the “21st century portuguese textbook” as an example, the same type of grammar knowledge is often distributed in different units, and students generally respond that the grammar content is not systematic, which is not conducive to memory. 3.3. emphasize theory and despise practice grammar teaching runs through the whole process of learning, especially in the early stage of students' learning. the key to foreign language learning is to lay a solid foundation in grammar, and the problem is how to teach. the traditional grammar course focuses on presenting grammar rules directly to students. through full explanation, students can master grammar knowledge as much as possible. although teachers will arrange sentence pattern exercises in due time, such as translating sentences and replacing sentences of the same type, the sentences in these exercises are often independent and lack of context. learners cannot express their personal ideas through practice, but only mechanically practice grammar rules through repeated practice, ignoring the important role of practice, which cannot help students to really apply what they have learned to the actual situation, that is, they cannot use language to express meaning. 4. application of task-based teaching method in portuguese grammar teaching in recent years, the academic research on portuguese teaching methods has shown an upward trend. fan wenting and han ying (2017) [5] discussed the methods applicable to portuguese teaching in china. they believed that the teaching mode needed to comprehensively consider the teaching objectives, teaching contents, teaching objects, teaching materials and training programs. in addition, the traditional teaching method alone cannot meet the needs of the society. we should combine communicative teaching method, task-based teaching method, vocabulary teaching method and other methods in teaching. shao wanbi (2018) [6] took the portuguese reading course as an example and mentioned that "the teacher centered classroom should be transformed into a student-centered classroom". rui mengqing (2020) [7] emphasizes the role of context in portuguese grammar teaching and improves learners' ability to output grammar knowledge to different social scenes. generally speaking, most portuguese language teaching researchers believe that a good language output environment should be created for students and classroom interaction should be encouraged. this section will present the portuguese virtual unfinished in the past as a case to show how the taskbased teaching method can be applied in the college portuguese grammar classroom. 4.1. instructional objective master the basic usage of the virtual unfinished tense in the past, while completing the relevant written exercises, minimize the time for deflection thinking, and skillfully apply it to practical practice and real life. of course, this is the most basic requirement for language learning. further, the goal should be to cultivate language sense and improve the overall level of portuguese. 4.2. tasks design “authenticity” and “information gap” are important preconditions for task design. the so-called “task” can occur in daily real language communication situations, and both parties provide unknown information to each other to avoid boring mechanical training. virtual form is a special verb form. on the one hand, it means that the action or behavior transmitted by the speaker is not authentic or deterministic; on the other hand, although it has authenticity in some contexts, it expresses some subjective emotions of the speaker. virtual learning has always been the key and difficult point of portuguese grammar learning. the lack of virtual learning in chinese grammar and the differences between chinese and portuguese ways of thinking have caused various difficulties for chinese students in virtual learning. the traditional portuguese grammar teaching generally follows the methods of “teachers speaking, students practicing” and “topic sea tactics”, lacks interactive exercises such as dialogue, and ignores the training of students' application ability. task based teaching method can make up for these shortcomings to a certain extent. 4.2.1. background and tasks you and your family took a 5-day vacation to algarve province in southern portugal. your originally planned trip was perfect. however, after check-in, you found that the sanitary conditions of the hotel were very poor. the air conditioner could not operate normally due to years of disrepair, and you could not have a good rest every night. the scheduled schedule was completely disrupted, so you decided to complain to the hotel. you need to write to the person in charge of the hotel to inform them of your dissatisfaction, and the person in charge of the hotel wants to negotiate and settle with you. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 51 the task is for student a (not limited to one person) and student b to act as the person in charge of the passenger and the hotel respectively, and negotiate freely on the above issues with the ultimate goal of reaching a settlement. students are required to use virtual as much as possible when they have not completed the task in the past, the task object is the sophomores majoring in portuguese. 4.2.2. form the task will be carried out in the form of letter writing and dialogue. based on the above background, first of all, student a (not limited to one person) needs to write to the person in charge of the hotel (student b) to state his problems and dissatisfaction. after reading student a's complaint letter, student b decided to reply with a view to solving the problem through consultation. then the two men conducted negotiations and consultations in the form of face-to-face communication. 4.2.3. process (1) assigning tasks. in order to create a real and natural communication environment, teachers try to use portuguese to assign tasks. if necessary, they can use gestures, movements and expressions to help ensure that every student knows how to complete the task. then divide the students into groups (2-3 people). (2) collecting relevant information. firstly, this task is carried out around the topic of “travel in algarve”, so students should have a certain understanding of the province of algarve. for example, where is algarve located? what tourist attractions are there? what are the specialties? at the same time, it is also necessary to accumulate relevant vocabulary to pave the way for actual practice. then, students should be guided to inquire the writing mode and elements of complaint letters through reading, internet and other ways, and cultivate students' autonomous learning ability. (3) teacher explanation. the teacher can extract the key words and sentence patterns and write them on the blackboard or use a projector to show them to the students, explain to the students the matters needing attention in writing the complaint letter and the tips for completing the task, and encourage the students to ask questions. (4) writing a letter. according to the task requirements, student a (not limited to one person) needs to write a complaint letter to student b. after reading the letter from student a, student b will write back. (5) group activities. in this link, the teacher needs to patrol in the classroom, urge each student to practice, and answer questions for students in time. of course, the teacher should also silently record all kinds of problems and errors in the practice of students, and summarize them at the end of the class. (6) group presentation. according to the class time, groups can be selected to perform on the podium. the performance starts with “reading letters” from both sides. encourage students to boldly read out what they have written, not afraid of making mistakes, not afraid of pronunciation, and show the most confident state. then freely display according to the requirements of the task. this link has two main purposes. one is to check the students' practice results and task completion, and find out the advantages and disadvantages; the second is to let students practice in motion and learn knowledge while learning it; third, say goodbye to “dumb language” and increase self-confidence in learning. (7) evaluation and encouragement. after the presentation, the teacher summarizes the grammar points involved in the task (mainly the virtual unfinished past), and makes comments on each group one by one to explain the problems and difficulties encountered by students in the activity. at the same time, praise and reward the excellent team. 4.3. reflection and prospect this link is crucial. it requires teachers to be able to observe students' individual differences, especially for students' errors in the process of language use. after the completion of the task, it is also necessary to evaluate it. by summing up the students' opinions, it is necessary to comprehensively summarize the design, implementation and results of the task, so as to provide the basis for better carrying out the follow-up task. 5. conclusion the task-based teaching method advocates letting students master the learning initiative and embodies the peopleoriented concept, which is a unique teaching method in portuguese classroom. no matter how to use task-based teaching method, teachers should pay attention to students' own needs. first of all, learning interest is very important. to stimulate learners' interest in learning and give full play to students' subjective consciousness can not only promote the smooth development of teaching activities, but also maximize the teaching effect. secondly, it is clear that the purpose of grammar teaching is to cultivate learners' ability to global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 52 flexibly use the knowledge they have learned, rather than simply following the book. finally, according to the students' individual differences, we should reasonably select and design tasks, understand their essence, guide students to observe and think about grammar phenomena independently, and actively solve grammar problems. however, although the task-based teaching method has the outstanding effect that the traditional teaching method cannot bring, we cannot completely apply it to the university classroom in china. teachers should deeply study the theory of task-based teaching, make appropriate improvements in teaching methods in combination with the actual situation in china, and always walk on the road of exploring the localization of task-based teaching in china. at the same time, it should be noted that choosing task-based teaching method does not mean abandoning other teaching methods. teachers should innovate teaching methods according to the actual situation and constantly improve the portuguese teaching system. references yue shouguo. task-based language teaching method: summary, motivation and application [j]. foreign language teaching and research, 2002 (05): 364-367. cai lanzhen, the application of task-based approach in college english writing [j]. foreign language circles, 2001 (04): 41-46. nunan, d. design tasks for the communicative classroom [m]. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1989. skehan p. a cognitive approach to language learning [m]. oxford: oxford university press. 1998. [5] fan wenting, han ying. discussion on teaching methods suitable for portuguese teaching in china [j]. journal of higher education, 2017 (20): 110-112. rui mengqing. discussion on the application of context in portuguese grammar teaching [j]. science and education literature collection (mid-term issue), 2020 (10): 184-186. doi:10.16871/j.cnki.kjwhb.2020.10.079. shao wanbi. practice and exploration of teaching mode reform of portuguese reading course [j]. industry and technology forum, 2018,17 (20): 141-142. 061909-fa1716-frontiers in educational research.docx global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 53 digital renaissance: a comprehensive exploration of education transformation hotspots, models, and strategic approaches 1somchai chaiyakun and jian wei liu yang2 1faculty of teacher education, guangxi modern polytechnic college, hechi, 547000, china 2faculty of education, dhonburi rajabhat university, bangkok, 10700, thailand article info abstract keywords: digital transformation, education modernization, artificial intelligence, teachers' digital literacy, educational governance, research background doi 10.5281/zenodo.11121142 the digital transformation of education represents a contemporary shift towards leveraging modern information technology to revolutionize teaching methodologies, management systems, operational mechanisms, and security systems. this transformation is underpinned by the innovative integration of artificial intelligence virtual simulation technology and multi-modal data, fostering educational evolution, and ultimately enabling comprehensive, personalized, and accessible learning experiences. in alignment with this trajectory, china's educational modernization agenda, as outlined in 2019, underscores the imperative to accelerate educational reforms in the information age. central to this mission is the creation of intelligent campuses and the development of integrated platforms that encompass smart teaching, efficient management, and seamless services. this digital transformation of education exhibits distinctive characteristics, such as the transition from a two-dimensional educational landscape to a multi-dimensional one and a shift in teaching evaluation from broad assessments to precise measurements. in essence, it encompasses a transformation of educational paradigms, pedagogical methods, cognitive approaches, and technological innovations. the 2022 ministry of education directive on teachers' digital literacy serves as a critical milestone, providing a structured framework encompassing digital awareness, technological proficiency, digital application, digital social responsibility, and professional expertise. this framework significantly propels the digital transformation and development of education, highlighting the establishment of vocational education digital campuses, information benchmarks, resource-rich teaching repositories, exemplary online courses, and virtual simulation training facilities. by grounding itself in addressing societal challenges, adhering to developmental trends, and aligning with the broader national modernization agenda, the digital transformation of education promises to enhance the efficiency and precision of educational governance. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 54 introduction digital transformation of education refers to the use of modern information technology to promote the innovative development of teaching mode, management system, operation mechanism and security system, deepen the innovative application of artificial intelligence virtual simulation technology, integrate multi-modal data with virtual simulation technology, promote the integration and innovation of education, and finally realize the comprehensive, free and personalized development of education. in 2019, china education modernization mentioned: "accelerate the educational reform in the information age, build an intelligent campus, and make overall plans to build an integrated intelligent teaching, management and service platform [1]. the transformation of education digitalization mainly embodies the following characteristics: the educational ecology is from plane to three-dimensional; teaching evaluation is from extensive to accurate. in a word, the digital transformation of education involves the transformation of educational mode, educational method, educational thinking and educational technology [2]. in 2022, the ministry of education issued a notice on the education industry standard of teachers' digital literacy, which sorts out the framework of teachers' digital literacy, including digital awareness, digital technology knowledge and skills, digital application, digital social responsibility and other professional fields, and effectively promotes the digital transformation and development of education. in the digital transformation of education, vocational education digital campus, information benchmark, professional teaching resource pool, excellent online open courses, virtual simulation training base and other information projects will be established. the digital transformation of education should reflect the solution of major social problems, conform to the trend of the times, stand at the high point of social development strategy, help realize the modernization of china, and the digital transformation of education will promote the efficiency and accuracy of education governance. 1. research hotspots and research trends the literature data of this paper comes from wos (web of science) database, with the theme of "digital transformation of education" and the deadline of publication from january 1, 2015 to july 16, 2023, a total of 1381 articles were retrieved. in this paper, citespace6.1r6 is used for visual analysis, and the running time of the software is set as "2015-2023", k=25, and the pruning method is pathfinder, annual pruning and overall network pruning. after running, the following graphs are obtained. 1.1 network of research institutions the cooperative network map of research institutions explains the spatial distribution of research forces in this field. in order to find the institutions that promote research development, this study uses the cooperative network analysis function in citespace software tools to mine the network relations of research institutions in the research field. this network relationship can directly reflect the cooperation between institutions and provide reference for scientific evaluation of the influence of institutions within the academic scope. using citespace software to visually analyze the data, the time slicing of the software is set to "2015—2023", the yearsperslice is set to "1", k = 25, the node types panel selects "institution", the pruning method is pathfinder, and the other options are the default options of the system. the cooperative institutions are analyzed from the perspective of time series by using tiomezone function. running can get the network map of the distribution of educational digital transformation research institutions, as shown in figure 1, in which the node size indicates the number of periodical papers published by the research institution, the connection line between nodes indicates the cooperation intensity between different institutions, and the color of the connection line represents the cooperation relationship in different time periods. aalborg univ, gdansk univ technol and other institutions appeared earlier, distributed in 2016, and high-yield institutions were roughly distributed in 2017-2021, indicating that research institutions have a long time span and long research duration. and the color of most research institutions is mostly yellow, which shows that the research is high and the time is short, and the related research has a drastic change trend in this period, which is consistent with the trend of the number of papers published (the main conference policy documents in this period). recent research global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 55 figure 1: time zone map of institutions 1.2 keyword clustering research hotspot is the focus of scholars in a specific academic field, and it is also the embodiment of the main problems discussed in this field in a certain period. as an important part of academic papers, keywords condense the essence of papers and are often used to study and discuss hot issues in a certain field. based on this, this paper uses citespace software for clustering analysis of keyword co-occurrence to intuitively reflect the research focus of digital transformation of education. the keyword clustering view presented by citespace is shown in figure 2, and the color blocks represent the clustering areas. node n=389, number of connections e=516, and network density density=0.0068. the module value q is related to the density of nodes. the larger the q value, the better the clustering effect, which can be used for scientific clustering analysis. the size of the average contour value s can be used to measure the homogeneity of the cluster. the larger the value s, the higher the homogeneity of the network, indicating that the cluster has high credibility. as can be seen from figure 2, q=0.8081 (greater than 0.3), which shows that the clustering effect of the network structure is good; s=0.8748 (greater than 0.5), and the homogeneity is high, which shows that this cluster view is significant and reasonable, and different clusters are well divided. from the keyword clustering view, formed #1primary education, #2digital health, #3educational innovation, #4industry 4, #5online learning, #6industry 4.0, #7big data, #8digital education, # 9higher education, #10digital transformation, #11virtual learning, #12media literacies, #13social media, a total of 13 clusters. the research on digital transformation of education mainly revolves around these clusters (see figure 2). among them, the figures show "primary education", "digital health" and "educational innovation". the average year of the top five clusters is from 2018 to 2021, which shows that the related research is mature in this period. among them, the largest cluster is "primary education", and the year is 2019, which contains 38 keywords. to sum up, the research hotspots and research trends of digital transformation of education mainly include digital business, artificial table 1: keyword clustering map institutions include univ johannesburg, norwegian univ sci & technol, etc. intelligence, motivation, educational change and so on. figure 2 : keyword clustering map global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 56 rank cluster keywords average year keyword quantity 1 primary education primary education ; digitalbusiness; artificial intelligence; motivation ; educational change 2019 38 2 digital health digital health; internet of things ; stem ; machine learning ; saudi arabia 2021 34 3 educational innovation educational innovation ; entrepreneurship education ; digital library; collaborative learning ; digital gender gap 2019 27 4 industry 4 industry 4 ; distance education ; digital learning ; digital literacy 2019 26 5 online learning online learning ; architectural education ; circular economy ; medical education ; knowledge 2018 25 1.3 distribution of countries and regions in this paper, the node type of citespace is set to country, that is, the distribution of the research countries is analyzed, and the visual view spectrum of the cooperation network between countries/regions can be obtained as shown in figure 3. among them, the node size represents the number of papers published in this country, the connecting line between nodes represents the cooperative relationship between different countries, and the thickness of the connecting line represents the degree of cooperation. as shown in figure 3, there are 112 nodes and 381 connections, and the overall network density is 0.0613, which shows that there are more countries studying the digital transformation of education and the cooperation between countries is closer. among them, russia is the largest research country, followed by germany and spain, and the cooperation network among countries is relatively close. through the statistics of the number of papers published in different countries, the top ten high-yield countries in table 1 can be obtained. from the perspective of centrality, there is a positive correlation between the number of articles published in most countries and the centrality, but the centrality of russia, china and other countries is obviously not proportional, which shows that although the number of articles published is high, the centrality is low, and the cooperative relationship with other countries is not ideal. it is likely that there are problems in the citation of documents, which needs to be strengthened in the later period. to sum up, the cooperation networks among russia, germany and spain are relatively close, and the figure 3: knowledge map of countries and cooperation networks table 2: top ten high-yield countries research on digital transformation of education is more frequent and numerous. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 57 rank country producing centrality start year 1 russia 169 0 2015 2 germany 135 0.03 2016 3 spain 134 0.07 2015 4 usa 100 0.13 2015 5 peoples r china 97 0 2015 6 england 75 0.03 2015 7 portugal 68 0 2015 8 italy 64 0.03 2016 9 australia 53 0 2015 10 romania 47 0.03 2016 2. the ecological model the ecological model of educational digital transformation refers to a visual ecological model used to simulate the interaction between digital system and artificial intelligence technology. digital transformation of education is to use information technology and digital technology to promote the upgrading and transformation of education and teaching, and to explain the relationship between digital technology and data conversion and data simulation. the digitalization of education mainly embodies the following three types of transformation: 2.1 technological transformation the core level of digital transformation of education is technological transformation, which is mainly to determine the goal, make the plan and implement the technological transformation. technical transformation is an architecture system that coordinates the efficient and stable operation of the technical system of the whole model, and cooperates with artificial intelligence technology, virtual simulation technology, internet plus, online education, big data, blockchain, internet of things, infrared sensing, chatgpt and emotional computing to jointly maintain the model. according to the technical transformation plan, we will gradually implement technological upgrading and innovation to ensure the smooth progress of the transformation process. after the technical transformation is completed, it is necessary to evaluate the effect of the transformation, ensure that the effect of the new technology or method meets expectations, and solve the problems existing in the original technology or method. 2.2 business transformation business transformation refers to the transformation and upgrading of educational business processes, teachers or systems to adapt to the changes in the information environment and improve the core competitiveness of education. there are three types of business transformation: operational transformation, core transformation and strategic transformation. operational transformation refers to changing the operation mode of education, and education pays special attention to using digitalization, intelligence and technology to change educational problems. the core transformation refers to the fundamentally different operation modes of education. strategic transformation is to transform the essence of education into an innovative field. 2.3 literacy transformation literacy transformation is a comprehensive quality from focusing on students' knowledge learning to innovative thinking, problem solving, scientific and technological literacy and humanistic literacy. literacy transformation embodies the transformation of educational concept, curriculum setting, projectbased learning and strengthening the cultivation of scientific and technological literacy. the transformation of literacy is mainly embodied in the improvement of teachers' information teaching ability and the transformation of teachers' information thinking. in the field of education, literacy usually refers to the comprehensive literacy of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values acquired by students through study and practice in school. from the perspective of information-based teaching environment, both school education goals and classroom teaching goals need to reconstruct new information literacy, focusing on cultivating students' comprehensive literacy such as innovation literacy, humanistic literacy and scientific literacy. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 58 figure 4: ecological model of digital transformation of education 3. the research strategy digital transformation of education is a process of transforming traditional education methods by means of digital technology to improve education quality, promote education equity and realize the sustainable development of education. this process needs to comprehensively consider the policy environment, investment [3], infrastructure construction, digital educational resources, the quality of teachers and the reform of education and teaching. here are some specific strategies: 3.1 building a new infrastructure for digital transformation of education and promoting the highquality development of education. the core level of education digital transformation is technology transformation, which is mainly to determine the goal of technology transformation, formulate technology transformation plan and implement technology transformation. technology transformation is an architecture system that coordinates the efficient and stable operation of the entire model's technical system, and collaborates with artificial intelligence technology, virtual simulation technology, internet +, online education, big data, blockchain, internet of things, infrared sensing, chatgpt, emotional computing, etc., to maintain the model. after the technology transformation is completed, it is necessary to evaluate the effect of the transformation, ensure that the effect of the new technology or method meets the expectation, and solve the problems existing in the original technology or method. 3.2 improve teachers' digital literacy skills training and improve teachers' digital technology ability. business transformation refers to the transformation and upgrading of education business processes, teachers or systems to adapt to the changes in the information environment and improve the core competitiveness of education. there are three types of business transformation: operational transformation, core transformation, and strategic transformation. operation transformation refers to changing the mode of education operation, and education pays special attention to the use of digitalization, intelligence and technology to change education issues. core transformation refers to the fundamentally different mode of operation of education. strategic transformation is to transform the essence of education into an innovative field. 3.3 building a diversified evaluation mechanism for the digital transformation of education to improve the accuracy of evaluation. the transformation of literacy is from the focus on students' knowledge learning to the comprehensive quality of innovative thinking, problem-solving, scientific and technological literacy and humanistic literacy. literacy transformation embodies the transformation of education concept, changes the curriculum, advocates projectstyle learning, and strengthens the cultivation of scientific and technological literacy. the transformation of literacy is mainly embodied in the improvement of teachers' information-based teaching ability and the transformation of teachers' information-based thinking. in the field of education, literacy usually refers to the comprehensive literacy of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and other aspects acquired by students through learning and practice in school. in the vision of information-based teaching environment, both school education goals and classroom teaching goals need to reconstruct new information-based literacy, focusing on cultivating students' innovative literacy, humanistic literacy, scientific literacy and other comprehensive literacy. in short, the digital transformation of education needs to comprehensively consider the policy environment, investment, infrastructure construction, digital educational resources, the quality of teachers and the reform of education and teaching, so as to achieve the goal of digital transformation of education. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 59 4. conclusion this study mainly explores the hot topics, ecological models and innovation strategies related to the digital transformation of education, and makes a visual analysis of the network of research institutions, keyword clustering, countries and regions in the digital transformation of education through citespace knowledge map software. the results show that the research hotspots and trends of digital transformation of education are digital business, artificial intelligence, motivation, educational change, etc. the cooperation network among russia, germany and spain is relatively close, and the research on digital transformation of education is more frequent and numerous. in the future research, we can use modern technology to evaluate the changing rules and innovative strategies of digital transformation of education, for example, big data and chatgpt technology can accurately evaluate the mode of digital transformation of education. acknowledgement fund project: 2022 project of improving the basic scientific research ability of young and middleaged teachers in guangxi modern polytechnic college (project no.: 2022ky1440). references temitayo s, euiseok k. sustainability in higher education: digital transformation of the fourth industrial revolution and its impact on open knowledge [j]. sustainability, 2023, 15(3). hoang s t, nguyen t l m, pham n l, et al. digital competence of lecturers at the universities of education: in the context of education digital transformation vietnam[j]. international journal of information and education technology, 2022, 12(10). milton j, solodkin a, et al. the mind of expert motor performance is. cool and focused [j]. neuroimage, 2007, 35(2):804-813. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 10; october-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 control-based management strategies and their impact on flour mill workers' occupational asthma 1dr. amina mahmoud abdelrahman, 2prof. samir ahmed el-masry and 3dr. fatima ali hassan article info abstract keywords: occupational asthma, flour dust, respiratory symptoms, prevalence, spirometric parameters. occupational asthma remains a significant global concern, particularly impacting workers exposed to grain and flour dust, which stands as the second most frequently cited cause of such asthma cases. despite being prevalent, limited research has delved into the topic, with a focus on symptomatology. notably, a study investigated the prevalence of occupational asthma in south cairo's flour mills, revealing that a quarter of workers exhibited work-related asthma symptoms that manifested during work hours and subsided post work. moreover, these asthmatic workers displayed inferior spirometric parameters compared to non-asthmatic counterparts. similarly, studies conducted in other regions corroborate these findings. for instance, an investigation in iraq among flour mill workers discovered a significantly high prevalence of occupational asthma, substantiated both by self-reports and investigator diagnoses. in egypt, a study involving flour production mill workers highlighted complaints of asthma due to occupational exposure, coupled with diminished respiratory capacity. additionally, indian research unveiled that chronic exposure to flour dust led to pronounced respiratory symptoms, including cough, breathlessness, and wheezing, further compounded by substantial declines across various pulmonary function tests. in sum, these collective studies emphasize the link between flour dust exposure and the prevalence of occupational asthma, urging comprehensive measures to safeguard the respiratory health of workers. introduction occupational asthma is a global problem affecting a large number of workers. exposure to grain and flour dust is the second most typical reported cause of occupational asthma. few studies on occupational asthma in egypt, focusing mainly on asthma symptoms. a study was done to investigate the presence of occupational asthma among workers at flour mills of south cairo, which indicated that 25% of mills workers had asthma-related to 1,2,3community health nursing department, faculty of nursing, cairo university, egypt https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 2 work; the asthma symptoms appeared during work and improved after leaving the workplace. also, the asthmatic workers had lower spirometric parameters than non-asthmatic (el-gewily et al., 2018). therefore, many studies investigated the relationship between flour dust and the prevalence of occupational asthma among flour mill workers. one of those studies was done by ajeel & al-yaseen (2015) in iraq to study the prevalence of occupational respiratory disorders among flour mill workers and found that the prevalence of occupational asthma as reported by workers and diagnosed by one of the investigators was significantly high. in addition, a study done by rafiee et al. (2015) to assess the effects of flour dust on the respiratory system among 400 workers of flour production mills in assiut, egypt, found that most workers complained of occupational exposure to asthma and a decrease in respiratory capacity. another study done by asia & atram (2016) in india to evaluate the effect of chronic exposure to flour dust on pulmonary function test among flour mill workers concluded that cough and breathlessness were more pronounced among workers, wheezing is a commonly encountered sign, and all pulmonary function tests showed a significant decline. j. multidiscip. sci. 2021, 3(2), 34-41. https://doi.org/10.33888/jms.2021.324 www.multidisciplines.com yawn et al. (2014) mentioned that the asthmatic flour mill workers need effective occupational asthma management to achieve clinical control of the disease and maintain that control through implementing a control-based management strategy. control-based asthma management strategy is a workerfocused, individualized, flexible approach to occupational asthma management that allows adjustments to regimens over time, thus considering the variable nature of the disease within each worker. therefore, occupational health nurses in flour mills play an essential role in maintaining the health and safety of health care workers through the three levels of prevention. the primary level of prevention includes both health promotion and work-related injury or disease prevention; health promotion is applied when the occupational health nurse helps the workers to change their lifestyle to move toward a state of optimal health. work-related injury or disease prevention began with recognition of health risk factors, a disease, injury, or an environmental hazard and was followed by measures to protect as many workers as possible from the harmful consequences of that risk (neis & ewen, 2014). the occupational health nurse should provide more frequent health surveillance at the secondary prevention level, including a respiratory questionnaire about work-related upper and lower respiratory symptoms. to identify sensitized workers or cases of occupational asthma at early and reversible stages of the disease and ensure that the workplace and working practices are investigated to identify potential causes and implement corrective actions (buchta & russi, 2017). additionally, the occupational health nurse is often the key person in the rehabilitation program with the manager in the tertiary prevention level. moreover, the affected workers she/he is responsible for completing a risk assessment and advising the affected workers with the rehabilitation program to reduce the consequences of occupational asthma, monitor its progress, and coordinate health care services for the affected workers from the onset of illness to a safe return to work or an optimal alternative (ethridge et al., 2015). so, the study aimed to evaluate the effect of a control-based management strategy on occupational asthma control among flour mill workers in giza governorate. materials and methods research design and areas a quasi-experimental one-group pretest-posttest design will be utilized to fulfill the aim of the study. a purposive sample of 122 flour mill workers from el-haram flour mill constituted the subjects of the study. the sample size was calculated based on a g-power version 3.1.1 for power analysis. a power of .95 (β = 1-.95 = .05) at alpha .05 (one-sided) was used as the significance level, and effect size= 0.3 was utilized. the inclusion criteria were working full-time for at least one year in the flour mill (8 hours a day and six days per week). the exclusion global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 3 criteria were having a history of bronchial asthma before joining the work or family history and having a present or history of severe respiratory infections as extensive pulmonary tuberculosis. these criteria were according to british occupational health research foundation (2017). research setting this study was conducted at south cairo & giza mills & bakeries company in 2019. it is the largest company in egypt for the manufacture of flour and has the most significant number of workers. it includes 950 workers. el-haram mill branch was selected to implement the study because it includes many workers. it includes 300 workers out of 950 workers in all company mills. in addition, the el-haram mill is the main branch of the company. tools of data collection data were collected using five tools: i: occupational asthma questionnaire: it was structured by the researcher based on extensive literature reviews. it included three parts: (a) workers' characteristics consisted of 9 questions (b) occupational asthma symptoms: it included 22 questions related to reported asthma symptoms as wheezing and tightness in the chest, cough, and whether these symptoms improved when the worker was away from work. (c) occupational asthma flare-ups symptoms: it consisted of 3 questions related to reported sudden symptoms as coughing, shortness of breath, and wheezing. ii: worker's inhaler adherence and satisfaction questionnaire: it was developed by the researcher based on an extensive literature review. it included two parts 1st part. pre/ post worker's inhaler adherence. this part assessed the worker's adherence to the use of an inhaler, and it included ten questions related to when to use the inhaler, using the inhaler only when feeling breathless, missing out on doses. 2nd part. pre/ post worker satisfaction with the inhaler. this part assessed the workers' satisfaction regarding inhaler use. it included ten questions about inhaler preparation, using, keeping, carrying. iii: inhaler technique observational checklist: it is adopted from basheti et al. (2014). it consisted of ten steps that assessed the worker’s inhaler use. this tool was used as a pre/post-test. iv-workplace observational checklist: it was developed by the researcher based on stobnika & gorny (2015). it included five preventive measures available in the workplace to minimize the risks of occupational asthma among workers: a) flour dust control measures, b) ventilation measures, c) personal protective equipment, d) first aid facilities, and e) waste management measures. v: spirometry test record. spirometry is a standard test used to measure how well patient lungs are functioning. the test works by measuring airflow into and out of the patient lungs using a spirometer. the patient sits and breathes into a small machine (spirometer) to take a spirometry test. this medical device records the amount of air a patient breathes in and out to measure the forced expiratory volume in one second (fev1) and the speed of the patient breath. the researcher recorded the readings. spirometry tests are used to diagnose asthmatic patients. ethical consideration the research proposal and the tools were submitted to the committee of research ethics at the faculty of nursing, cairouniversity. approval to start the study was obtained on 28 may 2018. written approval was obtained from the director of the medical sector at south cairo & giza mills & bakeries company on 8 july 2018 to collect data from the workers working at the el-haram flour mill. also, written informed consents were obtained from the workers working at el-haram flour mill after explaining the aim of the study, its benefits, and risks, if any, duration of the study, data collection tools, and the procedure of the study. the researcher informed the workers that all data gathered during the study would be confidential. moreover, they had the right to withdraw without any reason and any pressure from the head of the department. besides, workers were informed that the obtained data would be used for this study, and it would not be reused in other studies except with their permission. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 4 results and discussion description of flour mill workers' characteristics concerning the personal characteristics of flour mill workers, table (1) shows that 51.6% and 23% of workers aged 45 to less than 55 and from 25 to ˂ 45 years old respectively with a mean of 48.11 ± 8.61 years. in addition, the table reveals that 40.1% of workers had work experience of 20 to less than 30 years while 18% had work experience of 1 ˂ 10 years with a mean of 17.86 ± 8.69 years. as for smoking history, 17.2% were moderate smokers, and 6.6% were heavy smokers. table 1. percentage distribution of flour mill workers' characteristics (n = 122). personal characteristics frequency % age / year 25 ˂ 35 13 10.7 35 ˂ 45 15 12.3 45 ˂ 55 63 51.6 55 – 60 31 25.4 x̅ ± sd 48.11 ± 8.61 years duration of work: 1 ˂ 10 22 18 10 ˂ 20 39 32 20 ˂ 30 49 40.2 3038 12 9.8 x̅ ± sd 17.86 ± 8.69 years history of smoking: no 82 67.2 yes: 40 32.8 ˂ 10 cigarettes/day (light smoker) 11 9 10-20 cigarettes/day (moderate smoker) 21 17.2 ˃ 20 cigarettes/day (heavy smoker) 8 6.6 description of occupational asthma and lung function among flour mill workers in pre, post, and follow-up tests. regarding the prevalence of occupational asthma, figure 1-2 reveals that all degrees of asthma percentages changed better. moderate occupational asthma represented 31.1% of workers in the pre-test, which decreased to 28.7% and 18% in post and follow-up tests, respectively. the percentage of severe asthma workers decreased from 22.1% in the pre-test to 20.5% and 12.3% in the post and follow-up tests, respectively. also, mild asthma increased from 18.9% in the pre-test to 22.9% and 36.9% in post and follow-up tests. also, intermittent asthma global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 5 increased from 27.9% to 32% in the follow-up. in addition, table 2-3 shows a significant reduction in occupational asthma degree in the post and follow-up tests (f = 31.16, p = 0.006). table 2. difference between airway obstruction scores in pre and follow-up tests among flour mill workers. scores of airway obstruction mean sd paired ttest p pre 2.24 1.04 9.718 0.000* follow-up 1.50 0.67 note. * significant at the 0.05 level and n = 122. table 3. difference between the means of occupational asthma degree in pre, post, and follow-up tests among flour mill workers. degree of occupational asthma mean (10) sd f p pre 6.86 1.74 31.16 0.006* post 5.19 1.23 follow-up 3.52 1.45 note. *significant at the 0.05 level and n = 122. figure 1. percentage distribution of pre, post, and follow-up occupational asthma degree among flour mill workers (n = 122). % 0.0 % 5.0 % 10.0 15.0 % % 20.0 % 25.0 30.0 % % 35.0 % 40.0 intermittent mild moderate severe 27.9 % 18.9 % 31.1 % 22.1 % 27.9 % % 22.9 % 28.7 20.5 % % 32.8 36.9 % 18 % 12.3 % degree of occupational asthma pre post follow-up global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 6 figure 2. percentage distribution of airway obstruction in pre, and follow-up tests through forced expiratory volume (fev1) among flour mill workers (n = 122). figure 2 clarifies that the percentage of workers who had normal lung function increased from 27.9% in the pretest to 49.3% in the in-follow-up test. moderate and severe airway obstruction represented 18% and 17.2% in the pre-test, respectively decreased to 9.8% in the follow-up test. table 3 shows a highly statistically significant difference between the means of airway obstruction scores in pre and follow-up tests (t = 9.718, p = 0.000). table 4. correlation between flour mill workers' characteristics and scores of airway obstruction in pre, and followup tests. the score of airway obstruction flour mill workers' characteristics pre follow-up r p r p age 0.105 0.250 0.088 0.3322 sex 0.211 0.020* 0.082 0.370 level of education 0.007 0.937 0.028 0.761 place of residence 0.161 0.076 0.194 0.033* duration of work 0.033 0.721 0.119 0.192 income 0.082 0.370 0.071 0.439 smoking -0.055 0.545 0.083 0.364 note. * significant at the 0.05 level, r = pearson correlation, p = probability, and n = 122. 3.3. workers’ compliance to prescribed management. as indicated in figure 3 regarding adherence of workers to inhalers, it shows that 4.9% of them were adherent to inhalers in pre-test increased to 75.4% and 79.5% in post and follow-up tests, respectively. nonadherence % 0.0 % 5.0 % 10.0 15.0 % 20.0 % 25.0 % 30.0 % 35.0 % % 40.0 % 45.0 % 50.0 normal mild moderate severe 27.9 % 36.9 % 18.0 % % 17.2 % 49.3 31.1 % 9.8 % 9.8 % degrees of airway obstruction based on scores of lung function pre follow-up global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 7 represented 95.1%, 24.6%, and 20.5% in pre, post, and follow-up tests, respectively. regarding the worker’s satisfaction with an inhaler, figure 4 clarifies that only 4.1% of them were satisfied with using inhalers in pre-test increased to 60.7% and 42.6% in post and follow-up tests, respectively. table 5. percentage distribution of non-pharmacological practice among flour mill workers in pre, post, and follow-up tests. non-pharmacological practices pre post follow-up *n % *n % *n % smoking: light smoker 11 9 10 8.2 8 6.5 moderate smoker 21 17.2 20 16.3 15 12.2 heavy smoker 8 6.6 5 4 3 2.4 physical activity 27 22.1 45 36.8 77 63.1 breathing exercises 8 6.5 82 67.2 105 86.1 influenza vaccine 0 0 7 5.7 7 5.7 weight reduction 15 12.2 50 40.9 50 40.9 healthy diet 56 45.9 110 90.1 110 90.1 avoidance of confirmed food allergy 46 37.7 45 36.8 27 22.1 avoidance of the outdoor allergen 20 16.3 60 50.8 60 50.8 avoidance of outdoor air pollutants 82 67.2 115 94.2 115 94.2 note. *responses are not mutually exclusive, *n = number, and n = 122. regarding non-pharmacological management, table 5 shows that 17.2% were moderate smokers in pre-test decreased to 16.3% and 12.2% in post and follow-up tests, respectively. concerning physical activity, 22.1% of flour mill workers did a physical activity in pre-test increased to 36.8% and 63.1% in post and follow-up tests, respectively. for breathing exercises, the table clarifies that only 6.5% did the exercises in pre-test compared to 67.2% and 86.1% in the post and follow-up tests, respectively. regarding the influenza vaccine, table 5 shows that no one took the influenza vaccine in the pre-test, and only 5.7% took the vaccine in the post and follow-up tests. also, the table indicates that 45.9% ate a healthy diet in the pre-test, which increased to 90.1% in post and follow-up tests. in the pre-test, the table also shows that 67.2% avoided the outdoor air pollutant while 94.2% avoided the outdoor air pollutant in post and follow-up tests. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 8 figure 3. percentage distribution of pre, post, and follow-up inhaler adherence scores among flour mill workers (n = 122). this figure will cover hypothesis number three. figure 4. percentage distribution of pre, post, and follow-up flour mill worker satisfaction to inhaler (n = 122). this figure will cover hypothesis number four. preventive measures applied in the flour mill. regarding preventive measures applied by flour mill workers, table 6 shows that the preventive measures to control flour dust remained the same as before the intervention. table 7 shows no change in ventilation measures in the follow-up test. there were suitable working extraction units, and all equipment was clean and in good repair in pre and follow-up tests. the rest of the preventive measures were not available. table 6. availability of preventive measures toward flour dust control in the flour mill in pre and follow-up tests. % 0.0 10.0 % % 20.0 30.0 % % 40.0 50.0 % % 60.0 70.0 % 80.0 % 90.0 % 100.0 % non adherence adherence % 95.1 4.9 % 24.6 % 75.4 % 20.5 % 79.5 % inhaler adherence pre post follow-up % 0.0 10.0 % % 20.0 30.0 % % 40.0 50.0 % % 60.0 70.0 % 80.0 % 90.0 % 100.0 % satisfactory unsatisfactory 4.1 % % 95.9 60.7 % 39.3 % 42.6 % 57.4 % worker satisfaction to inhaler pre post follow-up global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 9 preventive measures toward flour dust control pre follow-up available available fast delivery of flour yes yes short storage time of flour yes yes automatically closing doors no no restriction of the entrance to areas with high dust levels no no relevant warning signs displayed no no washing hands facilities yes yes taking shower facilities no no storage places of working clothes yes yes avoidance of eating, drinking, or smoking at the mill yes yes table 7. availability of preventive measures toward ventilation in the flour mill in pre and follow-up tests. preventive measures toward ventilation pre follow-up available available all areas are ventilated sufficiently no no there are extraction units yes yes extraction units are in good working condition yes yes the filter screens are free from any buildup of dust no no there are air conditioning units/fans no no all equipment is clean & in good repair yes yes conclusion this study indicated that all percentages of occupational asthma degrees changed to be better after applying a control-based management strategy. in addition, the percentage of flour mill workers who had normal lung function increased in follow-up tests than in pre-test. there was a significant increase in inhaler adherence mean scores in post and follow-up tests than in pre-test. also, flour mill workers reported better satisfaction with inhalers in the post-test and follow-up tests than in the pre-test. moreover, there was a lack of preventive measures in pre and follow-up tests. acknowledgment first, we would like to thank "allah" for his grace, mercy, endless gifts, and for giving me the effort to complete this work. we would also like to express our deepest thanks to flour mill workers who participated actively in this study. conflict of interest. the authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. orcid id marwa m. shaban: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-8796 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (10) pg. 10 references ajeel, c. & al-yassen, j. (2015). exposure to flour dust in the occupational environment. the medical journal of basrah university, 21, 491-498. asia, a. & atram, g. (2016). effect of chronic exposure to flour dust on pulmonary function tests. journal of dental and medical sciences,15, 29-32. basheti, i., anticevitch, s., armour, c. & reddel, h. (2014). respiratory care. (4th ed.), boston, ma: longman. british occupational health research foundation (2017). guidelines for identification, prevention, and management of occupational asthma. journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 62, 1-60. buchta, w.j. & russi, m.t. (2017). guidance for occupational health services in medical centers. (2nd ed.), california, ma: lippincott. ethridge, s.b., mackellar, d.k. & branson, b.d. (2015). community health nursing, roles of occupational health nurse. (5th ed.), lippincott company, new york, p345-354. el-gewily, m., el-husseini, m., beshir, s., el-serougi, s., hafez, s. & el-hamshary, m. (2018). diagnosis of occupational asthma in flour mills at south cairo. the egyptian journal of community medicine, 36(1), 95-103. neis, m.g. & ewen, j.s. (2014). community health nursing, concepts and practice. (5th ed.), lippincott company, new york, 66, p343-354. rafiee, a., asghari, m. & zadeh, n. (2015). respiratory effects of exposure to flour dust: a case study among flour workers of flour production mills in assiut. journal of paramedical sciences, 6, 79-84. stobnika, a. & gorny, r. (2017). article review for exposure to flour dust in the occupational environment. international journal of occupational safety and ergonomics, 3, 241-249. yawn, g., brenneman, c., ramey, t., cabana, l. & markson, n. (2014). guidelines for occupational asthma management. journal of paramedical sciences, 4, 1-60. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 8; august-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 mindfulness and concentration among wushu specialty students using tai chi preparation techniques 1yang jiannan article info abstract keywords: tai chi, mindfulness, concentration, tai chi proficiency doi 10.5281/zenodo.13600142 the study explored tai chi as a preparatory technique in chinese wushu (kung fu or martial arts) and its correlation with students’ mindfulness levels and concentration levels. one hundred four students were selected and qualified based on a nonrandomized selection, with the majority falling within the age range of 18–21 years, of which 58.65% were males and 41.35% were females. the descriptive analyses revealed a moderate level of mindfulness among the participants. who also demonstrated good concentration abilities with moderate variability in scores. the tai chi proficiency scores revealed that most students performed well in tai chi, with many achieving outstanding or good proficiency levels. additionally, correlational analyses revealed significant associations between mindfulness and concentration, concentration and tai chi proficiency, and mindfulness and tai chi proficiency of wushu specialty students. these findings underscore the importance of boosting mindfulness programs, developing strategies, and interventions aimed at improving concentration skills among student athletes, and implementing specialized training sessions and workshops focused on refining tai chi techniques and enhancing proficiency levels among wushu students. moreover, longitudinal or quasi-experimental studies should be conducted to further investigate the effects of mindfulness training, concentration enhancement strategies, and other related variables on wushu specialty students. 1. introduction aichi, a subset of the traditional wushu, combines chinese martial arts and meditative movements that promote balance and the healing of the mind and body. this involves a series of slowly performed dance-like postures that flow into one another. studies have revealed that tai chi offers physiological and psychosocial benefits across a spectrum of individuals, including athletes and adults with or without medical conditions. as a mindfulness–body 1 adamson university graduate school, https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 2 practice, tai chi integrates mental concentration, physical balance, muscle relaxation, and relaxed breathing. on a side note, it is commonly included in modern wushu schools’ curricula. cognitive and psychological aspects play significant roles in tai chi practitioners, and the practice of tai chi can affect these aspects. however, few studies have explored mental concentration in relation to practitioners’ performance. in addition, the relationship between mental concentration and mindfulness, a crucial variable in tai chi, remains relatively less explored, especially within the context of students. in sum, the aforementioned contexts have foregrounded the significance of tai chi, mindfulness, and concentration. there are also considerable gaps in the existing research that require further investigation into the relationship between these variables and extending the spectrum of existing participants among students majoring in chinese wushu with a focus on tai chi. this study addresses the gaps in these areas. 1.1. background of the study for centuries, the chinese have enjoyed many benefits and advantages associated with tai chi. people of all ages and backgrounds from around the world are discovering what the chinese have known for centuries: that the long-term sustained practice of tai chi leads to positive changes in physical and mental well-being (guo et al., 2013). for hundreds of years, the chinese have enjoyed many benefits that tai chi is believed to offer. today, people of all ages and backgrounds from around the world are discovering what the chinese have known for centuries: that the long-term sustained practice of tai chi leads to positive changes in physical and mental wellbeing (guo et al., 2013). furthermore, as mentioned by sani et al. (2023), tai chi is a mindfulness–body practice that has physiological and psychosocial benefits and can be integrated into the prevention and rehabilitation of various medical conditions. historically, mindfulness, a concept central to buddhist teachings, has been linked with the practice of meditation, which aims to foster a nonjudgmental awareness of one’s present moment-to-moment experiences (kabat-zinn, 2003, as cited in nedeljkovic et al., 2012). current interest in mindfulness within sport psychology also continues to grow, with researchers working on different issues related to mindfulness (garland et al., 2015). research supports the notion that mindfulness enhances sport performance, although some caution is needed about potential inadequacies in certain studies (kee, 2019). by and large, mindfulness is considered a viable alternative approach to preparing athletes for optimal athletic performance, according to harita et al. (2022). concentration, on the other hand, refers to the ability to focus on relevant environmental cues (weinberg and gould, 2015, as cited in dereceli, 2018). some authors and researchers use attention and concentration interchangeably (e.g., sindik & fiskus, 2015). in sport psychology, concentration refers to the focus on sensory or mental events coupled with mental effort. therefore, it relates primarily to the selective attention dimension, in which individuals selectively process some sources of information while ignoring others (jackson, 2014). for sindik and diskus, attention (concentration) is a concept studied in cognitive psychology that refers to how we actively process specific information in our environment. it allows one to “filter out” information, sensations, and perceptions that are not relevant at the moment and instead focus on important information. simply put, concentration in sports requires mental effort. it is where athletes direct their attention (sterling sport mindset, 2023). however, it is intriguing to observe that while the literature frequently asserts that experienced athletes have better attention and concentration skills (canterbury strength, 2023), there is a scarcity of articles and studies addressing the topic of concentration, particularly its association with tai chi and the martial arts. 1.2. statement of the problem this research investigates mindfulness and concentration in wushu (chinese martial arts) specialty students by employing tai chi preparation techniques. specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 3 1. what is the level of mindfulness among wushu specialty students using tai chi preparation techniques? 2. what is the level of concentration among wushu specialty students using tai chi preparation techniques? 3. how proficient are wushu specialty students’ tai chi performance? 4. is there a significant relationship between concentration and proficiency in tai chi among wushu specialty students? 5. is there a significant relationship between mindfulness and tai chi proficiency among wushu specialty students? 6. is there a significant relationship between mindfulness and concentration among wushu specialty students who utilize tai chi preparation techniques? 1.3. significance of the study this research is expected to have benefits and implications: students and practitioners. this study can deepen students’ understanding of how mindfulness and concentration are related to wushu performance. the study is expected to provide insights into how these variables can impact students’ proficiency in tai chi and overall wushu performance. in addition, this study can foster a broader awareness of the importance and benefits of tai chi, thereby promoting healthier lifestyles and sports participation. wushu instructors, coaches, and trainers. this study will provide valuable insights that instructors can incorporate into their teaching methodologies, using them to innovate their pedagogy and enrich their curricula on wushu, specifically on tai chi preparation techniques. coaches and trainers can also benefit from the findings of this study, offering them a springboard to craft training programs that are more attuned to their students’ needs. academic institutions and future researchers: this study will contribute to the preservation and understanding of wushu and tai chi as a part of chinese culture and tradition. academic institutions offering wushu programs can enrich their curricula by integrating the importance and practice of mindfulness among their students. other academic institutions can also draw inspiration from the findings of this study and incorporate tai chi into their wellness programs. 1.4. scope and delimitation this study focused on tai chi as a preparatory technique in chinese wushu (kung fu or martial arts) and how students’ proficiency in this technique relates to mindfulness and concentration. this involved university students in china who specialized in wushu with a focus on tai chi. the participants were selected based on the following inclusion/exclusion criteria: (1) presently enrolled in the university during the data gathering; (2) majoring in wushu with a focus on tai chi; and (3) no prevailing health conditions. data collected during the first semester of ay 2023-2024. self-reported measures of mindfulness were collected through a survey questionnaire, which could have introduced biases and subjective perspectives among the students. moreover, the proficiency of students in tai chi was evaluated through direct observation and scoring using a teacher-made assessment tool, which could involve the observer’s subjectivity. 1.5. theoretical framework the philosophical and theoretical bases underpinning the study on mindfulness, concentration, and performance among wushu specialty students using tai chi as a preparatory technique. the fundamental concept in buddhist philosophy is that altering one’s thoughts can transform one’s reality. the earliest teachings of buddhism assert with conviction that the “mind precedes all mental states. mind is their chief; they are all creatures of thought. if with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, suffering follows—like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox. if with a pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness follows him— global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 4 like his never-departing shadow.” buddhism also espouses mindfulness as one of the eightfold paths, a technique that emerged from yogic meditation encompassing the ability to focus one’s attention on the present moment” (van der walt, 2020). interestingly, in chinese philosophy, confucianism also taught that one had to take eight steps to self-cultivation and social harmony. among these eight steps, the third step “rectification of the mind” also closely resembles the concept of mindfulness. indeed, mindfulness has been theoretically and empirically associated with psychological well-being—the development of which has been integrated into various mindfulness-centered approaches. these approaches include interventions that claim that mindfulness plays an important role in mental health, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (williams et al., 2023). another foreground that found consonance with the variables in the study is the theory of attentional and personal style (tais), which was pioneered by robert nideffer in the field of sport psychology (nideffer, 1976, as cited in wikidot, 2023). tais has its primary application in the analysis and training of athletic behavior, specifically attentional focus and concentration. according to oxford reference (2023), this theory proposes that attentional style exists along two dimensions: width and direction. the width ranges from broad to narrow. those with broad attention can focus on a large range of stimuli, whereas those with narrow attention tend to focus on a limited range of stimuli. the direction of attentional style varies on a continuum from internal to external focus. particularly noteworthy, attention and concentration are two closely related but different concepts. in sports psychology, concentration refers to the focus on sensory or mental events coupled with mental effort. it relates primarily to selective attention, where individuals selectively process sources of information while ignoring or disregarding others (jackson, 2014). the researcher asserts that concentration is an important aspect not only in wushu but also in mindfulness, an important element in tai chi proficiency; hence, it is an interesting variable to examine. 2. methodology this chapter presents the research method used in this study. 2.1. research locale the study involved hunan normal university (hnu) students in china who specialize in wushu with a focus on tai chi. it was founded in 1938 and is located in the historical and cultural city of changsha, china. the university covers an area of nearly 3,000 acres, with a building area of 1.31 million square meters. the main campus is surrounded by lu mountain in the west and xiangjiang river in the east, with beautiful scenery. it is one of the “400 best” greening units in china. the study was conducted at hunan normal university in china because it was accessible to the researcher. additionally, the university provided support and resources to facilitate the smooth execution of this research. 2.2. sample and sampling technique the researcher specifically considered students pursuing a bachelor of education majoring in chinese wushu with an emphasis on tai chi in their curriculum to be participants in the study. these wushu specialty students were firstto fourth-year students who belonged to the chinese wushu program at the physical education college of hnu, the researcher’s home university. fourth-year wushu majors had an internship, during which they taught chinese wushu to fellow students in their later years. note that eligibility for enrollment in this specialized program relied heavily on the student’s notable performance in wushu competitions. to qualify, a student must have been within the top 3 ranks in wushu competitions and secured the title of a wushu national level 2 athlete. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 5 the researcher was handling 18 chinese martial arts classes, with 6 classes focusing on tai chi. the estimated class sizes ranged from 15 to 19 students per class. the participants in this study were selected using a nonprobability convenient sampling technique based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. to qualify, a potential participant had to meet the following requirements: (1) be presently enrolled in the university during the data gathering; (2) be enrolled in the bachelor of education program majoring in chinese wushu with an emphasis on tai chi; and (3) have no prevailing health conditions. participation in the study was voluntary, with no financial compensation offered. 2.3. data gathering procedure this research was scheduled for implementation during the first semester of the academic year 2023-2024. initially, ethical clearance was obtained from the adamson university board ethics committee and formally requested permission from hunan normal university to conduct the study. upon receiving approval, the researcher personally and directly contacted potential participants to inform them about their anticipated involvement in the data collection process. the researcher then communicated to potential participants the purpose and procedure of the assessments, including details about the ffmq, slct, and tcac. following this, potential participants underwent a screening procedure to confirm if they met the following eligibility criteria: a student must (1) be presently enrolled in the university during the data gathering; (2) be under the wushu program with a focus on tai chi; and (3) have no prevailing health conditions. the researcher obtained written informed consent from eligible tai chi students. the schedule for the three assessments was accordingly arranged. the ffmq will be transformed into an electronic version using the questionnaire star or google forms platform. the researcher will then administer the ffmq to the students. on another schedule, students complete the slct within a specified time (i.e., 90 seconds). a designated performance day or multiple days, depending on student count and availability, was arranged to evaluate their tai chi performance. students were informed about the criteria for evaluating their performance and were provided with a copy of tcac as much as possible. with the use of tcac, two to three observers evaluated each participant’s tai chi performance. the participants’ final tai chi proficiency scores were calculated as the average of the scores given by the observers. all data collected from the three assessments were coded and organized to ensure that all data points were documented correctly. then, the data were aggregated, analyzed, and interpreted for the final output. 2.4. statistical analysis spss was used to conduct descriptive analysis to examine the distribution, central tendency, and variability of the variables. additionally, the researcher calculated correlation coefficients to assess the relationships among mindfulness, concentration, and tai chi proficiency and explore any potential patterns or trends in the data. using a .05 level of significance, the analysis of the hypotheses was carried out and the findings were interpreted in light of the research questions and objectives. to summarize, the researcher employed the following statistical tools and treatments based on the research questions: rq 1: level of mindfulness mean and standard deviation rq 2: concentration level mean and standard deviation rq 3: tai chi proficiency score mean and standard deviation rq 4: relationship between mindfulness and tai chi proficiency pearson r rq 5: relationship between pearson r global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 6 concentration and tai chi proficiency rq 6: relationship between mindfulness and concentration pearson r 3. results and analysis this section presents the relevant findings of the investigation and their analysis. students’ level of mindfulness the students’ level of mindfulness was assessed and scored using the five facet mindfulness questionnaire (ffmq), a 39-item self-assessment tool that measures five aspects of mindfulness: observation, description, aware actions, nonjudgmental inner experience, and nonreactivity. the ffmq was transformed into an electronic version using the google forms platform. subsequently, the researcher administered the ffmq to eligible participants. descriptive and correlation analyses were then performed. table 1 shows that the students’ mindfulness level ranged from a minimum of 2.44 to a maximum of 4.21, with a mean score of 3.1691 and a standard deviation of 0.31174. this suggests that, on average, students exhibit a moderate level of mindfulness, with some variability in individual scores. table 1. descriptive statistics on students’ mindfulness n minimum maximum mean std. deviation students’ mindfulness levels 104 2.44 4.21 3.17 0.31 valid n (listwise) 104 the students’ overall level of mindfulness was assessed by computing the mean scores across five aspects: observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and nonreactivity to inner experience. table 2 provides the mean scores, standard deviations, and qualitative descriptions for each aspect. table 2. students’ mean scores for overall level of mindfulness aspect mean score standard deviation qualitative description rank observing 3.39 1.05 sometimes true 1 describing 3.35 0.97 sometimes true 2 acting with awareness 3.27 1.06 sometimes true 3 nonpurging one’s inner experience 2.70 1.02 sometimes true 5 nonreactivity to inner experience 3.13 1.01 sometimes true 4 overall mean 3.17 1.02 sometimes true legend: 1.00–1.50 never or very rarely true; 1.51–2.50 rarely true; 2.51–3.50 sometimes true; 3.51–4.50 often true; 4.51–5.50 very often or always true the composite mean score for overall mindfulness was 3.17, with a standard deviation of 1.02, indicating a moderate level of mindfulness among the participants. the qualitative description suggests that mindfulness behaviors are “sometimes true” on average across all aspects. although all the subscales received a response of “sometimes true” from the students, it is evident that students believe they have higher skill in observation, as indicated by their highest mean score. they also have high-level abilities in describing and acting with awareness, global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 7 followed by nonreactivity to inner experience. on the other hand, their ability to judge inner experience received the lowest mean score. upon examining individual aspects, it is evident that students demonstrate varying levels of mindfulness across different dimensions. observing (m = 3.39), describing (m = 3.35), and nonreactivity to inner experience (m = 3.13) scores were relatively higher, indicating a slightly stronger tendency toward these aspects of mindfulness. acting with awareness (m = 3.27) and nonjudging of inner experience (m = 2.70) received slightly lower mean scores, suggesting a moderate level of proficiency in these areas. the standard deviations across aspects remained relatively consistent, indicating uniformity in participants’ responses for each aspect. however, there is variability in the extent to which students exhibit mindfulness behaviors across different dimensions, as indicated by the mean scores. in summary, the analysis suggests that students possess a moderate level of mindfulness overall, with some variability in their proficiency across different aspects. students’ concentration levels the students’ level of concentration was assessed using the six‑letter cancelation task (slct), a sheet of 22 rows × 14 columns of randomly arranged letters of the letter. the top of each sheet lists the six target letters. subjects are given the choice of two possible strategies to cancel target letters (i) all six letters at once or (ii) selecting a single target letter at a time. it is also suggested that students follow horizontal, vertical, or random paths on the test sheet according to their own choices. they are told to cancel as many target letters as possible within a test time of 90 seconds. scoring for slct included the total cancelations attempted, and the number of wrong cancelations. the net score was obtained by subtracting the incorrectly attempted score from the total attempted score. table 9 shows the results of administering slct. table 3. descriptive statistics of students’ concentrations n minimum maximum mean std. deviation students’ concentration scores 104 40.00 60.00 50.51 4.43 valid n (listwise) 104 the concentration scores ranged from a minimum of 40.00 to a maximum of 60.00, with a mean score of 50.5096 and a standard deviation of 4.42630. these results indicate that, on average, students demonstrate good concentration abilities, with moderate variability in scores across the sample. pradhan and nagendra (2008) examined the normative data for the letter cancelation task in school children and proposed the following model equation: slct score = -4.307 + 2.545 × age – 4.25 × sex. this suggests that with each additional year of age, the slct scores increase by an average of 2.545 points and decrease by 4.25 points based on sex (female is 1 and male is 0). these coefficients enable the calculation of correction scores for individual subjects to account for the effects of age and sex. the results found higher scores with an increase in the age of both sexes; females had higher scores than males in the cancelation task performance. for instance, using the model equation, a 20-year-old male is expected to have an slct score of approximately 47 points, whereas a female of the same height is expected to have 55 points. the result of this study, in which the mean score was approximately 51, confirms the validity of the established normative data. tai chi proficiency level of students the students’ tai chi performance was evaluated by the researcher using the researcher’s assessment criteria. the tai chi assessment criteria is a teacher-made assessment tool that outlines the standard levels and their global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 8 corresponding criteria for tai chi. this category includes five distinct levels: outstanding (90 points or above), good (80-89), medium (65–79), passing (60–64), and failed (below 60 points). these levels are associated with specific criteria that emphasize essential elements while performing tai chi like movement, technique, strength, rhythm, style, and coordination. this assessment tool was used by the researcher to evaluate the proficiency of each student in tai chi. table 10 shows the results of evaluating students’ tai chi performance. table 4. descriptive statistics of students’ tai chi proficiency n minimum maximum mean std. deviation tai chi proficiency scores of students 104 75.00 96.00 83.96 4.15 valid n (listwise) 104 the tai chi proficiency scores ranged from a minimum of 75.00 to a maximum of 96.00, with a mean score of 83.9615 and a standard deviation of 4.14758. this suggests that, on average, students have a “good” level of proficiency in tai chi, with relatively low variability in scores across the sample. overall, based on the distribution of scores and defined proficiency levels, it seems that most students performed well in tai chi, with many achieving outstanding or good proficiency levels. the assessment criteria effectively differentiate between various levels of performance based on essential elements like movement, technique, strength, rhythm, style, and coordination. relationship between mindfulness and concentration table 5 shows the results of the correlation analysis conducted between the pair of variables: students’ level of mindfulness and students’ concentration scores. table 5. correlation between students’ mindfulness level and concentration variables students’ mindfulness level students’ concentration scores interpretation decision h0 students’ mindfulness level pearson correlation 1 .718* significant reject sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 104 104 students’ concentration scores pearson correlation .718* 1 significant reject sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 104 104 *. correlation was significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). as shown in table 5, the correlation analysis between students’ mindfulness levels and concentration scores revealed a strong positive correlation coefficient of r = 0.718 (p < 0.05, two-tailed). the null hypothesis was global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 9 rejected at a significance level of 5%. hence, there is enough evidence to conclude that there is a significant and positive relationship between students’ mindfulness levels and concentration scores. in other words, as students’ mindfulness levels increase, their concentration scores also tend to increase, and vice versa. the correlation coefficient of 0.718 suggests a strong association between these two variables. this implies that mindfulness practices can contribute to improved concentration abilities among students, and vice versa. however, correlation does not imply causation, and further research is needed to establish causal relationships between mindfulness and concentration. this finding underscores the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness training into educational settings to enhance students’ concentration skills, which could positively impact their academic performance and overall well-being. relationship between concentration and tai chi proficiency table 6 shows the results of the correlation analysis conducted between the pair of variables: students’ concentration scores and students’ tai chi proficiency scores. table 6. correlation between concentration and tai chi proficiency variables students’ concentration scores tai chi proficiency scores of students interpretation decision h0 students’ concentration scores pearson correlation 1 .748* significant reject sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 104 104 tai chi proficiency scores of students pearson correlation .748* 1 significant reject sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 104 104 * correlation was significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). as shown in table 6, the correlation analysis between students’ concentration scores and tai chi proficiency scores revealed a strong positive correlation coefficient of r = 0.748 (p < .05, two-tailed). the null hypothesis was rejected at a significance level of 5%. hence, there is enough evidence to conclude that there is a significant and positive relationship between students’ concentration scores and their tai chi proficiency scores. in other words, as students’ concentration score increases, their tai chi proficiency scores also tend to increase and vice versa. the correlation coefficient of .748 suggests a strong association between these two variables. this implies that engagement in tai chi practice may contribute to improved concentration abilities among students, and vice versa. however, it is essential to note that correlation does not imply causation, and further research is needed to establish causal relationships between tai chi practice and concentration. this finding highlights the potential benefits of integrating tai chi training into educational programs to enhance students’ concentration skills, which could potentially lead to improved academic performance and overall wellbeing. relationship between tai chi proficiency and mindfulness table 7 shows the results of the correlation analysis conducted between the pair of variables: students’ level of mindfulness and students’ tai chi proficiency scores. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 10 table 7. correlation between students’ mindfulness and tai chi proficiency variables students’ mindfulness level tai chi proficiency scores of students interpretation decision h0 students’ mindfulness levels pearson correlation 1 .849* significant reject sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 104 104 tai chi proficiency scores of students pearson correlation .849* 1 significant reject sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 104 104 *. the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). as shown in table 7, the correlation analysis between students’ mindfulness levels and tai chi proficiency scores revealed a strong positive correlation coefficient (r = 0.849 (p < 0.05, two-tailed). the null hypothesis was rejected at a significance level of 5%. hence, there is enough evidence to conclude that there is a highly significant and positive relationship between students’ mindfulness levels and their tai chi proficiency scores. in other words, as students’ mindfulness levels increase, their tai chi proficiency scores also tend to increase, and vice versa. the correlation coefficient of 0.849 suggests an exceptionally strong association between these two variables. this implies that engagement in mindfulness practices can contribute to improved tai chi proficiency among students, and vice versa. however, it is essential to note that correlation does not imply causation, and further research is necessary to establish causal relationships between mindfulness and tai chi proficiency. this finding underscores the potential synergistic benefits of combining mindfulness training and tai chi practice in educational settings, which could enhance overall well-being and student performance. based on the results of the study, the researcher concluded the following: 1. the students had a moderate level of mindfulness, suggesting that mindfulness behaviors are “sometimes true” on average across all aspects. students can exhibit moderate abilities in observing sensory experiences and in describing and articulating their thoughts, feelings, and experiences. moreover, they can manifest moderate abilities in acting with awareness and attentiveness, observing their thoughts and emotions without reacting impulsively, and accepting their thoughts and emotions without judgment. 2. students demonstrate good concentration ability. as wushu specialty students, they can perform with a clear and present focus on the demands of their tasks. 3. most students perform well in tai chi, with many achieving outstanding or good proficiency levels. they can exhibit good performance in tai chi based on essential elements like movement, technique, strength, rhythm, style, and coordination. 4. there is a significant, strong, positive correlation between mindfulness and concentration. mindfulness practices may improve concentration abilities among wushu specialty students, and vice versa. 5. there is a significant, strong, positive correlation between concentration and tai chi proficiency. wushu specialty students with higher concentration scores tend to exhibit better tai chi proficiency scores, and vice versa. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (8) pg. 11 6. there is a significant, strong, positive correlation between mindfulness and tai chi proficiency. wushu specialty students with higher levels of mindfulness tend to exhibit better proficiency in tai chi references alomari, h. 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(2018). a randomized controlled trial of mindfulnessbased tai chi chuan for subthreshold depression adolescents. neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s173255 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032339 http://hdl.handle.net/10871/26528 https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5549006 https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5549006 http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s173255 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.13, number 12; december-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 exploring relationships between climatic variability, river water levels, and crop productivity trends in northeastern bangladesh 1dr. farhan ahmed chowdhury, 2prof. ayesha rahman khan and 3dr. kamal hasan mahmud article info abstract keywords: trend analysis, climate change, extreme events, variability, agriculture. trend analysis serves as a pivotal tool for monitoring, forecasting, and evaluating the occurrences and values associated with specific events. concurrently, climate change manifests as a persistent trend in climatic variables, exhibiting continuous fluctuations in average values over extended timeframes. escalating climatic and meteorological extremes have engendered global concern due to their severe impacts on ecosystems, economies, and human livelihoods. this study explores the variability and destructiveness of these events, especially with respect to agricultural production. notably, the likelihood of decreased cool days and nights, intensification of heavy precipitation, and prolonged droughts has surged since the 1970s. the planet is undergoing a transformative shift, marked by surges in temperature, precipitation variability, and inundation incidents. scientific inquiries underscore an impending global temperature increase of 1.4 to 5.8 °c by 2100, accompanied by an average sea level rise of 10 cm during the same period. this analysis delves into the intersection of trend analysis and climate change, aiming to enhance our understanding of their intricate dynamics and implications. 1. introduction trend analysis is most generally used to monitor, forecasting and assess the ratios of occurrences and or values associated with a particular event. on the other hand, climate change can be defined as a trend in one or further climatic variables characterized by an almost smooth continuous increase or decline of the average value during the long-term period of record. outrageous climatic and weather events in recent decades have been a fundamental worldwide issue due to the brutality of the effects on natural climates, the economy, and human existence 1department of farm structure, khulna agricultural university, khulna, bangladesh 2department of irrigation and water management, sylhet agricultural university, sylhet, bangladesh 3department of farm power and machinery, khulna agricultural university, khulna, bangladesh https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 2 (suryabhagavan, 2013; wang and qin, 2017; plisnier et al., 2018). these outrageous occasions are variable and destructive, particularly on agriculture production. the probability of modest cool days and nights, extending heavy precipitation events, and droughts have increased since the 1970s (sun et al., 2016). the worldwide environment is encountering a significant change shown by rising temperature, droughts, rainfalls, and flooding. scientific investigations showed that the mean worldwide temperature could rise by 1.4 to 5.8 °c in 2100 with a mean water level ascent of 10 cm over a comparable period as announced by the intergovernmental panel for global environmental change in 2008 (roth et al., 2018). in any case, significant provincial and occasional changes inside the environment are expected, influencing climatic factors relying upon the areas with incredible effects on conditions and human frameworks (chen and grasby, 2014). the recent extending frequency of heavy rain and severe droughts in multiple parts of the globe is a sign of those situations. agriculture is typically vulnerable to cold climate conditions and environmental conditions. despite technological advances like amended crop varieties and irrigation systems, weather and climate are important factors, which play a significant role in agricultural productivity. bangladesh includes an enormous agricultural base with 76% of the all-out populace living in rural regions and 90% of the agricultural population identified with cultivating. adding food creation and accomplishing food security in bangladesh requires sustainable development of the agricultural sector. the agro-economic beneficence is 20.83 percent of the gross domestic product (bangladesh economics review, 2009). rice and wheat are the principal sources of food, calorie, and protein admission for large numbers of individuals of the country (karim et al., 2010). bangladesh is that the 6th greatest rice maker country in the world. within the last three to four decades, significant efforts in rice research and agricultural innovations were made to extend rice production, and it increased to about 48 million tons in 2009 from about 17 million tons in 1970 (bbs, 2009). the rate portion of rice in esteem is over 60% of the whole yield farming (asaduzzaman et al., 2010). wheat is the second most significant staple food crop in bangladesh after rice. wheat creation has improved consistently from around 0.115 million tons in 1971-72 and continuously declined to 0.73 million tons in 2005-06 (bbs, 2006). the relationship between climate and yield is commonly harvest and region-specific (wang, and qin, 2017; islam et al., 2021a). wheat and maize are viewed as more impacted because of global climate change, considerably less on rice. 1-20 °c local rise influences the wheat and maize unfavorably, for rice impacts are more noticeable at higher temp ascent of 3-50 °c. anticipated wheat yield might fall by 26% on the regular constantly 2100. typical boro rice yield may plunge by 12%. for aman rice, the yield might diminish in 2050 yet stay unaltered during an extended term, 2100. rice being a water-intensive crop, its efficiency is generally connected with water accessibility yet, in addition, sensitive to temperature ascending during the blooming time frame. consequently, a better comprehension of the environment has significant allegations for the economy and society of bangladesh. in this review, we have attempted to make a consistently speeding up number of theoretical and experimental studies of the climate factors like temperature, relative humidity, precipitation and wind speed, cloud to evaluate their change during 1970 2018 in sylhet steady with the information. the present study had been undertaken to fulfill the objective to find out the changing trend of climatic parameters over the period and to explore the influences of the climatic variable on crop productivity. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 3 2. materials and methods 2.1. selection of study area sylhet district (figure 1) was selected as a study area situated on the banks of the surma river and is surrounded by the jaintia, khasi, and tripura hills. the location of sylhet city is at 24.89°n and 91.88°e, in the northeastern region of bangladesh. the total area of sylhet is 3,490.40 sq.km or 1,347.65 sq.miles. this area is about 8% of the total land of bangladesh. figure 1. map of the study area. 2.2. climate of the study area the climate of sylhet is a tropical rainy season with a mainly hot and humid summer and a comparatively cool winter. the annual average maximum temperature of sylhet is 33.20 °c, and the minimum temperature is 13.60 °c. annual total rainfall on average is 3334 m. sylhet's foremost and longest river is surma (350 km); the other major rivers are kushiyara and piyan. the crop production of sylhet is highly dependent on the annual water flow by the surma river. 2.3. climatic data (time-series) there is one meteorological station available in the sylhet district. this station records the daily maximum temperature, minimum temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind speed, cloud cover data. these datasets were obtained from the bangladesh meteorological department (bmd) for sylhet district weather station from 1970 to 2018. then the data was converted to average seasonal data according to the growing periods of the four crops considered in this study. 2.4. river water level data daily river water level data expressed in (m) of different study area stations covering major rivers were collected from the bangladesh water development board (bwdb) from 1996-2018. the different station's water level data was then accumulated to understand the overall river water level of the study area. after that, data were converted into average seasonal data based on the growing periods of the four crops. table 01. the average seasonal data according to the growing periods. crop cultivation period frequency data available aus rice from march to august annual 1970-2018 amon rice from may to december global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 4 boro rice from november to may wheat from december to april 2.5. agricultural data data on the aus, aman, and boro rice and wheat in the period (1970–2018) were collected from the yearbook of agricultural statistics of bangladesh published by the bangladesh bureau of statistics (bbs), as well as the department of agricultural extension (dae), and also from brri (bangladesh rice research institute). yield data were found on the fiscal year basis, such as 1971–1972, 1972–1973, and these fiscal year data were converted into yearly data; for example, 1971–1972 was considered 1972. figure 2. flow diagram to detect trends of climatic parameters. 2.6. data analysis the trend analysis was performed on all available seasonal climatic, yield, and river water data to find any increasing or decreasing scenario present in any variables throughout the period. here, the mann-kendal trend test was performed to analyze the data. the most popular software statistical package for social sciences (spss), was used to determine the climate-crop yieldriver water level relationship. this mann-kendall test is appropriate in cases when the data values xi of a time series can be supposed to obey the model xi = f (ti ) + ε i , (1) where f (t) is an unceasing monotonic increasing or decreasing function of time, the residuals εi can be assumed from the same distribution with zero means. the variance of the distribution is constant in time. to test the null hypothesis of no trend, ho, i.e., the observations xi is haphazardly ordered in time, against the alternate hypothesis, h1, where there is an increasing or decreasing monotonic trend. 3. results and discussion seasonal, annual trend analysis was done using the statistical tool. the parameters were crop yield, climatic variables such as maximum and minimum temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, cloud cover, wind speed, and river water level throughout the study. analysis of crop yield, climatic variables, and river water level trends over the study period are shown below. bangladesh is an agro-based delta island situated at the shore of the bay of bengal. bangladesh is a country that is generally vulnerable to hazardous global climate change and its belongings throughout the world (ali, 1999; shahid, 2011; islam and nursey-bawl, 2017; vij et al., 2018). bangladesh is in a dangerous condition because of worldwide environmental change, where numerous catastrophic events like heat, flood, cyclone, drought, saline water intrusion, sea-level rise, and heavy monsoon downpours are pretty common phenomena (titumir and basak, 2012; basak et al., 2013). because of the historic global climate change, bangladesh's occasional cycle has changed from six seasons to three, which might be essentially described by a warm summer, a contracting winter, and medium to heavy rains during the monsoon season (denissen, 2012). data • rainfall • temperature • rh • cloud trend analysis • mann kendall test • sen’s slope estimator function • detection of trends of climate parameters scope • 1970 2018 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 5 so, multi-type climatic phenomena are regularly visited alongside the whole nation, and leftovers significantly impact its current circumstance (kuri, 2013). 3.1. variation of crop yield over the time the trend analysis of annual yield from 1970 to 2018 of considered crops has been analyzed using mann-kendal and sen 's-slope estimation. for aus rice, the trend shows a variation of rising and fall in the beginning and then a steady decreasing trend until 2006 (figure 3a). after that, the trend drastically decreased and reached the lowest production of aus rise in the year 2011. additionally, the z test indicates a non-statistically significant decreasing trend over the study period. the q value shows that the slope was also decreasing at -1100.75 m.ton per year over the period (table 02). for aman rice, the trend starts with a quick rise in production and then gradually increases over the period (figure 3b). the lowest production was recorded in 1989. table 02. summary statistics of yield trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 1970-2018 aus rice yield -0.92 -1100.75 aman rice yield 6.87 11028.56 *** boro rice yield 7.16 22691.33 *** wheat yield 0.00 0.000 note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. furthermore, the z test indicates a positive upward trend over the study period, and the q value indicates an increasing slope at 11028.56 m.ton per year for aman rice that is statistically significant at a 0.001 level of significance. a similar result has been found for boro rice (figure 3c) that shows the lowest production was recorded in 1977. there was also a statistically significant 0.001 level upward trend and slope magnitude increasing at 22691.33 m.ton per year. however, for wheat, it shows an excellent increasing trend at the beginning from 1970-1980 (figure 3d). afterward, the trend was increased before it started to fall in the year 1995. so, the z test found no trend over the observed period and no change in slope. so, the production of wheat was deficient as compared to rice production. the adverse consequence of climatic elements on crop yields might become articulated from around the year 2030 but become more confident by the year 2050 and thus the end of the 21st century. for each back-toback decade, the yield decrease is anticipated to be worldwide 1%; a little, however, non-minor part of generally 14% increase in productivity needed to stay up with rising demand (asaduzzaman and anik, 2017). the low (10/5 °c, day/night), medium (20/15 °c, day/night), and high (30/25 °c, day/night) day-night temperature affects the yield of wheatgrass (islam et al., 2021b). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 6 figure 3. production of (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). 3.2. variation of temperature over the time the aus growing period shows a fluctuation, and the highest temperature was observed during 2014 while the lowest was in 1977 (figure 4a). during aman growing period, the maximum temperature shows a similar fluctuating line with the highest temperature was found in 2014, and the lowest maximum temperature was in 1974 (figure 4b). during the boro growing period, the maximum temperature trend shows a sudden drop in 1971 and a sudden increase in 1979 and 1999 (figure 4c). after that, a gradual rise was found and continued afterward. for a wheat-growing period, a similar rise and fall exhibit the maximum value found in 1999 and the minimum value in 1971 (figure 4d). the man-kendall test z provides a similar statistically significant at 0.001 level of significance upward trend throughout 1970 to 2018 (table 03). q test also gives a positive increasing slope magnitude over the observed period for all four-crop growing seasons. moreover, the minimum temperature of four crop growing seasons is similar to the maximum temperature (figure 5a-d). the man-kendall test z and sen's slope test q provide a statistically significant upward trend at 0.001 level of significance over the detected period (table 03). during the aus growing period, the trend shows a slight increase and then a steady increase until a drastic fall was found between 1983 and 1987 (figure 5a). after that, the minimum temperature trend shows a steady increase over the period. a similar result was found in the aman growing period, as shown in the graph (figure 5b). in the aus growing season, the maximum and minimum temperature was increased at 0.05 °c and 0.02 °c per year. a similar increase in temperature was found in the other three crop growing seasons. although both the minimum and maximum temperature increased and the rate global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 7 of the maximum temperature for the aman growing period was faster than that of any other maximum temperature. also, for boro and wheat season, the minimum temperature was lower than the other two seasons. table 03. summary statistics of the temperature trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 19702018 temperature/aus maximum temperature 5.62 0.05 *** minimum temperature 4.61 0.02 *** temperature/amon maximum temperature 7.06 0.04 *** minimum temperature 5.09 0.02 *** temperature/boro maximum temperature 5.26 0.04 *** minimum temperature 5.30 0.04 *** temperature /wheat maximum temperature 4.43 0.04 *** minimum temperature 5.17 0.04 *** note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 8 figure 4. variation of maximum temperature over the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). moreover, most studies have highlighted the daily maximum and minimum temperature variables before the year 2008, even without considering all the records of the meteorological stations. shahid et al. (2012) revealed that the temperature had expanded widely inside the most recent fifty years (1961-2008). compared with the summer, the winter is warming more, and consequently, the colder time of year and pre-monsoonal diurnal temperature range in bangladesh has diminished; however, the temperature range has expanded inside the monsoon season. in bangladesh, low temperature, i.e., the cold problem, happens in the winter season for the most part during november to february when the base temperature frequently remains beneath 20 °c. in certain country pieces, most minor temperatures happen under 20 °c, even in march and april (brri, 2002). islam et al. (2002) mentioned that rice production mainly depended on rainfall. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 9 figure 5. fluctuation of minimum temperature over the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). 3.3. variation of rainfall over the time the z test's rainfall for aus, aman, and wheat season showed a decreasing trend with fluctuation, but it increased (table 04). for aus, aman, and wheat season, the q test indicates a slope of decreasing rainfall at 0.04 mm, 0.03 mm, and 0.004 mm per year, respectively, while for boro season, the slope detects a marginal change. the test is not statistically significant for any of the crop growing seasons but aman season. the graph (figure 6a) shows that in the aus season, the rainfall trend of the study area provides dramatic rise and fall over the observed period. the highest rainfall was found in the year 1988, and the lowest rainfall was recorded in 1971. however, the rainfall trend also drastically rises and falls in the aman growing period (figure 6b). from 1986 to 1989 it has a quickly increasing trend then started to increase steadily with fluctuation. the boro growing period (figure 6c) and wheat growing period (figure 6d) both provides an increase and decrease trend over the period. the highest rainfall recorded for both periods was in 1971 and 1998. the lowest rainfall was found in 1971 and 1979, respectively. finally, rainfall was lower during boro and wheat seasons than aus and aman seasons. deficit rainfall in bangladesh caused drought in the rainfed ecosystem, and consequently, loss of crop yield occurs, and sometimes it becomes above the damage from a flood. also, sylhet highlights a specific climate that recognizes it from adjoining regions and introduces unique challenges to coping with climate variability and longterm change. the area is genuinely defenseless river floods, flash floods, intensive rainfall, and landslide. it is probably the wettest locale in bangladesh, with an average yearly precipitation of 4080 mm (1980–2009). however, this amount can shift enormously from one year to another. yearly precipitation absolute fluctuated between 3280 mm (1980) and 5620 mm (1988), somewhere in the range of 1980 and 2009 (haque et al., 2017). a study in 2015 (stiller-reeve et al., 2015) found that the summer period is crucial between april and june. between 1980 and 2009, the whole rainfall in may varied between 222 mm (1987) and 1129 (1988). with the rains come regular flooding, with both positive and adverse consequences. table 04. summary statistics of rainfall trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 1970-2018 rainfall/aus rainfall -1.10 -0.04 rainfall/aman rainfall -0.93 -0.03 rainfall/boro rainfall 0.06 0.001 rainfall/wheat rainfall -0.13 -0.004 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 10 note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. figure 6. rainfall variation over the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). 3.4. variation of relative humidity over the time relative humidity for boro and wheat season, the z test shows an increasing trend, but it shows a decreasing trend (table 05). for boro and wheat season, the q test indicates an increasing slope magnitude, while for aus and aman season, the test provides a decreasing slope magnitude of relative humidity at a rate of 0.04% and 0.03%, respectively. table 05. summary statistics of relative humidity trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 1970-2018 rh/aus relative humidity -2.03 -0.04 * rh/aman relative humidity -2.12 -0.03 * rh/boro relative humidity 1.31 0.03 rh/wheat relative humidity 1.46 0.06 note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 11 figure 7. variation of relative humidity over the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). the test is not statistically significant for boro and wheat season, but it was statistically significant at 0.05 level of significance for the aus and aman season. the line graph shows a rise and fall over the observed period during the aus season, with the highest value in 1993 and the lowest in 2014 (figure 7a). in aman season, it shows a similar trend of relative humidity as aus season (figure 7b). in addition, the boro season provides a significant increasing and decreasing relative humidity trend while the highest value was in 1990, and the lowest value falls in 1979 (figure 7c). during wheat season, it shows a similar but more fluctuating trend of relative humidity as boro season (figure 7d). as of now, it is apparent from scientific studies that our climate has experienced an abnormal human-induced change. different climatic boundaries like precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, and so on of different areas of the earth have shown critical patterns. humidity is a critical element of the environment. atmospheric moisture position has a significant impact on plant growth and development. both exceptionally low and high relative humidity might cause some actual distress significantly inward conditions because the relative humidity of the air straightforwardly influences temperature. 3.5. variation of cloud cover over the time in the aus season, an increasing trend of cloud cover with steady fluctuation was observed. the values were reasonably close enough throughout the entire observed period (figure 8a). in the case of aman growing season, the graph (figure 8b) shows somewhat similar results as of aus season. now, during boro season, the graph (figure 8c) provides a steady increase in cloud cover trend until 1998, then falls in the very next year. after that, it starts to increase again gradually. lastly, the graph (figure 8d) provides a similar but more fluctuating trend in global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 12 the wheat season. however, the highest cloud cover was recorded in the year 1997 while the lowest was in 1999. the cloud cover was originated lower in boro and wheat season than aus and aman season. in addition, cloud cover for all crop growing seasons, the z test shows an increasing trend with rising and fall. the q test also indicates an increasing slope magnitude for all crop growing seasons. moreover, in the aus season, cloud cover is increasing at 0.004 oktas per year. lastly, cloud cover increases at 0.006, 0.004, and 0.007 oktas per year in aman, boro, and wheat season. the test is not statistically significant for aus, boro, and wheat season; nevertheless, it was statistically significant at 0.05 level of significance for aman season. figure 8. variation of cloud cover over the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro, and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). table 06. summary statistics of cloud cover trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 1970-2018 clc/aus cloud cover 1.02 0.004 clc/aman cloud cover 2.20 0.006 * clc/boro cloud cover 0.97 0.004 clc/wheat cloud cover 1.63 0.007 note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 13 3.6. variation of wind speed over the time during aus season, the graph (figure 9a) shows an abnormal rise in wind speed trend in the year 1979 the drastically falls the very next year and hence continued a steady decreasing trend. similarly, in the aman season, the graph (figure 9b) shows a quick rise of wind speed in 1979 then falls and carried that decreasing trend over the rest of the period. for boro and wheat growing season, both graphs (figure 9c and figure 9d) provide a rapid rise in wind speed trends between 1975 and 1979. consequently, the wind speed for all crop growing seasons, z test shows a decreasing trend (table 07). the q test also indicates a decreasing slope magnitude for all crop growing seasons. thus, wind speed decreases at 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, and 0.03 knots per year in aus, aman, boro, and wheat season, respectively. the test is statistically significant for aman, boro, and wheat season at 0.001 level of significance. finally, for the aus season, the test is statistically significant at a 0.01 level of significance. figure 9. variation of wind speed over the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1970-2018). table 07. summary statistics of wind speed trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 1970-2018 ws/aus wind speed -3.12 -0.01 ** ws/aman wind speed -3.98 -0.02 *** ws/boro wind speed -3.56 -0.03 *** ws/wheat wind speed -3.35 -0.03 *** global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 14 note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. 3.7. variation of river water level over the time the river water trend for all crop growing seasons, the z test, indicates a decreasing trend with fluctuations (table 08). similarly, the q test specifies decreasing slope magnitude for all crop growing seasons. figure 10. variation of river water level at the four-crop growing seasons (a) aus, (b) aman, (c) boro and (d) wheat, sylhet, bangladesh (1996-2018). the average river water level for aus, aman, boro, and the wheat season declines at -0.03, -0.02, -0.005, and 0.01 m per year. unexpectedly the test provides no statistically significant result. hence, the graph (figure 10a) shows a decreasing trend in the aus season until 2009. the following year shows a quick rise of water level trend and the falls quickly. the graph (figure 10b) shows a similar result as the aus season in the aman season. during, boro season, the graph (figure 10c) provides a lower water level with variation in the trend line. similarly, the graph (figure 10d) gives a lesser water level tendency over the observed period in the wheat season. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 15 table 08. summary statistics of river water level trend. year time series variable test z q value significance 1996-2018 wl/aus river water level -1.20 -0.03 wl/aman river water level -1.20 -0.02 wl/boro river water level -0.29 -0.005 wl/wheat river water level -1.14 -0.01 note: *, ** and *** represents α at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 level of significance respectively. 4. conclusion climate change is a drawn-out process. from very ancient times, the climate of the globe was continuously evolving. climatic factors such as temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, cloud cover, wind speed, and so forth intently connect with agricultural production. the crop production would be the main issue during recent years because of changing climatic conditions. there is a lot of crop yield that might hamper just variations of those climatic parameters. the trend analysis shows a decreasing trend of aus yield was -1100.75 m.ton per year in sylhet, while in the aus growing period, climatic variables such as maximum and minimum temperature, cloud cover show an increasing trend of 0.05 °c, 0.015 °c, 0.004 °c okta per year. in the case of rainfall and relative humidity, it shows a decreasing trend at -0.44 mm and -0.42% per year. in aman season, the trend provides an excellent positive increase in yield was 11028.56 m.ton per year. the maximum and minimum temperature and cloud cover show an increasing trend was 0.05 °c, 0.02 °c, and 0.006 okta per year. rainfall and relative humidity show a decreasing trend at a rate of -0.30 mm and -0.32% per year. boro season provides a positive rise in yield at a rate of 22691.33 m.ton per year. the maximum, minimum temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and cloud cover show an increasing trend was 0.04 °c, 0.04 °c, 0.001 mm, 0.033%, and 0.004 okta per year, respectively. afterward, the wheat season provides no positive or negative result as it was found that the yield rate was very low as compared to the other three varieties in sylhet. maximum, minimum temperature, relative humidity, and cloud cover show an upward trend; however, rainfall provides a declining trend at a rate of -0.004 mm per year. though, the river water level also has a mixed trend throughout the 1996-2018 years. the study's finding is that these climatic variables significantly affected crop production, and yield might be reduced due to extreme fluctuations of climate variables in the coming future. so, necessary measures should be formulated to mitigate this phenomenon and adopt new strategies to mitigate the adverse effect of climate change on crop productivity. conflicts of interest: there are no conflicts of interest. orcid gazi tamiz uddin: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9202-0230 debarshi choudhury: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0018-1334 md. tuhinul hasan: https://orcid.org/0000-00015280-3372 mohammad nazrul islam: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0162-9655 mahbuba akther mishu: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7239-6265 references ali, a. 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(2021a). assessment of biochemical compounds and antioxidant enzyme activity in barley and wheatgrass under water-deficit condition. journal of the science of food and agriculture, 1-8. doi. 10.1002/jsfa.11538. islam, m.z., park, b.-j. & lee, y.-t. (2021b). influence of temperature conditions during growth on bioactive compounds and antioxidant potential of wheat and barley grasses. foods, 10, 2742. karim, m.r., awal, m.a. & akter, m. (2010). forecasting of wheat production in bangladesh. bangladesh journal of agricultural research, 35(1), 17-28. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (12) pg. 17 kuri, s.k. (2013). smallholder farmers’ awareness regarding adverse effect of climate change on farm ecosystem. ms thesis. department of agricultural extension education, bau, mymensingh, bangladesh. plisnier, p., nshombo, m., mgana, h. & ntakimazi, g. (2018). monitoring climate change and anthropogenic pressure at lake tanganyika. journal of great lakes research, 449(6), 1194-1208. roth, v., lemann, t., zeleke, g. & teklay, a. (2018). effects of climate change on water resources in the upper blue nile basin of ethiopia. heliyon, 4(9), e00771. shahid, s. (2011). impact of climate change on irrigation water demand of dry season boro rice in northwest bangladesh. climatic change, 105(3), 433-453. shahid, s., harun, s.b. & katimon, a. (2012). changes in diurnal temperature range in bangladesh during the time period 19612008. atmospheric research, 118, 260-270. stiller-reeve, m.a., syed, m.a., spengler, t., spinney, j.a. & hossain, r. (2015). complementing scientific monsoon definitions with social perception in bangladesh. bulletin of the american meteorological society, 96(1), 49-57. sun, w., mu, x.; song, x., wu, d., cheng, a. & qiu, b. (2016). changes in extreme temperature and precipitation events in the loess plateau (china) during 1960–2013 under global warming. atmospheric research, 168, 33-48. suryabhagavan, k.v. (2013). gis-based climate variability and drought characterization in ethiopia over three decades. weather and climate extremes, 15, 11-23. titumir, r.a.m. & basak, j.k. (2012). effects of climate change on crop production and climate adaptive techniques for agriculture in bangladesh. social science review, 29(1), 215-232. vij, s., biesbroek, r., groot, a. & termeer, k. (2018). changing climate policy paradigms in bangladesh and nepal. environmental science & policy, 81, 77-85. wang, y.j. & qin, d.h. (2017). influence of climate change and human activity on water resources in arid region of northwest china: an overview. advances in climate change research, 8(4), 268-278. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 44 the educational and social impact of sport in inclusive and community-oriented contexts prof. edidiong grace etuk department of educational foundations, faculty of education, university of uyo, akwa ibom state, nigeria keywords: motor education, inclusion, educational integration, disability and sport abstract this paper explores the role of motor and sports activities as vital tools for fostering social inclusion and promoting holistic well-being. recognized for their educational and formative value, such activities transcend age, gender, and physical or mental conditions, making them universally accessible and impactful. an inclusive approach to sport emphasizes education and participation at all levels—from early physical education to specialized athletic practice—ensuring that every individual, regardless of ability or background, can develop and thrive. particular attention is given to the participation of individuals with disabilities or those facing social, economic, or psychological disadvantages. in these contexts, sport becomes a transformative space for identity recognition and community integration. this perspective marks a shift from traditional, performance-centered paradigms of sport towards a more inclusive, value-based model that centers on personal growth, social cohesion, and respect for diversity. moreover, the integration of sport within educational systems reflects a broader european commitment to leveraging physical activity for community development, as formalized in eu policy since 2007. team sports, in particular, embody key social principles such as cooperation, respect for rules, and the pursuit of collective goals, mirroring the fundamental aims of education itself. thus, sport is not merely a leisure activity, but a structured, pedagogical process that nurtures civic values, self-discipline, and mutual respect. ultimately, motor and sports education must be fully incorporated into educational strategies, including special pedagogy, to cultivate inclusive environments that support the development of every individual's full potential—especially those from marginalized or disadvantaged groups. introduction in contemporary educational discourse, motor and sports activities have emerged as pivotal tools not only for physical development but also for fostering inclusion and social cohesion. these activities carry a formative and educational significance that transcends demographic boundaries, offering valuable benefits to individuals regardless of age, gender, socio-economic status, or the presence of physical, cognitive, or psychological disabilities. in this context, motor-sports activities are increasingly being recognized for their potential to support inclusive education and serve as a strategic means of countering marginalization and promoting the holistic development of individuals (gomez & sgambelluri, 2013). the transformative potential of motor and sports activities lies in their dual capacity: on one hand, they foster individual growth, resilience, and self-esteem; on the other, they cultivate social skills, cooperation, and empathy within a collective setting. such activities are particularly significant in educational environments where diversity is the norm, offering a structured yet flexible means for individuals to global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 45 interact, learn, and thrive together. physical education, when implemented inclusively, encourages students to recognize and value differences, thereby reinforcing the principles of equity and mutual respect. from a policy perspective, the social and educational dimensions of sport have gained increasing recognition at the european level. since the late 1990s, and especially following the 2007 treaty on the functioning of the european union, sport has been acknowledged not merely as a recreational or competitive endeavor but as a strategic sector capable of contributing to social inclusion, lifelong learning, and civic engagement. the eu has emphasized the importance of sport's educational function and its alignment with broader social objectives, especially through volunteerism and community-based initiatives. 1. pedagogical and didactic aspects of sport the socio-educational connotation of motor-sports activity is now promoted internationally as a tool for inclusion. it also accompanies a reshaping of the concept of health in compliance with the indications of the world organization of holiness (who) which, therefore, leads to understanding sport as an educational strategy aimed at acquiring correct lifestyles. in its inclusive purpose, at the level of international organizations, there are numerous declarations and initiatives promoted to recognize and spread the educational importance of "sport for all". in relation to this, education to the practice of sport represents a path that winds at different levels, from the initial motor education to the introduction to sport and its specialized practice, on a continuum that allows everyone, without prejudice and distinction of any kind, to place himself and proceed according to the maturity of his function (nuangchalerm & prachagool, 2010). if the promotion of a "sport for all" is rooted in a conception of sport that goes beyond the purely competitiveprofessional one, the practice of sport by people with disabilities, or with any other form of physical, social, economic or psychological "deficit", needs a paradigm that lays the foundations for the recognition of the entire identity and social inclusion. it is necessary to grasp the elements that reorient the operation of a subject towards horizons of a necessary normalization, placed at the base of the educational processes and inclusion of people, throughout the life span (whitehead, 2013). the human being, in fact, acts based on a thought, an intentionality, and his action is expressed through intelligent behaviors of adaptation to everyday life situations, work, sports and leisure. motor and sports education allows to satisfy in a productive way some needs of man related to the gaming experience: movement, competition and group and team life. in addition, from the earliest years of age, those who perform regular physical activity, from group or individual sports to outdoor games or pure physical-motor activity, show greater confidence in their possibilities, are led to greater self-esteem, ease in social relationships, greater tolerance of stress, and are less likely to manifest disorders such as anxiety and depression, automatically stimulating inclusive processes (arvanitis, 2018). several studies have shown how the constant practice of sports or motor activity produces beneficial effects on different functions that impact both at an inclusive level, but above all on the personal and relational sphere: learning, development of cortical areas and functions and academic performance. the performance of motor and sports activities for the disabled person, or who is in situations of physical, economic or social disadvantage, represents the exaltation of his abilities, albeit residual, and of what he can do, in a world that always reminds him of what he is not able to be and what he lacks. carraro (2004), in fact, states that “moving towards inclusion means allowing all those who approach motor and sports practice to reach a basic level of technical skills, to feel pleasure in the commitment and effort produced and not to be excluded as less suitable" (ghedin, 2009). in this sense, the introduction to motor and / or sports practice of subjects who present intellectual and / or mental, relational, social problems, etc., aims to promote social integration, inclusion, self-esteem and prevent the risk of onset of chronic-degenerative global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 46 diseases and improve the quality of life. what has been analyzed thus highlights the importance of promoting sports and motor activity also in the school context, at any level, so that the inclusive objective is pursued towards those who are characterized by the request, implicit or explicit, of special educational needs (bes) (holly, 2020). sport represents a fundamental element on an emotional, social and inclusive level, consisting of a multidimensional, dynamic, playful environment suitable for intensifying the awareness of oneself and one's body. integration and inclusion are the objectives, sport is the vehicle, because it assigns to each one a precise role in a collective context, such as the school context that manages to break down the barriers and walls that are created outside, because in sport we are all equal. sport is characterized by having the same rules for everyone regardless of the ethnicity and culture of the individual; it represents a neutral field of confrontation capable of putting everyone on the same level. the process that led to the integration of disabled people into sports was long and very tortuous (haegeler & suterland, 2015). initially, competitive sports were forbidden to the disabled and there is news of the first competitions in which they were able to participate only around 1920. only after the second world warthere was a greater opening due above all to the large number of war invalids, which favored the spread of sporting activity with therapeutic purposes. in 1960, in rome, the first paralympics were held thanks to dr. antonio maglio, who understood that some sports could be able to prolong the life expectancy of patients, improve lifestyle by promoting the social inclusion of disabled people. subsequently, in 1974, there was the birth of the national association of italian paraplegic sports (anspi) which, four years later, became the italian federation of handicapped sports (fisha), which was annexed to coni in 1981. in the following years, many individual federations were born merged into the italian federation of disabled sports (fisd) in 1990, an event that allowed to give equal dignity, in sports, to physical, sensory, intellectual, and relational disabilities. the circle was closed in 2005 with the birth of the c.i.p. (italian paralympic committee) that is the confederation of paralympic sports federations, recognized as a public body in 2015. 2. inclusion processes in schools the theme of inclusion, as argued so far, is certainly an issue that, especially in recent years, is crucial in the school context. italy was among the first countries to choose the path of integration of pupils with disabilities in ordinary classes. we have therefore moved from a situation of complete exclusion to special schools intended exclusively for "different" children, to the integration of the same within the common classes up to the achievement of inclusion processes. diversity cannot be considered an obstacle, but a fundamental resource for the whole class group and essential to promote learning processes. we can talk about inclusion only when everyone feels they are appreciated and their participation is not suffered but is instead welcome. the inclusive classroom is an important point of arrival for the school and the pupil with disabilities can take great advantage of the companion resource, an essential component not only cognitive, but also social and affective (european agency for special needs and inclusive education, 2017). the inclusive school is the one that allows all students not only to feel part of the group to which they belong, but also to reach the highest possible level thanks to those differences that allow everyone's growth, through a process of great personal enrichment. inclusive teaching aims to create an inclusive climate, first respecting and accepting these diversities. the teaching staff will have to try to adapt their teaching style, also modifying their ongoing strategies and, if necessary, find points of connection between the programming. it will also have to always try to develop a cooperative approach (trying, for example, to use innovative methodologies such as cooperative learning and peer tutoring), enhancing the forms of expression and favoring the creation of relational networks between school, family, health specialists and territorial services. at the center of an inclusive educational action there is always the person because we are talking about an education for everyone, which can only lead to personalization. moving from the global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 47 logic of integration to that of inclusion does not simply mean making room for everyone, but it means putting each student at the center of all educational action by rethinking what the concept of curriculum is. among the general principles of inclusion we have, first, the acceptance of diversity, the development of collaborative practices, the active participation of all and a school that becomes different, that is, that learns and promotes change and development. starting from some regulatory references, we can certify that our school system was the first in europe to introduce the generalized school inclusion of pupils with disabilities and was not limited to this. with the subsequent issuance of specific guidelines, it has also clarified the principles relating to the inclusion of pupils with sld (specific learning disorders) to the point of giving organizational indications on the inclusion of those children who are not certifiable neither with disabilities nor with dsa, but who have specific learning difficulties due to personal, family and socio-environmental disadvantage. the synthesis of these choices can be found within the legislative decree of 13 april 2017, n.66, rules for the promotion of school inclusion of students with disabilities, where it is stated that inclusion concerns everyone and responds to different educational needs by realizing itself through specific educational strategies aimed at developing the potential of each, improving their quality of life through the commitment of all those involved, from the school community, to families to local authorities, to achieve the educational success of all. inclusion therefore takes the form of a route to follow, starting from the construction of contexts populated by multiple diversities and therefore by special needs. special pedagogy promotes the appreciation of these diversities that are unique and that concern individuals. in this perspective, motor-sports activity can constitute that specific context in which it is possible to really experience inclusive education. the sporting experience, formative from an educational point of view, becomes a precious opportunity for active participation and equality of opportunity for all people. both the playful and the athletic-motor dimension, closely interconnected with each other, give sport a high educational value. within the motor-sports context we can identify a series of strongly educational elements such as: the continuous relationship with a reference adult, ie the coach; order, discipline, respect for the rules and others; teaching / learning of a particular sports discipline; the educational value of victory and defeat; the will to improve and motivation (peacock, 2014). on the cognitive level, we improve the knowledge of our body, the space that surrounds us, the management of time and speed, in relation to certain motor acts. on the physical level there are a series of benefits that concern the improvement of muscle strength, balance, motor coordination thanks. on a purely sporting level, technical knowledge in relation to the various sports disciplines and that of the regulations improves. on the psychological level, a sense of personal satisfaction is produced that favors discipline and training, leading to greater selfcontrol about emotional states. on the socio-educational level, levels of personal autonomy increase, with subjects who are more stimulated to perform acts aimed at a specific purpose. 3. sport and physical activity as tools for inclusion in the pedagogical process the real inclusion of students with disabilities at school, during motor and sports activity, is still a process in development and there are, unfortunately, several critical issues that do not allow it to be fully realized. sport and, therefore, physical education at school, offer each student the opportunity to express themselves and communicate through the body, their way of being and one's own identity understood as a kind of photography of personal experiences and experiences. sport and physical education can unite, to bring people together. especially these benefits concern the so-called sports education, that is, the sporting experience that is deviates from competitive or professional dynamics because, in that case, the risk is to result in the opposite effect of that relating to education (coates & vickerman, 2013). the guidelines for physical, motor and sports education activities in schools, issued by the miur in 2019, state that global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 48 sport requires the person to get involved in a total way, stimulating him to seek both the tools and the strategies suitable for address and overcoming your difficulties. this definition does not only refer to able-bodied children, but it applies to everyone, even for students with disabilities. and it is precisely in this direction that the school has the duty to develop the sports culture to ensure that students develop healthy values, those values that only sport can convey and promote constantly. through these values it is possible to improve aggregation, integration, and socialization both at school and in society (bergamini et al., 2015). everyone must actively participate in motorsports activity, and it is right that disabled children are also protagonists of the action and not only present in the gym. the practice of sport, as previously stated, brings countless benefits. it allows, for example, to satisfy a series of typical human needs concerning the playful experience, the one linked to movement and being in a group, all achievable through sport. an extremely important factor is the improvement of residual potential in all degrees of disability, achievable through physical activity (qi, 2012; qi, 2018). obviously, in relation to the severity of disability, there are improvements of different kinds but, in general, there are important effects on the quality of life of these subjects. there are also several studies that show that the constant practice of motor-sports activity has important benefits both on learning and on academic performance. the model of sport that, over the years, has matured thanks to the history of italian integration, is that of "integrated sport for inclusion". the peculiarity of this model is certainly to link the concepts of sport and inclusive education in an indissoluble way. the maturation of this model took place within the world of special school pedagogy. special pedagogy has allowed sport to be enriched from many points of view, with the aim of building an enhancing context that would allow a fair comparison between disabled people. precisely in this context, a series of sports are inserted that can be traced back to a different model called "integrated sport". these particular sports are practiced by people with and without disabilities through some differentiations that allow everyone to play together (green, 2019). the source of inspiration that allowed the birth of these sports is attributable precisely to those principles of the school integration system, of an all-italian matrix, a system that has allowed people with disabilities to access and actively participate in the learning process within the classroom (miola et al., 2021). integrated sport, characterized by a fusion of sporting principles with principles related to special pedagogy, can be defined through a series of key elements: a) centrality of the person; (b) participation of persons with different health conditions; c) educational peculiarities; (d) roles defined on the basis of abilities and not disability; (e) flexible rules; f) recognizable and codified spaces and times; g) competitive spirit and healthy competition; (h) active participation and equal opportunities for all. the evaluation, through motor tests of what the subject can actually do at the motor level, is the basis of the attribution of roles that takes place by differentiation not changing the structure of the game, but managing to meet the needs of the individual with activities that are at their level and that push him to try to improve himself (koh, 2021). also in this case, we can find a parallel with special pedagogy. inclusion is achieved when the pupil with disabilities is not removed from the classroom, but when he willingly accepts a task specially created for him and can also make his contribution by working in groups, within a global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 49 serene atmosphere where he is respected and considered. in integrated sport everyone trains following personal schemes but does so to give life, during the game, to a team game that will allow everyone to achieve success through the contribution of all. in summary, therefore, integrated sport is a set of organized motor activities, strongly educational and playful, which are based on a type of activity that is first of all cooperative and that aims to be also competitive to keep alive the original idea and the essence of sport. everyone can participate actively and competently in this type of activity: people with severe disabilities, able-bodied people, men and women who, through the appropriate spaces, materials appropriate to the abilities and potential of each one, can see their abilities enhanced, actively participating and on the basis of equal opportunities through regulations that are always flexible. there are therefore three key elements: accessibility, active participation and equal opportunities, i.e. the guiding principles of an inclusive society. an example of an integrated sport is baskin (inclusive basketball). 4. baskin: example of integrated sport baskin is the quintessential example of integrated sport. it was born in a school in cremona in 2003 thanks to the commitment and collaboration between parents, support teachers and physical education (bodini et al, 2010). this collaboration soon spread throughout the surrounding area, giving rise to an important network and involving a large number of schools and associations. the success of baskin led to the foundation, in 2006, of the baskin onlus association, which is still today the reference point when referring to this type of activity. baskin is a team sport that allows the simultaneous participation of children with disabilities and able-bodied. the term itself, chosen to give a name to this particular sporting activity, derives from the fusion of two words: "basketball" and "inclusive". the starting point of this sport is that of basketball as well as the purpose, that is to score more baskets than the opposing team. each team is made up of both disabled and able-bodied players, each driven to give his best to contribute to the victory of the team in which he plays. the peculiarity is to allow the participation of children with any type of disability, from cognitive to physical, provided they can succeed, even in an ingenious way, to shoot the basket. in the same way, among the able-bodied, there may be basketball players, sportsmen from other disciplines or even sedentary people who are not used to sports. in addition to this, the teams are also heterogeneous from the point of view of age and gender. all this is made possible by an extremely ingenious system of rules that allows the coexistence of many types of diversity, succeeding in the mission of including everyone while keeping intact the pulsating core of sport, that is the search for competition and that desire to give the maximum to be able to bring home the victory. in this way, even the able-bodied do not participate only as a charitable act towards disabled children: a sort of personalization of responsibility takes place, overcoming the spontaneous tendency to assume a welfare attitude because success really depends on everyone's commitment by highlighting the true value that diversity entails. as for adaptation, in baskin it is carried out in four different areas: adaptation of the material, through the use of several baskets: two normal, positioned in a similar way to what happens in the game of basketball; two more places laterally (one higher and one lower) and decidedly lower. in addition, even the ball can, appropriately, be replaced with another of different size and global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 50 weight, just to allow children with severe disabilities to shoot the basket and contribute to the assignment of important points for the final result; adaptation of space, through "protected" lateral areas to allow shooting in the side baskets (high and low) mentioned above; adaptation of the rules, through predefined roles that are assigned according to the motor skills of the participants. this system is the fulcrum around which integrated sport is concretely realized. the roles are numbered from 1 to 5 and have specific regulations; adaptation of deliveries, through the possible assignment of a tutor, i.e. a player of the team who can accompany, directly or indirectly, his disabled companion when he is called to participate concretely in the game action. in 2017 an important memorandum of understanding was signed between the miur and the baskin onlus association aimed at guaranteeing a fruitful collaboration over time. obviously, the aim is to take care of the inclusion of students with disabilities through motor and sports activities, strengthening cognitive, relational and above all value skills, favoring the educational success of all. the aim is to collaborate in the development of the culture of social inclusion through interdisciplinary projects and experimental activities of motor activity, to be proposed during curricular or extra-curricular hours, to improve participation in the various activities of disabled pupils. conclusions in recent decades we have witnessed the emergence of a terrain of confrontation and a space for common construction that has seen the conjugation, on the educational level, of apparently antithetical scientific traditions: a new bio-educational paradigm of didactic research based on the recognition of the relationship between mind, body, environment, artefacts and processes of knowledge. the school is a dynamic reality, open to differences and that requires the teacher to act in an inclusive way, appropriately reshaping their educational actions. educational institutions, also through motor-sports activities, propose a rethinking of the experience of "doing school" achievable through the recognition of the centrality of the person as a unique and unrepeatable being. the practice of motor-sports education in the didactic context offers the possibility to express the potential of each student, thus becoming an inclusive learning environment, where the teacher's task is to design teaching methods and strategies through a flexible approach that can be customized and adapted to each student. to this end, the role of corporeality in teaching and learning processes is emphasized, giving motor-sports activity a transversal character. references agrifoglio, g. (2020). disabili e sport. dalla terapia alla ricerca della felicità. giustamm.it, 1(1), 1–20. alhumaid, m. m., khoo, s., & bastos, t. (2020). self-efficacy of pre-service physical education teachers toward inclusion in saudi arabia. sustainability, 12, 3898. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093898 altomari, n., sgambelluri, r., & straniero, a. m. (2020). percezione e agire inclusivo a scuola nelle attività di educazione fisica. risultati di una indagine esplorativa. italian journal of special education for inclusion, 8(1), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093898 global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 51 anzivino, r. (2015). baskin a 360°: teoria, tecnica e tattica. erickson. arvanitis, e. (2018). preservice teacher education: towards a transformative and reflexive learning. global studies of childhood, 8(2), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/20436106177349 80 bandura, a. (1986). social foundations of thought and action. pearson education. battaglia, l., & cerlini, a. (2018). lo sport incompiuto. progetto di un parco multifunzionale integrato a gravellona toce. bergamini, s., ciambrone, r., & molinari, f. (2015). progetto nazionale inclusione attraverso lo sport. artigianelli. bodini, a., capellini, f., & magnanini, a. (2010). baskin... uno sport per tutti. francoangeli. carraro, a., & lanza, m. (eds.). (2004). insegnare/apprendere in educazione fisica. armando editore. cast. (2011). universal design for learning guidelines version 2.0. cast publishing. coates, j., & vickerman, p. (2013). a review of methodological strategies for consulting children with special educational needs in physical education. european journal of special needs education, 28, 333–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2013. 797705 commissione europea, & eacea/eurydice. (2013). educazione fisica e sport a scuola in europa. rapporto eurydice. ufficio delle pubblicazioni dell’unione europea. cottini, l. (2017). didattica speciale e inclusione scolastica. carocci. dell’aquila, p. (2022). sport come mezzo di inclusione. quiedit. european agency for special needs and inclusive education. (2012). la formazione docente per l’inclusione. profilo dei docenti inclusivi. european agency for special needs and inclusive education. (2017). inclusive education for learners with disabilities. easnie. ghedin, e. (2009). ben-essere disabili. liguori editore. gomez, f., & sgambelluri, r. (2012). la disabilità tra didattica e sport. simone. green, k. (2019). physical education and school sport: is there a wider social role? in s. capel & r. blair (eds.), debates in physical education (pp. 18–35). routledge. haegele, j. a., & sutherland, s. (2015). perspectives of students with disabilities toward physical education: a qualitative inquiry review. quest, 67, 255–273. hersman, b. l., & hodge, s. r. (2017). strategies to increase social inclusion of students with disabilities in physical education settings. in a. j. s. morin, c. maïano, d. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610617734980 https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610617734980 https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2013.797705 https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2013.797705 global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 52 tracey, & r. g. craven (eds.), inclusive physical activities: international perspectives (pp. 77–89). information age publishing. holland, k., & haegele, j. a. (2021). perspectives of students with disabilities toward physical education: a review update 2014–2019. kinesiology review, 10(1), 78–87. king, k. (2009). the handbook of the evolving research of transformative learning based on the learning activities survey. information age publishing. koh, y. (2021). combining adapted physical activity education with individualized education programs: building korean pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive physical education. sustainability, 13(1), 2879. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052879 mezirow, j. (2003). apprendimento e trasformazione. il significato dell’esperienza e il valore della riflessione nell’apprendimento degli adulti. raffaello cortina editore. miola, s., meggiolaro, l., rodighiero, m. p., lago, c. d., & bordignon, d. (2021). gioco anch’io. erickson. miur. (2009). linee guida del ministero dell’istruzione per le attività di educazione fisica nelle scuole secondarie di primo e secondo grado. miur. (2012). indicazioni per la progettazione curricolare dell’educazione fisica nel primo ciclo. moliterni, p. (2013). didattica e scienze motorie: tra mediatori e integrazione. didattica e scienze motorie, 1–320. nuangchalerm, p., & prachagool, v. (2010). promoting transformative learning of preservice teachers through contemplative practices. asian social science, 6(1), 95– 99. pavone, m. (2014). l’inclusione educativa: indicazioni pedagogiche per la disabilità. mondadori università. qi, j., & ha, a. s. (2012). inclusion in physical education: a review of literature. international journal of disability, development and education, 59(3), 257– 281. qi, j., & wang, l. (2018). social interaction between students with and without disabilities in general physical education: a chinese perspective. physical education and sport pedagogy, 23(6), 575–591. unesco. (2017). a guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. whitehead, m. (2013). what is the education in physical education? in s. capel & r. blair (eds.), debates in physical education (pp. 103–115). routledge. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052879 global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 12 motor activity as a tool for social and educational growth in students with disabilities 1prof. ifeoma grace nwankwo and 2dr. obinna emmanuel ezeh 1faculty of education, enugu state university of science and technology, enugu, nigeria 2department of educational foundations, enugu state university of science and technology, enugu, nigeria keywords: inclusive education, motor activity, disability and learning, social development, physical education, abstract this research explores the fundamental role of motor activity in the educational development of students with disabilities within the school context. despite increasing awareness of its benefits, physical activity is often undervalued in educational systems, particularly in italy, where outdated perspectives continue to hinder its full potential as an inclusive tool. the study aims to emphasize that motor activity is not solely about physical enhancement but is intrinsically linked to cognitive, emotional, and social development—dimensions especially critical for students with disabilities. motor activity represents a primary human need, with the power to significantly influence the growth and learning processes of individuals. for students with disabilities, physical education offers a dynamic and inclusive platform through which they can engage meaningfully with peers, build selfesteem, and develop essential life skills. in this light, motor activities can act as a bridge, connecting educational objectives with the broader goal of holistic development. the educational value of physical activity is now globally recognized, as it contributes to the acquisition of higher-order cognitive functions such as concentration, problem-solving, and emotional regulation. furthermore, it fosters social interactions, promotes inclusion, and supports the development of relational competencies that are crucial in both academic and professional environments. when integrated effectively into the school curriculum, physical activity can transform into a powerful pedagogical tool that promotes equity, participation, and personal growth. this paper underscores the urgent need to reframe motor activity in schools not as a peripheral or optional practice, but as a central element of inclusive education. by doing so, schools can provide meaningful learning opportunities for all students, ensuring that those with disabilities are not only included but fully empowered to thrive within the educational system and beyond. introduction motor activity represents a fundamental human necessity, embodying the innate need for movement that is deeply rooted in the physical, cognitive, and emotional development of every individual. far from being limited to the enhancement of physical fitness, motor activity plays a crucial role in shaping cognitive functions, mental well-being, and, significantly, socio-relational skills. this is particularly vital for individuals with disabilities, for whom structured physical activity can offer an invaluable channel for expression, interaction, and personal growth. in contemporary educational discourse, the importance of physical activity has been widely recognized at the international level. it is increasingly viewed not merely as an auxiliary component of the school curriculum, but as a central educational tool capable of supporting holistic development. despite this growing recognition, in countries such as italy, the full potential of motor activity—especially in global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 13 inclusive education settings—remains underutilized and often overlooked due to lingering outdated perceptions. within the school environment, motor activity has the capacity to foster not only academic learning but also the development of higher-order cognitive skills such as critical thinking, concentration, and emotional regulation. moreover, it nurtures the social and interpersonal skills that are essential in both educational and professional contexts. for students with disabilities, these aspects are particularly meaningful, as physical activity can provide opportunities for integration, self-confidence, and the affirmation of personal identity within a shared learning space. given these multidimensional benefits, motor activity should be recognized as a key element in inclusive educational practices. its proper implementation can promote equitable learning experiences, reduce barriers to participation, and contribute to the creation of supportive and adaptive learning environments that value diversity and individuality. reframing physical education as a transformative educational experience—rather than a recreational break—can lead to more inclusive, effective, and human-centered schooling for all learners. 1. disability and movement “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”, this is what is enshrined in article one of the universal declaration on human rights, and which shows that disabled people also have the same fundamental rights as other citizens. with the madrid declaration of 2003, equal opportunities between able-bodied and disabled people are claimed, affecting various aspects: social, work, school and professional education, training in new technologies, social and health services, sports and leisure[1]. for this to happen it is necessary that everyone, starting from the individual citizen and then reaching the community as a whole, takes action to enhance and valorise diversity, just as is established by article 3 of the italian constitution: "all citizens have equal social dignity and they are equal before the law, without distinction of sex, race, language, religion, political opinions, personal and social conditions." the task of the individual person, up to the state, is to be able to eliminate all possible obstacles, both from a social and economic point of view, which could affect the freedom and equality of citizens, thus negatively influencing the overall development of the human person and consequently the participation of all in the political, economic and social organization of the country [2]. article 1 of the framework law number 104/92 states that:  there must be full respect for human dignity and the rights of freedom and autonomy of the person with a disability and full integration/inclusion in the family, school, work and society must be promoted;  conditions that are considered disabling and that can impede the development of the human person must be prevented and/or removed, compromising the achievement of the maximum possible autonomy and the participation of the disabled person in the life of the community;  interventions must be prepared aimed at overcoming states of marginalization and social exclusion of the disabled person. these and many other points have led, nowadays, to a vision that gives great importance to the quality of life of the person suffering from disability; this means having great consideration of socio-relational factors, placing them at the center of the entire system, which inevitably cannot underestimate free time which is an important indicator of quality [3]. the feeling of wellbeing is an important indicator of the level of quality of life, even more so for people with disabilities, as it is precisely by exploiting free time (for example practicing any physical activity) that it is possible to eliminate the sense of impotence in favor of the sense of gratification [4]. being able to make the most of the free time factor, for people with disabilities, means being able to benefit from everything that is offered by the place where you live, fully benefiting from the citizen rights that everyone enjoys. often when we talk about activities that can be carried out during free time, we think of any form of physical activity capable of including all "types" of people, from young to old, whether male or female, and above all disabled or otherwise. sporting activity can be defined as the set of all those activities, mental and physical, aimed at improving and maintaining the psychophysical system of the person, and entertaining those who practice it. games, physical activity and recreational activities, even if their potential has not yet been exploited to the full, offer the possibility of starting to practice sports, also understood as a phase of affirmation of personal autonomy and the gratification that inevitably generates positive effects on self-esteem [5]. promoting motor activity for people with disabilities global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 14 means recognizing the social, educational and training value inherent in it, since in addition to promoting cognitive development, the motor experience becomes a reason for emancipation and growth enhanced by constructive comparison with others, the perception of their own efficiency [6]. the practice of physical activity must be understood as a means with an educational aim whose effectiveness is directly proportional to the playful aspect. doing physical activity means not only trying to improve the physical component, but certainly increasing the cognitive aspect necessary for the motor learning phase, the axis of socialization that is linked to the sporting world, and finally the improvement of self-esteem [7]; therefore, from a disability perspective, the essential role of physical activity is evident as, thanks to it, it is possible to enhance the disabled person. motor practice stimulates and enhances the abilities of the person suffering from disability, encouraging social interaction, in order to create links with the outside world in order to allow the construction and enrichment of one's personality [8]. furthermore, we must not forget the importance of discussion and the emotions that derive from it, which allow and encourage the growth not only of the disabled person but of the entire group. it is thanks to sports practice that the disabled person receives benefits from a physical point of view in order to avoid the appearance of pathologies such as obesity, while from a psychological point of view, the social aspect must not be neglected as it is possible to avoid a possible social isolation[9]. what has been said is made feasible by the fact that sporting activity "forces" the disabled person to interact with the external environment, avoiding the onset of negative aspects such as motor regression or even attenuated or dulled curiosity. the practice of any form of motor activity improves the ability to process information, improves society's attitudes towards the person suffering from disability and vice versa [10]. therefore, it can be defined as a moment of learning and personal knowledge due to the multiple external stimuli that favor knowledge and learning. 2. pedagogy, disability and school disability should not be considered a permanent factor as it depends on the external environment, so it would be possible to make it disappear completely or almost. to establish how much a person affected by a disability is influenced by it, indicators have been established (the same ones used for able-bodied people) capable of evaluating the quality of life[11]. to evaluate the well-being of a person's life it is important to analyze aspects such as health, selfefficacy, sense of trust, belonging and degree of selfesteem. when it comes to well-being, the fundamental dimensions to analyze are adaptation and social support, furthermore it is possible to subject variables such as the level of affection (both positive and negative) and the overall judgment on the quality of life to an accurate evaluation. social relationships have a great influence on subjective well-being. belonging to a group, and in an even broader vision, to a community, turns out to be fundamental for the well-being of a disabled person, so also the quality of social relationships, which can be defined as the interaction between the subject and the context, are of fundamental importance for it to be fully included in any context. “man is a social animal”, this is what was stated by aristotle, and it means that any person needs to relate to all the actors in the surrounding world. this means stating that everyone needs to feel loved, cared for and have any need satisfied, be it physical or emotional. the above establishes that social and subjective well-being must be enhanced to encourage young people to adopt correct and healthy lifestyles in order to promote the ability to deal with the possible onset of problematic situations[12]. furthermore, increasing social well-being allows us to promote attitudes of social interaction and social acceptance. it is important to promote social well-being immediately, from an early age, and from this perspective the school has this responsibility, as the primary objectives are the education and inclusion of all[13]. furthermore, in an extracurricular context, social well-being is able to improve the quality of life of people with disabilities thanks to the use of various activities, including physical activity, during free time. this demonstrates the link between physical education in school and physical or sporting practice outside of school. at school age, pupils with disabilities may have problems from the point of view of adapting to the demands of the school, to which is added difficulty in obtaining good levels of social acceptance, in particular, in particular, they may rarely experience global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 15 relationship difficulties with the teacher or, more frequently, with the peer group. furthermore, it has been seen that, especially in adolescence, disabled students demonstrate greater difficulties in creating and managing to maintain interactions with their classmates in a stable and lasting way over time [14]. all this could have a negative impact on the processes of adaptation to adult life. the school's task is to train "the adult of the future", for which fundamental aspects such as a better quality of life must be considered, and for this to happen, it is important to be able to obtain recognition of fundamental rights, in order to protect and ensure the maximum possible autonomy for all people who need it[15]. when we talk about autonomy we refer to multiple points of view: personal, work, social and family, all essential to make a person with a disability feel an integral part of society. this term does not simply refer to the care of the person's life in the sense of removing the causes of marginalization, but to offer the possibility, thanks to tools, methodologies, techniques and targeted paths, to be an active and proactive part of the choices that are made. made and which directly affect the life of the disabled person. it is from this perspective that the school, through training programs, should encourage the development of all the skills that will lead to the achievement of personal autonomy [16]. the term educate means to define the ability to be able to bring it out, in order to obtain the truth from the person and not introduce it. therefore, there is a need to exploit motor activity as a fundamental element both from an educational and a socio-relational point of view. the school's task is to be able to create the foundations so that life skills (life skills), understood as the set of personal and relational skills, are well structured in the disabled person, so as to be able to create correctly and profitable bond between himself and the surrounding environment. it must therefore be an advocate of lifelong learning, capable of providing all the effective strategies to be used to resolve any problems that may arise in daily life. the school context must be the ideal place to design and plan the interventions to be implemented to create the adult of tomorrow, and in this sense it is important that we focus on the development of transversal skills in order to favor the structuring of the self, of identity of the disabled person[17]. 3. the importance of inclusive teaching in schools educating through movement from the early years of life is of fundamental importance as it allows and promotes knowledge of one's body and helps to improve the quality of life[18]. motor activity and movement in general must be understood as an educational possibility with an indispensable educational value for the development of identity and social interactions with the surrounding environment and with one's classmates[19]. when we talk about team motor practice we must think of all the multiple situations that favor the stimulation of individual initiative. physical activity for people with disabilities can represent a moment of social emancipation and individual growth, as discussion and collaboration with others can and must be understood as the structuring of an environment full of significant stimuli. the practice of physical activity has fundamental values for the development of the person: helps to express one's creativity; it is an instrument of moral and physical elevation; it's a cultural value. motor activity and motor sciences in the school context must be understood as an opportunity for everyone, without any distinction, to be able to offer their contribution in the process of building the identity of disabled and nondisabled students. in the school context, motor practice must not be understood at competitive levels, on the contrary it must favor the possibility of being able to measure oneself with others, but above all with oneself, in order to know one's own resources and abilities in order to deal with the peer group. the role of motor sciences towards the disabled student from a scholastic perspective should be to be able to enhance individual abilities, increase others to the point of fortifying the interested person to encourage encounters with the surrounding global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 16 environment and with the peer group , managing to deal with objectives with an increasing degree of difficulty[20]. therefore the purpose of physical practice in the school context is to offer new possible paths to knowledge and inclusion paths, starting right from school, from the first levels of education, in order to encourage its permanence throughout the entire life cycle. of life, so that it can be seen not only from a competitive point of view but also and above all from the point of view of fun, training, play, recreation and therefore as a moment and opportunity for growth. sports practice must be understood as an educational strategy to overcome the possible onset of social isolation of the person suffering from disability [21]. it must be understood as a way of being able to see oneself in a positive sense, capable of improving one's self-image; furthermore, we must not forget that learning occurs through experience, and it is thanks to it that it is possible to have a greater emotional boost capable of helping to overcome the onset of any moments of discouragement and fragility due to difficulties and isolation that could occur outside of "protected" environments such as the family[22]. finally, we must not forget that when we talk about physical activity at school we promote positive interdependence, self-confidence and self-sufficiency. when the student leaves the familiar environment, he does so to enter a new group, going against others and experimenting with different roles (adversary, companion, ally) in order to achieve a common goal. furthermore, sensations, both positive and negative, such as the fear of not making it or the fatigue of exercising, respect for the rules, commitment to school and physical activity, make him feel part of the whole environment, making him motivated, autonomous and determined in dealing with any difficulties that may arise. physical activity in school must be seen as a strategic tool of education, which manages to pursue the ultimate goal, that is, the socioeducational well-being of all, in which there are equal opportunities, opportunities and possibilities of choice. the school connected to physical activity allows us to experiment with new forms of inclusion, capable of addressing everyone and, at the same time, being able to find the "suitable paths" for everyone[23]. finally, we must not forget to practice physical activity in the school context, it means doing it together, ablebodied students and those with disabilities, in order to enhance the potential, through the precise play roles, necessary for the success of the activity. all exercises are carried out in the same spaces, all together and at the same time, this ensures that there are beneficial effects both from a psycho-physical and socio-relational point of view. as far as the psycho-physical aspect is concerned, suffice it to say that motor practice at school helps disabled students to have greater static and dynamic balance, which is necessary in walking, without forgetting that it is possible to strengthen the muscular system, resistance, strength, favoring a reduction in heart rate. the above guarantees the ability to orient and move correctly in space, managing to improve one's spatio-temporal organizational capabilities. all this allows the disabled student to acquire greater confidence in everything he does but above all towards himself, thus increasing his sense of self-confidence. furthermore, from a psychological point of view, we must consider that disabled people have always encountered difficulties throughout their lives, and physical practice combined with the school context represents one of the first moments of satisfaction due to achieving the goal without the help of parents, as motor practice stimulates intellect and creativity while keeping memory and concentration trained. from a socio-relational point of view, school as well as physical practice promotes inclusion in the social context, as in order to achieve the objective it is necessary to collaborate with the other members of the team group, managing to encourage the construction of identity personal of the disabled person [24]. 4. conclusions the school context must be seen as the universe in which young people shape their personality on a daily basis [25], so it contains the set of all the global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 17 values that build a single system in which the rich world certainly falls of disability to which the world of sports practice must be associated, which now includes an ever-increasing number of children, pupils and adults suffering from disabilities. the ability to learn through movement is something innate that everyone has since birth, allowing them to interact with the surrounding world and explore it in an active and participatory way, promoting the growth of knowledge of the surrounding environment[26]. the body must be understood as the means by which we can receive all the most sincere information about ourselves, capable, therefore, of making us perceive who we are, what we live and what we feel. here movement takes on a fundamental role from the point of view of learning, understood as the only channel capable of positively influencing not only the motor sphere, but also the relational, cognitive and emotional ones. the italian school boasts a long tradition from the point of view of the integration of pupils suffering from disabilities, and its role is to promote and encourage meetings between people "bearers" of different abilities, culture, age and social class, it must be able to, also taking advantage of what is offered by physical and sporting practice, create a single training action which has the task of enhancing, enhancing and strengthening all skills, thus managing to include all students in this process without excluding anyone. references barnes, c. 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(2002). la famiglia di fronte alla disabilità. stress, risorse e sostegni (vol. 60). edizioni erickson. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 11; november-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 managing the nigerian education system: a blueprint for economic diversification and emancipation 1hazzan moses kayode, ph. d. and 1adeogun ademola adewale, ph. d. orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2933-5798 email: moseshazzan4@gmail.com; adewalemola@gmail.com /walemola2016@gmail.com/ +2348140718141/+2347039877233 orcid: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-8292-5329 article info abstract keywords: education, indigenous education, traditional education system, pre-colonial and post-colonial education systems, economic diversification and emancipation doi 10.5281/zenodo.14073092 it is axiomatic to underscore that a well-managed education system is deemed globally a crucial prerequisite for not only the growth and development of every society or geopolitical space but also one of the veritable hallmarks of a diversified and functional economy that will, in the long run, culminate in economic emancipation of the people. the education industry faces enormous challenges in several african countries, and nigeria is no exception. even though education remains the bedrock or superstructure on which other societal structures such as politics, culture, religion, economics, etc. are laid; it is quite disheartening that education in nigeria is not effectively and efficiently managed for economic diversification and the emancipation of the recipients of such education. indeed, the industry faces innumerable challenges, especially in contemporary times when the education system is essentially functional. the hydra-headed nature of the challenges facing nigeria’s educational system has inevitably resulted in different dimensions of economic quagmires entangling the country and making most of its citizens find it extremely difficult to escape and survive. the level of dysfunction in various sections of the education system has made it seemingly intractable to palliate the economic predicaments confronting the country, let alone emancipate it from the monoculture of its overdependence on oil. the authors of this treatise are diagnostic in their approaches to understanding the intricacies of the challenges facing the nigerian education system and deprive it of being a veritable tool for a functional economy as well as a catalyst for the economic emancipation of its people. through analyses of relevant literature, this paper amplifies the conceptual and operational dimensions of the identified challenges, offers probable suggestions on how the challenges can be tackled, and finally concludes. 1 university of ibadan, nigeria https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2933-5798?lang=en global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 2 1. introduction contrary to the mainstream view of education as a process of teaching and learning, usually at schools, colleges, or universities, education can be conceptualized as a way in which members of a society are trained about the knowledge and skills deemed necessary for survival in such a society (akinpelu, 2018). education serves as the defining essence of human life, separating humanity from lower animals. hence, every society endeavors to provide education in various forms to guide its youth toward embracing their desired cultural norms and ways of life. as is the case in societies worldwide, education has been an inherent aspect of nigerian life since time immemorial. in pre-colonial nigeria, education served as a potent tool for imparting essential skills, ethics, customs, traditions, and values to every child, empowering them to participate actively and contribute to society. analyzing two key national objectives of education outlined in the national policy on education (npe frn, 2013) reveals their pivotal role in securing the economic liberation of the nigerian populace. first, the emphasis on instilling appropriate values and attitudes crucial for individual and societal survival underscores the importance of fostering a strong ethical framework and communal ethos. second, the emphasis on acquiring the necessary skills, abilities, and competencies, encompassing both mental and physical aspects, provides individuals with the tools needed to thrive within their society. together, these provisions form the cornerstone for the economic empowerment of the nigerian citizenry. education, as outlined in these provisions, serves as a vehicle for cultivating citizens with positive values and equipping them with essential skills for personal economic empowerment and overall national development. this approach aligns with the imperative to diversify the economy and foster a dynamic and inclusive growth trajectory for the nation. thus, education in a broad sense is a process through which an individual acquires physical, mental, and social capabilities and/or skills demanded by the society in which he/she is born to function (uwadia, 2010). it is to a nation what the mind is to the body. for instance, just as a diseased mind is handicapped in the coordination and direction of bodily activities, a dysfunctional educational system will also affect the functioning of a geopolitical space or country in terms of the emancipation of its citizens as well as the diversification of its economy. similarly, education can be conceptualized as a weapon for combating ignorance, poverty, and disease; as a bridge between confusion and comprehension, like a dam for conserving man’s store of civilization and for generating the power to move to greater civilization; as a rocket for transporting man from a state of intellectual subservience to a state of intellectual sovereignty (yoloye, 1980). indeed, education equips individuals with the skills necessary to leverage economic resources, enabling them to overcome poverty. moreover, it fosters the development of crucial social skills and facilitates effective social interactions and relationships. additionally, education propels the acquisition of technical capacities essential for economic emancipation and diversification, ultimately leading to enhanced living standards for recipients. a prime example of a nation that restructured its education system to reflect national circumstances and promote the economic liberation of its citizens is south korea (yoloye, 1980). despite being categorized as a very poor country in the 1960s, south korea has undergone a remarkable transformation as an economic powerhouse. this transformation has been largely driven by the aggressive improvement of the country’s education system, highlighting the critical role of education in fostering economic development and national advancement. before colonialism began, unemployment was a rare phenomenon in nigeria. this is because nigerians and people in other african geopolitical spaces are considered highly entrepreneurial, and therefore, they are productively engaged. nigerians across the then three regions – west, east, and north – were highly global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 3 entrepreneurial as indigenous and traditional education practiced invariably amplified social responsibility, job orientation, political participation as well as spiritual and moral responsibilities (okoli, 2011). in other words, education was geared toward functionality, and there was no room for idleness. this indigenous education was not for mere cognition (head knowledge) but was important to the socio-economic advancement of the individual and society at large. this, perhaps, might have in one way or another influenced the current emphasis on the need for increased entrepreneurial education through the development of problem-solving curricula and the promotion of lifelong education. however, the beginning of the colonial era in nigeria marked a downward trend in emphasis on indigenous or traditional education systems. indeed, the colonial overlords did not introduce any new system of education to africa in general and nigeria in particular, but rather distorted the already existing structure. it was an education for underdevelopment (rodney, 1972). therefore, unlike pre-colonial african education that grew out of the immediate environment and available resources, the colonial education structure reveals that it was not intended either to emancipate africans economically, socially, or otherwise or to enhance the diversification of its economy. rather, the education system is configured to make the people of nigeria subservient to the dictates of the colonial government. in post-colonial and contemporary times, several changes were made in the npe, but up to now, they have not been implemented to reflect the educational blueprints contained in the policy. for instance, to what extent has secondary education in nigeria (as a post-basic education) been able to train students for career development, prepare them for the world of work, and help them contribute positively to society (osuji and koko, 2018) as contained in the npe (frn, 2013)? meanwhile, the essence of secondary education is to give the youth the right to acquire the necessary skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values that will enable them to lead life and become productive individuals in society. tertiary education is the linchpin of a nation’s advancement, contributing to both human and material resources. in essence, it serves as the primary driver of human capital formation, which is indispensable for fostering economic growth and overall development. this viewpoint has been supported by reputable sources such as the world bank (1999) and scholars like alade (2006). tertiary education in nigeria plays a pivotal role in various aspects of national development, as outlined in the national policy on education (fgn, 2013). it serves as a critical platform for training high-level workers, instilling proper values, fostering intellectual capacity development, acquiring physical and intellectual skills, and promoting community service. these functions underscore the significance of tertiary education in shaping the trajectory of the nation's socio-economic and cultural landscape. however, as lofty as these objectives are, they are not reflected in the lives of most graduates who find it extremely difficult to be employed because of their lack of employable skills. hence, it is plausible to emphasize that the execution of educational policies in nigeria may not have prioritized the comprehensive development of individuals or facilitated their attainment of deeper insight and mastery over themselves and their surroundings (akanbi and jekayinfa, 2019). this perspective underscores potential shortcomings in the implementation of educational policies, possibly impeding the achievement of their intended objectives regarding personal growth and empowerment. for quite some time, the education system in nigeria has been criticized for its theoretical nature and its failure to adequately address the needs, desires, and aspirations of its recipients. according to osokoya (2016), the focus of this education system is primarily on producing individuals who are geared toward seeking white-collar jobs, despite the predominantly agrarian environment. consequently, learners struggle to develop a deeper understanding of themselves, their surroundings, and the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 4 rapidly changing world. this critique underscores the need for educational reforms that better align with the realities of the modern era and empower learners to navigate dynamic environments effectively. 2. trajectories of nigeria’s education system: conceptual clarifications 2.1 traditional education system before the advent of colonial rule, nigerian societies had a traditional educational system. pre-colonial traditional education was informal and concerned with training individuals to equip them with the skills needed to become useful persons within society and to survive in it. children were taught traditional crafts, trades, and vocational skills through an apprenticeship system. this system inculcates in the citizenry an appreciation of their heritage, culture, ethics, and civics, and an appreciation of social obligations. on the whole, traditional education, though informal, was comprehensive, integrated, and holistic. this underscored the primacy of society and not individuals (ajayi, 2017). 2.2 western education system the genesis of western education in nigeria can be traced to the period of christian missionaries. various missionary groups emerged, including the methodists, anglicans, and roman catholics, all from europe from the early 1840s, as well as the baptist mission, from america that came in 1850. the essence of this system of education was to proselytize and gain more converts into christendom. 2.3 colonial education system the educational system introduced by the colonialists was modeled on the british system. it was laden with a heavier emphasis on subservient attitudes and white-collar skills. it was ineluctably based on the assumptions of colonial and capitalist societies. this meant that colonial education induced attitudes of human inequality and, in practice, underpinned the domination of the weak by the strong, especially in the economic field (nyere, 1967). all through the colonial era, therefore, education was restricted both in scope and quality to the base-level requirements of the regimes and was structured in such a way as not to threaten the hegemony of the imperial order. hence, colonial education alienated its beneficiaries from their own culture and entrenched cultural imperialism in society. therefore, through this ‘imported’ education, some nigerians become deluded hybrids, seeing themselves as world citizens and not the citizens of their immediate environment (akinpelu, 2018). this system of education was principally predicated on ‘how much’ its recipients could consume with whatever they accumulated rather than what they could create (olutayo, 2010). 2.4 post-colonial nigeria’s education system at independence in 1960, nigeria inherited a colonial education system that was largely designed to meet the needs of the colonial administration. they were mainly grammar schools that produced white-collar, job-oriented labor. practically no technical curriculum exists in the school system. the colonialists were not interested in producing the engineers, scientists, and other professionals needed to develop the young nigerian nation. in nigeria, the education system comprises three distinct sectors: basic education, which spans nine years; postbasic or senior secondary education, which lasts three years; and tertiary education, which varies in duration from four to six years depending on the chosen program of study (frn, 2013). suffice it to say that at present, the entire education system is in a pitiable state (ajayi, 2017). there is no gainsaying the fact that the major stakeholders in the educational system, namely, parents, the government, and the larger society, have reduced the school system to merely avenues for ‘certificate’ acquisition, the products for ‘jobs’, notably white-collar ones, and no more (akinpelu, 2018). it is common knowledge that education is expected to achieve certain objectives, one of which is to produce good citizens men and women of good character. the current education system has global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 5 invariably failed to equip its products with the enduring values of society, such as honesty, integrity, transparency, discipline, justice, and a sense of fairness, etc. (lina markauskaite, 2018). 2.5 economic emancipation emancipation, according to the memidex dictionary (www.dictionary.com), is the process of liberation or the state of being free. it signifies liberation from constraints and freedom from social inhibitions and conventions. economic emancipation can therefore be viewed in the context of the freedom of an individual from poverty and/or financial challenges and an appreciable level of standard of living. a country can be said to be economically emancipated if it can efficiently and effectively harness its resources, get its citizens gainfully engaged, and provide for the needs of its citizens without being heavily dependent on foreign economies to survive. 2.6 economic diversification this is the process of dynamics in an economy that is characterized by shifting an economy away from a single income source (mono-cultural economy) to multiple sources (dynamic economy) from a growing range of sectors and markets. in the meantime, this approach has been adopted and applied by several countries as a strategy to encourage positive economic growth and development. for instance, nigeria will diversify its economy when it exploits resources and develops other sectors of its economy and the potential of its citizens to reach fullness. 3. the nigerian education system: a panoramic view of its inherent dysfunctions the nigerian education system is currently inundated with a myriad of challenges such as poor funding, inadequate infrastructure, lack of teaching and learning tools, indiscipline, poor governance, the politicization of education, and corruption among others (jaiyeoba, 2018) as well incessant strike actions, brain drain, poor quality, and relevance of output (babalola, 2011). however, as lofty and laudable as the goals of nigerian education as enunciated in the npe (frn, 2013), there exists a wide chasm between what is amplified in the policy document and what is practiced in the nigerian education system. perhaps, this lacuna became pronounced because there was no total decolonization of the mentality of the key educational stakeholders or actors coupled with the faulty academic content of the curriculum. numerous scholars have strongly argued that a significant proportion of university graduates are unemployable or face challenges in securing jobs due to a lack of essential skills necessary for their chosen fields (babalola, 2011; ajayi, 2017; akinpelu, 2018; adedeji, 2022). they contend that the educational curriculum places greater emphasis on cognitive development while neglecting functional education, which is holistic in terms of human development (akinpelu, 2005; innocent-ene, 2008). 4. managing the nigerian education system for economic diversification and emancipation: hints and useful strategies every education system in the global community is established and saddled with the responsibility of transmitting knowledge that can transform the economy and modernize society; building the human capacity needed for accelerated economic growth and development as well as influencing the diversification of the economy to get people engaged optimally, alleviate poverty, and improve their standard of living (jaiyeoba, 2018; adedeji, 2022). thus, managing the nigerian education system is a herculean task that requires serious and concerted efforts from all stakeholders. hence, designing an education system to fit domestic or local needs, resources, culture, etc., boils down to ‘engineering issues’. a critical review of the education system since independence shows that nigeria has been operating on inherited education systems coupled with faulty curricula (yoloye, 1980). serious attention is therefore needed to the engineering and restructuring of the nigerian education system considering each of the following suggested strategies. 4.1 creation of a symbiotic nexus between town and gown global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 6 there is a disconnect between the nigerian education system and organically formed indigenous knowledge. consequently, not only is the current system clearly at variance with the primordial indigenous system, but there is also an obvious separation between the town and the gown. for example, the nigerian university system, in particular, and the educational system in general, do not interact as much with the immediate environment. policymakers and society at large today place much emphasis on the acquisition of university degrees, with less emphasis on vocational and technical training as well as relevant skills that will enhance the quality of people living in every society. the reality is that the gown cannot ignore the town because the developmental processes of any geopolitical space cannot be divorced from its organically formed knowledge and indigenous knowledge culture. instances abound in every society in nigeria, as in many other parts of africa, that most of the ‘so-called’ educated elites and eggheads depend more on roadside technicians, many of whom do not have a university education to make certain aspects of their daily life more meaningful (ajayi, 2017). also, most accident victims are treated relatively easily in traditional orthopedic hospitals, many cases of which could have attracted amputation. unfortunately, the system pays less attention to these “unschooled persons and their indigenous knowledge” because they never saw the four walls of the educational system. a rider to the above question is to ask the pertinent question: what have our universities done to improve the food crisis, debt crisis, social crisis, etc.? this put into question the local relevance of many nigerian higher-learning institutions. individuals who receive high-quality tertiary education are expected to demonstrate capabilities in addressing and resolving various societal challenges spanning economic, technological, socio-political, moral, and developmental domains. however, a discernible gap persists between the knowledge acquired within educational institutions and the practical skills necessary for effectively addressing these challenges (qiang, 2003). therefore, it is imperative to incorporate principles from african traditional education, including functionalism, into modern educational policies to bridge this gap. 4.2 glocalization of curricula content and amplification of vocational and entrepreneurial education one of the fundamental features of the colonial educational legacy was the uncritical adoption of an education system that placed a premium on academic degrees to the disparagement of technical and vocational careers. prioritizing vocational and technical education is paramount at this critical juncture. such education should be structured to incorporate entrepreneurial training and support the diversification of the economy, aiming to create a nation that is not only robust and self-sufficient but also economically liberated. consequently, it is imperative to enhance the curricula at all educational levels, making them more innovative, contemporary, pertinent, and oriented toward practical application rather than theoretical concepts. to reposition the education system for economic diversification and emancipation, robust collaboration between industry and educational institutions is indispensable. this collaboration should focus on three interconnected innovation paths: curriculum revision, skills training, and r&d initiatives. these efforts must be tailored to meet the evolving needs of society, both domestically and internationally (olasehinde-williams, 2018). in reality, no nation develops and emancipates itself from every form of economic doldrums by copying others verbatim. it must ‘indigenize’ what is learned from other nations. however, such indigenization is impossible without the ownership and control of the means of survival (akinpelu, 2018). the system of education inherited from british colonial education was too deeply ingrained in western concepts. to this day, the system is still deficient in terms of being culturally centered; there is apparent difficulty in successfully producing people who are deeply ingrained in the culture, values, and norms of their people. in other words, the current educational system alienates beneficiaries from their indigenous values and makes them global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 7 beholden to foreign values. there should therefore be a working mechanism to make the educational system meaningful, relevant, and sustainable for nigerian and african cultures, while at the same time having a critical appreciation of other cultures (ajayi, 2017). it is significant to deconstruct the knowledge presented by the colonial overlords to bring the knowledge of the forebears to the fore by showing how their intricate and progressive knowledge, with the use of their contextual understanding of their environment, helped to create empires (akinpelu, 2018). the asian tigers (south korea, taiwan, singapore, and hong kong) hitherto experimented with this, and this resulted in their economic emancipation. 4.3 skill-based education system and emphasis on sabiticates2rather than mere certificates sabiticate is equal to what we sabi or what we know in term of the practical application of knowledge acquired to solve problems. what is the relevance of a paper certificate that cannot empower its bearer? this implies that neither a country nor its citizens can be economically emancipated until the practicality and application of what is known are achieved. there is a need for education to acquire knowledge and not just certificate acquisition. the realities of the contemporary nigerian situation call for more job creators rather than job seekers because the employment market is already saturated. therefore, emphasis should shift from mere certificates to skill acquisition. every educational institution in nigeria at all levels must brace to ensure that its products are sufficiently well-equipped to respond to the myriad challenges facing the education system. it is important to realize that the more educated, in the western way of life, nigerians become, the more they distance themselves from the obvious opportunities around them. however, nigerians employ almost irrelevant means of labor, to create new social relationships that depend on foreign knowledge and ideas. meanwhile, means of labor are central to understanding the nature of labor and the objects on which it operates. it is therefore unfortunate that both the means of labor and labor depend on the imported object of labor such that attention is drawn more to the external than to contextual existential realities (akinpelu, 2018). students should be re-oriented for survival strategies with less emphasis placed on ‘theoretical distinction and credits’. various levels of education must begin to take an interest in how nigerian students can compete for survival. to do so, they need to learn to appreciate societal needs based on society’s defined needs (akinpelu, 2018). it is expedient for the nigerian education system to embrace and learn from the forebears in science, medicine, agriculture, socio-economic relations, and so on, while the so-called knowledge from abroad should be clinically studied to find out its relevance to the country’s survival (akinpelu, 2018). 4.4 need for quality teachers and adequate remuneration the significance of teachers cannot be overemphasized, as they serve as the cornerstone of a nation’s educational system. without well-prepared and highly skilled teachers, a nation cannot advance beyond its educators’ capabilities. it is therefore essential that teachers receive thorough education and pedagogical training, particularly in teaching high-level curricula. failing to provide such training would inadvertently communicate to students that their aim is merely to attain academic adequacy rather than striving for academic excellence (unesco, 1996, p. 37). furthermore, learners should be consistently reminded of the practical implications of their daily classroom learning to help them understand the significance of their education in shaping their future pursuits. teachers at all levels of education should also be motivated by being adequately remunerated as and when due (ajayi, 2017). the current pauperization of teachers in social circumstances of unbridled materialism is not likely to bring out the best in them, no matter their level of commitment. is it any wonder that the average teacher in the 2this indicates the skills, ingenuities and practical knowledge that characterized the indigenous and organic knowledge system as distinct from the theoretical ‘head knowledge’ that is predicated on degrees/certificates (the term was neologized and used by akinpelu (2018). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 8 nigerian school system today, regardless of his/her level of commitment, has had to look for additional means of sustenance or coping strategies? the point being emphasized, therefore, is that teachers as major stakeholders also need adequate motivation, a sense of life, and recognition for optimal performance. furthermore, teachers themselves should demonstrate greater commitment to the teaching of the students entrusted to them (ajayi, 2017). 4.5 emphasizing value-oriented education before the introduction of western education, nigeria had a thriving traditional education system. this system placed great importance on values such as industry, integrity, honesty, transparency, and contentment, all of which were highly respected (fafunwa, 1974). these virtues were deeply ingrained in nigerian culture, evident in traditional religious practices, dances, dramas, folklore, and arts and crafts. similarly, the concept of "omoluwabi," which refers to a person of good character in all aspects, served as the central focus of educational efforts aimed at nigerian children (fabamwo, 2012). traditional education placed great emphasis on this concept, recognizing that the goal was not only to acquire skills but also to nurture good character in individuals and prepare them to become valuable members of society. in contemporary nigeria, individuals emerging from educational institutions must not only acquire knowledge but also internalize and demonstrate positive attitudes to effectively integrate as productive members of society. it is significant to stress that the resources with which nigeria has been bestowed since independence are adequately sufficient to diversify its economy and develop the country’s human capital, thereby emancipating its citizens from the shackles of economic savagery comparable to what other countries, especially in south east asia, many of whom went through the same colonial experience, have done. given all the resources found in nigeria, one is tempted to speculate that indiscipline at all levels is a cog in the wheel of steady educational development and economic emancipation. therefore, the nigerian government must build an education system that advocates for increased moral fiber and downplays ethical absurdities and materialism. 4.6 funding of education sufficient funding for the education sector is crucial if nigeria genuinely aims to make its education system relevant and effective. a substantial increase in budgetary allocation to the education sector is needed to support the enhancement of both content and processes in education. from elementary school to the highest level of education, the scarcity of essential equipment and materials crucial for practical learning is increasing. this deficiency can be directly linked to inadequate funding for the education sector. government expenditure on education is continually dwindling, more so in recent years, against the backdrop of fluctuations in national economic fortunes (ajayi, 2017). there is an urgent need to ensure adequate funding to provide world-class physical structures, functional teaching equipment, and a social environment conducive to qualitative education for the common people. 4.7 taming the ferocity of corrupt practices in all strata of the education sector in modern nigeria, there is a prevalent moral decline both within and outside the school environment. teachers and administrators exhibit decreased dedication to their duties, leading to a devaluation of the certificates awarded by schools. additionally, examination malpractice, in its octopod dimensions, has become rampant across all educational levels, with parents, teachers, and other stakeholders often complicit and actively supporting and facilitating this unethical behavior. compounding this issue is the stark reality that a significant proportion of graduates emerging from the education system lack the essential technical and professional skills required to thrive in modern workplaces. hence, beyond the scarcity of available jobs, a considerable number of nigerian graduates are simply not equipped with the skills necessary for employment. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 9 5. conclusion diversification of the nigerian economy and the economic emancipation of its citizens require different diagnoses. in summary, there is no single solution to the question of economic emancipation in nigeria. what is certain is that true economic emancipation and diversification of the nigerian economy can only be realized when the country’s economy is growing at its full potential, which can be attained through a well-planned and implemented educational policy and critical overhauling of the education system. despite the glaring enormous challenges nigeria and its citizens face in the educational system, giant strides could be made toward ensuring that education at all levels is structured to liberate the country from the present state of the economic quagmire it finds itself. given a more favorable environment, therefore, the country could make more contributions to the economic emancipation of its people through a well-overhauled education system. education for economic emancipation and diversification is not a commodity that can be lifted from a shell and given life. nor do mere policy statements and statements of intent bring them into being. therefore, all the education stakeholders, in all circumstances, must partake in the sacrosanct responsibility of overhauling the nigerian education system to embrace functionalism. perhaps, it may be apt at this juncture to quote one of the thought-provoking remarks succinctly made by professor toyin falola to amplify the essence of diversifying the nigerian economy. he said inter alia: we are in the age of the knowledge economy. knowledge economies are more lucrative than oil economies. oil is a depreciating asset; knowledge is not. oil needs a knowledge economy to generate progress: oil as a commodity requires a greater amount of knowledge to make it useful. oil does not create the human capital needed to move society forward; knowledge does. the knowledge economy is linked to all forms of technologies and information that generate progress (falola, 2016, page 58). references adedeji, s. o. (2022). tertiary education access: determining factors of quality and human capacity development in nigeria. in f. egbokhare, s. adedeji and o. oyeshile (eds.). education for knowledge economy and human capacity development in africa. essays in honor of emeritus professor olufemi bamiro. pp 210239. ajayi, s. a. (2017). contemporary challenges in education in nigeria. ilorin grammar school at the 50th golden jubilee anniversary lecture. published by bookwright publishers (nig.) ibadan. akanbi, g. o., and jekayinfa, a. a. (2019). education and emancipation, educational policies and «deemancipation»: a history of the nigerian education system from 1914 to 2014. espacio, tiempoy educación, 6(2), pp. 177-196. http://www.doi.org/10.14516/ete.230 akinpelu, j. a. (2005). essays in philosophy and education. ibadan: stirling-horden publishers (nig.) ltd. akinpelu, o. o. (2018). sabaticate is equal to an inaugural lecture delivered at the university of ibadan on thursday, may 31, 2018. ibadan university press publishing house, ibadan. alade, i. a. (2006). evaluation of technical education curricula in colleges of education in south-western nigeria. phd thesis. department of teacher education, university of ibadan xxii+257pp. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 10 babalola, j. b. (2011). ‘world bank support for nigerian higher education: pleasure, pains, and pathway toward a knowledge economy’. an inaugural lecture, university of ibadan. brasseur, b. (2016). if education is the cure for poverty, how do we make antidotes? retrieved february 5, 2024, from https://venturesafrica.com/features/education-cure-poverty-how-do-we-make-antidote/ fabamwo, r. o. (2012). ethical imperative: integrity, transparency, accountability, and the drive for success. paper presented at the 7th annual women in management and leadership conference of the nigerian institute of management (chartered) on wednesday. fafunwa, b. a. (1974). history of nigerian higher education, 1827-1969. mcmillan lagos, nigeria. falola, t. (2016). yoruba is a factor in the world history. delivered in celebration of the splash 105.5 fm 9th anniversary public lecture & 77th birthday of chief murtala adebayo akande, mfr, the maye olubadan of ibadan land, on friday 8 july 2016, trenchard hall, university of ibadan, nigeria.p.58 federal government of nigeria. (2013). national policy on education, 6th ed. lagos: nerdc press. federal republic of nigeria (2013). national policy on education and 4-year strategic plan for the development of the education sector (6th edition). lagos: nerdc. innocent-ene, e. o. (2008). diversification of educational reforms through entrepreneurship training (pp. 238250). lawal, a. r., jimoh, s. a., olorundare, s. a., & ijaiya, y. s. (eds.). education reforms in nigeria past, present, and future. ibadan: stirling-horden publishers ltd. jaiyeoba, a. o. (2018). management: the key to institutional success. an inaugural lecture was delivered at the university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. faculty of education lina, m. (2018). ‘universities should take stronger leadership on knowledge and how it matters’. retrieved february 5, 2024, from http://www.chronicle.com/article/should-universities-take-political-stand. nyere, j. k. (1967). education for self-reliance. dar-es-salam: government printer. ojerinde, d. (2011). contemporary educational issues in nigeria. india: melrose books and publishing ltd. okoli, n. j. (2011). comparative education. university of port harcourt press ltd. port harcourt. olasehinde-williams, o. (2018). education in nigeria for value re-orientation and national development. nigerian journal of social studies, vol. xxi (1). olutayo, a. o. (2010). education infrastructure and unsustainable development. human affairs, 20(2): 183-198. osokoya, i. o. (2016). the crisis in the education of the youth: a historical discourse. a paper presented at the 13th annual national conference of historians of education development society of nigeria, held at tai solarin university of education between 24 and 28 october. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (11) pg. 11 osuji, c. u., and koko, m. n. (2018). managing secondary education in nigeria for global citizenship and economic emancipation. a paper presented at the wcci 18th world conference in education, rona, italy, from july 14–20, 2014. qiang, z. (2003). internationalization of higher education: toward a conceptual framework. policy futures in education, 1(2): 248-270. http://www.doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2003.1.2.5. rodney, w. (1972). how europe underdeveloped africa: london: bogie-l’ouverture publications. the world bank. (1999). world development report: knowledge for development. washington, d.c. the world bank education 9(1): 25-44. retrieved february 17, 2024, from http://www.apjce-org/files/apjce-09-125.pdf. unesco (1996). learning: the treasure within. report to unesco from the international commission on education for the twenty-first century. france: unesco. uwadia, o. (2010). community. retrieved february 17, 2024, from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2010/ 11/2011electionscomputer-professionals-lay-claims-to-be-inecs-it-jobs/ yoloye, e. a. (1980). developing and under-developing in education. ibadan: university publishing house. authors’ biographical information 1dr hazzan moses kayode (b.ed., m.ed., ma, and ph.d.) is a seasoned research scholar from the university of ibadan, nigeria. his areas of research focus/interest are eclectic and these cut across personnel administration in education, comparative studies of global and african educational assessments, basic, secondary, and higher education, human resources development, african history, african indigenous/organic knowledge, historiography, and studies on intergroup relations. his current research interests focus on international education in the contexts of cosmopolitanism and global citizenship, teacher personnel and student academic achievement at basic and secondary schools in nigeria, and historical dynamics of gender issues in nigerian society. 2dr adeogun ademola adewale is a scholar in teacher education and political/economics, business, and educational management with a keen interest in leadership, policies, human capital, administration, and global economy from the university of ibadan, nigeria. he is a multidisciplinary researcher whose interests cut across leadership, african politics, african education in the context of pre-colonization, business management, personnel administration in education, and human capital management. his current research interests focus on socio-cultural factors and policy implementation in federal universities in southwestern nigeria. http://www.apjce-org/files/apjce-09-1-25.pdf http://www.apjce-org/files/apjce-09-1-25.pdf global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 12 the educational value of physical movement for students with disabilities 1dr. alessandra maria giordano and 2prof. lorenzo giuseppe de santis 1department of educational sciences, psychology and communication, university of bari aldo moro, bari, italy 2department of humanistic studies, university of bari aldo moro, bari, italy keywords: teaching, pedagogy, inclusion abstract the purpose of this research work is to highlight the contribution that motor activity can provide to people with disabilities in the school context, which, due to erroneous points of view still present today, could negatively influence the development of aspects social, relational and educational of the person. the paper aims to highlight the educational importance of motor activity for people with disabilities in the educational context of the school, and to demonstrate that it can and must be understood as an opportunity to promote learning and the complete development of the person. introduction motor activity can be defined as the maximum expression of the need for movement as a primary human need. practicing physical activity means being able to improve one's physical abilities, but also and above all to enhance one's cognitive and mental abilities without neglecting the socio-relational component which is among the most important for people with disabilities. even if in italy it is not yet valued as the movement deserves, it has an educational value that is now recognized at an international level, both when talking about people with and without disabilities, and it is for this reason that it must take on a primary role importance in the school context, as it is able to promote learning, the development of higher order cognitive skills and finally social skills which are those most requested and appreciated both in the social and working context. 1. disability and movement “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”, this is what is enshrined in article one of the universal declaration on human rights, and which shows that disabled people also have the same fundamental rights as other citizens. with the madrid declaration of 2003, equal opportunities between able-bodied and disabled people are claimed, affecting various aspects: social, work, school and professional education, training in new technologies, social and health services, sports and leisure[1]. for this to happen it is necessary that everyone, starting from the individual citizen and then reaching the community as a whole, takes action to enhance and valorise global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 13 diversity, just as is established by article 3 of the italian constitution: "all citizens have equal social dignity and they are equal before the law, without distinction of sex, race, language, religion, political opinions, personal and social conditions." the task of the individual person, up to the state, is to be able to eliminate all possible obstacles, both from a social and economic point of view, which could affect the freedom and equality of citizens, thus negatively influencing the overall development of the human person and consequently the participation of all in the political, economic and social organization of the country [2]. article 1 of the framework law number 104/92 states that:  there must be full respect for human dignity and the rights of freedom and autonomy of the person with a disability and full integration/inclusion in the family, school, work and society must be promoted;  conditions that are considered disabling and that can impede the development of the human person must be prevented and/or removed, compromising the achievement of the maximum possible autonomy and the participation of the disabled person in the life of the community;  interventions must be prepared aimed at overcoming states of marginalization and social exclusion of the disabled person. these and many other points have led, nowadays, to a vision that gives great importance to the quality of life of the person suffering from disability; this means having great consideration of socio-relational factors, placing them at the center of the entire system, which inevitably cannot underestimate free time which is an important indicator of quality [3]. the feeling of well-being is an important indicator of the level of quality of life, even more so for people with disabilities, as it is precisely by exploiting free time (for example practicing any physical activity) that it is possible to eliminate the sense of impotence in favor of the sense of gratification [4]. being able to make the most of the free time factor, for people with disabilities, means being able to benefit from everything that is offered by the place where you live, fully benefiting from the citizen rights that everyone enjoys. often when we talk about activities that can be carried out during free time, we think of any form of physical activity capable of including all "types" of people, from young to old, whether male or female, and above all disabled or otherwise. sporting activity can be defined as the set of all those activities, mental and physical, aimed at improving and maintaining the psychophysical system of the person, and entertaining those who practice it. games, physical activity and recreational activities, even if their potential has not yet been exploited to the full, offer the possibility of starting to practice sports, also understood as a phase of affirmation of personal autonomy and the gratification that inevitably generates positive effects on self-esteem [5]. promoting motor activity for people with disabilities means recognizing the social, educational and training value inherent in it, since in addition to promoting cognitive development, the motor experience becomes a reason for emancipation and growth enhanced by constructive comparison with others, the perception of their own efficiency [6]. the practice of physical activity must be understood as a means with an educational aim whose effectiveness is directly proportional to the playful aspect. doing physical activity means not only trying to improve the physical component, but certainly increasing the cognitive aspect necessary for the motor learning phase, the axis of socialization that is linked to global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 14 the sporting world, and finally the improvement of self-esteem [7]; therefore, from a disability perspective, the essential role of physical activity is evident as, thanks to it, it is possible to enhance the disabled person. motor practice stimulates and enhances the abilities of the person suffering from disability, encouraging social interaction, in order to create links with the outside world in order to allow the construction and enrichment of one's personality [8]. furthermore, we must not forget the importance of discussion and the emotions that derive from it, which allow and encourage the growth not only of the disabled person but of the entire group. it is thanks to sports practice that the disabled person receives benefits from a physical point of view in order to avoid the appearance of pathologies such as obesity, while from a psychological point of view, the social aspect must not be neglected as it is possible to avoid a possible social isolation[9]. what has been said is made feasible by the fact that sporting activity "forces" the disabled person to interact with the external environment, avoiding the onset of negative aspects such as motor regression or even attenuated or dulled curiosity. the practice of any form of motor activity improves the ability to process information, improves society's attitudes towards the person suffering from disability and vice versa [10]. therefore, it can be defined as a moment of learning and personal knowledge due to the multiple external stimuli that favor knowledge and learning. 2. pedagogy, disability and school disability should not be considered a permanent factor as it depends on the external environment, so it would be possible to make it disappear completely or almost. to establish how much a person affected by a disability is influenced by it, indicators have been established (the same ones used for able-bodied people) capable of evaluating the quality of life[11]. to evaluate the well-being of a person's life it is important to analyze aspects such as health, self-efficacy, sense of trust, belonging and degree of selfesteem. when it comes to well-being, the fundamental dimensions to analyze are adaptation and social support, furthermore it is possible to subject variables such as the level of affection (both positive and negative) and the overall judgment on the quality of life to an accurate evaluation. social relationships have a great influence on subjective well-being. belonging to a group, and in an even broader vision, to a community, turns out to be fundamental for the well-being of a disabled person, so also the quality of social relationships, which can be defined as the interaction between the subject and the context, are of fundamental importance for it to be fully included in any context. “man is a social animal”, this is what was stated by aristotle, and it means that any person needs to relate to all the actors in the surrounding world. this means stating that everyone needs to feel loved, cared for and have any need satisfied, be it physical or emotional. the above establishes that social and subjective well-being must be enhanced to encourage young people to adopt correct and healthy lifestyles in order to promote the ability to deal with the possible onset of problematic situations[12]. furthermore, increasing social well-being allows us to promote attitudes of social interaction and social acceptance. it is important to promote social well-being immediately, from an early age, and from this perspective the school has this responsibility, as the primary objectives are the education and inclusion of all[13]. furthermore, in an extracurricular context, social well-being is able to improve the quality of life of people with global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 15 disabilities thanks to the use of various activities, including physical activity, during free time. this demonstrates the link between physical education in school and physical or sporting practice outside of school. at school age, pupils with disabilities may have problems from the point of view of adapting to the demands of the school, to which is added difficulty in obtaining good levels of social acceptance, in particular, in particular, they may rarely experience relationship difficulties with the teacher or, more frequently, with the peer group. furthermore, it has been seen that, especially in adolescence, disabled students demonstrate greater difficulties in creating and managing to maintain interactions with their classmates in a stable and lasting way over time [14]. all this could have a negative impact on the processes of adaptation to adult life. the school's task is to train "the adult of the future", for which fundamental aspects such as a better quality of life must be considered, and for this to happen, it is important to be able to obtain recognition of fundamental rights, in order to protect and ensure the maximum possible autonomy for all people who need it[15]. when we talk about autonomy we refer to multiple points of view: personal, work, social and family, all essential to make a person with a disability feel an integral part of society. this term does not simply refer to the care of the person's life in the sense of removing the causes of marginalization, but to offer the possibility, thanks to tools, methodologies, techniques and targeted paths, to be an active and proactive part of the choices that are made. made and which directly affect the life of the disabled person. it is from this perspective that the school, through training programs, should encourage the development of all the skills that will lead to the achievement of personal autonomy [16]. the term educate means to define the ability to be able to bring it out, in order to obtain the truth from the person and not introduce it. therefore, there is a need to exploit motor activity as a fundamental element both from an educational and a socio-relational point of view. the school's task is to be able to create the foundations so that life skills (life skills), understood as the set of personal and relational skills, are well structured in the disabled person, so as to be able to create correctly and profitable bond between himself and the surrounding environment. it must therefore be an advocate of lifelong learning, capable of providing all the effective strategies to be used to resolve any problems that may arise in daily life. the school context must be the ideal place to design and plan the interventions to be implemented to create the adult of tomorrow, and in this sense it is important that we focus on the development of transversal skills in order to favor the structuring of the self, of identity of the disabled person[17]. 3. the importance of inclusive teaching in schools educating through movement from the early years of life is of fundamental importance as it allows and promotes knowledge of one's body and helps to improve the quality of life[18]. motor activity and movement in general must be understood as an educational possibility with an indispensable educational value for the development of identity and social interactions with the surrounding environment and with one's classmates[19]. when we talk about team motor practice we must think of all the multiple situations that favor the stimulation of individual initiative. physical activity for people with disabilities can represent a moment of social emancipation and individual growth, as discussion and collaboration with others can and must be understood as the structuring of an environment full of significant stimuli. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 16 the practice of physical activity has fundamental values for the development of the person: helps to express one's creativity; it is an instrument of moral and physical elevation; it's a cultural value. motor activity and motor sciences in the school context must be understood as an opportunity for everyone, without any distinction, to be able to offer their contribution in the process of building the identity of disabled and nondisabled students. in the school context, motor practice must not be understood at competitive levels, on the contrary it must favor the possibility of being able to measure oneself with others, but above all with oneself, in order to know one's own resources and abilities in order to deal with the peer group. the role of motor sciences towards the disabled student from a scholastic perspective should be to be able to enhance individual abilities, increase others to the point of fortifying the interested person to encourage encounters with the surrounding environment and with the peer group , managing to deal with objectives with an increasing degree of difficulty[20]. therefore the purpose of physical practice in the school context is to offer new possible paths to knowledge and inclusion paths, starting right from school, from the first levels of education, in order to encourage its permanence throughout the entire life cycle. of life, so that it can be seen not only from a competitive point of view but also and above all from the point of view of fun, training, play, recreation and therefore as a moment and opportunity for growth. sports practice must be understood as an educational strategy to overcome the possible onset of social isolation of the person suffering from disability [21]. it must be understood as a way of being able to see oneself in a positive sense, capable of improving one's self-image; furthermore, we must not forget that learning occurs through experience, and it is thanks to it that it is possible to have a greater emotional boost capable of helping to overcome the onset of any moments of discouragement and fragility due to difficulties and isolation that could occur outside of "protected" environments such as the family[22]. finally, we must not forget that when we talk about physical activity at school we promote positive interdependence, self-confidence and self-sufficiency. when the student leaves the familiar environment, he does so to enter a new group, going against others and experimenting with different roles (adversary, companion, ally) in order to achieve a common goal. furthermore, sensations, both positive and negative, such as the fear of not making it or the fatigue of exercising, respect for the rules, commitment to school and physical activity, make him feel part of the whole environment, making him motivated, autonomous and determined in dealing with any difficulties that may arise. physical activity in school must be seen as a strategic tool of education, which manages to pursue the ultimate goal, that is, the socioeducational well-being of all, in which there are equal opportunities, opportunities and possibilities of choice. the school connected to physical activity allows us to experiment with new forms of inclusion, capable of addressing everyone and, at the same time, being able to find the "suitable paths" for everyone[23]. finally, we must not forget to practice physical activity in the school context, it means doing it together, ablebodied students and those with disabilities, in order to enhance the potential, through the precise play roles, necessary for the success of the activity. all exercises are carried out in the same spaces, all together and at the same time, this ensures that there are beneficial effects both from a psycho-physical and socio-relational global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 17 point of view. as far as the psycho-physical aspect is concerned, suffice it to say that motor practice at school helps disabled students to have greater static and dynamic balance, which is necessary in walking, without forgetting that it is possible to strengthen the muscular system, resistance, strength, favoring a reduction in heart rate. the above guarantees the ability to orient and move correctly in space, managing to improve one's spatio-temporal organizational capabilities. all this allows the disabled student to acquire greater confidence in everything he does but above all towards himself, thus increasing his sense of self-confidence. furthermore, from a psychological point of view, we must consider that disabled people have always encountered difficulties throughout their lives, and physical practice combined with the school context represents one of the first moments of satisfaction due to achieving the goal without the help of parents, as motor practice stimulates intellect and creativity while keeping memory and concentration trained. from a socio-relational point of view, school as well as physical practice promotes inclusion in the social context, as in order to achieve the objective it is necessary to collaborate with the other members of the team group, managing to encourage the construction of identity personal of the disabled person [24]. 4. conclusions the school context must be seen as the universe in which young people shape their personality on a daily basis [25], so it contains the set of all the values that build a single system in which the rich world certainly falls of disability to which the world of sports practice must be associated, which now includes an ever-increasing number of children, pupils and adults suffering from disabilities. the ability to learn through movement is something innate that everyone has since birth, allowing them to interact with the surrounding world and explore it in an active and participatory way, promoting the growth of knowledge of the surrounding environment[26]. the body must be understood as the means by which we can receive all the most sincere information about ourselves, capable, therefore, of making us perceive who we are, what we live and what we feel. here movement takes on a fundamental role from the point of view of learning, understood as the only channel capable of positively influencing not only the motor sphere, but also the relational, cognitive and emotional ones. the italian school boasts a long tradition from the point of view of the integration of pupils suffering from disabilities, and its role is to promote and encourage meetings between people "bearers" of different abilities, culture, age and social class, it must be able to, also taking advantage of what is offered by physical and sporting practice, create a single training action which has the task of enhancing, enhancing and strengthening all skills, thus managing to include all students in this process without excluding anyone. references barnes, c. (2008). capire il "modello sociale della disabilità". intersticios. revista sociológica de pensamiento crítico, 2(1). bassi, m., & delle fave, a. (2007). l’esperienza della disabilità: selezione psicologica e promozione del benessere. psicologia della salute. benetton, m. (2015). allenamento per la vita. l’educazione sportivo-motoria for life. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 18 cairo, m. t. (2010). qualità della vita, persona e disabilità. carraro, a., & marino, m. (2016). lo sport che educa: tra miti e realtà. formazione & insegnamento. rivista internazionale di scienze dell’educazione e della formazione, 14(3), 11–24. ceciliani, a. (2018). didattica integrata qualiquantitativa, in educazione motoriasportiva, e benessere in età evolutiva. formazione & insegnamento. rivista internazionale di scienze dell’educazione e della formazione, 16(1), 183–194. coco, d. (2014). lo straordinario valore educativo dello sport. formazione & insegnamento. rivista internazionale di scienze dell’educazione e della formazione, 12(3), 119–132. cottini, l., zorzi, s., & fedeli, d. (2016). qualità di vita nella disabilità adulta: percorsi, servizi e strumenti psicoeducativi. edizioni centro studi erickson. d'alonzo, l. (2002). disabilità e potenziale educativo (pp. 5–208). la scuola. farinella, a., mosso, c. o., & leonardi, d. (2016). attività motoria e sportiva come strategia per promuovere l’inclusione: una prospettiva dell’attività fisica adattata. formazione & insegnamento. rivista internazionale di scienze dell’educazione e della formazione, 14(3), 85–92. farinelli, g. (2005). pedagogia dello sport ed educazione della persona (vol. 3). morlacchi editore. fiorucci, a. (2014). gli atteggiamenti degli insegnanti verso l’inclusione e la disabilità: uno sguardo internazionale. italian journal of special education for inclusion, 2(1), 53–66. gelati, m., & genovesi, g. (2005). scienza dell’educazione, scuola e disabilità. francoangeli. griffo, g. (2012). persone con disabilità e diritti umani. in t. casadei (ed.), diritti umani e soggetti vulnerabili. violazioni, trasformazioni, aporie (pp. xx–xx). giappichelli editore. isidori, e., & fraile, a. (2008). educazione, sport e valori. un approccio critico-riflessivo. aracne. medeghini, r., d'alessio, s., marra, a., vadalà, g., & valtellina, e. (2013). disability studies. emancipazione, inclusione scolastica e sociale, cittadinanza. edizioni erickson. molteni, p. (2006). qualità della vita e tempo libero nel bambino con disabilità: l’esperienza di uno spazio-gioco. naccari, a. g. a. (2003). pedagogia della corporeità. educazione, attività motoria e sport nel tempo. morlacchi editore. palumbo, c., ambretti, a., & scarpa, s. (2019). esperienze motorie, sportive e disabilità. italian journal of special education for inclusion, 7(1), 217–232. pavone, m. (2009). famiglia e progetto di vita: crescere un figlio disabile dalla nascita alla vita adulta. edizioni erickson. 061921-w7723--frontiers in educational research.docx global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 30 service beyond self: a comprehensive study on the influence of volunteerism in higher education – a shenzhen university perspective 1mei ling zhang and jian wei liu2 1school of art and design, shenzhen polytechnic, shenzhen, guangdong, china 2school of finance and accounting, henan university of animal husbandry and economy, zhengzhou, henan, china article info abstract keywords: volunteering, higher education institutions, character development, social responsibility, experiential learning. doi 10.5281/zenodo.11120961 volunteering in higher education institutions plays a pivotal role in fostering students' values, character development, and active engagement in societal progress. shenzhen, as the pioneer city in china to establish a "city of volunteers" in 2011, initiated the concept of "volunteer campuses" within local institutions. through effective institutional oversight, brand development, and infrastructure enhancement, universities have integrated volunteer service into their campus culture, profoundly impacting young minds and contributing to the cultivation of a culture of volunteerism and character development. engaging in volunteer activities within higher education institutions has a profound impact on students' principles and worldviews. firstly, it instills a sense of social responsibility and dedication in students, as they directly witness society's challenges and difficulties. this firsthand experience fosters empathy and compassion towards marginalized communities, motivating students to reflect on issues of social justice and equity, thereby nurturing their willingness to actively assume societal responsibilities. secondly, volunteer service provides students with a practical platform to translate their principles and beliefs into tangible actions. theoretical knowledge acquired in the classroom gains real-world application through experiential learning. by actively participating in volunteer service initiatives, students have the opportunity to implement their principles and convictions in concrete ways, fostering a deepened sense of commitment and accomplishment derived from serving others. introduction volunteering in higher education institutions is an important component of practical education since it fosters students' values, beliefs, holistic development, and active participation in society development. shenzhen was the first city in china to propose the establishment of a "city of volunteers" in 2011, and local institutions responded https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 31 by actively promoting the notion of "volunteer campuses." through institutional supervision, brand creation, and infrastructure development, these universities have built a complete framework for volunteer service, incorporating it into campus culture. this effort not only instills the sense of volunteerism in young pupils, but it also serves as an important instrument for cultivating a culture of volunteerism and character development. volunteering in higher education institutions helps to educate university students' principles and views [2]. for starters, voluntary service activity can instill a sense of social duty and dedication among university students. students can personally experience society's difficulties and challenges by participating in voluntary service activities, which increases their empathy and compassion for marginalized groups. this firsthand experience motivates students to reflect on social justice and fairness, developing their willingness to actively shoulder social responsibility and contribute to society [8]. second, volunteer service activity offers students with a realistic platform for putting their principles and convictions into action. theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom can only be fully grasped and implemented via experience. volunteer service activities allow students to engage in practical initiatives while using their own principles and views in real-world actions [6]. students can feel the excitement and sense of accomplishment that comes from serving others by actively participating in voluntary service work, which helps to strengthen their principles and beliefs [1]. university volunteer service allows universities to serve society while also engaging university students in social development. firstly, university volunteer service is a vital way for institutions to give back to the community. the resources of universities can be matched with societal requirements to give various services and assistance to the community by arranging students to participate in voluntary service activities [14]. university volunteer service uses the professional expertise and social influence of universities to make positive contributions to social development, whether it is providing education, healthcare, and environmental protection services to community residents or participating in charity events and social projects. second, university volunteerism fosters students' feeling of social duty and civic consciousness [12]. volunteer service activities can help students get an in-depth understanding of social concerns and the plight of marginalized groups, sparking reflections on social fairness and justice and instilling a feeling of social responsibility in students [16]. students learn to care about others, pay attention to society, and build healthy attitudes and behavioral patterns by serving others. finally, university volunteer service helps students improve their employability and personal development. volunteering enhances students' portfolios and social experiences by demonstrating their social engagement talents and teamwork spirit, giving them a competitive edge in future job applications[1]. simultaneously, through voluntary service, students can engage with professionals from other fields, broaden their network, and receive insights into their career planning and development [13]. 1. exploration of volunteer service practice a case study of a university in shenzhen. the volunteer work at a certain university in shenzhen has established a "ten-fold" mechanism for volunteer service, which includes institutional leadership, branding, infrastructure development, digital management, curriculum integration, modular training, professional development, media promotion, scientific incentives, and humane support. the university has achieved a 100% registration rate, with an average of 18 hours of volunteer service per person. there are 189 branded projects, 145 volunteer service bases. the spirit of volunteering has become an intrinsic quality of the university's young students, and volunteer activities can be observed throughout the campus and outside of campus. the school's volunteer service organizational system has been formed with a "school-college-class" structure. this includes the establishment of a volunteer service center at the school level and the establishment of volunteer service guidance centers in each college. additionally, documents such as the "management measures for volunteer service" have been successively introduced to provide institutional support and assurance. efforts are made to ensure effective volunteer recruitment and training. at the beginning of the freshman year, recruitment activities are conducted at the class level, where the history, mechanisms, concepts, practices, and achievements of volunteer work are promoted to attract a wide range of students to join the volunteer service organizations. five specialized training courses on "volunteer service philosophy and practice" are conducted for all volunteers throughout the school. these courses cover topics such as the philosophy and mindset of volunteer service, volunteer service etiquette, volunteer service psychology, team building, and medical first aid, further strengthening volunteers' proactive awareness and practical skills in engaging in volunteer service. preglobal research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 32 service training is organized before each activity to familiarize volunteers with the specific requirements of each project. to achieve digital management of volunteer service, the establishment of a "digital volunteer service system" is recommended. online functions include volunteer application, volunteer activity application, volunteer activity reporting, volunteer training, credit exchange, and printing of volunteer service certificates. an electronic volunteer certificate is created for each student, and collaboration with government agencies enables the electronic volunteer certificate to provide functions such as identity recognition, volunteer service timekeeping, training records, information retrieval, and informative response. additionally, free insurance coverage is provided for volunteers during their volunteer service period in the shenzhen area. incentive systems should be established to fully motivate volunteers. this includes incorporating volunteer service into the mandatory course "social practice" and printing volunteer service certificates for graduating registered volunteers, the certificates include the student's name, college, registration time, service hours, and other relevant information. they are mainly used for students pursuing further studies abroad or for employment purposes. additionally, annual evaluations are conducted for volunteer service to recognize outstanding volunteers, excellent service bases, exemplary projects, and on-campus volunteer service initiatives, among others. activity platforms play a vital role in promoting volunteer work. to establish exemplary models and promote volunteer work, the school has established a special fund for volunteer services. each year, a group of volunteer service brand projects is funded through expert evaluations, promoting the branding, establishment of service bases, and professional development of volunteer service activities. examples include educational assistance volunteer service, volunteer service for children with autism, and volunteer service for nursing homes, among others. within the campus, efforts are made to promote the construction of a campus volunteer culture and create a campus atmosphere conducive to volunteerism. four major categories of campus volunteer service projects have been formed: civilized transportation, energy conservation, and environmental protection, public welfare service, and love transmission. examples include campaigns against food waste, automobile maintenance, and punctuality and discipline initiatives. the university has also created a learning and communication mechanism by conducting themed class meetings where each volunteer organization organizes volunteer service-themed class meetings. through these meetings, the progress and thoughts of volunteers can be timely understood, addressing their questions and providing opportunities for mutual learning and exchange among volunteers. another approach is to organize sharing sessions, where volunteers can share their experiences and feelings, enhancing team cohesion and improving the effectiveness and unity of volunteer work. it is important to create impactful volunteer service activities. national and large-scale exhibitions and events in shenzhen often receive extensive media coverage and social attention. by participating in these activities through volunteer service work, the reach of volunteer service activities can be expanded, increasing exposure and raising awareness about the importance of volunteer service, and encouraging more people to get involved. participating in these activities also allows volunteers to enhance their professional skills and continuously learn and grow. examples of such activities include organizing volunteer services for international marathons, volunteering during the spring festival travel rush, and participating in national public welfare and charity project exchange exhibitions. 2. strategies for advancing and optimizing university volunteer service work 2.1 it is necessary for universities to establish a volunteer service system for the purpose of coordinating, supervising, and managing volunteer service projects, universities should create a special department or organization. a structure of cooperative cooperation should be established between this entity and other pertinent departments within the institution through close partnerships, unambiguous delegation of authority, and defined responsibilities. furthermore, by creating specific growth plans and targets, volunteer service activity can receive long-term supervision and support, enabling the successful execution of numerous programs [17]. universities must establish a set of rules and policies that detail the volunteer service organization procedures, eligibility requirements, service scope, and management procedures [7]. when creating these rules and regulations, it is important to analyze all applicable state and federal laws, regulations, and policies. it is also important to take global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 33 into account the unique circumstances of the university and make any necessary modifications and changes. the wise adoption of such rules and regulations will contribute to the standardization of volunteer labor and improve the caliber and efficacy of services delivered [15]. it is essential to improve cooperation and cross-departmental collaboration. to create a strong synergy in their work, relevant university departments should improve communication and collaboration [5]. to combine volunteer work with curriculum teaching, social practices, and other university activities, for instance, the student affairs department can forge strong ties with academic departments and social practice departments. sharing and complementarity of resources are made possible by this integration [13]. for volunteer service projects in universities, it's critical to establish a scientific assessment mechanism. a consistent evaluation and feedback process should be used for volunteer service. issues can be found, experiences can be summed up, and adjustments can be made to improve the caliber and level of service through the evaluation of volunteer service activity. establishing a reliable feedback method also motivates volunteers and recipients to offer ideas and input, resulting in ongoing development and refinement of the volunteer service job [13] [15]. 2.2 establishing a volunteer service evaluation and incentive system universities should create a thorough and scientific system of evaluation indicators to evaluate voluntary service activities from a variety of angles. these metrics may include the quantity of volunteers, the scope of service initiatives, the consistency of volunteer hours, and impartial assessments of service quality. the assessment indicators may also take into account the personal growth and development of the students, for example, by evaluating how volunteer work affects the students' sense of accomplishment. the effectiveness and quality of volunteer service activity can be objectively evaluated using a thorough evaluation indicator system, giving a foundation for improving the work [9] [3]. avoiding arbitrary and subjective judgements, the evaluation system should ensure fairness, justice, and transparency. in order to conduct a thorough evaluation, a variety of evaluation techniques, including questionnaires, expert reviews, on-site inspections, etc., can be used. assessing volunteers' personal growth and development, including their improvement in collaboration, leadership abilities, and feeling of social responsibility, should also be a priority. students can be inspired to actively engage in volunteer work through a fair and reasonable evaluation process, and their contributions can be acknowledged and rewarded [9] [3]. based on the contributions and performance of the volunteers, the incentive system should establish different tiers of incentives. to recognize and reward exceptional volunteers, rewards can take the form of honorary titles, award certificates, and credit recognition. additionally, opportunities for learning and development should be offered, such as setting up special lectures and training sessions, to advance the expertise of volunteers. in order to provide volunteers with chances for internships and employment that will aid in their personal growth and career planning, collaboration with enterprises, social groups, and other entities can be strengthened. students' passion for participation in voluntary work can be stoked through a multi-level reward scheme, increasing their commitment and the caliber of their work [4]. 2.3 building a multi-content volunteer service platform to create a multi-content volunteer service platform, we have used the following tactics: creating a unified brand image for volunteer service, including cultural icons, slogans, etc., to improve its reputation both on and off campus; giving volunteers expert training and direction to equip them with the necessary knowledge, abilities, and qualities; working with relevant disciplines and research institutions to conduct research and innovation. the facilities and resources needed to enable the operation of volunteer service initiatives can be found at these bases. they can also act as forums for cooperation between volunteer groups, academic institutions, and social organizations, encouraging resource sharing and cooperative growth. they can also act as forums for cooperation between volunteer groups, academic institutions, and social organizations, encouraging resource sharing and cooperative growth [15] [11]. to encourage contact and learning among volunteers, universities might also plan volunteer training and exchange events. volunteer work can become a significant part of students' overall development by strengthening its connotation. establishing a thorough information management system for volunteer work. a volunteer service information management system may efficiently organize and track the hiring, training, assignment, and assessment of volunteers by utilizing contemporary information technology. by providing data support and a point of reference for high-level planning and decision-making, this system can assist universities in better global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 34 understanding the implementation of volunteer service work, the engagement of volunteers, and the evaluation of service projects [6]. 2.4 to make volunteer service an intrinsic spiritual need and value pursuit of contemporary university students university students have a platform to discover who they are, develop their potential, and search for meaning through volunteer work. students can learn about their own worth and ability through voluntary work, which will give them a sense of success [8]. students' understanding of the value of helping others and giving back to society is strengthened by the practical experience of volunteer work, which also helps them develop moral principles. volunteering gives students the chance to interact and connect with others from all backgrounds and needs, which helps them develop their empathy and interpersonal skills. it is crucial to aggressively encourage students to engage in voluntary work [5]. universities should first inform and encourage students to become more conscious of their duties and obligations as members of society. putting a focus on the value of social responsibility, encouraging pupils to be aware of social challenges, and offering ways and chances for problem-solving. the institution has to foster a culture of voluntary service, which means creating a welcoming and socially responsible environment. to pique students' interest and passion for volunteer service, organizations are putting together a variety of worthwhile volunteer service projects and frequently conducting lectures, exhibitions, and speeches on the subject [10]. it is critical to deepen volunteer service education by introducing volunteer service into the curriculum system and establishing relevant courses and practical components in the classroom where students can gain the theoretical knowledge and practical abilities of volunteer service [6]. furthermore, through mentorship and social practice, students can apply their newly acquired knowledge to real-world problems, strengthening their understanding and experience with volunteerism. furthermore, opportunities for personal growth and development are critical, as volunteer work is about more than just social contribution; it is also about students' personal growth and development. 3. conclusion volunteer work in universities is an effective means and important channel for cultivating students' ideals and beliefs, facilitating their overall development, and engaging them in societal construction. it plays a crucial role in encouraging student participation in community service, nurturing their sense of social responsibility, and enhancing personal abilities. to improve the quality and impact of volunteer work, universities should strengthen top-level planning and organizational coordination, establish sound volunteer service systems and regulations, and enhance cross-departmental collaboration. implementing fair, scientific, and multi-tier evaluation and incentive mechanisms will motivate students to actively participate. organizing volunteer training and exchange activities is also essential for deepening the essence of volunteer service and enhancing its governance. ultimately, establishing volunteer service bases, professionalizing projects, embracing digitization, and nurturing a culture of volunteerism will make volunteer work an intrinsic spiritual need and value pursuit for contemporary university students. acknowledgement project fund: a co-building project by guangdong provincial communist youth league and youth researchers: research on the transformation mechanism and practical path of new era aesthetic education thoughts in universities (2022gj56). guangdong higher vocational colleges and universities instructional steering committee for commercial and trade major(sm2022091). references bode, l. (2017). feeling the pressure: attitudes about volunteering and their effect on civic and political behaviors. journal of adolescence, 57, 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.03.004 chang rui . on the influencing factors and path selection of college students' participation in volunteer services.journal of jilin normal university, 2013, 02: 76-78. cui, changshu. "volunteer activities in japanese universities and their implications for us." heilongjiang higher education research, 2001, 02: 74-75. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 35 de clerck, t., willem, a., aelterman, n., & haerens, l. (2019). volunteers managing volunteers: the role of volunteer board members’ motivating and demotivating style in relation to volunteers’ motives to stay volunteer. voluntas: international journal of voluntary and nonprofit organizations, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11266-019-00177-6 guo, m., liu, h., & yao, m. (2021). the confucian value of benevolence and volunteering among chinese college students: the mediating role of functional motives. sage open, 11(1), 215824402110066. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440 211006683 green, p. (2018). volunteering in the higher education curriculum: the politics of policy, practice and participation. university of wolverhampton. holdsworth, c. (2010). why volunteer? understanding motivations for student volunteering. british journal of educational studies, 58(4), 421–437. https://doi.org/10.1 080/00071005.2010.527666 holdsworth, c., & brewis, g. (2014). volunteering, choice and control: a case study of higher education student volunteering. journal of youth studies, 17(2), 204–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2013.815702 long, yonghong. "comparative study on incentive mechanisms for volunteer services of college students in china and the united states." journal of shandong youth political college, 2011, 05: 46-50. [10] lili, l., & yingjin, c. 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[14] wu yingqiang, social research on the institutionalization of volunteer work in higher education, ideological and theoretical education, 2009,11:88-92. zhao shuguang.research on the current situation and countermeasures of volunteer service among college students.journal of nanchang institute of education,2011,10:46+48. zheng, yongsen. "analysis of factors influencing college students' participation in volunteer services: a questionnaire survey of three universities in shenzhen." people's forum, 2013, 17: 168169. zhou, x., tang, j., zhao, y., & wang, t. (2020). effects of feedback design and dispositional goal orientations on volunteer performance in citizen science projects. computers in human behavior, 107, 106266. https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.chb.2020.106266. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2013.815702 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 10; october-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 internal revenue generation methods utilized by secondary school principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state 1onyekwelu raphael azubuike, ph.d. article info abstract keywords: internal revenue generation, method, principals, fund, school management doi 10.5281/zenodo.13909197 the main purpose of the study was to determine internal revenue generation methods utilized by secondary school principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state. three research questions guided the study. the descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. the population of the study was 266 public secondary school principals in anambra state. a validated questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. application of cronbach alpha method on the instrument collected yielded reliability coefficient values of 0.87 and 0.85 for clusters 1 and 2 respectively with an overall reliability coefficient value of 0.86 mean was used to analyze data for the study. the findings of the study revealed that the findings of the study revealed that principals to a high extent use renting out school facilities and fundraising campaigns as internal revenue generation method for raising funds for school management in anambra state. in contrast, principals to a low extent establish business ventures for internal revenue generation method for raising funds for school management in anambra state. based on these findings, the researcher recommended among others that the post primary school service commission (ppssc) should organize training programme to educate secondary school principals on best practices and methods for implementing business ventures as a revenue generation method in secondary schools. introduction education is all deliberate and incidental efforts undertaken by a society to achieve specific objectives deemed beneficial to both the individual's personal development and the needs of the broader community. it is the process of gaining knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes through various instructional methods and learning experiences. quality education involves not only the dissemination of knowledge but also the development of 1department of educational foundations, faculty of education, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus, anambra state, nigeria. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 2 critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and the nurturing of creativity and innovation among learners. the federal republic of nigeria (frn) (2013) stated that nigeria’s philosophy of education is based on a set of beliefs which one of it is that education is an instrument of national development and social change. in nigeria, the education system is organized into distinct levels: basic education, secondary education, and tertiary education. secondary education in nigeria is crucial as it serves as a bridge between basic education and higher education or vocational training. the objectives of the national policy on education for secondary education are to equip individuals for a productive life within society and to enable them to pursue higher education (frn, 2013). according to these objectives, secondary education in nigeria should cultivate in each child the knowledge, interests, values, habits, and abilities that will help them find their role in society and use it to shape both themselves and society towards more elevated goals. the principal is responsible for the realization of the goals of secondary education. the principal serves as a central figure in educational institutions, wielding significant influence over all personnel and ultimately impacting the school's outcomes, whether positively or negatively. it's no surprise that the principal often bears the brunt of official blame when issues arise within the school (amie-ogan & alabere, 2020). the principal holds the responsibility of leading the school professionally, collaborating with others to garner the commitment of the school community. effective leadership involves fostering productive partnerships with staff to ensure effective cooperation and camaraderie. similarly, orhobo (2023) stated that the principals’ are trained on managing school finances in areas such as budgeting, accounting, procurement and financial reporting skills. principals’ should have skills in management such as how to source for funds, budgeting skills, procurement skills, financial reporting and risk management (njau et al., 2022). to plan school projects effectively, school heads should undergo financial training courses to warrant effective control and operation of physical resources. the funding of the education sector in nigeria in the last 20 years has lagged some 15-20% suggested benchmark prescribed by the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco) (amie-ogan & alabere, 2020). this has increased the call by researchers for principals take advantage of internal revenue generation sources (nemes et al., 2019). internally generated revenue (igr) refers to funds that are generated by the school and non-government sources. internally generated revenue is also known as non-statutory sources of revenue (amie-ogan and alabere, 2020). according to erhagbe (2014) it is a combination of all non-governmental monetary accruals to the institution and may involve diverse strategies. orhobo (2023) stated that internally generated funds are those funds that are realized through the efforts or operations of an entity itself. nwakpa (2016) opined that internally generated revenue refers to all the money that are generated by the administrator from all the additional non-statutory sources of funding this type of revenue is derived from the goods or services produced from the internal activities of an organization. this therefore implies that any formal organization that produces goods or services can generate revenue internally from these activities. this means that the funds gotten through internal generation are not realized through direct government intervention. amie-ogan and alabere (2020) averred that the purpose of internally generated revenue is to augment the often inadequate financial allocation from government in the case of public schools; and to minimize the frequency of loans and the loss of fund, the payment of interest on loans, in the case of private schools. the sources of this igr vary such as: pupils’ fees, proceeds from school activities, donations from individuals and charity organization, appeal to ngo, pta, student activity funds and special revenue funds, fund raising activities, participation in business ventures, special events, lease income and gifts or grants etcetera (amie-ogan & alabere, 2020). the present study focused on renting of school facilities, global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 3 establishing of business ventures and funding raising campaigns as internal revenue generation measures by principals in secondary schools. renting out school facilities such as classrooms, halls, playgrounds, and other amenities during non-school hours or vacant periods can be a potential source of internal revenue generation for secondary schools. this practice has been explored by various researchers. according to oke et al. (2017), renting school facilities to community organizations, businesses, or individuals for events, meetings, or activities can provide a steady stream of income for schools. they highlight the importance of establishing clear policies, pricing structures, and maintaining a balance between generating revenue and minimizing disruptions to the school's secondary educational functions. apie and moses (2019) stated that renting of school facilities can be an effective strategy for supplementing limited government funding. however, he cautioned that proper management, maintenance and accountability measures should be in place to ensure the sustainability and ethical use of these resources. similarly, establishing business ventures is seen as another igr source. secondary schools can explore establishing small-scale business ventures as a means of generating internal revenue. these ventures can range from operating school canteens, bookstores, or producing and selling educational materials or souvenirs. nye and kpeh (2019) emphasized the importance of aligning business ventures with the school's mission, involving stakeholders in the decision-making process, and ensuring proper financial management and accountability. igbineweka and enowoghomwenma (2017) analyzed the impact of school-based enterprises on educational finance and found that when well-managed, these ventures can contribute to bridging funding gaps and supporting school improvement initiatives. same thing can be said of fundraising campaign. fundraising campaigns, such as organizing events, soliciting donations, or seeking sponsorships from local businesses or organizations, can be a viable internal revenue generation measure for secondary schools. nye and kpeh (2019) examined the role of fundraising in public schools and found that successful campaigns can provide additional resources for various educational programs, facilities, and initiatives. nwakpa (2016) emphasized the importance of developing a strategic plan, fostering community engagement, and maintaining transparency in the utilization of funds raised. amie-ogan and alabere (2020) suggested focusing on building strong relationships with stakeholders, leveraging existing social networks, and aligning fundraising efforts with the community's priorities. however, these views have not been empirically proven to be the internal revenue generation methods utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state. it is against this background that the researcher empirically investigated internal revenue generation methods utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state. statement of the problem despite the importance of secondary education in nigeria, its funding has fallen below expected standard in anambra state. this situation has led to inadequate facilities and resources in secondary schools. the scarcity of funding has resulted in classrooms devoid of essential furniture like chairs and desks. students are often forced to sit on the floor or improvise with makeshift seating arrangements, hampering their ability to concentrate and participate actively in lessons. this situation not only undermines the quality of education but also poses potential health risks, as prolonged sitting on hard surfaces can lead to discomfort and physical strain. another glaring manifestation of the funding crisis is the overcrowding of classrooms. with limited resources to construct additional learning spaces or hire more teachers, many secondary schools in anambra state are forced to accommodate an overwhelming number of students in a single classroom. this overcrowding creates an environment that is not conducive to effective learning, as teachers struggle to manage large classes and provide individualized attention to students. the prevailing conditions in these secondary schools appear to be a direct global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 4 consequence of the poor funding from the government. as public secondary schools, these schools heavily rely on government allocations to maintain their operations and ensure the provision of quality education. however, the lack of adequate financial resources has led to a deterioration of infrastructure, scarcity of essential learning materials, and overcrowded classrooms, ultimately compromising the educational experience of students. it is against this background that the researcher empirically investigated internal revenue generation methods utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state. research questions the following research questions guided the study: 1. to what extent is establishing business ventures an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state? 2. to what extent is fundraising campaign is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state? 3. to what extent is renting out school facilities an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state? research method descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. the study was carried out in anambra state. the population of the study comprised all 266 public secondary school principals in anambra state. a structured questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. the instrument was titled “questionnaire on internal revenue generation methods utilized by secondary school principals for school management (qirgmusspsm)”. the instrument contains 18 items. the instrument was structured on a 4point rating scale of very high extent (vhe), high extent (he), low extent (le) and very low extent (vle). the instrument was validated by three experts in the department of educational management and policy and educational foundations, faculty of education, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. to ascertain the reliability of the instrument, it was pilot tested on 20 public secondary school principals in enugu state. application of cronbach alpha method on the instrument collected yielded reliability coefficient values of 0.87 and 0.85 for clusters 1 and 2 respectively with an overall reliability coefficient value of 0.86. the researcher administered the questionnaire to the respondents’ through on-the-spot completion and retrieval method was used by personal visits to the respondents on appointment. out of the 266 copies of questionnaire administered, 247 copies (representing 93%) were retrieved and used for analysis with an attrition rate of only 7%. the data collected was analyzed using mean. in discussing the mean, any item with mean rating of 2.50 and above was regarded as high extent. conversely, any item with mean rating below 2.50 was regarded as low extent. result research question 1 to what extent is establishing business ventures an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state? table 1: mean responses on the extent establishing business ventures is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management (n=247) s/no item statement mean decision 1. establishing a cafeteria or canteen 2.32 low extent 2. rebrannding stationeries for pupils to purchase 2.12 low extent 3. establishing a poultry farm 2.10 low extent 4. operating a school bookstore selling textbooks, storybooks etc 2.41 low extent 5. providing transportation services for pupils 2.09 low extent 6. building stores for rent. 2.30 low extent cluster mean 2.22 low extent global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 5 data in table 1 reveals that the respondents rated items 1-6 as the extent establishing business ventures is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state with mean ratings ranging between 2.09 to 2.41. the cluster mean of 2.24 indicates that establishing business ventures is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state to a low extent. research question 2 to what extent is fundraising campaign is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state? table 2: mean responses on the extent fundraising campaign is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management (n=247) s/no item statement mean decision 7. launching an annual fund giving where parents, alumni, and community members are encouraged to make monetary donations to support the school's operations 3.25 high extent 8. organize events such as inter house sports 3.44 high extent 9. seek financial support from local businesses 3.12 high extent 10. seeking financial sponsorship from philanthropist 3.27 high extent 11. soliciting donations from individuals who are passionate about education and the school's mission. 3.00 high extent 12. promoting planned giving opportunities where supporters can make contribute to the school's endowment fund 2.89 low extent cluster mean 3.16 high extent data in table 2 reveals that the respondents rated items 7-12 as the fund raising campaign is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state with mean ratings ranging between 2.89 to 3.44. the cluster mean of 3.16 indicates that fundraising campaign is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state to a high extent. research question 3 to what extent is renting out school facilities an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state? table 3: mean responses on the extent renting out school facilities is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management (n=247) s/no item statement mean decision 13. renting out the school fields for church crusades 3.46 high extent 14. renting out the school classrooms to churches 3.44 high extent 15. renting out classrooms during weekends to organisations offering tutoring services 3.48 high extent 16. renting out the school fields for community league 3.24 high extent 17. leasing school facilities for religious camps during holidays 3.33 high extent 18. rening out school spaces as parking space for events 3.18 high extent cluster mean 3.36 high extent data in table 3 reveals that the respondents rated items 13-18 as the renting out school facilities is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state with global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 6 mean ratings ranging between 3.18 to3.46. the cluster mean of 3.16 indicates that renting out school facilities is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state to a high extent. discussion the finding of the study revealed that establishing business ventures is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state to a low extent. the finding of the study may have resulted because it's possible that some principals lack the training and entrepreneurial abilities needed to launch and run successful businesses. lack of business experience might make it difficult for them to recognize good business prospects, create business strategies, and run these endeavors efficiently, which would discourage them from engaging in such activities. this finding is in disagreement with nye and kpee (2019) who reported that establishing business ventures was an internal revenue generation measure for managing schools. amie-ogan and alabere (2020) reported that establishing business ventures such as school canteens, bookstores, and tutoring services was a common strategy adopted by school administrators to generate additional income. similarly njau et al. (2022) identified the establishment of school-run enterprises as a prevalent means of generating internal revenue. furthermore, okoi et al. (2023) stated the significance of entrepreneurial activities initiated by school leaders to supplement government funding and enhance financial sustainability. the finding of the study revealed that fundraising campaign is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state to a high extent. the finding of the study might have resulted because fundraising campaigns often involve the active participation of the local community, including parents, alumni, local businesses, and other stakeholders. in anambra state, the strong sense of community and the recognition of the importance of education may lead to high levels of support for these campaigns. the finding of the study is in line with amie-ogan and alabere (2020) who reported that engaging parents, alumni, and the community in fundraising activities are fund raising measures for managing schools. nye and kpee (2019) stated that fundraising campaigns complement facility rentals as they tap into the generosity of donors and supporters beyond rental income. wakama and ikechi (2019) suggested that schools that actively engage in fundraising campaigns alongside other revenue-generating activities may exhibit greater financial resilience. the finding of the study revealed that renting out school facilities is an internal revenue generation method utilized by principals for raising funds for school management in anambra state to a high extent. the finding of the study may have resulted because compared to other revenue generation methods, such as starting a business venture, renting out school facilities generally involves lower financial risk. the primary costs associated with renting facilities are maintenance and management, which are often manageable within the existing school budget. this finding is in agreement with nye and kpee (2019) who found that schools often engage in facility rentals as a means of generating internal revenue, particularly in areas where public funding is limited or unreliable. similarly, njau et al. (2022) stated that the widespread practice of renting out school facilities as a revenue-generating strategy, citing case studies where schools successfully utilized this approach to supplement their budgets. furthermore, wakama and ikechi (2019) conducted a comparative analysis that revealed schools actively involved in facility rentals demonstrated greater financial sustainability compared to those that did not engage in such practices. this suggests that renting out school facilities is not only a common practice but also an effective strategy for managing primary school finances. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 7 conclusion based on the findings of the study, the researcher concludes that principals employ various internal revenue generation measures for managing primary schools in anambra state. the findings of the study revealed that principals to a high extent use renting out school facilities and conducting fundraising campaigns as internal revenue generation method. in contrast, the establishment of business ventures as internal revenue generation method is utilised to a low extent. therefore, it is crucial to implement strategies to enhance internal revenue generation methods in secondary schools. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the researcher proffers the following recommendations: 1. the post primary school service commission (ppssc) should organize training programme to educate secondary school principals on best practices and methods for implementing business ventures as a revenue generation method in secondary schools. 2. principals should continuously develop and promote school facilities rental avenues for raising funds. schools can invest in improving the condition and attractiveness of their facilities to attract more renters. 3. principals of secondary schools should read books and journals on alternative source of fund generation for school management. references amie-ogan, o.t. and alabere, i.j. (2020). managing internally generated revenue for implementation of administrators functions in senior secondary schools in port harcourt metropolis of rivers. international journal of innovative social & science education research, 8(4), 150-158. apie, e.m., and moses, e.g. (2019).financing basic education in nigeria: the alternative methods. international journal of education, learning and development, 7 (6), 10-15. erhagbe. (2014). university education financing in nigeria: using oshodin‟s strategy to convert intangible to tangible development. in e. o. ojeme, & l. i. salami (eds.), transformational leadership in the university of benin. a publication of the faculty of education, university of benin, i3enin city. federal republic of nigeria (2013). national policy on education (6th ed.). nerdc. igbineweka, v.o. and enowoghomwenma, d. e. (2017). internally generated revenue (igr) suitability and quality assurance in some nigerian universities. international journal of educational benchmark, 7(2), 116-124. nemes, j., mlaki, e. and fabian, f. (2019). effects of income generating activities on primary school pupils’ attendance and academic performance. asia pacific journal of education arts and sciences (apjeas), 6(2), 64 – 72. njau, l.k., ogoti, e. & lyamtane, e. (2022) assessing the availability of school-based income-generating activities in the public secondary schools in kilimanjaro region, tanzania. european journal of educational and development psychology, 10(2), 1-20. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 8 nyeh, c. o. & kpee, g. g. (2019). generating and allocating internal revenue for public secondary school administration in cross river state. advances in social sciences research journal, 6(10) 249-260. nwakpa, p. (2016). alternative sources of financing secondary education in ebonyi state by the school administrators. british journal of education, 4(4), 10-14. oke, t.i., mainoma, h.m., and bukar, i.b. (2017).exploring alternative sources of funding universal basic education for sustainable development in nigeria.kiu journal of social humanities 2(2a), 31-38. okoi, i. i., okon, e. e. and odok, l. o. (2023). school-based income generation activities and secondary school goal attainment: implication for quality assurance in calabar education zone of cross river state, nigeria. global journal of educational research, 22, 151-157. orboh, e.s. (2023) management of internally generated revenue in nigerian universities: emergent issues. american journal of science education research, 133, 1-5. wakama, j. i. k. & ikechi, c. (2019). principals’ perception of internally generated revenue strategies for financing public secondary schools administration in rivers state. international journal of innovative finance and economics research, 7(1),1-9 effects of computer-based simulations teaching approach on chemistry self-concept among high school students in kenya global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 1; january-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 assessing the impact of computer-based simulations on chemistry self-perception among high school students in kenya 1auma l. mary and nyaga p. samuel article info abstract keywords: chemistry, science, computer-based learning, gender, chemistry self-concept. doi 10.5281/zenodo.10571629 chemistry education is essential in developing a scientific attitude in learners, but the poor performance of secondary school students in the subject has become a concern in kenya. factors such as the learners' chemistry self-concept can contribute to this issue. this study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of computer-based simulations (cbs) as a teaching approach to improve the chemistry self-concept of high school students in nakuru sub-county, kenya. a quasi-experimental research design was used, involving the solomon four non-equivalent control group design, with a sample size of 175 students. the chemistry selfconcept questionnaire (cscq) and a cbs module developed by the researcher were used to collect data. the results showed that students taught through cbs had a significantly higher level of chemistry selfconcept than those taught through regular teaching methods (rtm). furthermore, there was no statistically significant gender difference in self-concept towards chemistry of students taught through cbs. the findings suggest that using cbs as a teaching approach could be a promising strategy to address the issue of poor performance in chemistry. with the current impact of the covid-19 pandemic, the use of computer-based learning has become increasingly important, making the results of this study relevant in this context. 1. introduction chemistry is a branch of science that studies the composition and properties of matter and the changes it undergoes. chemistry is far more than a collection of facts and a body of knowledge. it’s all about matter, which is anything that has mass and occupies space. chemistry is sometimes called the central science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics, geology and biology. according to jegede (2007), it is a core subject for medical science, textile science, printing technology and chemical technology. therefore, the essence of appropriate conception of concepts related to chemistry is of a very great significance because the subject is very important to science and technology. okere (1996) cites it as an important subject in choice of career in university. applications of chemical science have contributed significantly to the advancement of human civilization. with a growing understanding and ability to manipulate chemical molecules, the chemist has all along been considered as a societal problem solver. they have brought many positive contributions to mankind such as; discovery of drugs and medicines to fight diseases, pesticides and herbicides for increased crop production. chemistry has liberated mankind from superstition, magic, religion, mythology, astrology, philosophy, magic, 1 department of curriculum, instruction and educational media, university of kabianga, kericho, kenya https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-culture-and-vs-religion/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-culture-and-vs-religion/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-mythology-and-vs-science/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-mythology-and-vs-science/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-vedic-and-vs-western-astrology/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-vedic-and-vs-western-astrology/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-philosophy-and-vs-world-view/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-philosophy-and-vs-world-view/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-miracle-and-magic/ http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-miracle-and-magic/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 2 spirituality, folklore and others. this is as a result of chemistry being able to explain most of the natural occurrences and phenomena. examples of such occurrences that earlier appeared mystical are like thunderstorms, lightning, burning among many others. chemistry has also greatly contributed to environmental conservation to mention but a few. however chemistry has had a number of negative contributions such as the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons chemicals (cfcs). this has meant increased ultraviolet rays reaching the earth with serious consequences such as increase in skin cancer. cfcs are used in refrigerants, propellants in aerosol cans, hospital sterilisers, industrial solvents, and foam blowing agents. there has also been the problem of bioaccumulation of chlorinated organic pesticides in the food chain has brought about serious and deadly health complications to humans and animals. despite the importance attached to chemistry, students’ performance in the subject at the national examinations in many countries has remained poor. according to trends in international mathematics and science study ([timss], 2011) 56 countries and other education systems administered timss at grade eight. less than half of the countries which participated had an average scale score of below 500. scores on the timss mathematics and science tests range from 0-1000. both tests have an average scale score of 500, with a standard deviation of 100. morocco, indonesia, lebanon and ghana participated in the timss 2011 but their scale scores were below average. according to ogunniyi (2001) the overall performance of school chemistry in developing countries is generally weak. the poor performance in chemistry is very disturbing and if not checked, may jeopardize the placement chances of students in tertiary institutions, not only in chemistry education but also in other chemistry related disciplines. this has serious implications for nigeria economy, security and manpower development (gambari, et al, 2017). in kenya despite the importance attached to chemistry, the students’ examination results in the subject in kenya certificate of secondary education (kcse) have remained poor (knec, 2013). kenya national examinations council (knec) report 2014 also showed continued decline in performance in chemistry and its pass rates in kcse examinations is the lowest compared to that of biology and physics (keter, 2018). in addition, the mean score in percentage was higher for boys than that of girls. the poor performance in chemistry has raised an outcry from parents. a major factor that may contribute to such a situation is the learners’ chemistry self-concept which could be tied to the teaching approaches used by the subject teachers. teaching approach refers to all the steps, processes, and set procedures that a teacher uses when presenting the contents of the lesson (maundu, sambili&muthwii, 1998). in order to make students learn chemistry effectively the teacher has to adopt the right method of teaching. in selecting the right method in a given situation the teacher has to be familiar with different methods of teaching and the nature of the subject (kumar, krishna & rao, 2004). there are two main approaches in teaching namely; expository (transmission) and discovery (heuristic) teaching approaches (mondoh, 2005). we live in an era of rapidly developing technology due to the widespread use of computer science and information technology, which have entered almost all areas of life. in the field of education, emerging technologies provide opportunities for enhancing and improving the learning and education process (meccawy, 2017). as society becomes increasingly global and experiential, research suggests that students can benefit from alternative learning environments that extend beyond the classroom (murugan & kamisah, 2018). computer-assisted instruction (cai) is one that has been lauded as able to teach concepts that are either difficult or dangerous (allesi & trollip, 2001). cai programmes are categorized into drills and practice, simulations or hypermedia. computer-based simulations (cbs) is able to present certain dynamic and complex concepts that are extremely difficult to explain using words, equations or class experiments. cbs with animated colour and graphic images is capable of presenting the dynamic nature of the process of electrolysis through a multi-sensory approach that lacks in the regular methods. the process of electrolysis may therefore greatly benefit from the use of computer-assisted instruction because the process does manifest itself visibly. also, the use of computer-based simulations may save some money by reduction on cost of experimental work. if regular teaching methods are used in teaching science subjects, students understand the subject at knowledge level and they usually memorize the science concepts without understanding the real meaning. as a result they do not conceptualize the science concepts well as intended (wesi, 2011). such http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-carnality-and-spirituality/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 3 factors influence student’s attitude, cognitive development and achievement in science and science education. it is known that it is not easy to eliminate misconceptions by just employing regular instructional methods. one of the ways to overcome this problem is to try to develop and use computerassisted instruction. cbs plays an important role in contemporary teaching and learning of science concepts (chang, 2009). computers can be used as a supplementary tool in order to achieve educational goals. it is reported that student abilities and skills are affected positively by use of computers (bayraktar, 2000). it is also stated that the use of computers makes students feel confident and helps them to discover interactions among the components of a complex system (ramjus, 1990). in addition most of the knowledge related to natural phenomenon is available in computers, hence students can be able to visualize the physical phenomena in a three dimensional form (shamai, 2001). if cbs materials are developed and implemented in an effective way, student's achievement and affinity increases in science lessons (lee, 2001). integration of computers in chemistry classrooms can provide an effective learning environment for students to enhance their chemistry skills by engaging them with “real world” conditions to make the abstract concepts concrete and clear. in this way students can have a meaningful and retentive learning and they will be much more ready for their future education life such as university education or their professional life. all the changes taking place in the teaching and learning process demand a new learning environment to effectively harness the power of ict to improve learning. ict has the potential to transform the nature of education: where, when, how and the way learning takes place (witfelt, 2000). the cbs environment provides a platform to apply the knowledge in a given situation and their interactions results in the discovery of new knowledge that will help cognitive domain development and the accumulation of knowledge (shamai, 2001). ict provides powerful tools to support the shift from teacher centred to learner centred paradigm and new roles of teacher, learner, curricula and new media (holbrook, 2011). before the onset of the covid-19 pandemics, kenya had a well-structured system of education. the primary and secondary school calendar ran from january to december. the terms comprised of three months of fully learning and a month in-between for breaks. the syllabi were structured to be covered in nine months at most. during the one-month break, both teachers and learners would seize the opportunity to rest and refresh before getting back to another engaging three months (gathuru&mwenyeri, 2021). however, on march 15, 2020, the kenyan government abruptly closed all schools and colleges nationwide in response to the first positive test of covid19. this led to throwing into disarray learning programmes countrywide. the closure of institutions affected learners and teachers (gathuru&mwenyeri, 2021). government of kenya provided remote teaching support using the internet and television and encouraged academic institutions to adapt teaching material to create a more accessible online learning environment. this plan targeted both vulnerable students and teachers and aimed to capitalize on existing radio infrastructure to enhance the possibility of community-based learning. online teaching and learning was not well established in both public and private school in kenya before the covid19 pandemic. at the onset of this pandemic many kenyan schools took teaching and learning online to prevent learning lose. it is this introduction of this online teaching and learning in kenyan schools that provoked this study. this study investigated the effects of computer-based simulations teaching approach on chemistry selfconcept by gender among secondary school students in nakuru sub-county, kenya. 2. objectives of the study the following were the specific objectives of this study: a) to compare the self-concept towards chemistry between students taught through cbs and those taught through rtm. b) to find out whether there is a gender difference in self-concept towards chemistry of students who are taught through cbs teaching approach. 3. hypotheses in this study, the following null hypotheses were tested; ho1: there is no statistically significant difference in secondary school students’ self-concept in chemistry between those taught through cbs and those taught through rtm. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 4 ho2: there is no statistically significant difference in the students’ selfconcept in chemistry between male and female students who are taught through cbs teaching approach. 4. method 4.1. research design the study involved quasi-experimental research in which the researcher used solomon four nonequivalent control group design. the design is considered rigorous enough for experimental and quasiexperimental studies. the secondary school classes once constituted exist as intact groups and school authorities do not allow such classes to be broken up and reconstituted. the research design may be represented in figure 1; figure 1. solomon four non-equivalent control group research design key o1 and o3 are pre-tests o2, o4, o5, and o6 are posttests x is the treatment where students learn through cbs experimental groups e1 and e2 control groups c1 and c2 non-equivalent control groups……………………………. 4.2. sample and sampling procedure a total of 175 students participated in the study. purposive sampling was used to select participating schools. the unit of sampling was the schools rather than individual learners because secondary schools operate as intact groups. each school provided the form two class to participate in the study. simple random sampling was used to select the stream for purposes of data analysis if the school had more than one stream for a form two class. according to the ministry of education regulations, the average number of students in kenyan secondary school classes is 45, so both the experimental and control groups were made of an average class size of 45 each. 4.3. instrumentation two instruments were used namely; • chemistry selfconcept questionnaire (cscq) • cbs module 4.3.1. chemistry selfconcept questionnaire (cscq) the cscq contained 20 fivepoint likerttype scale items designed to measure form two students’ selfconcept towards chemistry. students were asked to indicate whether they strongly agree (sa), agree (a), undecided (u), disagree (d), strongly disagree (sd) with each item in the questionnaire. the items in the questionnaire were closed-ended questions and were measured on a 5-point likert scale. the highest score in the scale is (5) while the lowest is (1) per item. for questions with a positive stem, strongly agree (sa) scored highest (5) while strongly disagree (sd) scored lowest (1). for questions with a negative stem, strongly agree scored lowest (1) while strongly disagree scored highest (5). the maximum score was 100 while the minimum score was 20. 4.3.2. cbs module the computer-based simulation module was developed by the researcher with the assistance of computer experts. the module consisted of 16 lessons taught over a period of four weeks. experimental groups 1 and global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 5 2 and chemistry teachers were inducted for one week on basic computer operational skills to enable them to have easy navigation of the courseware. the developed simulation module was given to two computer education experts and three high school teachers knowledgeable in chemistry education to assess general design, format and sequencing of events, language level and subject content. before being exposed to the cbs module the students were instructed on what to do and each one issued with a manual by the teacher. students were allowed to go through the cbs module with the least help. 4.4. data analysis and interpretation data was analysed using inferential statistics; to test for differences between the control and experimental groups. data was analysed using analysis of variance (anova) and analysis of covariance (ancova). anova was used to determine if the control and experimental groups differ significantly among themselves on treatment. ancova was used to level out differences among the groups. to test for differences between the pre-test mean scores for experimental group e1 and the control group c1, t–test was used. a t-test was also used to test on gender differences in achievement and self-concept. to make reliable inferences from the data, all statistical tests were tested for significance at alpha level at 0.05. analysis of the pre-test cscq scores was done and the results obtained. table 1 shows the independent samples t-test of the pre-test scores for cscq for experimental group1 and control group. table 1. independent samples t-test of the pre-test mean scores on cscq levene’s test for equality of variance t test for e of mea n varia equal ble variances f cscq assumed .106 equal variances not assumed sig. .690 t -.559 -.559 df 84 82 sig (2-tailed) .578 .578 mean difference -1.069 -1.069 std error difference 1.913 1.913 df = 84, t-critical = 1.984, p<0.05 the results in table 1 showed that the mean score for experimental group 1 and control group 1 on cscq are not statistically significantly different since t(84)= -.559, p>0.05.this means that the groups used in the study exhibited comparable characteristics. the groups were therefore regarded as suitable for the study. analysis of the pre-test cscq scores for experimental group 1 by gender was done and the results obtained. table 2 shows the independent samples t-test of the pre-test scores for cscq. table 2. independent samples t-test of the pre-test mean scores on cscq based on gender for experimental group 1. levene’s test for equality of variance t test for equal of means variable equal cscq variances f assumed .106 equal variances not assumed sig. .746 t .040 .040 df 41 41 sig (2-tailed) .968 .968 mean difference .099 .099 std error difference 2.497 2.497 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 6 df = 41, t-critical = 2.00, p<0.05 the results in table 2 shows that the mean scores of female and male students are not statically significantly different since t(41)= .040, p> 0.05.this means that the groups used in the studyexhibited comparable characteristics. pre-tests were administered to evaluate self-concept towards chemistry. after the pre-test, students in the experimental groups were taught using cbs teaching approach while the control groups were taught using the conventional teaching methods. the use of a pre-test enabled the researcher to evaluate the similarity of the treatment and control groups prior to treatment. the results indicate that there was no significant difference in the post-test mean scores between experimental groups 1 and 2 and control groups 1and 2. the post-test results in this study did not indicate any interaction between the pre-test and the instructional intervention. if the pre-test provided a practice effect it would result in higher post-test performance by groups receiving the pre-test. a comparison of the post-test results of the four groups does not indicate that the pretest provided a practice effect. 4.5. effect of cbs on students’ self-concept in chemistry to determine the effects of cbs teaching approach on students’ self-concept in chemistry, cscq mean scores were analysed using anova and ancova. this was to test hypothesis one, ho1 which stated that there is no statistically significant difference in selfconcept of students who are taught chemistry through cbs and those who are not exposed to it. the posttest mean scores were analysed. table 3 shows the cscq post-test scores of the students in the four groups. table 3. cscq post-test mean scores obtained by the students in the four groups group n mean std deviation experimental group 1 43 80.50 8.08 control group 1 43 72.60 10.85 experimental group 2 44 79.98 11.99 control group 2 45 73.07 10.80 total 175 76.50 11.08 the mean scores for experimental groups 1 and 2, which received treatment were higher than the mean scores of the control groups, suggesting that cbs had a positive effect on students’ chemistry self-concept. though experimental group 2 was not pre-tested, the students in this group obtained more or less the same mean score as compared to the students’ in experimental group 1. this would suggest that the pre-test exercise did not have any effect on the students’ chemistry self-concept thereby reinforcing the fact that cbs contributed to the enhanced chemistry self-concept. to establish whether the mean scores were statistically significantly different, analysis of one way variance (anova) was carried out and the results are shown on table 4. table 4. analysis of variance (anova) of the post-test scores on the cscq sum of squares df means squares of f pvalue between groups 2367.40 3 789.13 7.104 0.000 within groups 18996.34 171 111.09 total 21363.74 174 f-critical= 2.60; df = (3, 171); p<0.05 table 4 shows the difference between and within groups is statistically significant f (3,171) = 7.104, p<0.05. in order to establish that there was significant difference between means, it was important to carry out further tests on the various combinations of means to find out where the difference occurred. the tests were done using bonferroni post-hoc analysis. table 5 shows the post-hoc comparisons of the post-test cscq mean scores for the four groups. table 5. post-hoc comparisons of the post-test of cscq mean scores for the four groups (i) group (j) group mean differences std error sig. (a) (i-j) global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 7 e1 c1 7.9707 2.273 .005 e2 .41808 2.260 1.000 c2 7.3286 2.247 .008 c1 e1 -7.7907 2.273 .005 e2 -7.3726* 2.260 .008 c2 -.46202 2.247 1.000 e2 e1 -.41808 2.260 1.000 c1 7.3726* 2.260 .008 c2 6.9106* 2.235 .014 c2 e1 -7.3286* 2.247 .008 c1 .46202 2.247 1.000 e2 -6.9106* 2.235 .014 the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. ⃰ the results in table 5 indicate that there is statistically significant difference in the students’ chemistry selfconcept between experimental group 1 and control group 1 and 2, and between experimental group 2 and control group 1 and 2. however, the mean scores of both experimental groups 1 and 2, control groups 1 and 2 were not significantly different. the experimental groups did not display any significant difference in chemistry self-concept probably because they were exposed to cbs. therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that exposure of students to cbs enhanced their chemistry self-concept as compared to students in the control groups. since this study involved non-equivalent control groups, it was necessary to confirm the results by performing analysis of covariance (ancova). table 6 shows the adjusted cscq post-test mean scores for the four groups. table 6. adjusted cscq post-test mean scores for ancova with kcpe scores as covariates groups n actual mean adjusted mean experimental group 1 43 80.40 80.40a control group 1 43 72.60 72.59a experimental group 2 44 79.98 79.97a control group 45 73.07 73.08a a covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following: kcpe marks 279.5314. the mean scores of experimental groups 1and 2 were very comparable and much higher than the mean scores of control 1 and 2. this may be construed to mean that the experimental groups that were exposed to cbs had better chemistry selfconcept than the control groups which were not treated. since the experimental group 2 and control group2 were not pre-tested the possible explanation for greater chemistry self-concept exhibited by the students in experimental group 2 was due to exposure to cbs. the results of the adjusted means enabled an analysis of covariance to be done and the results are shown in table 7. table 7. analysis of covariance (ancova) of the post-test scores on the cscq dependent -concept variable: chemistry self df source type iii sum of squares partial eta mean squares f sig. squared corrected model 2368.55a 4 592.14 5.299 .000 .111 intercept 8491.986 1 8491.986 76.000 .000 .309 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 8 kcpe 1.151 1 1.151 .010 .919 .000 groups 2363.429 3 787.810 7.051 .000 .111 error 18995.184 170 111.736 total 1045278.00 corrected total 175 21363.737 174 a.r squared = .111 (adjusted r squared = .090) the findings of ancova showed significant difference between the groups, f (3,170) = 7.051, p<0.05. to establish where the differences were located, a post-hoc pair-wise comparisons based on ancova were carried out and the results shown in table 8. table 8. ancova pair-wise comparison on cscq mean scores e1 c1 7.804 ⃰ 2.283 .001 e2 .038 2.275 .848 c2 7.326 ⃰ 2.252 .001 c1 e1 -7.804 ⃰ 2.283 .001 e2 -7.365 ⃰ 2.268 .001 c2 -.477 2.259 .833 ads e2 -6.888 ⃰ 2.252 .003 the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level ⃰ the results in table 8 suggest that there was a statistically significant difference between experimental group 1 and control groups 1 and 2, experimental group 2 and control groups 1 and 2. however, the experimental groups showed no significant difference between them. the same trend was observed with the control groups. from the results it may be interpreted that the students in experimental groups were more motivated and got interested in chemistry after treatment than students in the control groups. this implies that cbs teaching approach enhanced students’ chemistry concept. therefore hypothesis ho2, which stated that there is no statistically significant difference in self-concept of students who are taught chemistry through cbs and those who are not exposed to it, is rejected. a comparison of the cscq pre-test and posttest means scores was carried out and the results obtained are shown in table 9. table 9. pre-test and post-test mean scores of experimental group 1 and control group 1 e2 e1 -.438 2.275 .848 c1 7.365 ⃰ 2.268 .001 c2 6.888 ⃰ 2.252 .003 c2 e1 -7.326 ⃰ 2.254 .003 c1 .477 2.259 .833 ( i) group j) group ( mean differences i ( j) std error sig. (a) global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 9 experimental group1 control group 1 n=43 n=43 pre-test mean 56.86 57.93 post -test mean 80.40 72.60 the results of the comparison between experimental group1 and control group1 pre-test and post-test of cscq shows that the mean scores were comparable before the treatment as shown in table 9. however, after the treatment it was observed that the mean scores of cscq in the posttest were different .this means that the cbs teaching approach resulted into a higher positive self-concept towards chemistry than rtm did. the results of anova and ancova for cscq post-test mean scores indicate that cbs had an effect on students’ self-concept towards chemistry. this implies that cbs resulted to a higher positive self-concept towards chemistry. the results of the pre-test showed that there was no significant difference in the means of the two groups. these results implied that the level of students’ self-concept in the two groups were similar before exposure to the intervention. the results of the post-test mean scores for the four groups were different. the results of the study indicated that cbs resulted in higher scores on students’ self-concept in chemistry. the findings are in agreement with the earlier findings supporting capability of computer-based instructional programs to promote positive attitude and motivation. the findings indicate that the cbs teaching approach enhanced students’ chemistry self-concept. there is considerable evidence to support the contention that positive academic self-concept contributes to academic achievement. martin, klein and sullivan (2007) showed that those who used computer program performed significantly better and had consistently more positive attitude. solso (2011) supports the effectiveness of computer based simulation learning techniques in improving students’ self-concept in a study conducted in north carolina for science students. motivation is an attitude that is used in conjunction with self-concept, or the way one thinks about oneself to perform a task successfully. it is clear that the results are in agreement with the earlier findings showing that the use of computers promotes positive students’ attitude and motivation (kiboss, 1997, 2002). people with positive self-concept will act in ways that will help them to outperform others, meet or surpass some standard of excellence, or do something unique. a research by aasma-tuz (2010) in pakistan showed that there is a relationship between academic and non-academic measures on students’ self-concept. the study also revealed that self-concept measures were positively correlated to academic outcomes. johnson and johnson (1989) reported that cooperative group work benefits students in improving their self-concept. according to wekesa (2003), cbi has the potential to improve students’ retention and interest. serin (2011) showed that computerbased instruction positively affected the attitude of the students toward science. he also found out that cbi motivates students to learn better by providing them with the immediate feedback and reinforcement and by creating an exciting and interesting game-like atmosphere. all students are influenced by the need to achieve to a certain degree. those students, who hold a high desire of success, work hard to achieve (pullmann& allik, 2008). kithaka (2004) on a project in kenya for smasse argued that there is too much theoretical teaching of sciences. the cbs teaching approach is one approach that can help direct the teaching-learning process to move away from the theoretical approaches and recognize the learners’ important contribution to learning through active involvement. parkinson (1994) points out that teachers must ensure that they make science as interesting and stimulating as possible. the findings of this study established the role played by cbs in the students’ perceptions on the image of chemistry in secondary schools. the results showed that cbs had a positive effect on self-concept of students towards chemistry learning. the cscq scores indicate that cbs helped in improving the students’ level of self-concept to learn chemistry irrespective of their academic ability. achievement in chemistry influences students’ self-concept and the students’ selfconfidence in a subject is an important factor that is likely to determine their success. thus cbs teaching approach can influence the development of selfconcept in chemistry. according to centre for mathematics, science and technology education in africa ([cemastea],2019), cbs activities helps to enhance learner’s critical thinking andproblem solving skills, global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 10 the learners become objective, inquisitive, reflective, flexible, analytical, observant, skeptical, curious and a decision maker. 4.6. effect of cbs on gender differences in chemistry self-concept hypothesis two, ho 2 sought to find out whether there was a statistically significant gender difference in selfconcept towards chemistry between students exposed to cbs teaching approach. table 10 shows the ttest of the post-test mean scores for experimental groups with regard to gender. table 10. independent samples t-test of the post-test scores on cscq based on gender levene’s test for t-test for equality of means equality of variance varia equal assumed ble variances f sig. t df cscq assumed .501 .481 .021 85 sig mean std error (2-tailed) difference difference equal .022 83 .983 .04726 2.21472 variances not .983 .04726 2.18795 df= 85, t-critical= 1.984, p<0.05 the results in table 10 shows that there was no significant difference in the means of the two groups since t (85) = .021, p>0.05. there was no significant gender difference in self-concept towards chemistry. consequently, ho4 was accepted. table 11 shows the adjusted post-test scores of cscq based on gender using kcpe as covariate with experimental groups 1 and 2. table 11. adjusted post-test mean scores of cscq based on gender for experimental groups 1 and 2 gender n actual mean adjusted mean std error female 38 80.21 80.217a 1.675 male 49 80.16 80.158a 1.474 a.covariates appearing in the model are evaluated using kcpe marks =280.3448 the mean score for female students was higher than the male students on cscq. the adjusted mean scores of female and male students compared closely with the actual mean scores. table 12 shows the analysis of covariance of the post-test cscq mean scores of male and female students in experimental groups1 and 2. table 12. ancova of the post-test cscq mean scores based on gender for experimental groups source type iii df mean f sig. partial sum of squares eta squares squared corrected model .528a 2 .264 .002 .998 .000 intercept 4436.308 1 4436.308 41.765 .000 .332 kcpe .480 1 .480 .005 .947 .000 gender .074 1 .074 .001 .949 .000 error 8922.530 84 106.22 total 568286.00 87 wdqac orrected 8923.058 86 total global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 11 the results showed that there is still no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the male and that of the female students who were exposed to cbs, f(1, 84) = .001, p>0.05. this therefore, means that there was no gender difference in self-concept towards chemistry between students taught using cbs. therefore, h02 was accepted. the post-test mean scores of the cscq indicates that the difference between male and female students was not statistically significant. the results from ancova showed that there was no gender difference in selfconcept between female and male students taught using cbs. the null hypothesis (ho2) was therefore accepted at 0.05 significance level. researches focused on gender studies have indicated that the self-concept towards science education differ between males and females. a declining interest in chemistry and the underrepresentation of females in the chemical science was found (banya, 2005). positive self-concept towards chemistry, the influence of role models and knowledge about the usefulness of chemistry affect the decision of young female students about the study of chemistry (banya, 2005). despite the studies done, and the recommendations made, the attitudes of young female students towards science and chemistry are still more positive (sullivan, 2009). research studies on sex differences in academic self-concept show conflicting pattern of findings. aronson (2002) notes that gender differences in verbal ability are negligible but differences in quantitative skills show that girls' computational skills are better at all ages and boys do better in mathematics conceptual word problems. the findings by aronson (2002) are in agreement with the present findings where girls were motivated to improve their self-concept scores toward chemistry. sullivan (2009) argued that boys have higher self-concepts in mathematics and science than the girls. previous research indicates that even the males and females score equally well on standardized tests of mathematics ability, the males hold higher self-concept of science ability and science value than females do, and males select more difficult mathematics course than the females do (simpkins, davis-kean, & eccles, 2006). other studies show that there is no significant difference between boys and girls on chemistry self-concept (yusuf, 2010). proko, tuncer and chuda (2007) posit that teacher characteristics have a significant role on students’ attitude towards chemistry. perhaps this would explain the gender differences noted in this study since in cbs teaching approach the teacher is only a facilitator. therefore, all learners should be given equal opportunity, the same level of motivation and encouragement irrespective of gender. in conclusion, the use of cbs brought about a change in the teachers’ role from that of a provider of information to that of a facilitator in the teaching/ learning process. teachers may resolve the use of cbs that emphasizes interactive student learning to teach difficult topics like electrolysis. also their selfconcept improved and this means therefore that there is a likelihood of chemistry performance rising above average. 5. summary of major findings the following are the major findings of the study: i. there is statistically significant difference in self-concept of students who are taught chemistry through cbs teaching approach and that of those who follow conventional teaching methods. ii. there is no statistically significant difference in chemistry selfconcept between boys and girls taught through cbs teaching approach. 6. conclusions the findings of this study established the role played by the cbs in the students’ perceptions on the image of chemistry in secondary schools. the cscq scores indicate that cbs helped in improving the students’ level of self-concept to learn chemistry irrespective of their academic ability. achievement in chemistry influences students’ self-concept and the students’ selfconfidence is an important factor that is likely to determine their success. the results revealed that there is no significant gender difference between boys and girls self-concept in chemistry. therefore all learners should be given equal opportunity, the same level of motivation and encouragement irrespective of gender. on the basis of the findings of this study, the researcher made a number of conclusions in relation to the two hypotheses of the study. these conclusions include: i. students who are taught chemistry through cbs acquire a higher level of self-concept in chemistry than those taught through rtm. research has shown a significant but weak correlation between academic selfglobal journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 12 concept and academic achievement. even with the weak correlation as education goes online during this period of covid-19 and use of cbs teaching approach can go a long way in increasing academic achievement. therefore this cbs teaching approach is highly recommended as educational instituted take learning online during this covi-19 pandemic period and the post pandemic period. ii. cbs teaching approach does not influence chemistry self-concept of the girls and boys differently. since the influence of cbs is not gender dependent then it can be used with apprehensions that one of the gender will be disadvantaged. this cbs approach is recommended for high school and other levels of education. references aasma-tuz, z. 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(2003). effects of a computer-based instruction module on students’ achievement, perception of the classroom environment and attitude towards school biology in nakuru district, kenya. unpublished masters’ thesis, egerton university, njoro, kenya. wesi, r. p. (2011). conceptual difficulties associated with energy. unpublished doctoral dissertation. potchefstroom (south africa). potchefstroom university. witfelt, c. (2000). educational multimedia and teachers’ needs for new competencies to use educational multimedia. education media international, 37(4), 235-241. yusuf, a. (2010). the effect of cooperative instructional strategy on students’ performance in junior secondary school social studies in ilorin, nigeria. nigeria journal of social studies, 8 (1 & 2), 23-36. 062203-fa1433frontiers in educational research.doc global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 43 teamwork triumphs: fostering student development through cooperative learning in university physical education wei zhang yang zhejiang vocational college of special educatio, hangzhou, 310023, zhejiang, china article info abstract keywords: cooperative learning, physical education, college, pedagogical approach, student development doi 10.5281/zenodo.11121109 cooperative learning is a pedagogical approach widely applied in various educational contexts, with particular relevance in the domain of physical education. this approach's practical value in physical education has gained significant recognition. college and universitylevel physical education instruction aims to enhance students' physical fitness, stimulate their intrinsic motivation for participating in physical activities, and thereby promote their holistic development and wellbeing. however, several challenges persist in the effective application of cooperative learning within the realm of college physical education instruction. enhancing the quality of physical education teaching and refining the utilization of cooperative learning pedagogy has emerged as a pivotal concern for physical education educators in higher education. 1. introduction the educational model of cooperative learning has been widely used, especially in physical education teaching, the practical value of cooperative learning as an educational model has been highlighted. physical education teaching in colleges and universities should improve the physical quality of students, guide students to develop a sense of initiative to participate in sports activities, and then promote students' healthy growth and all-round development. however, there are certain problems in the application of cooperative learning in college physical education teaching, how to improve the quality of college physical education teaching, improve the application of cooperative learning education mode, has become a key topic that college physical education teachers need to solve. 2. problems in the application of cooperative learning in the teaching of physical education in colleges and universities 2.1. students are not highly motivated physical education teaching courses in colleges and universities are often based on elective courses, due to the limitation of the number of physical education courses, some students are not able to take their favourite physical education courses. in this context, the enthusiasm and initiative of students to participate in sports teaching activities are greatly reduced. at the same time, students in college physical education classes come from different classes and different majors. when carrying out sports cooperative learning, due to the unfamiliarity between students, resulting in the process of cooperation will often be reluctant to share communication or interpersonal https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 44 conflicts and other issues, students and students and students and teachers have not established a close relationship of mutual help, which in turn affects the enthusiasm of students to participate in cooperative learning. 2.2. students have a weak sense of co-operation due to the high autonomy of students in the college sports classroom, when teachers adopt cooperative learning, students tend to combine with their good friends or prefer to cooperate with students with higher levels of sports. this leads to a large difference in the level of sports skills between groups, so that students can not get the expected results of sports teaching after participating in sports training. the main reason for this phenomenon is that students are more self-conscious and lack the awareness of sharing and cooperative learning. therefore, when teachers apply the teaching mode of co-operative learning in the sports classroom, they should follow the grouping principle of heterogeneity within groups and homogeneity among groups to ensure that the level of the groups is comparable to each other. through the implementation of varied sports activities, students can form closer bonds and develop a sense of mutual support and collaboration, consequently enhancing the quality of cooperative learning [1]. 2.3. teachers' teaching role has not changed the application of cooperative learning in college physical education requires that students be the centre of the physical education classroom and that students' subjective initiative be brought into play. this requires teachers to change their teaching concepts and roles in college sports teaching. however, at present, most college physical education teachers do not really recognise the role of teachers in the cooperative learning teaching mode, and still use the traditional teaching methods to make students passive in physical education learning. therefore, teachers should change their teaching roles in the cooperative learning mode in a timely manner, and assume the roles of organisers, instructors and evaluators of physical education teaching activities, so that students can become the protagonists of the physical education classroom. 3. the path to improve the quality of co-operative learning in sports teaching in colleges and universities 3.1. clear sports co-operative learning objectives in the application of cooperative teaching mode in college sports teaching, teachers should clarify the learning objectives of cooperative learning, to carry out cooperative learning content and cooperative teaching links to guide the direction. at the same time, by clarifying the educational objectives of co-operative learning, students can also be guided to take the initiative to solve the problems encountered in sports learning, so as to alleviate the fear of students in colleges and universities to participate in sports teaching activities. in the application of cooperative learning teaching mode in college sports teaching, from the students to participate in sports teaching self-confidence and self-esteem, to develop a level of teaching objectives. therefore, college physical education teachers should have a detailed understanding of students' physical fitness and sports level before formulating the teaching objectives of co-operative learning, not only to give full play to the personal value of college students, but also to enable students to make progress in the process of co-operation. for example, when teaching three-step layup in basketball class, teachers should make clear the teaching objectives of this lesson. firstly, students should understand the basic points of three-step layup and master the basic skills of three-step layup through this lesson. secondly, in order to make students understand that basketball is a group sport, teachers should guide students to practice the basic skills of three-step layup through cooperative learning, and form a sense of co-operation, competition, solidarity and collective honour in the process of applying the skills. after clarifying the teaching objectives of co-operative learning, teachers should group the students into groups according to their actual learning situation and ability in this lesson, and evenly distribute the students with higher, medium and lower levels of three-step layup skills to avoid the phenomenon of large differences in the level between groups, enhance the fairness of co-operative learning in basketball, and contribute to the cultivation of the spirit of basketball among the students. at the same time, it can also make students in the process of group to group confrontation, stimulate the fun of competition, enhance the students' competitive level and competitive awareness. before the formal start of basketball three-step layup teaching, teachers should make students understand that this class is to carry out co-operative competitive confrontation activities to stimulate students' interest in learning and the spirit of victory, under the role of the spirit of victory, students tend to carry out more serious learning, improve students' motivation to learn, but also to ensure the quality of teaching [2]. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 45 3.2. selection of co-operative learning mode to improve the effectiveness of physical education teaching in colleges and universities, it is crucial to select an appropriate cooperative learning mode based on the physical education teaching content and objectives. modes such as peer cooperation, group cooperation, and full cooperation can be considered. furthermore, optimizing the organizational design of cooperative physical education learning should be prioritized. first, peer cooperation mode. peer cooperation mode is a commonly used form of cooperative learning organisation in college sports teaching, and compared with other cooperative learning modes, peer cooperation mode is easier and freer to organise. peer co-operation mode is mostly composed of good friends, due to the high degree of tacit understanding between good friends, so the application of peer co-operation mode in college sports teaching can enhance the teaching effect. for example, in the college sports broadcast gymnastics teaching, the teacher in teaching abdominal and back movement, by the students of the teacher taught the movement to learn and imitate. after the completion of the study by the students to choose their own learning partners to carry out peer co-operation, learning in the process of peer co-operative learning, students correct each other's mistakes, and finally show the results of learning together. as the peer cooperative learning mode with the tacit understanding and intimate relationship between friends, not only can students enhance the interest of sports learning, but also can encourage each other, supervise each other, improve the effect of sports learning, but also can make the students in the process of peer cooperative learning to develop the good quality of learning from each other. second, group cooperation mode. group co-operation mode is often used in the form of high school sports teaching in large classes, how to improve the quality of group co-operative learning, the teacher should be scientific grouping of group members. in order to carry out scientific and effective sports learning grouping, teachers should choose the appropriate grouping scheme according to the actual sports teaching content. one is to stabilise the grouping pattern. for example, in physical training, teachers can group students according to their gender, physical fitness level and previous physical fitness test scores. for example, boys with higher physical fitness levels are divided into a group, and those with poorer physical fitness levels are divided into a group, and such grouping patterns are used as the learning unit of physical education in this semester. this grouping mode makes the physical fitness level of the students in the group, there is not a big difference, but their interest in sports learning and sports skills but there is a certain difference, through such a group grouping mode can be realised according to the ability to teach. the second is the stage grouping mode. stage grouping mode refers to the stage of group maintenance, teachers can complete a teaching unit after the dissolution or reorganisation of the group. stage grouping mode is more suitable for more targeted sports teaching content, so teachers can be based on sports teaching content and sports teaching objectives for students to stage grouping. for example, when teaching swimming in colleges and universities, teachers can test students' swimming level and swimming ability, and divide them into groups that can swim and groups that are beginners. after the completion of the group division, the two groups to implement different teaching strategies and teaching methods, the implementation of differentiated teaching and stratified teaching, not only can promote the growth and development of students, but also can improve the teaching effect of swimming [3]. thirdly, full cooperation mode. full cooperation mode refers to the teachers and students in high school sports teaching to build a cooperative relationship, when students learn sports knowledge or sports skills, through the teacher's guidance and help, to improve the students' comprehensive ability, this kind of co-operative learning mode is mainly used in the more difficult sports teaching. 3.3. determine the form of cooperative learning in high school sports teaching, group cooperative learning, group cooperative competition, group cooperative realisation is to carry out a variety of forms of cooperative learning teaching mode, teachers can choose the appropriate form of learning based on the content of teaching and students' sports level. first, group cooperative learning. group co-operative learning requires students to improve the technical level of sports in the form of a group, in the application of group co-operative learning form, the teacher should be based on the content of each group, the practice of different content, to develop different learning rules, and by the group responsible for the implementation of the learning rules and unified training. in the process of group co-operative learning, the group responsible person can supervise the students' sports training, and correct and change the students' problems in time.[4] global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 46 second, group cooperation competition. competition teaching mode is the key link in the college sports teaching to effectively improve students' sports skills and test students' sports level, by carrying out group cooperation competition, organising students to carry out sports confrontation in small groups. teachers should carry out specific planning for the content of group co-operation competitions, and the person in charge of the group uniformly leads the students to carry out intra-group competitions or inter-group competitions. after the group completes the intra-group competition, the excellent group representatives are selected to carry out inter-group competition with other groups, and the teacher and other students evaluate the process and results of the competition and select the best athletes. in this process, the teacher should carefully observe each student's sports skills application points, and timely technical guidance. thirdly, the form of group co-operation practice. the application of sports skills, the practice of sports skills and sports drills are all sports practice activities. through the group cooperation practice, students are grouped and issued with learning tasks, and students practice the learning tasks in groups and summarise the problems arising in the process of practice, which can be solved by the group cooperation or consulting the teacher. in the process of group co-operation and practice, it can stimulate the students' innovative consciousness and co-operation spirit, and improve their sense of responsibility. after completing the learning task, the group will carry out the exercise and the teacher will evaluate it, so as to promote the improvement of students' comprehensive quality.[5] 3.4. improve the evaluation content of cooperative learning cooperative learning in college sports teaching should take students as the centre of sports teaching classroom, at the same time, the teaching evaluation of cooperative learning also affects the quality of students' cooperative learning and sports teaching effect. therefore, by improving the evaluation content of cooperative learning to promote the complementarity of strengths between students and the value of play, can effectively stimulate students' interest in learning and ability to improve. [6] first, teachers should comprehensively grasp the progress of group cooperative learning. for example, through frequent movement and careful observation, teachers in the sports classroom are able to understand the learning process of each group and identify any issues. they can then provide timely feedback and correction to enhance students' cooperative thinking. during the evaluation process, teachers rely on their observations of the group cooperative learning to assess the progress. to encourage self-improvement, teachers combine criticism and praise to guide students in recognizing their weaknesses and leveraging their strengths. these practices aim to boost students' self-confidence and increase their participation in sports teaching. [7] secondly, with the help of multiple evaluation system, students are evaluated comprehensively, changing the traditional evaluation method which is mainly based on learning achievements, and making awards such as the best co-operation award and sportsmanship award as one of the contents of teaching evaluation, which can stimulate students to participate in physical education teaching and learning activities, and at the same time can also affirm students' learning achievements. 4. conclusion in the context of the continuous promotion of educational reform, college physical education teachers should pay attention to the application and exploration of cooperative learning as an educational model, start from a new perspective, give full play to the value of cooperative learning teaching methods, make clear the educational objectives of cooperative learning in physical education teaching, and choose the appropriate cooperative learning mode and cooperative learning form according to the actual situation of students and the content of physical education teaching, so that students can improve their ability to learn independently and cooperative awareness in physical education teaching. independent learning ability and cooperative consciousness, at the same time, teachers should pay attention to the evaluation of cooperative learning, so as to enhance students' learning enthusiasm and learning ability, to ensure the effect of physical education teaching. references chen wenji. an experimental study on the effect of using group cooperative learning method on students' performance in sports skills in higher vocational sports teaching[j]. contemporary sports science and technology,2021,11(14):158-160. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 47 liu j, you ml. an experimental study of "cooperative learning" teaching mode to improve the learning effect of college students' physical education[j]. sports science and technology literature bulletin,2021,29(11):59-61. zhang rong. research on the application of co-operative activity learning in college sports teaching[j]. dunking,2021(3):82-83. gao dongfang,sun li. research on the application of co-operative learning in the teaching of sports games in colleges and universities in china in the new era[j]. contemporary sports science and technology,2020,10(2):116-118. chen qingfu, chen jia. research on the application of modern information technology in college physical education [j]. sport, 2013 (7): 94-95. lei zhang. research on the application of multimedia technology in college physical education teaching [d]. sichuan university [2023-08-30]. hu liangbin, zheng jinghui. application of sports games in college pe teaching [j]. sme management and technology, 2013 (31): 2. 061901-f000206-frontiers in educational research.docx global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 3; march-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 13 skills for success: shaping shenzhen's vocational education landscape and empowering industry hua zhang wang shenzhen polytechnic university, shenzhen, guangdong, 518055, china article info abstract keywords: shenzhen, strategic emerging industries, vocational education, industrial development dual-cycle development paradigm. doi 10.5281/zenodo.11120952 in 2022, shenzhen unveiled its ambitious plan to bolster strategic emerging industry clusters and cultivate future industries, aiming to surpass a staggering added value of 1.5 trillion yuan by 2025. this visionary initiative has galvanized the industrial sector, setting the stage for a dynamic transformation in shenzhen's strategic emerging industries. amidst the backdrop of the dual-cycle development paradigm, shenzhen's strategic emerging industries are primed to fortify the bedrock of the manufacturing sector. this entails the creation of industrial clusters, fostering robust development, and enhancing the competitiveness of both the modern industrial system and regional industries. within shenzhen's new development phase, vocational education must intricately align itself with the city's industrial landscape. this alignment involves tailoring educational programs to local industrial planning, equipping learners to adapt to the dynamic evolution of shenzhen's industries, and nurturing talents capable of driving the city's industrial and economic reforms. this paper delves into the strategic imperative of optimizing the professional layout of vocational education against this dynamic backdrop. it explores the pathways and strategies that can effectively bridge the gap between education and industry, ultimately contributing to the realization of shenzhen's bold vision for its strategic emerging industries. introduction in 2022, shenzhen issued the opinions on developing and strengthening strategic emerging industry clusters and cultivating the development of future industries, proposing that "by 2025, the added value of shenzhen's strategic emerging industries will exceed 1.5 trillion yuan, becoming the main engine for promoting high-quality economic and social development."[1] the introduction of a series of heavyweight industrial development initiatives has strengthened the confidence and determination of the industrial sector. it triggered a strong reaction in the field of strategic emerging industries in shenzhen. in the context of the new development pattern of the double cycle, the strategic emerging industry field in shenzhen will stabilise the basic disc of the manufacturing industry through the construction of industrial clusters, drum up the backbone of development, and enhance the competitiveness of the modern industrial system and the competitiveness of regional industries. in the new https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 14 development stage of shenzhen, the development of vocational education should deeply fit the industrial layout of shenzhen, relying on the local industrial planning, training to adapt to the development of local industries, providing talents for the reform and development of shenzhen's industrial economy, and cultivating talents with the ability to adapt to the development of shenzhen's industries. this paper takes this as the background to sort out and explore the implementation path of optimising the professional layout of vocational education. 1. overview of shenzhen's "20+8" industrial layout 2.1 building a national highland for innovation and development of digital creative industries in recent years, shenzhen's digital creative industry has been developing rapidly relying on the advantages of developed digital technology and the convergence of cultural and creative resources, with a growth rate significantly higher than the city's gdp growth rate over the same period, and the industry is leading in terms of scale and development level in the country, cultivating a number of digital creative leaders such as tencent and huaqiangfangte, etc., and gaining strong momentum in integrated development, with new types of enterprises, new types of industries, new types of modes and new types of consumption emerging continuously, and the export trade of digital creative products and services being active. the export trade of digital creative products and services is active, and the export of games, animation, digital creative equipment and other fields account for a large share of the country, forming a more complete industrial chain covering creation and production, dissemination and operation, consumer services, and manufacturing of derivatives. 2.2 promoting shenzhen's fashion industry towards the front end of the global value chain shenzhen will accelerate the pace of digitisation by relying on the existing foundation of fashion industry construction. guide fashion industry enterprises to focus on technology, management, production, products, operation and maintenance, and improve the digital level of demand analysis, research and development design, production control, equipment operation and maintenance, safety control, remote service and other key scenes. especially in the apparel, furniture, gold jewellery, leather and other industries, cultivate a number of intelligent manufacturing demonstration factories with full life-cycle quality control, agile demand sensing and production, sales and use synergy, and make every effort to improve the level of modern management, resource allocation and operational efficiency. at the same time, to support the fashion industry enterprises to establish r & d institutions as the core carrier of technological innovation system, encourage the application of high-tech enterprises, the construction of key laboratories, engineering centres, enterprise technology centres, industrial design centres and other innovation carriers. enterprises are encouraged to carry out basic theoretical research and technological innovation with universities and research institutes, and make breakthroughs in key technologies and core components and parts that constrain the high-quality development of the industry. 2.3 the added value of the drone industry will reach tens of billions of dollars. with the development of the manufacturing industry towards digitalisation, networking and intelligence, as well as the demand for "machine replacement" brought about by the new crown epidemic, the demand for industrial robots has grown significantly. the action plan for cultivating and developing intelligent robot industry clusters in shenzhen (2022-2025) reveals that by 2025, the added value of shenzhen's intelligent robotics industry will reach 16 billion yuan, of which the added value of the drone industry will reach a scale of tens of billions of dollars, and rapid growth will be achieved in industrial robots, service robots, and special robots. 2.4 internationally leading product technology in some areas the action plan for cultivating and developing safety, energy-saving and environmental protection industry clusters in shenzhen (2022-2025) proposes that by 2025, the added value of shenzhen's safety, energy-saving and environmental protection industry will exceed 60 billion yuan, a number of backbone enterprises and famous brands with domestic and international competitive advantages will be cultivated, and three or more enterprises with annual output value exceeding tens of billions of yuan will be cultivated, 20 or more enterprises with annual output value exceeding one billion yuan will be cultivated, and 100 or more specialised enterprises will be cultivated. more than 100 enterprises. shenzhen will also plan and build more than two industrial clusters, forming an industrial agglomeration belt with technology research and development, headquarters base as the core and equipment manufacturing and comprehensive utilisation of resources as the characteristics, and accelerating industrial agglomeration. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 15 2.5 10 new manufacturing "individual champions" will be added. the action plan for cultivating and developing laser and additive manufacturing industry clusters in shenzhen (2022-2025) proposes that by 2025, the added value of the industry will reach 14 billion yuan, and there will be 10 new manufacturing industry "single champions", specialised and specialised "small giants" and "unicorn" enterprises. substantial breakthroughs have been made in key areas such as basic materials, core components, support software, high-end devices, etc., with the addition of one provincial-level or above manufacturing innovation centre, 10 enterprise technology centres, and a steady improvement in innovation capacity. 2.6 intelligent networked vehicle industry revenue to reach 200 billion yuan by 2025, the revenue of shenzhen's intelligent networked automobile industry will reach rmb 200 billion, forming a strategic echelon of more than 10 enterprises with revenue of more than 10 billion and more than 20 enterprises with revenue of more than 1 billion, cultivating and introducing a batch of enterprises with international competitiveness, significantly improving the level of industrial agglomeration and development, and completing the establishment of a globally influential highland of innovation and application of intelligent networked automobiles. promote the head enterprises to improve the integration capability of intelligent, connected and electrified vehicles, and cultivate a number of outstanding enterprises in important links such as automotive wireless communications, intelligent sensing systems, on-board computing platforms, cloud service terminals, power batteries, electric motors and electric controls, charging facilities, etc., so as to form a development pattern of "1 head enterprise + n leading components and parts enterprises". accelerate the deployment of intelligent roadside facilities integrating sensing, communication and edge computing capabilities, improve charging and hydrogen refuelling facilities, strive for the creation of a national-level telematics pilot zone, build a leading demonstration zone for the application of intelligent internet-connected vehicles in china, and build a functional, reasonably laid-out, stably operated, intelligent and safe infrastructure network. 2.7 establishment of a globally renowned innovative drug research and development centre by 2025, the added value of the biomedical industry will reach 40 billion yuan, the business revenue will reach 100 billion yuan, a number of specialised biomedical industrial parks with distinctive features and synergistic development will be built, and the level of industrial agglomeration and development will be significantly enhanced. in terms of industrial structure, 8-10 enterprises with world influence will be introduced to set up headquarters, r&d centres and high value-added production bases in shenzhen, and the number of biomedical domestic and overseas listed enterprises will reach 40, with revenues exceeding 10 billion yuan, 15 billion yuan and 25 billion yuan. the r&d investment intensity of enterprises above the scale has reached 10%, 200 innovation carriers at all levels and 5 major science and technology infrastructures have been built, major platforms for model experimental animal research, pharmaceutical cro/cdmo/cmo, biologics inspection and testing, and internationalisation of traditional chinese medicines and natural products have been established, and 15 domestic class i new drugs have obtained marketing approvals, and 400 medicines have entered into the stage of clinical trials. 2.8 creating a spatial layout of "one centre and many nuclei" the action plan for cultivating and developing software and information service industry clusters in shenzhen (2022-2025) proposes that by 2025, shenzhen will accelerate the development of software and information service industry clusters and create ten key projects to accelerate the construction of a strong manufacturing city and promote the industry to the high end of the global value chain. at present, shenzhen software and information service industry in recent years, the industry scale ranks the forefront of large and medium-sized cities in the country, 2021 annual software and information service industry added value of 229.50 billion yuan, an increase of 13.7% year-on-year, accounting for the proportion of the city's gdp is 7.5%, the rapid growth of industry clusters, showing strong vitality. 3. clarifying the source of impetus for optimizing the professional layout of vocational education in shenzhen the development of vocational education should "deepen the integration of industry and education, schoolenterprise co-operation", the integration of industry and education is a macro-level perspective, that is, industry and education; school-enterprise co-operation is a relatively micro-level perspective, that is, schools and enterprises. [2] global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 16 3.1 the external impetus for promoting the professional layout of vocational education in shenzhen is the classification of policies according to local conditions based on regional resource endowment, shenzhen gives full play to the characteristic advantages of each district, coordinates and optimises the spatial layout of strategic emerging industries, and creates and builds industrial clusters in a more detailed and precise manner. the government coordinates the planning, fully mobilises the initiative and creativity of market players, builds an ecological platform for the collaborative innovation and development of strategic emerging industries, and strives to promote the in-depth integration of industrial chain and innovation chain, and realise the security and control of industrial chain and supply chain. shenzhen has already built up a "basic research + technology research + industrialisation + science and technology finance + talent support" whole process of innovation ecological chain. in the high-end equipment industry, focusing on four strategic emerging industry clusters, including industrial mother machines, intelligent robots, laser and additive manufacturing, and precision instruments and equipment, is conducive to further enhancing the core competitiveness of the industry and promoting the overall development of the economy and society. optimising the professional layout based on the status quo and demand of local socio-economic development is an important impetus to promote the upgrading and development of vocational education. 3.2 strengthening spatial security is the intrinsic motivation for promoting the optimisation of the professional layout of vocational education in shenzhen according to the guidance of shenzhen's "20+8" industrial layout, shenzhen-shantou will actively play the role of shenzhen's mega-industry centralised carrier, and build an international first-class eastern industrial new city. efforts to build a "one body, two wings" industrial pattern, high-quality construction of the west wing of the shenzhen-shantou smart city, and actively build the northern advanced manufacturing park, central ecological environment park, the southern port industrial park, three strategic emerging industries, focusing on the development of intelligent network cars, energy-saving and environmental protection, new energy, new materials, and marine and other industrial clusters; high level development the east wing of the shenzhen-shantou bay robotics cluster, focusing on the development of robotics, artificial intelligence industry, to create a robotics industry chain characteristics of the cluster. the development direction of shenzhen's vocational education should become the "server" of shenzhen's industrial construction, the "catalyst" of industrial upgrading and transformation, and the "accelerator" of industrial reform and development, in order to build a comprehensive and integrated development pattern of education and industry.[3] to create conditions for building a coordinated and integrated development pattern of education and industry. 4. exploring the path of optimising the professional layout of vocational education in shenzhen shenzhen plans to create a "professional talent cultivation project", will implement the "software discipline professional strong chain to fill the chain plan", to support the city's institutions of higher learning to set up and strengthen the big data, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, blockchain and other emerging technologies, encourage and support the initiative of colleges and universities to integrate into the construction of industrial parks, science and technology parks, and jointly with leading enterprises to build a fusion of education and industry-type enterprises. 4.1 optimising the layout of specialisations in line with the regional economy and innovating the talent training model improve the dynamic adjustment mechanism of green, yellow and red card professions, closely match the trend of industrial upgrading and technological change, and optimise the layout of professions around the advanced manufacturing industry and modern service industry; strengthen the integration of multiple professions and multitechnology integration in the context of the digital economy, and set up and upgrade the professional clusters in line with the shenzhen "20+8" industrial clusters; deepen the integration of industry and education, and schoolenterprise co-operation, and improve the development of the featured industrial colleges and explore the construction of the field engineer talent cultivation mode with the characteristics of "technological traction, product carrier, rationale-realistic integration, and competence-based". 4.2 developing new curricula in line with the "four new" economies and expanding the sharing of quality teaching resources based on shenzhen high-end industries and industrial high-end, joint head enterprises to build a "new curriculum development centre", in a timely manner, new methods, new technologies, new processes, new standards into the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 17 education and teaching, and jointly develop a new industry, new occupations, new professions, new courses fourin-one standard system, to lead the professional changes, leading the construction of the new curriculum, the formation of industry, technological change and teaching reform in the same frequency resonance of the benign mechanism. 4.3 in-depth promotion of talent school strategy, to create a high level of master craftsmen and masters led by the "dual-teacher" faculty. implement the "master technician", "master craftsman", "management talent" attraction and training programme, set up the "chair professor" position, and gather talents by all means; build a long-term mechanism for the construction of teachers' morality and ethical conduct, build a good national vocational education "dual-teacher" teacher training and cultivation bases, and promote in-service teachers' "double enhancement of academic qualifications and competence", and cultivate a batch of "mr. big", who is good in morality and skills.[4] 4.4 building a high-level social service system construction of the "vocational education teacher competence training centre", to create a base for vocational education teacher training; construction of the "new technology and new skills training centre", the universityenterprise joint high-level technology research and development transformation and training services, to provide advanced technology and skills training for employees and new recruits; construction of the "community learning centre", to meet the diversified and personalized learning needs of the public, and to help build a high level of shenzhen's learning-oriented city and skill-based society. 4.5 accelerating the digital transformation of schools and striving to build world-class vocational schools with chinese characteristics adapting to the new trend of intelligent education, promoting the reform of education, teaching and evaluation methods, and improving the vitality of the classroom and the effectiveness of teaching; comprehensively consolidating the digital base of the school, building an immersive and intelligent practical training system, and enhancing the students' ability to practise digital engineering; and constructing the unesco chair project on "digitalisation of vocational and technical education", and leading the digital transformation of global vocational education. references zhang suyuan, gu jiang. how temporary industrial clusters promote urban innovation [j]. financial science, 2023(02):138-148. ye deqiang, jiang jin, liu peng, et al. cultivating speciality, speciality and new "small giant" enterprises by new type of industrial incubator [j]. gansu science and technology, 2022:38-40. [3] liu xujun. opportunities, challenges and response strategies for high-quality development of vocational education in the new era [j]. education and vocational, 2022:43-48. hu wanshan, ye lin. historical evolution, practical basis and development trend of industry-teaching integration in higher vocational education [j]. modern education management, 202282-89. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 40 the inclusive value of sport in promoting health and social participation prof. luca emanuele romano department of educational sciences and psychology university of naples parthenope, naples, italy keywords: sport, inclusion, pedagogy abstract the paper underlines the importance of motor and sports activity as a tool for social inclusion and the promotion of healthy lifestyles. the inclusive approach to sport includes education for the practice of sport at different levels, ranging from initial physical education to orientation towards sport and its specialized practice. this educational path is designed to allow everyone to participate and progress according to their maturity and function. in addition, it is emphasized that the practice of sport by people with disabilities or with any other form of physical, social, economic or psychic deficit requires a paradigm that promotes the recognition of the entire identity and social inclusion. this approach to sport represents a significant change from a traditional view of sport oriented exclusively towards professional competition and highlights the importance of using sport as a tool to improve health, promote social inclusion and foster education at all levels. introduction motor-sports activities have a formative, educational and above all inclusive value for every person, regardless of age, gender and the presence of a possible disabling physical or mental condition. for this reason, the role that the activities have in an educational key becomes increasingly important, in order to strengthen a process aimed at social inclusion with respect to any form of diversity (gomez, sgambelluri, 2013). in this perspective, motor-sports activities become a tool able to stimulate on the one hand education for inclusion, on the other they tend to favor a series of multiple social, psycho-physical, formative and relational benefits (altomari et al., 2020). the educational and social perspective of sport, at community level, has gained importance since the late 90s, becoming one of the european priorities in 2007, when the treaty on the functioning of the european union (eu) established that the eu should contribute to the promotion of european profiles of sport, considering its specificities, its structures based on volunteering and its social and educational function. sport refers to a value system that is extremely compatible with the education system (hersman, 2017; holland, 2021). reference is made, in global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 41 particular, to the aspects that impact on the personal sphere, to those related to the dialectic of the individual and the group, to participation in a social reality made up of rules and a sense of belonging to a community. sport, team sport in particular, is one of the most performing forms of this socialization: everyone has his own role to play, his place and his function and is at the service of all. the individual is in relation to others, acts in function of others and his personal value is at the service of the community. from this, the concern arises to perfect oneself personally to be an active element of the group and to better serve the community to which one belongs. what has just been described fully represents one of the essential purposes of education: the development of the individual in its individual and social aspects (dell’ aquila, 2022). still, the practice of a sport must respect a certain number of rules that you must know, learn to apply. practicing a collective sport means respecting the rules of the game, organizing one's own conduct and that of the team within this institutional framework whose boundaries are known and whose possibilities must be explored in order to know where one's freedom begins and ends. sport, therefore, in the midst of the educational perspective, contributes to the understanding of the need to have a rule for every social and human activity and focuses on the importance of accepting it, learning it and knowing how to use it (battaglia & cerlini, 2018). through physical activity and sports, new forms of relationships, exchange and dialogue are developed and established. to date, in fact, the formation of the human being in his totality, the development of all his virtuosities, the creation of new possibilities, implies the interdependence between motor education and sport. motor education and sport should not be considered solely as conditions for a better psychic life or as actions necessary for the proper functioning of the brain (battaglia & cerlini, 2018). these are formative components that must be integrated into the whole of contemporary educational action, capable even of introducing sometimes forms of educational action, typical of special pedagogy, capable of developing inclusive processes regarding disadvantaged social classes (disabled, ethnic minorities, poor people, etc.). 1. pedagogical and didactic aspects of sport the socio-educational connotation of motorsports activity is now promoted internationally as a tool for inclusion. it also accompanies a reshaping of the concept of health in compliance with the indications of the world organization of holiness (who) which, therefore, leads to understanding sport as an educational strategy aimed at acquiring correct lifestyles. in its inclusive purpose, at the level of international organizations, there are numerous declarations and initiatives promoted to recognize and spread the educational importance of "sport for all". in relation to this, education to the practice of sport represents a path that winds at different levels, from the initial motor education to the introduction to sport and its specialized practice, on a continuum that allows everyone, without prejudice and distinction of any kind, to place himself and proceed according to the maturity of his function (nuangchalerm & prachagool, 2010). if the promotion of a "sport for all" is rooted in a conception of sport that goes beyond the purely competitive-professional one, the practice of sport by people with disabilities, or global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 42 with any other form of physical, social, economic or psychological "deficit", needs a paradigm that lays the foundations for the recognition of the entire identity and social inclusion. it is necessary to grasp the elements that reorient the operation of a subject towards horizons of a necessary normalization, placed at the base of the educational processes and inclusion of people, throughout the life span (whitehead, 2013). the human being, in fact, acts based on a thought, an intentionality, and his action is expressed through intelligent behaviors of adaptation to everyday life situations, work, sports and leisure. motor and sports education allows to satisfy in a productive way some needs of man related to the gaming experience: movement, competition and group and team life. in addition, from the earliest years of age, those who perform regular physical activity, from group or individual sports to outdoor games or pure physical-motor activity, show greater confidence in their possibilities, are led to greater self-esteem, ease in social relationships, greater tolerance of stress, and are less likely to manifest disorders such as anxiety and depression, automatically stimulating inclusive processes (arvanitis, 2018). several studies have shown how the constant practice of sports or motor activity produces beneficial effects on different functions that impact both at an inclusive level, but above all on the personal and relational sphere: learning, development of cortical areas and functions and academic performance. the performance of motor and sports activities for the disabled person, or who is in situations of physical, economic or social disadvantage, represents the exaltation of his abilities, albeit residual, and of what he can do, in a world that always reminds him of what he is not able to be and what he lacks. carraro (2004), in fact, states that “moving towards inclusion means allowing all those who approach motor and sports practice to reach a basic level of technical skills, to feel pleasure in the commitment and effort produced and not to be excluded as less suitable" (ghedin, 2009). in this sense, the introduction to motor and / or sports practice of subjects who present intellectual and / or mental, relational, social problems, etc., aims to promote social integration, inclusion, self-esteem and prevent the risk of onset of chronic-degenerative diseases and improve the quality of life. what has been analyzed thus highlights the importance of promoting sports and motor activity also in the school context, at any level, so that the inclusive objective is pursued towards those who are characterized by the request, implicit or explicit, of special educational needs (bes) (holly, 2020). sport represents a fundamental element on an emotional, social and inclusive level, consisting of a multidimensional, dynamic, playful environment suitable for intensifying the awareness of oneself and one's body. integration and inclusion are the objectives, sport is the vehicle, because it assigns to each one a precise role in a collective context, such as the school context that manages to break down the barriers and walls that are created outside, because in sport we are all equal. sport is characterized by having the same rules for everyone regardless of the ethnicity and culture of the individual; it represents a neutral field of confrontation capable of putting everyone on the same level. the process that led to the integration of disabled people into sports was long and very tortuous (haegeler & suterland, 2015). initially, global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 43 competitive sports were forbidden to the disabled and there is news of the first competitions in which they were able to participate only around 1920. only after the second world warthere was a greater opening due above all to the large number of war invalids, which favored the spread of sporting activity with therapeutic purposes. in 1960, in rome, the first paralympics were held thanks to dr. antonio maglio, who understood that some sports could be able to prolong the life expectancy of patients, improve lifestyle by promoting the social inclusion of disabled people. subsequently, in 1974, there was the birth of the national association of italian paraplegic sports (anspi) which, four years later, became the italian federation of handicapped sports (fisha), which was annexed to coni in 1981. in the following years, many individual federations were born merged into the italian federation of disabled sports (fisd) in 1990, an event that allowed to give equal dignity, in sports, to physical, sensory, intellectual, and relational disabilities. the circle was closed in 2005 with the birth of the c.i.p. (italian paralympic committee) that is the confederation of paralympic sports federations, recognized as a public body in 2015. 2. inclusion processes in schools the theme of inclusion, as argued so far, is certainly an issue that, especially in recent years, is crucial in the school context. italy was among the first countries to choose the path of integration of pupils with disabilities in ordinary classes. we have therefore moved from a situation of complete exclusion to special schools intended exclusively for "different" children, to the integration of the same within the common classes up to the achievement of inclusion processes. diversity cannot be considered an obstacle, but a fundamental resource for the whole class group and essential to promote learning processes. we can talk about inclusion only when everyone feels they are appreciated and their participation is not suffered but is instead welcome. the inclusive classroom is an important point of arrival for the school and the pupil with disabilities can take great advantage of the companion resource, an essential component not only cognitive, but also social and affective (european agency for special needs and inclusive education, 2017). the inclusive school is the one that allows all students not only to feel part of the group to which they belong, but also to reach the highest possible level thanks to those differences that allow everyone's growth, through a process of great personal enrichment. inclusive teaching aims to create an inclusive climate, first respecting and accepting these diversities. the teaching staff will have to try to adapt their teaching style, also modifying their ongoing strategies and, if necessary, find points of connection between the programming. it will also have to always try to develop a cooperative approach (trying, for example, to use innovative methodologies such as cooperative learning and peer tutoring), enhancing the forms of expression and favoring the creation of relational networks between school, family, health specialists and territorial services. at the center of an inclusive educational action there is always the person because we are talking about an education for everyone, which can only lead to personalization. moving from the logic of integration to that of inclusion does not simply mean making room for everyone, but it means putting each student at the center of all educational action by rethinking what the global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 44 concept of curriculum is. among the general principles of inclusion we have, first, the acceptance of diversity, the development of collaborative practices, the active participation of all and a school that becomes different, that is, that learns and promotes change and development. starting from some regulatory references, we can certify that our school system was the first in europe to introduce the generalized school inclusion of pupils with disabilities and was not limited to this. with the subsequent issuance of specific guidelines, it has also clarified the principles relating to the inclusion of pupils with sld (specific learning disorders) to the point of giving organizational indications on the inclusion of those children who are not certifiable neither with disabilities nor with dsa, but who have specific learning difficulties due to personal, family and socioenvironmental disadvantage. the synthesis of these choices can be found within the legislative decree of 13 april 2017, n.66, rules for the promotion of school inclusion of students with disabilities, where it is stated that inclusion concerns everyone and responds to different educational needs by realizing itself through specific educational strategies aimed at developing the potential of each, improving their quality of life through the commitment of all those involved, from the school community, to families to local authorities, to achieve the educational success of all. inclusion therefore takes the form of a route to follow, starting from the construction of contexts populated by multiple diversities and therefore by special needs. special pedagogy promotes the appreciation of these diversities that are unique and that concern individuals. in this perspective, motor-sports activity can constitute that specific context in which it is possible to really experience inclusive education. the sporting experience, formative from an educational point of view, becomes a precious opportunity for active participation and equality of opportunity for all people. both the playful and the athletic-motor dimension, closely interconnected with each other, give sport a high educational value. within the motor-sports context we can identify a series of strongly educational elements such as: the continuous relationship with a reference adult, ie the coach; order, discipline, respect for the rules and others; teaching / learning of a particular sports discipline; the educational value of victory and defeat; the will to improve and motivation (peacock, 2014). the practical experience of sport becomes of crucial importance for children with sociocultural and linguistic deficits or disadvantages, enriching the subjective processes of metacognition and generalization. special pedagogy must therefore focus strongly on sport because this tool, if supported by educational intentionality, within its planning in the school environment, can become an important context both from the point of view of values, through the acquisition of all those healthy teachings of which sports ethics is rich, and from the educational point of view, a fundamental piece in relation to the planning of life and real practice of inclusion. practicing regular motor-sports activities, for the person with disabilities, involves a series of advantages (moliterni, 2013). on the cognitive level, we improve the knowledge of our body, the space that surrounds us, the management of time and speed, in relation to certain motor acts. on the physical level there are a series of benefits that concern the improvement global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 45 of muscle strength, balance, motor coordination thanks. on a purely sporting level, technical knowledge in relation to the various sports disciplines and that of the regulations improves. on the psychological level, a sense of personal satisfaction is produced that favors discipline and training, leading to greater selfcontrol about emotional states. on the socio-educational level, levels of personal autonomy increase, with subjects who are more stimulated to perform acts aimed at a specific purpose. 3. sport and physical activity as tools for inclusion in the pedagogical process the real inclusion of students with disabilities at school, during motor and sports activity, is still a process in development and there are, unfortunately, several critical issues that do not allow it to be fully realized. sport and, therefore, physical education at school, offer each student the opportunity to express themselves and communicate through the body, their way of being and one's own identity understood as a kind of photography of personal experiences and experiences. sport and physical education can unite, to bring people together. especially these benefits concern the so-called sports education, that is, the sporting experience that is deviates from competitive or professional dynamics because, in that case, the risk is to result in the opposite effect of that relating to education (coates & vickerman, 2013). the guidelines for physical, motor and sports education activities in schools, issued by the miur in 2019, state that sport requires the person to get involved in a total way, stimulating him to seek both the tools and the strategies suitable for address and overcoming your difficulties. this definition does not only refer to able-bodied children, but it applies to everyone, even for students with disabilities. and it is precisely in this direction that the school has the duty to develop the sports culture to ensure that students develop healthy values, those values that only sport can convey and promote constantly. through these values it is possible to improve aggregation, integration, and socialization both at school and in society (bergamini et al., 2015). everyone must actively participate in motorsports activity, and it is right that disabled children are also protagonists of the action and not only present in the gym. the practice of sport, as previously stated, brings countless benefits. it allows, for example, to satisfy a series of typical human needs concerning the playful experience, the one linked to movement and being in a group, all achievable through sport. an extremely important factor is the improvement of residual potential in all degrees of disability, achievable through physical activity (qi, 2012; qi, 2018). obviously, in relation to the severity of disability, there are improvements of different kinds but, in general, there are important effects on the quality of life of these subjects. there are also several studies that show that the constant practice of motor-sports activity has important benefits both on learning and on academic performance. the model of sport that, over the years, has matured thanks to the history of italian integration, is that of "integrated sport for inclusion". the peculiarity of this model is certainly to link the concepts of sport and inclusive education in an indissoluble way. the maturation of this model took place within the world of special school pedagogy. special pedagogy has allowed sport to be enriched from many points of view, with the aim of building an enhancing context that would allow a fair global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 46 comparison between disabled people. precisely in this context, a series of sports are inserted that can be traced back to a different model called "integrated sport". these particular sports are practiced by people with and without disabilities through some differentiations that allow everyone to play together (green, 2019). the source of inspiration that allowed the birth of these sports is attributable precisely to those principles of the school integration system, of an all-italian matrix, a system that has allowed people with disabilities to access and actively participate in the learning process within the classroom (miola et al., 2021). integrated sport, characterized by a fusion of sporting principles with principles related to special pedagogy, can be defined through a series of key elements: a) centrality of the person; (b) participation of persons with different health conditions; c) educational peculiarities; (d) roles defined on the basis of abilities and not disability; (e) flexible rules; f) recognizable and codified spaces and times; g) competitive spirit and healthy competition; (h) active participation and equal opportunities for all. the evaluation, through motor tests of what the subject can actually do at the motor level, is the basis of the attribution of roles that takes place by differentiation not changing the structure of the game, but managing to meet the needs of the individual with activities that are at their level and that push him to try to improve himself (koh, 2021). also in this case, we can find a parallel with special pedagogy. inclusion is achieved when the pupil with disabilities is not removed from the classroom, but when he willingly accepts a task specially created for him and can also make his contribution by working in groups, within a serene atmosphere where he is respected and considered. in integrated sport everyone trains following personal schemes but does so to give life, during the game, to a team game that will allow everyone to achieve success through the contribution of all. in summary, therefore, integrated sport is a set of organized motor activities, strongly educational and playful, which are based on a type of activity that is first of all cooperative and that aims to be also competitive to keep alive the original idea and the essence of sport. everyone can participate actively and competently in this type of activity: people with severe disabilities, able-bodied people, men and women who, through the appropriate spaces, materials appropriate to the abilities and potential of each one, can see their abilities enhanced, actively participating and on the basis of equal opportunities through regulations that are always flexible. there are therefore three key elements: accessibility, active participation and equal opportunities, i.e. the guiding principles of an inclusive society. an example of an integrated sport is baskin (inclusive basketball). 4. baskin: example of integrated sport baskin is the quintessential example of integrated sport. it was born in a school in cremona in 2003 thanks to the commitment and collaboration between parents, support teachers and physical education (bodini et al, 2010). this collaboration soon spread throughout the surrounding area, giving rise to an important network and involving a large number of schools and associations. the success of baskin led to the foundation, in 2006, of the baskin onlus association, which is still today the reference point when referring to this type of activity. baskin is a team sport that allows the simultaneous participation of children with global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 47 disabilities and able-bodied. the term itself, chosen to give a name to this particular sporting activity, derives from the fusion of two words: "basketball" and "inclusive". the starting point of this sport is that of basketball as well as the purpose, that is to score more baskets than the opposing team. each team is made up of both disabled and able-bodied players, each driven to give his best to contribute to the victory of the team in which he plays. the peculiarity is to allow the participation of children with any type of disability, from cognitive to physical, provided they can succeed, even in an ingenious way, to shoot the basket. in the same way, among the able-bodied, there may be basketball players, sportsmen from other disciplines or even sedentary people who are not used to sports. in addition to this, the teams are also heterogeneous from the point of view of age and gender. all this is made possible by an extremely ingenious system of rules that allows the coexistence of many types of diversity, succeeding in the mission of including everyone while keeping intact the pulsating core of sport, that is the search for competition and that desire to give the maximum to be able to bring home the victory. in this way, even the able-bodied do not participate only as a charitable act towards disabled children: a sort of personalization of responsibility takes place, overcoming the spontaneous tendency to assume a welfare attitude because success really depends on everyone's commitment by highlighting the true value that diversity entails. as for adaptation, in baskin it is carried out in four different areas: adaptation of the material, through the use of several baskets: two normal, positioned in a similar way to what happens in the game of basketball; two more places laterally (one higher and one lower) and decidedly lower. in addition, even the ball can, appropriately, be replaced with another of different size and weight, just to allow children with severe disabilities to shoot the basket and contribute to the assignment of important points for the final result; adaptation of space, through "protected" lateral areas to allow shooting in the side baskets (high and low) mentioned above; adaptation of the rules, through predefined roles that are assigned according to the motor skills of the participants. this system is the fulcrum around which integrated sport is concretely realized. the roles are numbered from 1 to 5 and have specific regulations; adaptation of deliveries, through the possible assignment of a tutor, i.e. a player of the team who can accompany, directly or indirectly, his disabled companion when he is called to participate concretely in the game action. in 2017 an important memorandum of understanding was signed between the miur and the baskin onlus association aimed at guaranteeing a fruitful collaboration over time. obviously, the aim is to take care of the inclusion of students with disabilities through motor and sports activities, strengthening cognitive, relational and above all value skills, favoring the educational success of all. the aim is to collaborate in the development of the culture of social inclusion through interdisciplinary projects and experimental activities of motor activity, to be proposed during curricular or extra-curricular hours, to improve participation in the various activities of disabled pupils. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 48 conclusions in recent decades we have witnessed the emergence of a terrain of confrontation and a space for common construction that has seen the conjugation, on the educational level, of apparently antithetical scientific traditions: a new bio-educational paradigm of didactic research based on the recognition of the relationship between mind, body, environment, artefacts and processes of knowledge. the school is a dynamic reality, open to differences and that requires the teacher to act in an inclusive way, appropriately reshaping their educational actions. educational institutions, also through motor-sports activities, propose a rethinking of the experience of "doing school" achievable through the recognition of the centrality of the person as a unique and unrepeatable being. the practice of motor-sports education in the didactic context offers the possibility to express the potential of each student, thus becoming an inclusive learning environment, where the teacher's task is to design teaching methods and strategies through a flexible approach that can be customized and adapted to each student. to this end, the role of corporeality in teaching and learning processes is emphasized, giving motor-sports activity a transversal character. references agrifoglio, g. (2020). disabili e sport. dalla terapia alla ricerca della felicità. giustamm.it, 1(1), 1–20. alhumaid, m. m., khoo, s., & bastos, t. (2020). self-efficacy of pre-service physical education teachers toward inclusion in saudi arabia. sustainability, 12, 3898. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093898 altomari, n., sgambelluri, r., & straniero, a. m. (2020). percezione e agire inclusivo a scuola nelle attività di educazione fisica. risultati di una indagine esplorativa. italian journal of special education for inclusion, 8(1), 434–445. anzivino, r. (2015). baskin a 360°: teoria, tecnica e tattica. erickson. arvanitis, e. (2018). preservice teacher education: towards a transformative and reflexive learning. global studies of childhood, 8(2), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/20436106177349 80 bandura, a. (1986). social foundations of thought and action. pearson education. battaglia, l., & cerlini, a. (2018). lo sport incompiuto. progetto di un parco multifunzionale integrato a gravellona toce. bergamini, s., ciambrone, r., & molinari, f. (2015). progetto nazionale inclusione attraverso lo sport. artigianelli. bodini, a., capellini, f., & magnanini, a. (2010). baskin... uno sport per tutti. francoangeli. carraro, a., & lanza, m. (eds.). (2004). insegnare/apprendere in educazione fisica. armando editore. cast. (2011). universal design for learning guidelines version 2.0. cast publishing https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093898 https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610617734980 https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610617734980 knowledge and perceptions of students regarding their teachers' ict integration in secondary schools in benin global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 1; january-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 27 students' knowledge and perceptions towards teachers' integration of ict in secondary school classrooms in benin 1raphael r. kelani article info abstract keywords: ict integration, secondary school, students' perceptions, teacher training, education, benin. doi 10.5281/zenodo.10571771 this study aimed to explore the knowledge and perceptions of secondary school students in benin regarding their teachers' integration of information and communication technologies (ict) in the classroom. a self-designed questionnaire was administered to 132 student-teachers from the teacher training school of natitingou. the results indicated that the participants had a good understanding of ict, its tools, and its benefits in the classroom. however, many teachers lacked the necessary knowledge, training, and equipment to incorporate these technologies in their teaching. the findings provide important insights into the state of ict integration in the classroom in benin and highlight the need for appropriate professional development programs for teachers. the study serves as a baseline for designing effective programs to improve ict integration in teaching and learning in secondary schools. 1. introduction throughout recent years, in developed countries as well as in developing countries, students of all ages have become accustomed, in their daily life, to information and communication technologies (icts) and all inherent devices. school curricula and teaching strategies are therefore being revised to help students learn using icts for their daily activities, assignments and projects. educators around the world are encouraged to find innovative and creative ways to incorporate this technology into classroom learning [1, 2]. icts tools used in classroom settings comprise computers, laptops, television sets, video projector, video camera, usb keys, software package, etc. the reference [3] indicated that these devices help teachers to communicate effectively to the students in a unique way of understanding that facilitates learning. on the one hand, the integration of this technology in the classroom motivates students’ engagement in the learning process, develops their information processing, stimulates their critical thinking skills and their problem solving competencies. on the other hand, students are eager to get involved in the teaching-learning process because they are accustomed to icts devices used by teachers in the classroom. however, despite the call to integrate icts in school settings and the benefits students are gaining throughout this integration, many teachers are reluctant to perform this incorporation. the reference [4] assert that some educators do not use ict in their teaching because they are computer-phobic. students are in a good position to talk about how their teachers are integrating technology and the obstacles hindering the incorporation of these devices in the classroom. in their study, the reference [5] investigated middle school and high school students’ perceptions of theirteachers use of ict and their learning. students in the study revealed that despite training and professional development programs received by many educators, they are still struggling to incorporate the latest technologies in their 1 teacher trqining school of natitingou, unstim, bénin https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 28 learning environments for many reasons such as lack of classroom time to train students in these skills and their own lack of knowledge and training. the republic of benin was the first country in west africa to connect to the internet in 1995 [6]. since then, many national and international ngos provided computers and ict tools to secondary schools through their programs and projects. one of these projects, the project piies (projetd’introduction de l’informatique dans les etablissementscsecondaires [introduction project of ict tools in secondary schools]) equipped secondary and primary schools with computers. from 2008, the governement of the republic of benin, worked to equip the two sectors of education with ict devices and to improves internet access. one of the main decisions of the country’s second national forum on education in december 2014, was the integration of ict in its education system. therefore, nearly a decade after this resolution, it is suitable to investigate the state of art of ict integration in the classroom in benin and most inportantly secondary schools students’ knowledge about ict and related tools and their perceptions vis-àvis ict integration in the classroom by their science teachers. the significance of this study is twofold. it is believed that, first, the findings of this study will help secondary schools inspectors design the appropriate professional development programs for teachers ; and secondly, these results could be of great interest to benin’s international partners in education to evaluate the impact of their investment in benin. therefore, this paper aims first, at investigating sciences students’ knowledge of ict and its tools. the second goal of the study is to explore their perceptions of this integration in their classroom and its advantages. three research questions are addressed in the study : • what do students know regarding ict and its use in everyday life? • what are students’ perceptions of the way teachers integrate ict in secondary schools classrooms in benin ? • what are students’ perceptions related to the advantages of ict integration in classrooms in benin ? 2.literature review in this literature review, two themes have been selected to check what research said about teacher’s ict integration in secondary classrooms: students perceptions related to teachers’ ict integration in classroom and the adavantages of ict integration in classroom 2.1. students’ perceptions on their teachers’ ict integration in classroom several studies have highlighted students’ perceptions on technology integration in the classroom. indeed, in the reference’s [7] study, high schools internet-savvy students report that there is a substantial disconnect between how they use the internet for school and how they use it during the school day and under teacher direction. one of the main findings is related to how these participants perceived their teachers’ technology integration in classroom. after stressing many advantages they are getting from the use of internet, they added that they are not using this ict tool for their assignments and school activities in school as much as they use it out of school. this disconnect is based on the lack of their teachers’ internet skills and knowledge. they pleaded for the provision to their teachers of professional development programs and technical assistance for effective technology integration. in their study, the reference [5] investigate the perceptions of middle school (ms) and high school (hs) students in a united stated school district related to ict use in and out of school. in total, 67.1 % of hs and 67.6 % of ms students advance that few teachers have technology skills and are integrating ict in classroom. even though they recognized technology in school as moderate and limited, they still offered practical suggestions to help teachers learn to use ict. other studies investigate teachers’ needs to perform their job using ict. professionals in the field of education knew students were using technology outside of school to communicate [8]. therefore, teachers needed training on how to integrate technology into the curriculum in order to “fill in the gap between traditional education practices in schools and the use of technology for teaching and learning” ([9], p. 147). along with teacher expertise in teaching ict, researchers [10, 11] mentioned that there are a lot of determinants impeding teachers to perform their job. for instance, the reference [10] found that the technological equipment of the school is the first obstacle facing teachers in integrating ict in their classroom. teachers’ beliefs and attitudes for the everyday use of ict devices in teaching are other hindrances stressed in the litérature [11, 12]. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 29 2.2. advantages of ict integration in classroom settings icts are generally accepted as the collections of technological equipment and tools as well as instructional resources used to communicate, disseminate, develop and manage information that enables the educators to modify the teaching methods they use in order to increase students interest. the literature abounds of research papers highlighting the advantages of integrating ict in the classroom. many investigators have provided evidence about the ict integration advantages for teachers’ pedagogical approaches, learners and even for teachers. in a review of literature, the reference [13] identified 20 tremedous advantages of ict integration in the classroom. we have listed some of these advantages which are : enhancement of interaction and increase of students’ engagement ; improvement of students’ learning ; amelioration of students’ knowledge retention, empowerment of teachers for further teaching differentiation; and development of new life skills such as collaboration, productivity, leadership and communication. the effectiveness of ict integration in schools was the main objective of the referrence’s [14]study. specifically, they studied the effectiveness of the integration of ict from teaching and learning perspectives and the effective elements of ict integration in teaching in public schools in kuala lumpur, malaisia. a survey questionnaire was randomly distributed to 101 teachers from 10 public secondary schools to collect quantitative data of the research. the results show that ict integration enhances both teaching and students’ learning. the authors explained that ict tools and equipment help teachers to prepare an active learning environment for students. professional development training programs for teachers were found to play a key role in enhancing students’ quality learning. using a phenomenological qualitative approach as the research method, the reference’s [15] study has two specific objectives which are : to explore teachers and students, perceptions in using ict tools in teaching and learning and to analyse the empowerment ways for the use of ict tools in teaching and learning. nonprobabilitic sampling was used for selecting ten teachers and sixteen students. the results show that teachers mention the benefits of ict tool in teaching. they attest that the ict tools increase interactivity of learners, bring children closer together in learning outcome, improve the memory of students, easily explain the complex subject matter, create the interactive classes, help to improve students' attendance, make the lesson more enjoyable and increase the student’s exposure. according to these students participants, ict tools used in classroom increase the concentration in the classroom with the help of visual materials, make environment in the classroom funny and transform the traditional classroom into the learner centered classroom. the reference [16] investigated the advantages and the challenges of ict integration in efl classrooms. they employed a qualitative descriptive design and interviewed six english teachers teaching at six different high schools in indonesia. the selection was done based on the participants’ familiarity of ict integration as well as on their use of ict in their teaching practices. the findings indicate that advantages of integrating ict in efl classrooms include : (1) meeting students’ needs and language level through adapted ict programs ; (2) improving teachers’ creativity in teaching english ; (3) providing faster access for teacher to deliver their teaching materials, (4) encouraging interactive work between teachers and students ; and (5) creating positive attitude of the students toward their learning and supporting teachers in learning-teaching process. one of the great challenges facing teachers is due to ict influences on people around the world in that, it requires them to be literate in ict and skillful in using ict tools and facilities in their teaching practices. other challenges identified comprise time management, technical supports, technical knowledge, and teachers’ selfconfidence based on the literature related to ict integration in secondary schools, the present study is the first to investigate teachers’ expertise integrating ict in their teaching in an african country. again the results will constitute a base-line information on effective elements, design of professional development programs for teachers. 3. methodology 3.1. research design and participants of the study the study utilised a quantitative research method using a questionnaire as data collection instrument. since the current study sought to determine students’ knowledge about ict and its use in everyday life and explore global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 30 how they discern the integration in their classroom and its advantages, this methodology was deemed appropriate. the population for the study is all secondary school students in the republic of benin. however, in the study, the participants were freshmen science students at the beginning of the academic year at the teacher training school of natitingou, a branch from the university where the researcher is a faculty member. this convenience sample of students is chosen for the study for two reasons. first, as recent high school students, they just passed the baccalaureatexamination, the most important benchmark and the diploma needed to enter higher education. the researcher thinks that these entering student teachers represent the population of the high school students in the country. the second reason is, after completing a four-year middle school and a threeyear high school courses, these students are supposed to have knowledge of ict, its use in people’s everyday life and how teachers integrate it into their classrooms. in total 132 (77.3 % male and 22.7 % female) participants (m = 19.63 years old, sd = 1.75) were informed that their participation was voluntary. 3.2. data collection instrument the research instrument adopted for this study was a self-designed questionnaire, segregated into three (3) parts. the first part, the general information, deals with the participants’ biographical information and computer sciences courses attended. the second part consists of a total of 24 items, comprising four subscales : students’ knowledge of ict and its tools (five items) ; students’ perceptions of teacher introduction of ict in the classroom (nine items) ; and advantages of integration of ict in classroom (ten items). the 24 items employed a five-point likert scale to measure the participants’ responses, ranging from (1) strongly agree to (5) strongly disagree. the third part of the questionnaire consists of students’ free reflections related to ict integration in classroom. they were asked to reflect on the way they were taught using technology in their science classes during their secondary school years. the instrument had been reviewed by a panel of erudite teacher educators expert in ict usage in classroom. they validated the instrument for content and construct validity. alpha reliability was 0.855 for the second part of the questionnaire. the instrument was developed in english but the research setting was a frenchspeaking country. translation and back translation [17] techniques were used to translate the instrument using two bilinguals. the first bilingual was a native french-african instructor and professional translator who translated the instrument from the source (english) to the target language (french). the second bilingual was an african literature professor from benin teaching at the college level in connecticut who blindly translated the questionnaire back from the target language to the source. then, the researcher compared the two versions of the instrument, noticing if each statement was identical. 3.3. data collection and analysis procedure the questionnaire was administered to the participat science students at the same time during a class session. thirty minutes before the end of its session, the researcher handed out the questionnaire to his physical sciences students, while two other teachers, in their class, administered it to mathematics and biology and earth sciences students. descriptive statistics of percentages were used as the main descriptor of the results. quantitative data from the instrument were analysed using descriptive and comparative statistics, such as means, percentages and standard deviation (spss, 19.0). the researcher read students’ free reflections regarding ict integration in the classroom in the third part of the questionnaire, and underlined useful themes or ideas to complement the quantitave findings. 4. results for more clarity, the results collected for each question in the study are presented separately. in the first section, are presented the socio-demographic statistic of the participating students (see table 1). for the likert scale in table 2 to 4 ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ were combined as ‘acceptance’ (a), and ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘disagree’ were combined to ‘non acceptance’ (na), whereas uncertain (un) was maintained. table 1. socio-demographic statistic of participating students global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 31 gender type of school availability of computer schooling attended computer room sciences classes area attended male (%) (%) fema public le (%) private yes no (%) (%) yes no (%) (%) (%) urban (%) (%) rura l 77.3 22.7 77.3 22.7 37.0 63.0 21.0 79.0 48.0 52.0 table 1 indicates that more than half (77.3 %) of the participants attended public secondary schools, while 52.0 % of them went to school in a rural area. in total, 63.0 % of the respondents mentioned that computer room was not available for practices in their school and only 21.0 % took computer sciences classes during their high school years. 4.1.research question # 1 : what do students know regarding ict and its use in everyday life? the purpose of this question was to investigate, secondary students’ knowledge of ict, and their understanding of the use of ict people’s everyday life. concerning their knowledge of ict, students indicated their strong agreement (m = 2.19, sd = 0.66) with the items contained in this subscale. also, the results in table 2 show that participating students in this study have a good knowledge of ict and how people use them in their daily life. table 2. percentages of students’ responses related to their knowledge of ict a1 ict is a combination of data processing and telecommunications, but it is more widespread in the context of the internet network and 96.0 the multimedia 0.8 3.2 a2 the use of ict also includes those of classic services as the 89.0 cellphones, the tape recorders video, the fax, the radio and the tv with the numeric supports. 3.9 7.1 a3 computers, theirs softwares and networks of all shapes are very 93.2 largely associated with the implementation of ict. 3.8 3.0 a4 ict nowadays, constitutes an element for the succes of the whole 76.3 educational enterprise. 4.6 19.1 a5 the use of ict impacts different domains like health, education and 72.3 especially economy of its different sectors. 6.2 21.5 the results in table 2 show that the respondents in the study know the definition of ict and its components :ict is a combination of data processing and telecommunications, but it is more widespread in the context of the internet network and the multimedia (a1, 96.0 %). computers, their softwares and networks of all shapes are very largely associated with the implementation of ict (a3, 93.2 %). ict also includes those of classic services as the cellphones, tape recorders video, the fax, the radio and the tv with the numeric supports (a2, 89 %). participants also know how people use ict and its significance in people’s life : ict nowadays, constitutes an element for the succes of the whole educational enterprise (a4, 76.3 %). the use of ict impacts different domains like health, education and especially economy of its different sectors (a5, 72.3 %). 4.2.research question # 2 : what are students’ perceptions of the way teachers integrate ict in secondary schools classroom in benin ? the purpose of the second question is to describe students’ perceptions about how teachers integrate ict in the classroom. the respondents indicated their strong agreement (m = 2.25, sd = 0.87) with the items contained in this subscale. they know what teachers do or perform when integrating ict in the classroom. s tatement a ( % ) un ( % ) na ( % ) global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 32 table 3. percentages of students’responses about ict integration in classroom b.teacher introduction of ict in classroom the teacher introduces ict in classroom, when he/she…. b6 … uses his computer to help understand the class material. 84.8 3.8 11.5 b7 … helps us to manipulate the computer. 73.7 5.4 20.9 b8 … uses some online resources to make his course more 82.0 interessing. 7.0 11.0 b9 … sometimes presents his course using some powerpoint. 62.3 13.1 24.6 b10 …sometimes presents his course using a video projector. 78.3 3.9 17.8 b11 … gives us some works to do using laptops. 72.1 11.6 16.3 b12 … makes projections of movies on television as support of 56.0 course. 11.8 32.2 b13 …incites us to search for online resources to complete our 82.0 4.0 14.0 works. b14 … creates a forum in which we can discuss and express our 78.5 7.1 14.3 ideas on a given topic. table 3 shows that participants in the study perceive the teachers’ introduction of ict in the classroom when he : uses his computer to help understand the class material (b6, 84.8 %) ; uses some online resources to make his course more interessing (b8, 82.0 %) ; encourages his studentsto search for online resources to complete their works (b13, 82.0 %) ; creates a forum in which they can discuss and express their ideas on a given topic (b14, 78.5 %) ; sometimes presents his course using a video projector (b10, 78.2 %) ; helps his students to manipulate the computer (b7, 73.7 %) and makes projections of movies on television as support of course (b12, 56.0 %). about 80 % of the participants mentioned, through their free reflections, that their teachers are aware of ict tools and most of the time are willing to integrate them in their teaching. however, they don’t have the useful knowledge in using ict tools. in other words, their teachers lack the skills to integrate ict into their teaching. some of them will come to class to ask for students’ help before designing a power point in order to teach a science concept. some teachers indicate that the school administration should provide them with the ict tools especially the laptop to help them prepare their lesson plans. below are three extracts from students’ free reflections : "coming from a rural area and a school that doesn’t have a computer room, i learned to use a computer and the associated softwares with the help of some of my friends. indeed, some of my school friends have their relatives abroad who provide them with computers and many other electronic gadgets. therefore, i know how this tool works and how that can help us learn better. i also noticed that some of our teachers encounter serious difficulties using their computer and usually ask assistance from some of my friends." (students’ writing up) "most of our teachers don’t know how to use their computers and other related software even though they are aware of the significance of ict integration in class. they ask for help from their students. i can attest that i usually assist my life and earth sciences teacher to find moovies on youtube to show in his classes." (student’s writing up) "some of our teachers are complaining about not having a laptop. they cannot afford it because of its high cost and their low wages. they think that the school administration should provide them this ict tool. therefore, they cannot use it in class." (student’s writing up) the first extract mentions that, even though leaving in a poor area, students are able to learn how to use computers and other related devices. as a matter of fact, students learn from each other and most importantly the way they are sensitive to what is happenin their surroundings. the two last extracts indicate some of the statement a (%) un %) ( na %) ( global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 33 obtacles hindering ict integration in school settings according to these participants. again, the extracts show that teachers lack skills to use ict tools during preparation of their lesson plans and in classrooms and school administration support. 4.3. research question # 3 : what are students’ perceptions related to the advantages of ict integration in classrooms in benin ? this third research question is to explore participating students’ perceptions related to the advantages of ict integration in classroom. they demonstrated their strong agreement (m = 2.11, sd = 0.22) for the 11 items listed in the concerned subscale. percentages acceptance of the items in table 4 confirm that students know the advantages of ict integration in the classroom. table 4. percentages of answers about advantages of ict integration in classroom statement a un na (%) (%) (%) c.advantages of integration of ict in classroom the integration of ict in classroom …… c15 …motivates me to better listen the course. 68.5 8.7 22.8 c16 … helps me to concentrate when the teacher teaches the course. 48.8 14.2 37.0 c17 … develops my abilities in learning and the resolution of problems. 76.0 12.0 12.0 c18 … increases my engagement in activities in class. 70.1 10.2 19.7 c19 … facilitates my understanding of the course. 83.9 6.5 9.7 c20 … helps me to not get bored in class. 62.7 11.1 26.2 c21 … makes me follow in live (in direct) the studied phenomena. 78.4 8.8 12.8 c22 … helps me to search for documents online. 92.0 3.2 4.8 c23 … improves the quality of the teaching. 82.6 8.7 8.7 c24 … helps me to succeed in my exams. 68.3 14.3 17.3 results in table 4 show that the integration of ict in the classroom : helps the students to search for documents online (c22, 92.0 %), facilitates their understanding of the course (c19, 83.9 %), improves the quality of the teaching (c23, 82.6 %), makes the students follow in live (in direct) the studied phenomena (c21, 78.4 %), develops their abilities in learning and the resolution of problems (c17, 76.0 %), increases students’ engagement in activities in class (c18, 70.1 %), motivates students to better listen the course (c15, 68.5 %) and helps students to succeed in their exams (c24, 68.3 %). in their free writings, first, most of the participating students (90 %) mentioned other advantages of ict integration in the classroom such as understanding of science concepts (for example magnetism in electricity and chlorophil synthesis in biology and earth sciences) and master computer softwares. others complain of not having a computer room in their school. second, they noticed that learning with ict tools in the classroom help them in their everyday life outside of the classroom. 5. discussion this research study investigates: (1) secondary schools students’ knowledge about ict and its use in people’s everyday life, and (2) explore their perceptions related to teachers ict integration in the classroom and its advantages. salient findings of this study include participants science students’ : (1) good knowledge of ict, meaning the different definitions of ict and its components, the way people use ict tools and their significances of these tools in their life ; (2) perceptions concerning teachers ict integration in the classroom and the advantages of ict integration in the classroom. consequently, the following sections discuss the findings of the study. answering the questionnaire, secondary schools students demonstrate good knowledge of ict. in fact, the participants are aware of the different definitions of ict and its components. they understand how people use global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 34 ict tools and their significances in their life. this finding is consistent with other researchers’ results [3, 15]. the literature abounds of findings demonstrating the interest of secondary schools students in the technology and its components integrated in the education. in this study, even though 52.0 % of the participants attended secondary schools in a rural area (see table 1) and are living in benin, a developing country. it is a fact that they are used to ict tools, such as computers to perform their classroom projects, cellphones to communicate, etc. they know how important these tools are in people’s everyday life in this 21st century era. related to the second research question, the respondents indicated the different activities teachers perform when integrating ict in the classroom. in other words, they know how teachers are integrating ict in their classroom. indeed, many studies studies in africa [18, 13, 3] showed how science teachers are using ict tools to prepare, design and teach classes and the effects of this teaching on students. these studies demonstrated science teachers’ eagerness to teach their subject matter using ict tools, because they are aware of the positive impacts of these tools on students’ achievement. however, it is important to mention the many obtacles hindering teachers’ willingness to integrate ict in classroom related to teachers’ training and infrastructural deficiency (electrification, computers, internet connectivity and multimedia equipments), mainly in rural areas. students mention that in those areas, their teachers are struggling to integrate ict in the classroom, because of lack of trainings and professional development programs and ict tools shortages, and in spite of the efforts of the central government to make up these deficits. we can advance that one of the great findings of this study is teachers’ humility described through the participants’ writings. teachers recognize their students’ competencies using ict tools and ask for their help to prepare the ict materials to use during their teaching. of course, students usually learn rapidly from their peers or other people and can master the use of ict software, so they could assist their teachers in class to fix the ict materials or in their home to find moovies on youtube or other useful websites to use in their lesson plans. the findings of the third question showed that participating students indicated lots of advantages of teachers’ ict integration in classroom. ict integration in the classroom enhances students’ search for scientific documents online, their understanding of the course, the study of scientific phenomena, students’ abilities in learning and the resolution of problems, students’ engagement in activities in class, students’ motivation to better listen to the course and helps students to succeed in their exams. scientific papers [19, 13, 16] written on the subject corroborate these findings. indeed, there’s no need to demonstrate the numerous benefits students are getting from ict integration in classroom. beside these benefits, ict tools are affecting negatively students’ learning and way of life. students are using the internet for plagiarism when responding to classroom activities. they are no longer making the necessary effort to properly solve problems because of the online availability of the answers to most of the problems. 6. conlusion the purpose of this study is to investigate sciences students’ knowledge of ict and to explore how they perceive their teachers’ ict integration in their classroom and its advantages. three research questions guided the data collection. the study results show that participating students have good knowledge of ict, its different meanings and components, the way people use ict tools in their everyday life. secondly, students’ perceptions of the way teachers integrate ict in secondary schools classroom in benin, the results indicate that teachers don’t have the useful knowledge in using ict tools, meaning teachers lack the skills to integrate ict into their teaching. thridly, the participants indicated lots of advantages of teachers’ ict integration in classroom including understanding of the course, the study of scientific phenomena, students’ abilities in learning and the resolution of problems, students’ engagement in activities in class, students’ motivation to better listen to the course and helps students to succeed in their exams. finally, participants mentioned in their free writing, some negative effects of teachers’ ict integration in classroom. references assarehassareha& hosseini bidokht mohsen (2011), "barriers to e-teaching and e-learning," procedia computer science, 3, pp791-95. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 35 sanchez jaime, 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examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education in port harcourt, rivers state. grounded in the classical test theory and using the instrumentation research design, a sample of 483 second-year students from various departments was analyzed. the primary tool for data collection was the general studies assessment exam (gns-ae). results revealed specific items in the examination that favoured certain groups based on gender and socioeconomic status (ses). specifically, items were identified that favoured male students, students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and those residing on campus. this study underscores the need for regular item analysis to ensure fairness and accuracy in test results, advocating for the elimination or modification of biased items. the importance of test fairness in educational decision-making cannot be overemphasized, and as such, ongoing training for test developers and the incorporation of advanced analytical systems is recommended. introduction background to the study test is a tool or a methodical process for obtaining a generally agreed-upon outcome by presenting a time-based set of questions or tasks to be answered, based on stipulated guidelines. according to this definition, we can perceive a test as both a tool and a process. for example, if i want to determine the best pianist in an audition, i would provide a tool (a piano) and allow each volunteer to showcase their skills based on certain criteria. in doing so, a test has been administered. in ancient times, as narrated in judges 6:1-7:25 (kjv), gideon also used a test as a methodical process to select his army to fight the midianites. initially, he asked anyone who was afraid to go home. finally, he narrowed it down to the fine detail of how they drank water from the stream. a test is a process of determining human advancement by assigning a task or requiring a response. in ancient times, some cultures stipulated that a man could only marry a woman of his choice by winning fights. these fights represented 1department of educational psychology, guidance and counselling, faculty of education ignatius ajuru university of education, rumuolumeni, port harcourt email: oc4realzeal@gmail.com 2department of educational foundation, faculty of education, rivers state university email: renechisom@gmail.com https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear mailto:oc4realzeal@gmail.com mailto:renechisom@gmail.com global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 2 the test he had to pass to advance, in this case, to get married. generally speaking, a test is aimed at achieving an outcome that is generally accepted and agreed upon as right, correct, or the standard for making decisions. in agommuoh et al.'s (2016) study, problems associated with computer-based testing (cbt) include errors due to input devices (mouse and keyboard), slow computer response, incorrectly selected options, and test anxiety. other issues include power outages, disconnection of networked computers from the internet server, and malfunctioning computer systems. akinola (2019) suggests that to avoid the many pitfalls plaguing tests, close circuit television (cctv) cameras should be installed to monitor the test-takers and proctors. the system should guide test-takers to the test items after biometric authentication of their fingerprints and verification of their facial appearance. this would reduce incidents of impersonation and ensure that test-takers are taking the test themselves. another factor that could improve cbt is the randomization of the order of test items for each testtaker, and changing individual login passwords from time to time to prevent unauthorized access. huseyin (2018) suggests that before administering a test, the tester must first decide on the test's aim and the type of test that would be appropriate and suitable. a test can be considered appropriate and suitable if it is reliable and valid. a reliable test allows the test-taker to obtain the same or a similar test score irrespective of the number of times the test is taken. hughes (2017) stresses that the reliability of the test should be judged taking into account situational factors (condition of the test hall), test factors (time frame of the test, font type and size of the test sheet), and test-taker factors (fatigue, stress, and health-related conditions). a valid test ensures that the construct being measured is relevant and appropriate for all test-takers. test results have no value until they are interpreted and used for their intended purpose. therefore, a test aims to determine the value of the information provided by the test-taker and interpret those results to make decisions and judgments. test bias has been a concern for educational stakeholders, especially after jasens's (1969, 1980) publications proposed that intelligence is an inherited trait, suggesting that differences in performance can be attributed to genetic factors. this assertion led to a discussion about test performance being attributed to both nature and nurture. these assertions, however, did not fully explain the differing performance of different groups of students. the "bias or different psychometric properties" school of thought attributed the differences in performance within the same group to bias or the test itself measuring different psychometric properties unfamiliar to all test-takers. bias essentially results in educational injustice stemming from known or unknown factors that tend to disadvantage test-takers of similar ability. universities in nigeria and around the world continue to seek better and more flexible means of assessing students due to the fast-paced nature of today's world. university-based activities need to be conducted quickly, effectively, and efficiently. computer-based testing (cbt) has become the "new normal" for assessing students due to its versatility and flexibility. however, just like traditional paper-based testing (pbt), it is crucial to carefully review the test items, one by one, for any potential bias to ensure fair assessment and evaluation of students while eliminating items that could threaten the reliability and validity of the test differential item functioning (dif) is a measurement phenomenon that manifests in the performance of different groups, such as male/female, proficient/non-proficient, etc. this occurs when there are varying probabilities of group members correctly responding to test items, even though they should possess the same level of ability or knowledge. item response theory-based dif methods are currently used to detect any form of bias or dif in tests, especially in computer-based testing (cbt). statement of the problem the goal of testing in the school setting is to gather reliable and valid data on students to make critical decisions about the teaching and learning process. this goal can be achieved by using well-defined measuring parameters and devices that show a level of equivalence between the sought-after ability and the actual test scores obtained. a measuring device can be considered equivalent if there is a relationship between the measured trait and the test score across various subgroups. in reality, this is not always the case, as there are inconsistencies with measuring instruments, including tests. technological trends in today's world mean that school-based activities can be carried out efficiently and effectively with the use of computer systems. this has led to a shift from laborious paper-based testing (pbt) global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 3 to computer-based testing (cbt). however, this shift in the mode or medium of testing does not automatically address the persistent questions about test fairness. while other researchers have focused on test bias and test fairness in various subject areas like mathematics and english language, little research has been conducted on cbt, particularly at ignatius ajuru university of education. this study aims to fill the gap in understanding test bias in computer-based examinations. purpose of the study the purpose of this study is to detect item bias in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education, port harcourt, rivers state. specifically, the study aims to: 1. determine whether the items in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education function differently based on students' gender. 2. examine whether the items in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education function differently based on students' socioeconomic status (ses). research questions the following research questions guide the study: 1. to what extent do items in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education function differently based on students' gender? 2. to what extent do items in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education function differently based on students' ses? hypotheses the following null hypotheses were tested in the study: 1. h0: the items in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education, port harcourt do not significantly function differently for male and female students. 2. h0: the items in computer-based examinations at ignatius ajuru university of education, port harcourt do not significantly function differently for students with low ses and students with high ses. conceptual review test onukwo, as cited in chikwe (2017), defined a test as an instrument or device used to detect behaviors, qualities, traits, characteristics, attributes, etc., possessed by an individual, object, or thing. this means that a test is to a teacher what a stethoscope is to a doctor. if the teaching and learning process is to continue, there must be the introduction of a testing instrument. therefore, a test forms the basis for teaching and learning. ukwuiji (2009) defines a test as a series of questions presented to the test-taker or examinees to respond to in order to measure performance or knowledge. based on this definition, a test is a question and response-based activity that involves the questioner (teacher) or their pre-established questions and the respondent (test-taker). inko-tariah & ogidi (2017) defined a test as a task or series of questions presented to an individual or a group of individuals to assess the presence or quality of traits possessed by them. this definition focuses on the latent (unobservable) traits possessed by the test-taker, indicating that a test is a means of determining what a student has learned to do or can do. orluwene (2019), citing kaplan & saccuzzo (2005), defined a test as a measurement, understanding, and prediction of behavior. a test, therefore, is a means of measuring performance, understanding, and predicting what the test-taker is capable of doing in the future. onunkwo (2002) defined a test as an instrument that can be used to detect qualities, traits, characteristics, attributes, etc. oku & iweka (2018) defined a test as an instrument used to measure as accurately as possible the trait, character, personality, or behavior for which it is designed. a test is an instrument or systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behavior by presenting a set of questions in a uniform manner. computer based test (cbt) the british psychological society (bps, 2012) refers to cbt as any psychological test or assessment that involves the use of digital technology to collect, process, and report the results of the assessment. sorana-daniela and lorentz (2017) explain cbt as tests that are administered by a computer, either in a stand-alone or dedicated network, or through other technology devices linked to the internet or world wide web, most of which use multiple-choice questions (mcq). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 4 there are two main types of computer-based testing. the most familiar type involves candidates filling in their responses on a paper form, which is then processed by a computer optical mark reader (omr). this system reads the form, scores the paper, and may even provide information about test reliability. the second type of computerbased testing involves a computer interface for students to input their answers and receive feedback. computer adaptive test (cat): this type of test tailors or adapts the examination based on the individual test-taker's responses, item by item. in a cat, the difficulty level of the items increases as the test-taker provides correct answers and vice versa. brown (2014) and hughes (2017) add that while students are responding to test items, the system calculates and updates their scores. it decides the difficulty level of the next question based on their previous responses. computerized classification test (cct): a cct is similar to a cat in that test items are administered one at a time to a test-taker. after responding to an item, the computer scores it and determines whether the test-taker can be classified at that point. if they can be classified, the test ends. if not, another item is administered. this cycle continues until the test-taker is classified or another termination point is reached, such as administering all items in the item bank or reaching a maximum test length. the cct is a model of cbt aimed at classifying test-takers into either a dichotomous class (e.g., pass/fail) or a multiple class (e.g., on probation/fail/pass), etc. theoretical review classical test theory (ctt) classical test theory (ctt) was the dominant framework for analyzing and developing tests until the 1970s when it gave way to item response theory (irt). ctt is appreciated for its simplicity and weak assumptions. over the course of about 80 years, ctt has been instrumental in developing high-quality psychometric scales. it encompasses several theoretical aspects, including the theory of item analysis, theory of objectivity, theory of validity, and theory of reliability. ctt operates on the fundamental assumption that a testee's observed score (x) is the sum of their true score (t) representing their trait or capability at the time of testing and an error score (e) reflecting extraneous factors that could have influenced the testee during testing. this relationship is mathematically expressed as x = t + e. as pointed out by mehrens & lehmann (1978), ctt is primarily focused on measuring instruments that differentiate among testees at different points on the test scale. it assumes that test items should discriminate between individuals based on their level of aptitude, with those having greater aptitude expected to obtain higher scores than those with lower aptitude. ctt, however, has limitations. it cannot predict how well a testee will perform on a test unless the test items have been previously administered. this limitation makes ctt more suitable for norm-referenced testing (nrt) where comparisons are made among students to determine their relative performance. ctt does not explicitly address factors that can affect test item performance. in reality, situational and testee-specific factors, as identified by hughes (2017), can influence test results. these factors include the condition of the test hall, test duration, font type and size of the test sheet, test-takers fatigue, stress, and health-related conditions. nevertheless, despite these shortcomings, ctt can still be applied in constructing nrt instruments for comparing students' performance to establish their relative positions. empirical review ling & lau (2014) conducted a study to investigate gender differential item functioning (dif) in multiple choice and open response science items for elementary, middle, and high school students in guangxi, china. the study included 23,096 students and used multiple choice and open response science item scales for data collection. analysis involved the use of xcalibre 4.2.0.1 irt item parameter extension software, microsoft excel, and area index statistics. the findings revealed gender-based dif attributed to differences in content category, visualspatial components, and dimensions of item types. adedoyin (2016) investigated gender-biased items in public mathematics examinations. the study included 2,300 junior secondary school students and used the junior secondary school certificate examination (jssce) mathematics mock examination questions for data collection. the study employed 3pl item response theory statistical analysis and identified 16 items that fitted the analysis, with five of them exhibiting gender bias. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 5 darmain (2017) studied gender bias in computer-based tests at kwara state university, ilorin, involving 1,135 college students. the kwara state university (kwasu) post-unified tertiary examination (utme) served as the test instrument. the analysis, based on the two-parameter logistic model, revealed no significant difference in item functioning between genders. birjandi & mohadeseh (2017) investigated gender-based item bias in computer science tests in varanasi, india, with a population of 5,209 secondary school students. the findings, obtained using the rasch method, indicated that seven out of 13 items in general reading comprehension favored female students, while six favored male students. omorogiuwa & iro-aghedo (2018) examined gender dif in the national business and technical examinations board (nabteb) 2015 mathematics multiple choice examination. the study involved 63,584 examinees, with 17,815 examinees included in the sample. the analysis, using the raju method of item response theory, revealed that six items favored males, while 11 items favored female students. bichi (2016) evaluated socioeconomic status (ses)-based dif in northwest university, kano post-unified tertiary matriculation examination (utme) economics test items. the study included 600 students and utilized the item response theory design. the findings indicated that certain items differentially favored students from low ses (lses) or high ses (hses). yarmelenko (2018) investigated ses-based item bias in undergraduate achievement test (uat) at kharkov university in ukraine. the study included 3,209 year-one undergraduate students, with 835 students in the sample. mantel-haenszel method of item response theory design was employed, revealing that only a few items favored students residing in the school. obinne (2018) examined ses-based dif in biology examinations by the national examination council examination (neco) using item response theory. the study involved 1,660 senior secondary year-two students from 26 secondary schools in benue state, nigeria. the findings indicated that more test items favored students from hses than lses, with only a few items favoring lses students. methodology the research design used for this study was the instrumentation research design. the population included all 5,138 year-two students at ignatius ajuru university of education, rumuolumeni, port harcourt. the sample for the study was selected using matrix sampling, and the test items were refined to a total of 50 items. validation of the draft gns-ae instrument was carried out by four experts in measurement and evaluation from the faculty of education at ignatius ajuru university of education. their input led to modifications and removal of irrelevant items. a sample of 50 students from the department of human kinetics was used to establish the internal consistency coefficient of 0.83, which demonstrated the instrument's reliability. data collection involved administering the pbt version of the instrument to 462 students, representing 96% of the total administered copies. data cleaning was conducted, and the coding and analysis were carried out using statistical product and service solutions (spss) and rstudio software packages, respectively. data presentation and analysis research question one to what extent do items of computer-based examinations in ignatius ajuru university of education function differentially, based on student’s gender? global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 6 table 4.3: raju area statistics and item probability (p) values of the 50-item gns-ae dataset based on student’s gender stat. p-value itm_1 1.5328 0.1253 itm_2 0.3164 0.8317 itm_3 0.7111 0.4770 itm_4 1.7239 0.0847 . itm_5 0.8712 0.3837 itm_6 -1.1639 0.2445 itm_7 1.5325 0.1254 itm_8 -0.4403 0.6597 itm_9 0.0706 0.9437 itm_10 0.5542 0.5795 itm_11 0.4483 0.6540 itm_12 0.3166 0.8316 itm_13 -0.7756 0.4380 itm_14 0.7109 0.4771 itm_15 1.2266 0.2200 itm_16 1.2977 0.1944 itm_17 0.7106 0.4773 itm_18 0.7108 0.4772 itm_19 0.3165 0.8316 itm_20 2.4943 0.0126 * itm_21 0.3972 0.6912 itm_22 0.7110 0.4771 itm_23 1.1700 0.2420 itm_24 -0.1000 0.9204 itm_25 1.2977 0.1944 signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1 stat. p-value itm_26 -0.0004 0.9997 itm_27 1.5328 0.1253 itm_28 0.3164 0.8317 itm_29 0.7111 0.4770 itm_30 1.7239 0.0847 . itm_31 0.8712 0.3837 itm_32 -1.1639 0.2445 itm_33 1.5325 0.1254 itm_34 -0.4403 0.6597 itm_35 0.0706 0.9437 itm_36 0.5542 0.5795 itm_37 0.4483 0.6540 itm_38 -0.7756 0.4380 itm_39 0.7109 0.4771 itm_40 1.2266 0.2200 itm_41 1.2977 0.1944 itm_42 0.7106 0.4773 itm_43 0.7108 0.4772 itm_44 0.3165 0.8316 itm_45 2.4943 0.0126 * itm_46 0.3972 0.6912 itm_47 0.7110 0.4771 itm_48 1.1700 0.2420 itm_49 -0.1000 0.9204 itm_50 1.2977 0.1944 detection thresholds: -1.96 and 1.96 (significance level: 0.05) table 4.3 reveals the raju statistics as well as the probability (p) value or significance value gotten by the raju method. also, item purification (using the latent trait model (ltm) package of r studio) was carried out with 25 iterations. after purification, the following results were obtained and reported. table 4.3 also indicates that the items 4, 20, 30 and 45 were flagged as dif items based on gender. item 4 have a probability (p) value or significance value of 0.0847, while item 20 have a probability (p) value or significance value of 0.0126. also, item 30 have a probability (p) value or significance value of 0.0126. item 4 and 20 are less than the significant code (0.1), while item 20 and 45 are less than the significant code (0.05) hence the items are deemed to function differentially based on gender. furthermore, table 4.3 shows that apart from the four (4) items (4, 20, 30 and 45) which functioned differentially based on gender (i.e: favoured the reference group – male students), the other forty six (46) items did not function differentially based on gender. hypothesis one the items of computer-based examinations in ignatius ajuru university of education, port harcourt do not significantly function differentially for male and female students. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 7 figure 10 reveals the raju statistics as well as the probability (p) value or significance value gotten by the raju method. also, item purification (using the latent trait model (ltm) package of r studio) was carried out with 25 iterations. after purification, the following graphic plot was obtained. figure 10 indicates that items 20 and 45 (as already indicated on table 4.3 to have p-values less than 0.05 (level of significance) do not fall within the 1.96 and -1.96 detection threshold at 0.05 level of significance, hence are deemed to function differentially based on gender. figure 10 also shows that items 20 and 45 favours the reference group (male students) and disfavours the focal group (females) because it falls above the detection threshold. conjointly, as indicated in appendix c (page ), items 20 and 45 are categorized as having large effect sizes (5.165). this further proves that indeed, both items significantly function differentially for the reference group (male students) research question two to what extent do items of computer-based examinations in ignatius ajuru university of education function differentially, based on student’s ses figure 10: raju area statistics indicating detection threshold plot for gender-based dif items. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 8 table 4.4: raju area statistics and item probability (p) values of the 50-item gns-ae dataset based on student’s ses stat. p-value itm_1 0.0001 0.9999 itm_2 0.0001 0.9999 itm_3 -7.9914 0.0000 *** itm_4 0.0001 0.9999 itm_5 0.0001 0.9999 itm_6 0.0001 0.9999 itm_7 -8.0824 0.0000 *** itm_8 -7.8670 0.0000 *** itm_9 -0.0012 0.9991 itm_10 -7.9071 0.0000 *** itm_11 0.0001 0.9999 itm_12 0.0001 0.9999 itm_13 -8.2388 0.0000 *** itm_14 -7.9914 0.0000 *** itm_15 0.0001 0.9999 itm_16 0.0001 0.9999 itm_17 -7.9914 0.0000 *** itm_18 0.0001 0.9999 itm_19 -7.9486 0.0000 *** itm_20 0.0001 0.9999 itm_21 -7.8280 0.0000 *** itm_22 -7.9913 0.0000 *** itm_23 0.0001 0.9999 itm_24 0.0001 0.9999 itm_25 -8.1316 0.0000 *** signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1 stat. p-value itm_26 -7.7897 0.0000 *** itm_27 0.0001 0.9999 itm_28 0.0001 0.9999 itm_29 -7.9914 0.0000 *** itm_30 0.0001 0.9999 itm_31 0.0001 0.9999 itm_32 0.0001 0.9999 itm_33 -8.0824 0.0000 *** itm_34 -7.8670 0.0000 *** itm_35 -0.0012 0.9991 itm_36 -7.9071 0.0000 *** itm_37 0.0001 0.9999 itm_38 -8.2388 0.0000 *** itm_39 -7.9914 0.0000 *** itm_40 0.0001 0.9999 itm_41 0.0001 0.9999 itm_42 -7.9914 0.0000 *** itm_43 0.0001 0.9999 itm_44 -7.9486 0.0000 *** itm_45 0.0001 0.9999 itm_46 -7.8280 0.0000 *** itm_47 -7.9913 0.0000 *** itm_48 0.0001 0.9999 itm_49 0.0001 0.9999 itm_50 -8.1316 0.0000 *** detection thresholds: -1.96 and 1.96 (significance level: 0.05) table 4.4 indicates that the items 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50 were flagged as dif items based on ses. items 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50 all have a probability (p) value or significance value of 0.000. this probability (p) value or significance value is less than the significant code (0.001), hence the items are deemed to function differentially based on ses. furthermore, table 4.4 shows that apart from the twenty three (23) items (3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50) which functioned differentially based on ses (i.e: favoured the focal group – lses students), the other twenty seven (46) items did not function differentially based on ses. hypotheses two the items of computer-based examinations in ignatius ajuru university of education, port harcourt do not significantly function differentially for lses students and hses students. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 9 figure 11 indicates that twenty three (23) items (3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50 (as already indicated on table 4.4 to have p-values less than 0.05 (level of significance)) do not fall within the 1.96 and -1.96 detection threshold at 0.05 level of significance, hence are deemed to function differentially based on ses. figure 11 also shows that items 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50 favours the focal group (students from lses) and disfavours the reference group (students from hses) because it falls below the detection threshold. conjointly, as indicated in appendix c (page ) items 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50 are categorized as having large effect sizes (25.5229, 26.1203, 24.7335, 24.985, 27.2018, 25.5229, 25.5229, 25.2479, 24.4905, 25.5222, 26.4525, 25.5229, 25.5229, 26.1203, 24.7335, 24.9852, 27.2081, 25.5229, 25.2479, 24.4905, 25.5222 and 26.4525 respectively). this further proves that indeed, these items significantly function differentially for the focal group (students from lses) discussion of findings the study explored the detection of item bias in computer-based examinations of ignatius ajuru university of education, rumuolumeni, port harcourt, rivers state. before the gns-ae dataset was fitted into any of the irt models, it was first tested to determine if it fulfills the unidimensionality assumption. the dataset proved so, hence the analyzed. the findings from research question one reveal that two (2) items (items 20 and 40) favoured the male students in the expense of the female students in ignatius ajuru university of education computer-based examinations. this finding is in line with that of ling & lau (2014), adedoyin (2016), birjandi & mohadesh (2017) which also showed gender-based bias. on the other hand, the finding is in contrast with the findings of darmain (2017) which did not find any gender bias in the research carried out in that area. the findings from research question two reveal that twenty two (22) items 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 44, 47 and 50 favoured students from lses in the expense of the students from hses ignatius ajuru university of education’s computer-based examinations. this is partially in agreement with that of omolara (2016), bichi (2016), yarmelenko (2018), obinne (2018), and kwado (2019) which also showed that some items favoured students from lses, as well as other items favouring students from hses in that area. conclusion the findings of the study showed that items 1, 3, 7, 8 and 10 favoured male students, items (3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 47 and 50 favoured students from lses, items 2, 21, 28 figure 11: raju area statistics indicating detection threshold plot for ses-based dif items. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 14 (10) pg. 10 and 46 favours the reference favoured students who reside on campus, while item 22 and 47 favours students who reside off campus. the essence for test administration is to be able to make decisions which would affect the student, curriculum, school, teacher, parents and other stakeholders in education. the presence of test bias would defeat this essence, thus bias items should be detected, modified or eliminated, so that all students (irrespective of their cultural attributes) would get results that they merit. this will in turn accurately influence the decisions taken about the student, curriculum, school, teachers, etc. recommendations of the study the following recommendations are made by the researcher, 1. all tests which are to be administered must go through item analysis to ensure that no bias item(s) exists which could affect test results. 2. test experts and psychometricians should act as watch dogs for schools to ensure that test fairness is ensured at all times. references 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(2002). principal considerations in computer-based testing. oxford university press. sorana-daniella, b., & lorentz, j. (2007). computer-based testing in physical chemistry topics. international journal of education and development using information and communication technology, 3(1), 94-95. zumbo, b. d. (2007). three generations of dif analysis: considering where it has been, where it is now and where it is going. language assessment quarterly, 4(3), 223-233. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 19 transforming school culture through inclusive teaching and motor activities 1prof. giovanni luca bianchi and 2dr. elena sofia romano 1faculty of psychology and pedagogy, pegaso university, rome, italy 2center for inclusive education and social development, pegaso university, milan, italy keywords: learning; inclusion; special pedagogy. abstract today more than ever, the activation of inclusive projects through the contribution offered by physical education is essential to implement a strong alliance between school and extra-school, between school and family in order to activate a positive contamination of universal and timeless values of motor activities. this becomes essential since the structuring of society requires a cultural and social pact that guarantees in all formal and non-formal environments the learning of skills that could transform children's lives. it is for this reason that physical activity cannot be for the benefit of a few because the aggregative moments that it can express often become a real lifeline for many young people. in this context, acting through inclusive teaching makes it possible to value and capitalize on the individual differences present in all pupils, with particular attention to situations in which these differences create significant barriers to learning and participation in social life. in fact, for some time now it has ceased to be considered as an access lane only for students with disabilities or special educational needs, qualifying as a quality teaching for all. we can increasingly consider it as a style of teaching, a daily educational and didactic orientation. introduction one of the main themes of contemporary educational discussion is the concept of school inclusiveness, which is achieved when the school becomes a learning environment that ensures the educational success of all students, no one excluded. an inclusive school is a school that thinks and designs with everyone in mind, starting from the modification of the context and not acting only on the subject, but finding specific strategies, suitable for the disability and, at the same time, useful to the community. in inclusive schools, all students as persons have the right and dignity to personalize and individualize. the italian school today is called upon to respond to the different and specific needs of each individual student. the current guidelines in the pedagogical and didactic field, in fact, affirm the dignity of diversity, enhancing it as a resource for the entire class group, capable, through the enhancement of the potential of each one, to become an inclusive class. in this sense, the disabled partner becomes an asset, a resource and even a strength because it allows you to measure yourself against your limits and potential (brennan, king, & travers, 2021; óskarsdóttir, donnelly, turnercmuchal, & florian, 2020). global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 20 to achieve this goal, the school must necessarily involve all those who play a decisive role in the learning processes (teachers, school managers, students and families, local authorities) and take advantage of all the resources and educational opportunities useful for carrying out interventions that aim not to separate, distinguish, and highlight the diversity of each student, but to include, valuing and harmonizing differences (pozoarmentia, reyero, & gil cantero, 2020). in the 1970s in italy, the closure of special schools (law 517/1977) led to the inclusion of disabled pupils in mainstream classes. over the years and the advancement of pedagogical research, the term "insertion" was considered too static and incapable of expressing the work of coeducation existing among the pupils. for this reason, we moved on to talk about "integration", a term that better expressed the idea that the disabled classmate was not only physically present in the classroom, but shared the teaching activity of his classmates, integrating, precisely, into the work of the class with the necessary modifications, reductions, adaptations, and the support of the support teacher (kefallinou, symeonidou, & meijer, 2020). from the mid-1990s, however, people began to question the value of the term "integration", which risked taking on negative, purely compensatory connotations, forgetting unique aspects related to the person, such as originality, authenticity, and freedom. the term "inclusion" was born, with the intention of highlighting a mutual permeability and exchange between pupils with different potentials within the same class. the concept of inclusiveness, as we understand it today, is therefore nothing more than the result of a slow and gradual evolution of the original concept of "tailor-made school", based on the centrality of the child, already typical of rousseau, pestalozzi, fröbel and aporti, and which takes the form of innovative educational proposals and pedagogical theorizations by particularly significant pedagogues of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries attentive to learning environments and development psychocognitive and social, disability and the child's emotionality (stentiford, & koutsouris, 2021). inclusion thus becomes a two-way phenomenon, in which not only the disabled classmate adapts to the behavior of the non-disabled classmates, but also the whole class must strive to adapt and understand the partner's disability, learning and changing through experience with people with disabilities and vice versa. the new term "inclusion", therefore, refers to a process, a philosophy of acceptance, such as the ability to provide a framework within which pupils can be equally valued, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities. it is a comprehensive approach, not only centered on the individual disabled person, but which is aimed at all pupils and all their potential (hansen, carrington, jensen, molbæk, & secher schmidt, 2020). the inclusion of students with disabilities in italian schools has been implemented for forty years in regular schools and normal classes and is achieved through the individualization and personalization of educational activities, starting from the differences and potential of each disabled student, valued in the context of the class group. 1. the inclusive didactic approach inclusive teaching is the teaching of all, which is based on personalization and individualization through active, participatory, constructive, and affective methodologies. the quality of inclusive teaching is determined by educational reflexivity and intentionality, by the search for alternative motivations and hypotheses, by the ability to change perspectives of meaning and to produce transformative learning (dematthews, serafini, & watson, 2021). as pennac (2010) argues, "each student plays his own instrument, there is nothing to be done. the difficult thing is to get to know our musicians well and find harmony. a good class is not a regiment marching in step, it is an orchestra playing the same symphony." global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 21 inclusive teaching is, therefore, a teaching conceived, designed and planned, from the beginning, based on individual variability, capable of being accessible for all students and not only for some with special educational needs. designing in an inclusive way means thinking, whatever the content to be conveyed, of personalized, multi-modal, and multilevel forms of teaching, because each student faces learning at different levels and ways, thus avoiding "path emergencies" that force, a posteriori, to modify what has been designed for an "ideal class", thus avoiding loss of effectiveness of the teaching action itself. poorly designed and poorly conducted teaching can run the risk of creating barriers to learning itself (graham, 2020). inclusive teaching is therefore an innovative and flexible teaching "style" that facilitates the participation, enhancement, and educational success of all students. inclusive teaching challenges teachers to develop a wide repertoire of teaching strategies that are considered effective, not only for pupils with special needs, but for everyone. this means that every teacher can improve their effectiveness, first of all by knowing and then using, monitoring and evaluating the best strategy, so as to help students become more effective learners themselves. there is a lot of research that shows how meta-cognitive, cooperative strategies, the strengthening of social and emotional skills, as well as the creation of a positive classroom climate, are essential for inclusive teaching. developing a broad repertoire of effective strategies is essential as long as they reflect knowledge of the characteristics, needs of students and environmental circumstances, as well as teachers' professional and personal knowledge and skills (garg, & sharma, 2020; sleeter, & zavala, 2020). in addition to the dimension of effectiveness with respect to methodological-didactic choices and actions to be made, an inclusive teacher cannot forget the importance of relational and emotional skills. numerous studies show that teachers' appropriate mental attitude, emotional closeness, and ability to give appropriate and positive feedback to students are decisive elements for their academic success and the creation of a good classroom climate. the training of teachers with respect to their social and emotional skills, in an inclusive school context, certainly cannot be underestimated. the quality of the classroom climate (made up of relationships and emotional experiences) is crucial for the success of students, who learn best when they are in an emotionally safe and predictable environment, which motivates them and stimulates them towards positive and inclusive goals (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). the concept of inclusivity in contemporary schools goes beyond disability, learning disorders, explicit difficulties in integration and behavior and concerns all pupils with respect to whom it is necessary to give different answers for their educational needs. the goal of inclusive teaching is, in fact, to make all students reach the highest possible degree of learning and social participation, enhancing the differences present in the class. unesco's guidelines for integration policies in education (2009) emphasize that: "inclusive schooling is a process of strengthening the capacities of the education system to reach all students. [...]. an inclusive school system can only be created if mainstream schools become more inclusive." in other words, if they become better at educating all the children in their community. for pupils with certified disabilities, on the other hand, legislative decree no. 66 of 13 april 2017 lays down specific rules for the promotion of their full school integration. in particular, it refers to the so-called plan for inclusion that each school must prepare to overcome all those factors that may hinder its implementation, for the coordinated use of resources and to design specific improvement interventions. the inclusion plan must include an analysis of strengths and weaknesses, objectives to increase inclusiveness for the following school year, resources (support teachers, assistants, contact persons), global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 22 methodologies, methods of involving families, relations with local social and health services that are intended to be activated, actions for the acquisition and distribution of additional resources for the implementation of inclusion projects, the preparation of interventions for entry into the school system, continuity between the different levels of school and future integration into the world of work (ciyer, 2010). the inclusive school, therefore, equips itself in a synergistic way to propose multiple educational and didactic strategies, according to a holistic approach, which considers the student as a complex and multidimensional person with his or her own socio-cultural and biological characteristics, and aims at the overall development of the potential and skills of each one for the achievement of the highest possible level of learning and socialization. to achieve this, however, schools must have the courage to renounce the standardization of teaching (kinsella, 2020). it must allow all its members to feel part of a community in which the same educational ideals are shared, the individuality of all its members is respected, each with his or her own interests, needs and talents, and offers multiple possibilities and formative opportunities, so that each one can realize his or her aspirations. fundamental to this new vision of the school is respect for the right to selfdetermination and to the construction of future life projects adapted to the potential of each and every one, to the aspirations of families and to the new demands of society and culture. the school intends to achieve these important educational objectives with the collaboration of families with whom it is necessary to share, in respect of roles and specific responsibilities, objectives, goals and strategies for the healthy growth of young people. an inclusive systemic vision must also consider the contributions that can come from collaboration with other public and private entities, and from associations operating in the area and that are able to contribute to ensuring the educational success of students (kim, yi, & hong, 2021; miller et al., 2022; stinken-rösner et al., 2020). in the process of individualization of teaching, activities are provided for disabled pupils so that it is possible to achieve knowledge and skills common to the rest of the class. common objectives, therefore, to the class group, but different, individualized methodologies, which consider the potential, skills, and personal abilities of the disabled student, which become a resource, trying to eliminate the factors that originate or maintain the difficulty. personalized teaching, on the other hand, provides for the achievement of objectives that are different from those of the class, because they are built ad hoc on the disability of the individual student, enhancing his or her strengths. in this way, by specifically considering the different ability of the pupil as a peculiarity of his own, the pupil will be given the opportunity to develop his full potential and give him the opportunity to transmit his different ability to others (väyrynen, & akunyili, 2020). to interpret inclusion as a "day-to-day" way of managing classrooms, training must be aimed at both support teachers and all curriculum teachers. indications and guidelines remind us that diversity poses a great challenge to didactic and educational action, such as being able to face it, having adequate skills in inclusive teaching strategies, in order to respond adequately not only to the needs of disabled pupils or with specific learning disorders, with other difficulties or developmental disorders and with social and cultural disadvantage, but also emphasizing the quality of learning of all pupils (sturm, 2019). a key aspect is also that of "taking charge" of the student, which must be carried out by the entire "educating community", avoiding processes of delegation to the support teacher alone. hence, therefore, the need for targeted, specific, modular training interventions that consider the different starting levels of those who access training and, above all, based on a participatory vision of inclusion and oriented towards global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 23 cooperation and cooperative teaching (mihajlovic, 2020). nevertheless, the school, which for over forty years has been trying to be a welcoming and inclusive context, today feels it must oppose the adverse pressures that come from the outside with a decisive and constructive commitment to inclusion. these educational ideals are expressed through pedagogical challenges from which the school cannot move away. learning and teaching practices can guide inclusive actions in the classrooms, through participation, cooperation, interdependence, and laboratory methodology. 2. physical education as a means of inclusion the stimulating encounter between physical activity and the world of disability takes place starting from the origins of school inclusion. physical education, in fact, is one of the school disciplines that contributes decisively to the formation of one's bodily identity, personality and the acquisition of communicative-relational skills (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). it is considered fundamental for the harmonious development of the personality and for the formation of citizens capable of expressing themselves and relating in today's world, so much so that it has been defined as a "hinge discipline between the scientific, communicative and expressive, relational and citizenship fields" (miur, 2018). physical education promotes selfknowledge and one's potential in a constant relationship with the environment, others, and objects. it also contributes to the formation of the student's personality through the knowledge and awareness of one's own bodily identity, as well as the continuous need for movement as a constant care of one's person and well-being. motor activities provide students with opportunities to reflect on the changes in their bodies, to accept them and live them serenely as an expression of each person's growth and maturation process (sánchez, de haro-rodríguez, & martínez, 2019). they also offer opportunities to reflect on the significance of self-image in comparison with peers. the primary objective of physical education is, in fact, to promote the growth of physically educated people through the acquisition of skills, such as motor skills, knowledge, socio-affective behaviors and motivations such that they are urged to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles based on awareness of the bodily (haegele, 2019). this orientation frames the discipline in a holistic approach, which identifies among its main purposes the physical, cognitive, and social development of children, together with the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, assigning it the role of a privileged tool for the structuring of personality, social relationships and for the acquisition of the necessary life skills throughout life. it is for this reason that physical education is proposed as an essential element for integrated growth. it follows that, through a conscious pedagogical orientation aimed at proposing significant motor experiences and the acquisition of new skills, it is necessary to promote an adequate motor planning that correlates with a coherent pedagogical intentionality, in order to adequately define motor action and to attribute a fair value to it. therefore, education through the body and movement cannot be linked to didactic strategies linked only to doing but must also and above all be realized in a condition linked to the deepest meaning of being a person acting in the environment (hutzler, meier, reuker, & zitomer, 2019). starting from these assumptions, the school must, therefore, become the ideal setting in which to build a didactic of motor and sports activities that looks at the educational conception of the body and movement understood as a factor of promotion not only of the aspects of self-construction but also as an educational exercise for the acquisition of healthy lifestyles that allow to improve the wellbeing and health of the individual. in this sense, it becomes necessary to integrate in the teaching practice both the purely physical and the sociorelational aspects, in order to allow a global global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 24 taking charge of the psychophysical health of the subject. physical education must, therefore, necessarily become essential to the formation of young people. in fact, it contributes to their growth both in structural terms and to the formation of the self that concerns the body, its potential and its limits, its position in physical space, its perception in relation to others, its image. it also plays a crucial role in directing motivation to improve one's individual skills and selfdetermination in achieving psycho-physical wellbeing. therefore, it not only has the educational value that contributes to the development of motor skills, abilities, and competences, but also and above all the value of all those activities that, through movement, contribute to the structuring of identity and awareness of the potential of one's own body (rekaa, hanisch, & ytterhus, 2019). physical education conceived and experimented in this way puts into practice a didactic that becomes a tool for the metacognitive development of the body and mind, in a framework in which the subjects can recognize themselves in body and movement. the education of the body and movement is therefore aimed at a training process capable of allowing learners to achieve an ever-greater awareness of their body in movement in order to obtain that intrinsic pleasure and the achievement of cultural, social and expressive factors that identify the value aspect of motor activities (vilchez, kruse, puffer, & dudovitz, 2021). it follows that the educational process represents the tool through which the individual gives shape to his or her personal identity, integrating all those knowledge, skills and competencies that allow him or her to live and mature an increasingly complete self-awareness. the body and movement are, therefore, two fundamental elements of the individual and social dimension in the personal development of the individual, it follows that physical activities provide a special contribution to the creation and strengthening of skills that can be used in other contexts of life. within the didactic path of motor and sports education, due to the specific experiential characteristics of the discipline, the curriculum helps to develop transversal skills capable of making students capable of transforming the knowledge, attitudes and values acquired into real skills, such as "what to do" and "how to do it" in every circumstance of life (nilholm, 2021). this type of offer characterized by a multiplicity of accessible, interdisciplinary, situated, and immersive learning opportunities, based on plural and differentiated didactic mediations in their complementarity, represents the methodological framework within which the knowledge and skills acquired through physical, and sports education can contribute to the development of educational and social equity. 3. physical education as a perspective for the development of individual potential physical education unquestionably assumes an educational value for everyone, able bodied and disabled; for the latter, play, movement, and sport take on an added value by giving visibility to their physical and cognitive abilities. every form of educational intervention stems from the teacher's ability to remove "obstacles", focusing on functional abilities and hypothesizing suitable, not adapted, educational proposals (kirk, 2019). the presence of a person with disabilities within a group changes relationships, relationships, balances, emotions on an intra and interpersonal level: there begins to be more collaboration, sharing and there is a tendency to face any obstacle in order to resolve the various conflicts. disability also produces advantages for ablebodied people to the extent that they are in an inclusive dimension that is not limited only to welcoming diversity. various didactic and educational strategies must be put in place in order to create a learning community, a community that manifests solidarity and sensitivity. everyone should perceive difference as a value or resource and not as a threat precisely because, when an individual meet someone "different" global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 25 from yourself, you create a greater awareness of your identity. it is necessary to create a new educational paradigm, it is necessary to educate to the difference, to the other and to the different to create those effective conditions in which the subject can express his potential and the most hidden reactions (sulasmi, & akrim, 2019). it becomes necessary to identify the skills of the most "fragile" in order to enhance their abilities within the class group. the resulting didactic proposal will have to respond to the needs of the students, taking into account the conditions of extreme heterogeneity of the classes, aiming at the discovery of their own body and their motor and communication skills to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. starting from the assumption that every student needs, indifferently, appropriate educational proposals and that whatever the "difficulty", the educator will have to create the conditions of welcome and collaboration such as to allow adequate participation in the activity, motor and sports education could intervene as a facilitator of school learning in subjects with special educational needs. the person, the goal, and the context (rules and people) are the factors that unite the world of play and sport and the world of disability: everyone indiscriminately uses their skills and determination to achieve the same goal, that is, to reach the limit of their limits by overcoming obstacles. from this point of view, it is important to be able to train the teachers themselves in order to make them understand the real and personal needs of the students in order to create inclusive actions that can make the disabled person feel the protagonist of their own life project and no longer a simple spectator in which others play their game (opstoel et al., 2020). physical education, in fact, becomes effective when the focus is on the student and not on sport, when the teacher is able to motivate the student and create a positive teacher learner relationship, making him more and more autonomous in his activity and personal choices. the educational process and the related training project require an educational space in which motor and sports paths are flexible and personalized in relation to the characteristics and peculiarities of each subject, which allow not only to "overcome" the deficit but also to increase in each subject the awareness of his possibilities, thus contributing to the formation of his identity. it happens, in fact, that every student has special needs to be transformed into special desires and life prospects, as each subject is unique and unrepeatable, with his or her own experience and his or her own life project. the line to be taken is, therefore, that of "valuing differences in the awareness of diversity as an indispensable value" in order to confront the diversity of each student in a new learning environment that ensures convergence and balance between different characteristics and needs and above all is able to change flexibly with changing attitudes, aspirations, environments, fragility and potential of the person (white et al., 2021). looking at the disabled person beyond their deficit means considering their life history by providing different possibilities for personalized and integrated growth. physical education is well suited to this training approach as motor activities allow you to "abandon the pressures of everyday life, have more bodily contact, be cooperative, resolve conflicts, get to know the other and, consequently, socialize with all people beyond disability" (juvonen, lessard, rastogi, schacter, & smith, 2019). physical education, as a training process, therefore, represents a real breaking down of social barriers, a tool capable of giving life to an innovative and mature paradigm based on the promotion of social inclusion. for the disabled person sharing the same experience, the same spaces and the same moments with others global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 26 represents an opportunity for growth and social integration. physical education should be considered as a method of intervention in the difficult educational path and integration of the disabled person. the motor and sports field, in fact, is a favorable context for the development and consolidation of fundamental cognitive skills and, at the same time, the body, motor activity, games and recreational activities aimed at integration, become concrete and coherent educational tools for the affirmation of this paradigm. through motor activities, exploiting a psychoeducational intervention model that integrates the educational aspect with the psychological and relational one, it is possible to create the conditions for the subject with disabilities to benefit from a learning context, understood as growth and structuring of the personality (search for autonomy). this means, first of all, valuing the diversity of the student: difference is to be considered a resource and a richness and, in this sense, collaboration and teamwork are essential for everyone's growth (pangrazi, & beighle, 2019). sport and play, in addition to spreading the values of solidarity, loyalty, respect for the person and the rules, which are the founding principles of any healthy society, are extraordinary tools for building skills that can be transferred to other contexts of life. the organization of a competition, the definition of roles, the determination of timing, game strategies, are real intellectual skills that can be transferred to any context of life and represent skills that everyone should be able to put into practice when they must make decisions or prepare a program of action. movement activities are opportunities to privilege creativity and emotional investment because the educational perspective is to support the processes that lead to autonomy, the growth of self-esteem, the ability to initiative and selfawareness at various levels, physical and emotional. conclusions educating the person to become himself, also by concentrating on his bodily realization, means helping him to become aware of his being a whole person, which is expressed and fulfilled through movement, action. this means accompanying the subject to read the body not only as a set of muscle bundles to be controlled as such and therefore a mere expression of coordinative and conditional capacities, but to ensure that it grasps itself integrally in its total corporeality, which also involves relating to others. the body, as a co-builder of knowledge and self-knowledge, in its being "in situation", is correlated with motivation, with the intentionality that each subject puts into his action and not only with his mechanical action of a merely reproductive model. physical education, conducted in formal, nonformal and informal educational systems, calls for the acquisition of the person's awareness of his transformation as a bodily identity, in his existence, acting and perfecting himself. in this sense, pedagogical intentionality has as its peculiarity the feeling and becoming of bodies, embodied and embodied actions that give meaning and significance to the person's experience, including those who may show deficits and disabilities. physical education has, in essence, the purpose of allowing each and every one to develop their own personal life project according to an eco-systemic approach, using a multi-perspective vision in relation to the contribution that the different motor activities can offer in order to achieve a "formative" design. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; 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september-2022; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 6.79 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 exploring the relationship between diploknema butyracea (chiuri) and chepang communities in nepal 1dr. rajendra kumar thapa, 2prof. sita devi sharma, 3dr. ji-hoon parka and 4dr. soomin lee article info abstract keywords: diploknema butyracea, chiuri, chepang community, cultural significance, ecological diversity diploknema butyracea (chiuri) is a tree species native to the himalayan region, belonging to the sapotaceae family. known by various names across different cultures, it holds cultural, religious, and economic significance. this study explores the cultural and ecological relevance of chiuri within the marginalized chepang community. the chepangs, known for their reliance on natural resources, have intricate indigenous knowledge of plant use. the tree's cultivation on derelict lands ("khoriya") is a crucial part of their livelihood strategy. with approximately 68,399 chepangs residing in specific districts, the chepang-chiuri relationship plays a substantial role in their socioeconomic fabric. chiuri's distribution spans nepal's mid-hill districts within subtropical broadleaved forests. its growth is facilitated by the nation's diverse geography and climate. this paper examines chiuri's characteristics, such as its slow growth and broad leaves, offering insights into its biology. by delving into chiuri's significance, cultivation, and role within the chepang community, this study sheds light on the interplay between culture, ecology, and sustainable livelihoods in the himalayan context. introduction diploknema butryracea (chiuri) belongs to the order ericales, the family of sapotaceae of the plant kingdom (chowdhury et al., 2020). there are different names for diploknema butyracea, chiuri in nepali, madhuspa in sanskrit, phulwara in hindi; yoshi, chyumli, isi, imseva, chihuli, ibuchi pu ma in chepang, tamang, rai, 1faculty of agriculture, ramnagar technical and management college (agriculture and forestry university),nawalparasi, nepal. 2institutue of agriculture and animal science, lamjung campus (tribhuvan university), lamjung, nepal 3national institute of horticultural and herbal science, rural development administration, wanju 55365, republic of korea. 4department of applied plant science, kangwon national university, chuncheon 24341, republic of korea. https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 2 limbu, tharu, newar communities respectively (bhattarai et al., 2021; kumar et al., 2012; siddiqui et al., 2004). it is also known as the "butter tree of nepal." chiuri is mostly found in those countries which lie in the lap of the himalayas region, like nepal (joshi et al., 2018). chepangs are marginalized communities who are mostly known for the practice of shifting cultivations and depend upon natural resources for their livelihood strategy (aryal et al., 2009; piya & maharjan, 2013). chepang people have a primitive way of living and have indigenous knowledge regarding using different plants (rijal, 2011). according to the census 2068, about 68,399 chepangs are found mainly in makwanpur, chitwan, kaski, gorkha, lamjung, and tahanu districts. chepangs are closely related to the chiuri and have cultural and religious importance within them. they cultivate those trees mainly in a derelict land called "khoriya” in nepali (sharma, 2011). chiuri is found in 50 mid-hill districts along the subtropical broadleaved forest with an altitude of 400 to 1400 m from the sea level in nepal (figure 1). nepal has a diverse geographical and climatic variation which provides a favorable environment for growing diploknema butryracea. it is a medium-sized, slow-growing plant that ranges 20-30 m in height. leaves are broad and arranged alternately and with simple parallel venation, 6-12 inches in length and 3-6 inches in breadth (joshi, 2010). barks are 3 cm thick, dark grey in color, and light in weight. it gives a milky white fluid when cut freshly. flowers are long, creamy white, axillary, clustered solitary, and ranges from 50 to 72 per fascicles. light green fruits are seen in the early stage and appear yellowish or orange color when fully ripe. one fruit usually contains 1-2 seeds, and fruits look berry or pear-shaped. the wasteland, pastures, and inferior, rocky ridges of soil facing southwest-facing slopes are found in the southwest-facing slopes (lead, 2007). its product is mainly ghee or butter, which is obtained from the seed kernel. hence it is known as the "butter tree of nepal." the life cycle of the insects like shoot borer and bark beetles is completed in these plants and affects the plant causing various diseases and reducing photosynthesis and fruits production in plants which ultimately causes the necrosis of the plant. bats help in pollination and collects nectar from the flower. figure 1. diploknema butyracea (roxb.) h.j.lam. (chiuri) from syangja district, western nepal. production of chiuri in nepal nepal has around 10.8 million mainly naturally growing trees of chiuri and covers about 1900 hectares. chepang earns usd 41.43 annually by selling chiuri seeds which are low compared to the present market context. it has the possibility of producing 37,245 metric tons of chiuri butter with a market value of about npr five billion (usd 41.4) and 17,285 metric tons of honey potential (medep, 2010). a fully grown tree can give 15 kg of seed global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 3 and 1 quintal of fruits in 20 years. it was found that in the altitude up to 1000 m from the sea level, the growing of chiuri trees acquires high height and gives high fruits and seeds (tewari et al., 2015). production of honey from chiuri in nepal in sanskrit, "madhu" means honey, and phuspa means flower; from its name also, we can say the flower of chiuri helps produce honey (table 1). bees bear flowers of the chiuri during nov-jan, and honey obtained from it, is of higher quality. table 1. chemical composition in nectar and honey of chiuri (joshi & pechhacker, 2002) parameters nectar honey fructose 9.57 36.27 glucose 10.2 41.24 sucrose 0.28 7.16 dikojibiose 0.37 0.37 maltose 0.25 0.97 fructose/glucose 0.98 0.88 total sugars 20.56 86.01 the average honey production from a single hive is 35 kg in the last two years, but in 2021 it may be up to 20 kg per hive due to the reduction of blossoming flowers. bees feed on the flower of chiuri and can get 80% of the total bee’s food diets and can harvest honey four 4 times within a single season (bista & paudel, 2021). nectar helps the bee survive, and the bee helps maintain the ecosystem (teshome & guta, 2020). honey obtained from bees that feed on the nectar of chiuri flowers has high demand in the international market as it is suitable for human health (figure 2). figure 2. composition of chiuri flower (kureel et al., 2009). moisture % 20 protein % 6 fats 0.50 % sugar 54 % calcium 8 % phosporous 2 % ash % 5 others … moisture protein fats sugar calcium phosporous ash others global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 4 1.1 production of butter from churi in nepal it is estimated that nepal exports 20 tons of chiuri butter to europe annually. the yield of butter is 42-47% of the weight of seeds (figure 3). ghee is the solidification of butter and appears white with a pleasant odor. figure 3. composition of butter (sundriyal & sundriyal, 2003). table 2. chemical composition of butter obtained from chiuri parameters chiuri butter palmitic acid (50-60)% oleic acid (30-40)% linoleic acid (2-10)% steric acid (0-5)% processing of butter butter is extracted from the seed, and the extraction process by the traditional method is laborious and timeconsuming (figure 5). it takes whole days to peel 100 kg seed of chiuri (devkota et al., 2013). for the processing of the butter traditionally, first, the fruits are harvested and collected in a basket. then fruits are squeezed, and pulp is removed. after the removal of pulp, the seed is dried for 2-3 days and crushed down into powdered form with the help of a traditional instrument called "dhiki," and obtained powdered form is placed on a plate above a boiling pan and streamed for some time. then the butter is extracted by using "khole " or "chepuwa." while doing this process, 25-30% of the butter from the seed is obtained. in modern techniques, seeds are dry in a fry fan and expel in expeller. this technique (40-45%) of butter is extracted from the seed (singh et al., 2010). the oil thus obtained should be refined, unrefined chiuri has a creamy, pale yellowish color, but a fully refined butter is pure white. typically 18 kg of seeds are required to produce a liter of ghee, and one household generally consumes about 2-5 kg of ghee per year. fats 81 % protein % 2 carbohydrates % 8 ash % 3 others % 6 fats protein carbohydrates ash others global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 5 figure 5. diploknema butyracea (roxb.) h.j.lam. (chiuri) seeds and fruits from chitwan district central nepal. other products from chiuri chocolates, soaps, candles, juice, fertilizers, cosmetics items, and medicines can be manufactured from the fruits, seeds, and bark of trees (khanka et al., 2009). uses of chiuri in nepal medical perspective the medicines obtained from the chiuri are known as herbal medicines (kumar et al., 2012). every part of the chiuri plant has some role in controlling different types of diseases in human beings. butter made from chiuri is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamins (a, e) that helps to hydrates, nourishes our skin, repair hair, and shine. it is used to cure cracked feet, lips, and hands. it contains a high amount of palmitic acid (table 2), which helps in softening the skin. the ghee extracted from the seed is used as body lotion and helps in therapy. it also works as antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic during headaches and rheumatism (mishra, 2015; shekhawat & vijayvergia, 2010). leaves are used as poultice to reduce pain, eczema in the body, cushing's disease, and bronchitis (yadav et al., 2012). leaves extract helps in the death of ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells and control bleeding (saluja et al., 2011). the barks treat diseases in humans like ulcers, itching, hemorrhages, inflammation of tonsils (prashanth et al., 2010), leprosy, and diabetes (tyagi, 2015; thapa, 2019). powder made from the bark of chiuri helps to maintain our blood sugar levels. juices are applied against headaches, and seed powder is used for curing constipation (kunwar & bussman, 2009). the excellent form of bark mixed with ghee and honey increases sex vigor and vitality (meena & meena, 2016). stem and barks contain the antibodies that work as an antidote for snakes and use them for snake bitter (gaikwad et al., 2009). the fats obtained from the seed are used to cure pimples, burns, and emollients for cracked hands and legs (manandhar, 2002). household perspective from the harvested fruits, seeds are extracted and crushed with an expeller. the crushed seed is filtered and purified to obtain a light yellow-colored butter locally called "makkhana." then makkhana proceeds to make ghee. such extracted ghee/makkhana can be used for cooking, body lotion. the ghee is used as the primary fuel in "diyo," which helps light the house during a power cut and unreached areas (godiganur et al., 2009). oilcake, the residue left after ghee production, can produce soaps and detergents as it contains saponins. it is also used for the productions of candles (majumdar et al., 2012). leaves can be used to make paper plates and strong woods; branches are helpful to make furniture. both fruits and seeds are the edible part of the plants and can be used by humans and animals after detoxification as foods and feeds. the fruits which look yellow supplies carbohydrates to the body or can be used for the purification of alcohol after certain industrial activities (swain et al., 2007). nectar is used for the manufacturing of sugar candy (joshi, 2010). generally, all the fruits of the tree mature global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 6 simultaneously, and nepal does not have any mechanism for the post longevity of the fruits, so the fruits can be used for making jams, squash, and juices. agricultural perspective after extracting the ghee from the seed, the remaining part can be used as manures in banana and paddy cultivations due to its pesticide properties. it can also be used as homicide, nematicides, molluscicides, and rodenticides. the bark of trees contains tannins which are used to kill the fish. the thick and soft pulp, which is sweet present in the pericarp, is used to prepare the jaggary through crushing and boiling in the conventional method. the insects like honeybee suck nectar of flowers, hornets, wraps, and insects get their diets from (chitale et al., 2018). nectar is rich in sugar content, and honey bees visit such flowers mainly in the winter season and ultimately give chiuri honey. the bees and bats also suck the nectars of flowers; they are rich in aromatic compounds and helps to maintain co-evolution in the environment. this plant has a well-developed tap root system, due to which it helps in soil conservation, preventing soil erosion, conserving the water resources, and maintain balance in the ecosystem by exchanging gases (noss, 2001). management strategies chiuri flower is slightly yellow in color and blossoms from october to january; fruit sets start to develop and mature from february to july. fruit is green in color in the early stage, and in the mature stage, they are yellow. chiuri, which are propagated from seed, is good in quality, and such obtained saplings have good germination capacity. seeds should be sowed in the soil within 7 days after taking out the ripened fruits; the soil should contain 1-part organic mulch, 1-part fine sand, and 1part fym. the seed should be soaked in cleaned water for 12 hrs before sowing. sowing should be at 4 cm deep from the ground surface. care should be given, especially in the early stage. after one year, we can get a 20-40 cm plant and be transplanted to a specific area. training and pruning operations can be done to give the tree shape and obtain better fruit quality. chiuri plant can give fruits from 12 years up to 70 years. trees are tall, and harvesting should be done carefully so that harvester as well as fruits, branches do not get hurt. relation of chiuri with chepang communities chepang communities in nepal are found in the upper slopes of the mahabharat ranges, and they are the seminomadic people who mainly depend on the forest for their livelihood (chhetri et al., 1997). it is a minority community that is involved in the conservation of diploknema butyracea. in chepang communities, it is found that the families having more trees are said to be rich. moreover, during the marriage ceremony bride's family gives trees of diploknema butyracea to the groom's family as a gift. the link between chepang communities and chiuri is so strong that when trees are sick, people will treat them with the help of local healers instead of cutting them. trees are divided equally among family members (bhattarai et al., 2021). at midnight a hungry hoax ran away from her stable and went to the millet field for feeding. after being saturated, she began to return to the stable. on the way, she fell from the high cliff and get stuck halfway. none of them managed to rescue her, and after some time, she died. in the same place, the chiuri tree was first grown with the help of fertilizers from the carcass. some findings are compared to the plant's parts, such as fruit of chiuri secrets white fluid compared with the milk of buffalo, oil obtained from seeds is compared with buffalo butter. seeds are usually black and are compared with millets. hence chiuri is regarded as the milking buffalo for chepang communities (bhattarai et al., 2021). conclusions chiuri plants are of great importance in human life and maintain the ecosystem, but only a few people work for the conservation of chiuri. plants are destroyed by the forest fire, which occurs during the summer months, and people often cut the branches during harvesting time. strong winds and heavy rainfall also affect the plants. people global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 13 (9) pg. 7 are only concerned with benefits without making any attempt for its conservations. people do not know training and pruning operations, insects &pest affected plants part remains in the plant and ultimately necrosis occurs. the yield of chiuri is decreasing year by year. the fruits obtained are also not well utilized; it gets rotten due to the lack of sound processing techniques and posts storage facilities. as the chiuri plant propagates through seeds and takes a long time to obtain a yield, the correct price of chiuri people's product hesitates to adopt chiuri cultivation as their primary occupation. eia (environment impact analysis) should be done before conducting the development works in the hilly areas. government, ngo, ingos, following public participation, should work for the conservation of an indigenous variety of nepal and try to obtain maximum benefit from the plant by applying modern tools and technology regarding harvesting, processing, and marketing of chiuri products which ultimately contributes to eradicating the chepangs from poverty line and increases the economic status of the country. conflicts of interest. there are no conflicts of interest. orcid samiksha dahal: https://orchid.org/0000-0002-5812-9574 sandesh subedi: https://orchid.org/0000-0001-5873-3205 niroj paudel: https://orchid.org/0000-0003-1635-3559 references aryal, k.p., berg, å. & ogle, b. 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(2012). madhuca longifolia (sapotaceae), a review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. international journal of biomedical research, 291-305. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 10; october-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 18 assessment of instructional media availability and utilization in e-learning for distance learning programmes in government-owned universities in southeast nigeria 1nwafor alphonsus onyeachonam ph.d., 2enekwe rosepetra chiazokam ph.d. and 3rev. br. prof ekene osuji article info abstract keywords: instructional, media, availability, utilization, e-learning, distance learning programmes doi 10.5281/zenodo.14717791 this study assessed instructional media availability and utilization in e-learning for distance learning programmes in government-owned universities in south-east nigeria. the objectives were to determine instructional media available for implementing e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities and to find out the extent of utilization of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. this study utilized a descriptive survey research design. the study population consisted of 12,928 respondents from ten government-owned universities in south east nigeria; 12,752 students and 176 lecturers. the sample size for this study consisted of 1,451 respondents, comprising 1,275 students and 176 lecturers. data were analyzed using mean ratings and standard deviations to provide a clear summary of responses. the t-test was employed to test the hypotheses, given the unbiased selection of the sample. the results revealed that the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning delivery mode in distance learning programmes of the government-owned universities were mostly online libraries and online examination facilities. the other materials were not adequately available and that the extent to which e-learning is being utilized in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria, was low (that is, not adequate). it was concluded that, for these universities to fully harness the potential of e-learning, there is an urgent need to improve the provision of instructional media and to address barriers to their effective utilization. it was recommended among other things that federal and state governments should invest in improving and expanding the technological infrastructure, including high-speed internet access, to ensure reliable connectivity for both students and lecturers in odl programme of south east universities. 1,2,3department of educational foundations, faculty of education, godfrey okoye university, enugu global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 19 introduction background of the study the advancement of technology has revolutionized the education sector, leading to the widespread adoption of elearning platforms, especially in distance learning programs. distance learning, once seen as a supplementary educational method, has now become a key mode of instruction in many higher institutions, including government-owned universities in south-east nigeria. this mode of learning has been praised for its flexibility, ability to reach a broad audience, and capacity to cater to diverse learning needs (unesco, 2020). in the context of nigeria, distance learning has gained traction due to its role in providing access to education for students in remote and underserved areas, reducing geographical and financial barriers to higher education (nwoke, 2019). e-learning is a broad word that incorporates many sorts of educational technology aiming at electronically or digitally aiding learning and teaching. as described by aminu and shehu (2019), e-learning is the usage of information and communication technology to provide access to online learning and teaching materials. it is primarily a web-based programme that offers learners with timely access to knowledge or information, independent of time limits or geographical closeness (escobar fandiño and silva velandia, 2020). e-learning, in essence, refers to the use of information and communication technologies (icts) to improve and support learning, teaching, and research (eteng and ntui, 2019). it incorporates numerous technology instruments such as pdas, mp3 players, web-based learning, hypermedia, multimedia discussion forums, blogs, and simulations (eze, 2017). a critical component in the success of e-learning in distance learning programs is the availability and effective utilization of instructional media. instructional media, which include digital resources such as videos, audio lectures, online quizzes, and interactive simulations, are integral to creating an engaging and effective learning environment (anderson, 2018). these media tools not only enhance the learning experience but also ensure that educational content is delivered in a manner that accommodates diverse learning styles and preferences. however, the availability of these resources and their effective use remain challenges in many institutions, particularly in nigeria. in south-east nigeria, government-owned universities are making strides in integrating technology into their distance learning programs. despite these efforts, there are concerns about the adequacy of instructional media, the infrastructure needed to support their effective use, and the preparedness of both students and instructors in utilizing these tools effectively (okafor, 2021). studies suggest that while some universities have made significant investments in e-learning platforms, others still struggle with inadequate technical support, lack of resources, and insufficient training for both students and staff (eze, 2020). statement of the problem the primary problem that motivated this study is the limited evaluation of e-learning usage as an instructional tool in distance learning programs within government-owned universities in southeast nigeria. despite the increasing relevance of electronic learning in global education, it appears that the integration and effectiveness of e-learning in these institutions have not been fully assessed. this gap is particularly evident in the lack of research on factors such as the availability of e-learning resources, and the extent of its utilization by students and lecturers. moreover, potential barriers, such as the logistical challenges faced by distance learning students who have to travel long distances to collect physical lecture materials or attend in-person classes, highlight the need to explore whether e-learning could alleviate these issues. the study seeks to understand if e-learning could be a more efficient and accessible method of instructional delivery in these programmes. thus, the key problem driving this global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 20 study is: how effectively is e-learning being utilized in distance learning programs in government-owned universities in southeast nigeria, and what factors are hindering its full implementation? purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to assess instructional media availability and utilization in e-learning for distance learning programmes in government-owned universities in south-east nigeria. specifically, the study seeks to: 1. determine instructional media available for implementing e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. 2. find out the extent of utilization of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. research questions the following research questions guided the study: 1. what learning materials are available for the implementation of e-learning delivery mode in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria? 2. to what extent is e-learning being utilized in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria? statement of hypotheses the following hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance guided the study: 1. there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of lecturers and students on the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. 2. there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of lecturers and students on extent of utilization of elearning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. review of related literature conceptual framework distance learning programme. the primary components of distance learning, also known as distance education, are the physical separation of instructors and students during teaching and the use of different technologies to support communication between students and teachers. according to forson and vuopala (2019), distance learning programs are thought to have a significant role in socioeconomic growth. subsequently, it is anticipated that policies implemented to fortify or revamp the remote learning initiative will be meticulously crafted to guarantee enhanced involvement from this segment of the education industry in developing nations (ojo, rohmi, and kayode, 2011). the conventional definition of distance learning is any instructional process wherein the instructor or coordinator and the learners are geographically separated. however, there might be communication between the instructor and the student or learner, or none at all. as to unesco (2015), the phrase "open and distance learning" refers to methods that prioritize expanding the reach of education and training; releasing students from location and time limitations while providing both individual and group learners with adaptable learning possibilities. according to ezeonwurie (2016), distance education is a kind of education where a large amount of the instruction is given by a teacher who is physically or chronologically distance from the students. because they are becoming more and more popular as a way for more students to have greater access to higher education, online and distance learning have gained significant attention in the field of education in recent years (tapfumaneyi, 2013). in nigeria, the growing use of online and remote learning is seen as a significant and important breakthrough in education (osipita, 2016). it is noteworthy to note that the nigeria national policy on education includes global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 21 information and communication technology (ict) among the policy guidelines creating online and remote learning (federal republic of nigeria, 2013). the idea of distance learning denotes a teaching strategy intended to reach students in a variety of settings, including their homes, workplaces, and retail stores. the only goal is to provide students access to learning materials so they may earn their credentials without having to physically attend courses, or to offer possibilities for lifelong learning, regardless of the time or place at which they want to study. according to vander (2017), a distance learning program physically divides a lecturer from their students. the author went on to say that instructors using this approach may give instruction online via the use of an e-auditorium, e-boardroom, eclassroom, internet facilities, video phone system, and teleconference technologies like zoom, webinar, etc. furthermore, the study center model of remote e-learning, the correspondence model, and the educational broadcasting model are examples of the submodels of distance education that nwosu (2012) and nwogu (2016) highlighted. the models were designed to be replacements for one another over time. at the moment, nigeria's online and remote learning programs are delivered mostly via print materials and in-person interactions in dual or single modes (ayo, odukoya, and azeta, 2014). according to osipita (2016), since remote learners are required to take face-to-face exams regardless of where they live, the distance education system looks comparable to conventional education. the system's integration of e-learning ought to progress to e-examination. online learning is essential because effective learning need more than simply student-to-student interaction. talebian, mohammadi, and rezvan (2014) have identified six different types of engagement in distance learning education: (1) teacher-content; (2) content-content; (3) student-teacher; (4) student-student; (5) teacher-teacher; and (6) student-content. theories that advocate for the use of new technology in the classroom are based on the notion that students are active agents that search for and create knowledge in relevant situations. sarkar (2012) also said that a lot of collaboration tools may be used for communication and collaborative learning, especially in e-learning. e-learning technology has allowed the world to become a global village. technology developments in the twenty-first century have made e-learning an essential instrument for research, instruction, and learning in postsecondary educational establishments (ojaega & igbiendion, 2012). as a result, there are frequent and profound changes that people undergo that seem to have enhanced almost every element of their lives. e-learning, as defined by kassa and balunywa (2013), is the use of all electronic media, networks, and information and communication technology (ict) to enhance instruction and transfer knowledge and skills. ict integration into the teaching and learning process has made possible a whole new kind of learning known as electronic learning, or e-learning. in support of this, ja'ashan (2020) said that the rapid growth of technology, the trend of globalization in higher education, and the dismantling of barriers among students have opened up new perspectives and methods to educational practice. one of these contemporary technologies is e-learning. the use of various electronic media and information and communication technology (ict) in education is known as e-learning. "e-learning" was described by congruz-bacescu (2013) as the use of internet technology to provide a broad range of solutions that enhance performance and knowledge. any act or virtual process for acquiring information, knowledge, skills, or competence is sometimes referred to as e-learning. e-learning, broadly speaking, refers to any kind of learning environment that heavily utilizes communication and informatics resources. the phrase "e-learning" refers to learning via the use of communication and information technology; the letter "e" in the name stands for electronic. amedu (2014) defines e-learning as the process of sharing knowledge and information through the use of a variety of information processing and electronic communications global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 22 technologies, such as computers, the internet, e-mail, computer software, satellites, mobile communication devices, and other related electronic devices. it basically involves enhancing education and student learning via the use of computer technology and information. furthermore, according to akorful and abaidoo (2015), the term "e-learning" refers to digital learning that is mediated by technology and uses a variety of hardware and software resources, including operating systems, cloud technologies, applications (apps), writing, editing, and microsoft office, as well as hardware like computers, tablets, printers, digital cameras, digital videos, scanners, overhead projectors, and ohp screens, to improve teacher-student interactions. "e-learning," a wide term that encompasses any educational technology that facilitates instruction and learning online, is used. e-learning, in its most basic form, is a web-based program that allows students to access knowledge or information at any time, from anywhere, on any schedule (escobar & silva, 2020). e-learning is the process of gaining knowledge and skills via the use of electronic technology, such as computer-based learning programs and the internet, over local and wide area networks, according to kotoua, lkan, and kilic (2015). depending on whether a particular aspect, component, or delivery method is given emphasis, other terms for elearning include online education, virtual education, computer-based training, internet-based training, web-based training, technology-enhanced learning, computer-based training, online education, computer-based training, and digital educational collaboration. graduate and undergraduate students alike may gain a great deal from e-learning resources. these platforms facilitate the process of learning for both lecturers and students by allowing students to post tasks, read short texts, and remark on themselves and others. students who share techniques and information are more able to work together and provide a foundation for higher order thinking. delivery approaches used in e-learning when using e-learning for teaching and learning, there are two delivery approaches that may be used. both synchronous and asynchronous processes exist (nworgu, 2017). there is no live communication between the instructor and the students when learning is done asynchronously. it makes use of social media sites like facebook, twitter, and whatsapp in addition to online discussion groups, chat rooms, online bulletin boards, email, and yahoo groups. learning reacts to data and messages in a way that is most comfortable for them. technology platforms like text messaging, audio conferences, and video conferences that allow for simultaneous online participation by both parties may also facilitate synchronous learning. osuji (2016) asserted that communication devices like phones, computers, and video-conferencing capabilities like webcams, skype, imo (a new online videoconferencing platform), or other web-based video, audio, or texting technology platforms are tools which can be used in e-learning. real-time technology enhanced communication can be between students and teachers or students and students using technology as a medium. a true platform for distance learning programs is e-learning. a virtual classroom, web-based, computer-based, and content delivery via e-networks, audio or video cassettes, satellite tv, video conferencing, cd-roms, ipods, emails, and wireless and mobile technologies are just a few examples of the many ways that e-learning resources may be used (eke, 2018). in a variety of situations, the use of e-learning in the classroom has proven beneficial. numerous advantages of integrating e-learning technology into university education have been shown by prior study (raspopovic et al., 2017). one way to think about e-learning is as a way to focus on the requirements of individual students. for example, huang and chiu (2015) found that, in contrast to the expectations of educational institutions or instructors, focusing on the needs of individual learners may effectively give information in the digital age. elearning also allows objectives to be accomplished with the least amount of work and in the shortest amount of time. a paradigm shift from the traditional/classical way of instruction to a modern technology-augmented mode of teaching and learning resulted from the revolution in education brought about by the advent of technology. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 23 according to abifarin (2015), e-learning is a useful strategy that has strategic value and should be integrated with current academic instruction. for example, the nigerian federal government saw the potential of ict to transform education in the 1990s and quickly included it into the curricula of the country's primary, intermediate, and tertiary institutions. e-learning systems may be used online or offline thanks to electronic devices and software. according to samsuri, nadzir, and rom (2014), e-learning and computer-enhanced learning are two frequent uses of personal computers for training purposes. according to kattoua, al-lozi, and alrowwad (2016), alternative communication technologies provide instruction via online lectures, learning support systems, and tutorials. according to a study by nwaukwa, onyemechara, and ndubuisi (2019), respondents use e-learning technologies less often due to a number of limitations. the issue of learning materials' accessibility for students to complete e-learning at various stages of their education is a significant aspect of these limitations. thus, it is necessary to address the issue of instructional material availability for online courses. availability of learning materials for e-learning programme undoubtedly, the emergence of e-learning platforms in higher education has enabled a substantial change in teaching and learning methodologies. the degree to which technology is integrated into the educational process, how easily accessible it is, and the level of support provided to teachers and students in using it are all factors that determine an organization's capacity to effectively adopt e-learning. however, according to ugwuanyi (2013), availability refers to the resources or services that are offered in order to carry out certain duties. the condition of offering an adequate standard requirement in terms of teaching resources to enhance the efficacy of instructional activity in a specific subject is referred to as availability (onyejemezie and ugwuanyi, 2013). online learning platforms provide a range of course resources, such as text papers, pdfs, videos, interactive modules, and quizzes. the materials are available will depend on how the program is set up and organized and which learning tools are needed. while resources in asynchronous courses are often available at any time, those in synchronous courses, for instance, could only be accessible during in-person sessions (ugwuanyi, 2013). because of copyright and licensing concerns, course materials may not always be easily accessible. if you want accurate and up-to-date information on when the course materials will be accessible, it is imperative that you get in contact with the organization or university immediately. according to wokocha, babalola, and agbagbue's (2016) study, e-learning resources are available for undergraduate course teaching and learning in some distance education programs, such as those offered by the national open university (noun). however, everest and laura's (2011) study on online learning in nigerian universities found that e-learning resources were insufficient and that students' access to them was minimal. adelabu, adu, and adjogri's (2014) research also shown that higher education institutions' e-learning infrastructures are insufficient. the particular programme and its resources will determine the availability of learning materials for an e-learning programme. however, learning resources for e-learning may be found in a number of places, according to adelabu, adu, and adjogri (2014). among these sources are: 1. learning management systems (lms) and online platforms: a lot of e-learning initiatives make use of lmss and online platforms, which provide a single place for maintaining and accessing course content. numerous materials are often available on these platforms, including interactive modules, quizzes, assignments, multimedia content, digital textbooks, and lecture notes. 2. open educational resources, or oers, are materials that are freely available for use in research, teaching, and learning. usually, these materials are available for use, modification, and sharing under open licenses. a multitude global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 24 of educational resources covering several areas and grade levels may be found in open education repositories such as merlot, khan academy, and oer commons. 3. digital archives and online libraries: a large number of academic institutions and libraries have digitized their holdings and made them accessible online. these online libraries include a huge selection of remote-accessible books, journals, research papers, and other reference resources. 4. websites that provide education and online courses: a plethora of websites that offer education and online courses offers a variety of learning resources, such as interactive lessons, video lectures, exercises, and evaluations. there are vast libraries of courses available on websites like coursera, udemy, and khan academy, covering a wide range of disciplines. 5. multimedia resources: videos, audio files, animations, and simulations are just a few examples of the multimedia resources that are often included in e-learning programs. platforms such as youtube, ted-ed, and subject-specific instructional websites are good places to find these materials. 6. online communities and forums: these online spaces dedicated to education and certain topics may be excellent resources for educational resources. these sites often include debates, resource sharing, and suggestions from both teachers and students. 7. textbook publishers and online booksellers: a lot of textbook publishers already provide digital copies of their books on the internet. e-books and digital materials covering a range of topics are also available from online retailers such as barnes & noble and amazon. 8. resources provided by teachers: instructors often produce their own lesson plans, worksheets, and presentations. these materials are provided via online forums, instructional blogs, and instructor websites. it is crucial to remember that different learning resources may be more or less accessible depending on the curriculum, academic level, and geographic area. furthermore, it is necessary to evaluate the materials' quality and relevancy to guarantee their congruence with the program's goals and criteria. the goal of e-learning programs is to provide students complete access to course materials via online platforms so they may study at their own speed and take part in interactive activities from any location with an internet connection. despite the fact that learning materials are readily available, a significant area of concern is the degree to which these online resources are used in distance learning programs. e-learning use in distance education programmes as a method of delivering education, e-learning has many advantages, such as affordability, flexibility, accessibility, and interaction. owing to its many advantages, e-learning is being used as a delivery method for teaching more and more. agboeze, ugwoke, and onu (2012) conducted a study on the use of e-learning technology resources in instructional delivery in universities located in the south-south and south-east geopolitical zones of nigeria. the study discovered that e-learning technology resources were not widely used in teaching because of various constraints. these limitations include, among other things, a lack of e-learning infrastructure and facilities at institutions, as well as a paucity of trained personnel with e-learning application skills. the use of e-learning in conjunction with information and multimedia technologies, according to abdelaziz, riad, and senousy (2014), modifies the conventional learning environment and style. al-adwan and smedley (2012) state that instructors' ict and pedagogical abilities, in addition to the availability of e-learning tools, are critical to the successful integration of e-learning into the teaching and learning process. e-learning is essential to distance learning programs because it gives students flexible and easily available learning possibilities. the following are some examples of how e-learning is used in remote learning programs, according to abdelaziz, raid, and senousy (2014): global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 25 1. online course delivery: videos, presentations, interactive multimedia, and online modules are just a few of the ways that course materials and content may be delivered thanks to e-learning platforms. with the help of these materials, students may study whenever and wherever they want, at their own speed. 2. virtual classrooms: features like video conferencing, chat rooms, and discussion forums are often seen in elearning systems. these resources foster community building in the online learning environment by enabling inthe-moment communication and cooperation between teachers and students. 3. multimedia learning resources: to improve the learning process, e-learning uses a variety of multimedia components, including audio, video, animations, and simulations. these interactive resources support a variety of learning styles by simplifying and engrossing users in difficult subjects. 4. self-paced learning: students may go through the course content at their own speed using e-learning. they provide individualized learning experiences depending on each learner's strengths and shortcomings by having the ability to study and repeat knowledge as required. students with other obligations or working professionals will especially benefit from this flexibility. 5. evaluation and comments: online evaluation tools for tests, quizzes, and assignments are offered by e-learning systems. these systems enable students to track their progress in real time and save teachers time by automatically grading objective questions and providing prompt feedback. 6. learning management systems (lms): online course administration and organization are centrally located on lms systems. they provide capabilities for communication, grade monitoring, student enrollment, and content management. lms systems facilitate effective course management by streamlining administrative duties. 7. access to resources: research materials, e-books, journals, articles, and other educational resources are all easily accessible via e-learning platforms. by providing digital access to these materials, students may increase their learning possibilities while lessening the need for physical libraries. 8. mobile learning: learning resources are available on smartphones and tablets thanks to the mobile apps that are often included in e-learning systems. this further boost convenience and flexibility by enabling students to study while on the road. 9. collaboration and discussion: through online discussion boards, group projects, and virtual cooperation, elearning platforms let students collaborate with one another. even in a distance learning setting, these elements promote engagement, information sharing, and peer learning. distance learning programs may transcend temporal and spatial constraints with the help of e-learning, offering students a dynamic and inclusive educational experience. it encourages independent study, teamwork, and the use of technology to provide high-quality education outside of typical classroom settings. there are several benefits to using e-learning as a delivery method for training, such as accessibility, engagement, and customisation. it is an effective instrument for encouraging lifelong learning and addressing the changing demands of students in the current digital era. using the i-learn video and audio-conferencing platform to make learning interactive is a key factor that makes using e-learning in distance education easier. theoretical framework this study is anchored on the technology acceptance theory by davis (1989). this theory provides the foundation for understanding the role of technology in enhancing students’ learning experience, fostering interaction, and improving achievement. davis technology acceptance theory (1989) davis proposed technology acceptance theory (tat) in 1989. according to the thought, when consumers are introduced with a new technology, such as e-learning, a variety of variables impact their choice on how and when global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 26 to utilize it. notably, perceived usefulness (pu) is the degree to which a person believes that using a specific system, such as e-learning, will improve his or her job performance; and perceived ease-of-use (peu) is the degree to which a person believes that using a specific system, such as e-learning, will be effortless. tat claims that perceived ease of use and perceived utility of technology, such as e-learning, predict user attitude toward utilizing the technology, following behavioral intentions, and actual utilization. tat is an intention-based model used to explain and/or forecast user acceptance of computer technology, such as e-learning.at this research, e-learning integration refers to a system that uses computer technology to offer distance learning programs at governmentowned universities. the extent to which lecturers think that adopting e-learning would enhance their job performance, as well as how easily they perceive e-learning use, are critical to the overall use of e-learning as an instructional delivery medium in distance learning programs. tat is relevant in this research because it aids in the development of a tangible grasp of the possible advantages that a learner may accumulate throughout the instructional delivery process. tat is intended to quantify the uptake of new technologies based on students' attitudes. empirical review the availability and use of e-learning resources for the administration of business courses at nigerian institutions situated in kwara state was studied by oluwalola and awodiji (2019). the study was conducted based on two hypotheses and three research questions. for this study, a descriptive survey research approach was used. 282 academics who teach business and management courses in kwara state universities made up the population. using random and stratified sampling approaches, this research included 100 management and business teachers from kwara state institutions. data were gathered using a questionnaire that had a cronbach alpha reliability of 0.80. the study topics were addressed using descriptive statistics mean and standard deviation, and one-way anova was used to test two hypotheses at the 0. 05 level of significance. the results showed that, in the chosen universities in kwara state, e-learning resources were moderately accessible (mean 96.64) and sometimes employed (mean 98.16) for business and management course teaching and learning activities. furthermore, f(2, 82, 84) = 1.57,.213@ p >.05. indicates that there is no significant difference within the group. therefore, the study's findings showed that, although the e-learning resources were intended to help students perform better academically and close the gap between theory and practice, they were not fully utilized. nonetheless, the resources were reasonably available in the universities that were sampled. the availability of e-learning resources for teaching and studying undergraduate business education at rivers state universities was studied by wokocha et al. (2017). two hypotheses and two research questions served as the study's compass. the study used the survey research's descriptive design. all 2,916 students enrolled in business education made up the population. 410 undergraduate business education students were purposefully chosen from two universities rivers state university, port harcourt, and ignatius ajuru university of education out of this total population. a standardized questionnaire called the "availability of e-learning facilities in teaching and learning questionnaire," or aveftlq, was the tool used to collect data for this research. the research instruments have an overall reliability of .78. two specialists in business education and one in measurement and evaluation from rivers state university's faculty of technical and science education further validated the instrument. using the mean for the research questions and the t-test for the hypothesis at the.05 level of significance, all 410 copies of the questionnaire that were recovered were examined. the outcome demonstrated the availability of e-learning resources for undergraduate business education instruction. additionally, it identified a number of barriers to the use of e-learning resources in undergraduate business education instruction. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 27 meladi and olawumi (2019) investigated how teaching and learning in south african schools are impacted by the incorporation of information and communication technology (ict). the study's main goal was to determine how much integration affects the caliber of instruction and learning in the classroom. it also looked at the advantages of using ict to support personal development and improve performance in reading, writing, and critical thinking. the study was directed by four research questions and four null hypotheses that were assessed at significance levels of 0.05. the descriptive survey design was employed for the study. the open-ended nature of the research questions made them semi-structured. in this respect, over a two-session focus group, the researcher conducted interviews with nine (9) students and seven (7) instructors. in the first session, there were just instructors, and in the final, there were only students in grade 12. the relationships between the topics were found, even though the themes of the sessions were noted individually. in order to access scenarios that would have been almost difficult to discover in an interview or a questionnaire, it also conducted classroom observation. the findings showed that there is still more work to be done by the government to start the process of introducing ict into the classroom or equipping teachers with ict skills in order to replace conventional teaching methods. nonetheless, the conclusion focused on how integrating ict into classroom teaching and learning techniques benefits both instructors and students. at the level of research design, the study that is being reviewed is connected to the current investigation. ejinwa (2018) assessed how the national open university of nigeria's study centers in south east nigeria used e-learning as a method of instruction delivery. five research questions served as the study's compass, and five null hypotheses were examined at the 0.05 level of significance. for this study, a descriptive survey research approach was used. 11,090 people participated in the survey as responders. there were 11050 students and 40 facilitators in all. the taro yamane statistical procedure was used to get the sample size of 387 for this study. data were gathered using a 45-item survey that the researcher had properly created. the study issues were addressed using the mean and standard deviation, and the hypotheses were tested using the t-test statistical analysis. the study's conclusions showed that e-learning is heavily used in noun teaching and learning, and that there were negative financial ramifications for both facilitators and students when e-learning was employed in this way. additionally, a lot of course materials are accessible for use in teaching and learning, but not a lot of teaching and learning occurs on the i-learn online video conferencing platform. research method this study utilized a descriptive survey research design. the study was conducted in the south-east zone of nigeria. the study population consisted of 12,928 respondents from ten government-owned universities in south east nigeria; 12,752 students and 176 lecturers. they are five federal and five state universities respectively (source: nuc-odl, 2022/2023 academic session). the sample size for this study consisted of 1,451 respondents, comprising 1,275 students and 176 lecturers. due to the manageable size of the lecturer population, the entire group was included in the study. for the student population, a proportionate random sampling technique was employed to ensure that the sample accurately reflected the composition of the various subgroups within the student body. data were collected using a researcher-structured questionnaire titled "utilization of e-learning as an instructional delivery mode questionnaire (uelidmq)." the questionnaire was administered by the researcher with the assistance of four research assistants, who were trained in questionnaire administration and respondent interaction. data were analyzed using mean ratings and standard deviations to provide a clear summary of responses. the t-test was employed to test the hypotheses, given the unbiased selection of the sample. responses to each research question were weighted using a four-point grading system, with mean ratings of 2.50 or above indicating agreement or great extent, and ratings below 2.50 indicating disagreement or less extent. the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 28 null hypothesis was rejected if the computed t-value was equal to or higher than the critical t-value at the chosen confidence level; otherwise, it was not rejected. data presentation and results analyses of the data and results obtained in the study are presented in this section. the data which were obtained by administering the instrument used in the study were summarized and analyzed in line with the research questions and hypotheses. the analyses were, therefore, based on the two research questions and two hypotheses of the study. table 1: mean responses and standard deviation on the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning delivery mode in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria (n = 1443) sn items lecturers students overall dec. learning materials available for elearning mode in odl x̅ sd x̅ sd x̅ sd 1. enough computers are available for use in the university odl programme. 2.16 1.06 2.13 0.95 2.13 0.97 d 2. internet connectivity is readily available for interactive presentations in odl of your university. 2.07 0.86 2.02 0.82 2.03 0.82 d 3. online libraries are available for lecturers’ and students’ use in odl of your university. 2.87 0.81 2.81 1.18 2.82 1.14 a 4. webinars for streaming are available in the university odl programme. 2.20 1.01 2.00 0.86 2.02 0.88 d 5. virtual stimulation facilities are available for use in odl of your university. 2.06 0.87 2.03 0.85 2.04 0.85 d 6. virtual laboratories are available for use in odl of your university. 2.13 0.87 2.04 0.83 2.05 0.84 d 7. on-line examination facilities are regularly available in odl of your university. 2.88 1.17 2.89 1.18 2.89 1.18 a 8. multimedia content in recorded cds is often available for lecturers and students’ access. 2.42 1.12 2.39 1.13 2.39 1.13 d grand x̅ and sd 2.35 0.97 2.29 0.98 2.30 0.98 d based on the analysis of the data presented in table 1, the availability of learning materials for the implementation of e-learning delivery modes in distance learning programs at government-owned universities in south east nigeria can be identified. among the items assessed, two key learning materials were deemed available. firstly, respondents generally agreed that online libraries are accessible for both lecturers and students, with an overall mean response of 2.82 (standard deviation 1.14). this indicates that online libraries play a significant role in supporting e-learning within these institutions. secondly, online examination facilities were also reported as regularly available, receiving an overall mean response of 2.89 (standard deviation 1.18). this suggests that these facilities are effectively integrated into the distance learning programs. conversely, the analysis revealed a lack of adequate availability for several other learning materials. the mean responses for items such as computers, with an overall mean of 2.13; internet connectivity at 2.03; webinars for streaming at 2.02; virtual stimulation global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 29 facilities at 2.04; and virtual laboratories at 2.05 all fell below the critical cut-off point of 2.50, indicating that respondents disagreed on their availability. additionally, multimedia content in recorded cds, which received an overall mean of 2.39, was also considered insufficient. in summary, while online libraries and online examination facilities were recognized as available resources, the overall consensus among respondents highlighted significant gaps in essential learning materials necessary for effective e-learning delivery in distance learning programs. research question 2: to what extent is e-learning being utilized in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria? table 2: mean responses and standard deviation on the extent to which e-learning is being utilized in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria (n = 1443) the analysis results presented in table 2 reveal the mean responses and standard deviations concerning the extent of e-learning utilization in distance learning programs at government-owned universities in south east nigeria. the findings indicate that the mean responses for items 10 (x̅ = 2.94, sd = 1.19), 11 (x̅ = 2.93, sd = 1.14), and 15 (x̅ = 2.67, sd = 1.15) exceed the threshold of 2.50, signifying a great extent (ge) of e-learning usage. however, the mean scores for the remaining items are below 2.50, indicating a low extent (le) of utilization. the overall grand mean responses were low for both lecturers (x̅ = 2.42, sd = 0.98) and students (x̅ = 2.35, sd = 0.99). the combined overall mean response (x̅ = 2.36, sd = 0.99) is also below the 2.50 cut-off point. these results suggest that the overall extent of e-learning utilization in distance learning programs at these universities is low. hypothesis 1: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of lecturers and students on the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. sn items lecturers students overall dec. the extent e-learning are being utilized in odl x̅ sd x̅ sd x̅ sd 9. all academic activities are carried out using e-learning. 2.09 0.85 2.03 0.82 2.04 0.82 le 10. lecturers and students access the internet in odl of your university. 2.98 1.11 2.93 1.20 2.94 1.19 ge 11. interactive presentations carried out in odl of your university. 3.09 1.11 2.91 1.15 2.93 1.14 ge 12. discussion forum/video conferencing done in odl of your university. 2.05 0.86 2.04 0.85 2.04 0.85 le 13. computer based examinations carried out in odl of your university. 2.38 1.05 2.32 1.07 2.33 1.06 le 14. virtual laboratories used for teaching and learning in odl of your university. 1.95 0.83 1.92 0.85 1.92 0.85 le 15. assignments issued and assessed online in odl of your university. 2.70 1.14 2.67 1.15 2.67 1.15 ge 16. virtual stimulations done in odl of your university. 2.10 0.87 1.99 0.82 2.00 0.83 le grand x̅ and sd 2.42 0.98 2.35 0.99 2.36 0.99 le global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 30 table 3: t-test of mean ratings of lecturers and students on the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria respondents n mean std. deviation t-cal df sig. dec. lecturers 171 2.35 0.48 1.56 1441 0.12 ns students 1272 2.29 0.36 table 3 shows the t-value for the difference in mean ratings between lecturers and students regarding the learning materials available for implementing e-learning in distance learning programs at government-owned universities in south east nigeria. the t-value is 1.56 at a 0.05 level of significance and 1441 degree of freedom. since the significance value (sig. = 0.12) is greater than the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis is accepted as stated. therefore, there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of lecturers and students on the learning materials available for the implementation of e-learning in these distance learning programs. hypothesis 2: there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of lecturers and students on extent of utilization of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria. table 4: t-test of mean ratings of lecturers and students on extent of utilization of e-learning in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria respondents n mean std. deviation t-cal df sig. dec. lecturers 171 2.42 0.48 1.76 1441 0.79 ns students 1272 2.35 0.36 table 4 presents the t-value for the difference in mean ratings between lecturers and students regarding the extent of e-learning utilization in distance learning programs at government-owned universities in south east nigeria. the t-value is 1.76 at a 0.05 level of significance with 1441 degree of freedom. since the significance value (sig. = 0.79) is greater than the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis is accepted. thus, there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of lecturers and students on the extent of e-learning utilization in these distance learning programmes. summary of findings the results of data analysis revealed that: 1. the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning delivery mode in distance learning programmes of the government-owned universities were mostly online libraries and online examination facilities. the other materials were not adequately available. there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of lecturers and students on the learning materials available for implementation of e-learning in distance learning programmes of these universities. 2. the extent to which e-learning is being utilized in distance learning programmes of government-owned universities in south east, nigeria, was low (that is, not adequate). there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of lecturers and students on extent of utilization of e-learning in distance learning programmes of universities in south east. conclusion the study highlights critical gaps in the availability and utilization of instructional media for e-learning in distance learning programmes at government-owned universities in south-east nigeria. these deficiencies hinder the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (10) pg. 31 effectiveness of e-learning as a delivery mode, limiting its ability to support quality education and accessibility. for these universities to fully harness the potential of e-learning, there is an urgent need to improve the provision of instructional media and to address barriers to their effective utilization. such efforts will enhance the overall quality of distance learning and contribute to the broader educational goals of inclusivity and innovation in the digital age. 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(2016). availability of e-learning facilities in teaching and learning of undergraduate business education in rivers state universities. international journal of education and evaluation, 3(5): 12-18. http://www.etfeuropa.eu/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 6; june-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 30 teacher engagement and classroom participation among music students 1yan chunying article info abstract keywords: engage & excel, student engagement, learning environment, teacher engagement, classroom participation doi 10.5281/zenodo.11616446 teachers play a pivotal role in shaping student outcomes through their involvement, passion, and commitment. this study investigated the correlation between teacher engagement and classroom participation among 292 surveyed students. the results revealed that teacher engagement was positively correlated with classroom participation (pearson r = 0.57, p < 0.001), signifying a moderate and positive relationship. the study assessed various domains, including emotional support, organization and management, parental engagement, academic support and enhancement, teacher influence, agency and equity, gender sensitivities, and interpersonal dynamics, all of which received favorable ratings from students, indicating their agreement with these aspects of classroom dynamics. based on these findings, the "engage & excel" program has been developed to enhance teacher engagement and create a more inclusive and participatory classroom environment, aligning with the principles of sociocultural theory, particularly vygotsky’s concept of the "zone of proximal development." this program empowers teachers with key strategies to promote active student engagement, ultimately fostering a conducive learning environment. 1. introduction across the globe, the crucial role of teachers in shaping student outcomes remains undisputed. their involvement, passion, and commitment can significantly influence a student’s motivation, comprehension, and overall classroom atmosphere. this relationship takes on an additional layer of depth in the realm of music education. in this arena, the educator’s role transcends mere instruction, demanding the nurturing of creativity, discipline, and a genuine love for art—including music. hunan’s musical landscape, with its tapestry woven from ancient folk traditions to contemporary expressions, exemplifies vibrancy and diversity. as the province ardently preserves and promotes its musical heritage, the challenge lies in effectively marrying tradition with contemporary pedagogical techniques. 1 adamson university https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 31 an engaged teacher stands as a beacon of inspiration. in music classrooms, engagement extends beyond standard teaching practices. it envelops a wide spectrum, ranging from hands-on demonstrations of musical techniques to enlightening students with historical and cultural contexts, all while cultivating fertile ground for creativity and critical reflection. the resonance of a music teacher’s commitment can be palpably felt in the students’ performance, their enthusiasm, and their approach to the art (amerstorfer et al., 2021). while there exists a substantial body of research on teacher engagement and its influence on students, a lacuna remains when contextualized within hunan’s unique cultural and educational landscape. given the region’s musical prominence and the vital role that music education assumes in maintaining its cultural continuum, there is a pressing need for in-depth inquiry in this domain. the primary thrust of this study was to discern the nuanced relationship between teacher engagement and student participation among music aficionados in hunan. the intent is to shed light on the intricacies, impediments, and potentialities that characterize hunan’s music education scenario. the insights gleaned will hold immense value for educators, policymakers, and stakeholders, not just within the confines of china but also in the broader global canvas of music education. 1.1. background of the study the intricate dynamics between teacher engagement and student participation have garnered significant attention in the recent educational research. notably, several studies have emphasized the influential role of perceived teacher support, student engagement, and teacher-student relationships in determining academic outcomes and classroom dynamics. in a meta-analytic study conducted by tao, meng, gao, and yang (2022), the relationship between students’ perceived teacher support and academic achievement was rigorously examined. rooted in the self-system process model, their research revealed a modest yet significant correlation between perceived teacher support and achievement (r = 0.16). their findings further elucidated that perceived teacher support had a greater impact on course grades than on standardized test scores, with upper-secondary students deriving the most benefit. in addition, their study determined that student engagement, in its general form and its sub-types—behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement—acted as a partial mediator in the relationship between perceived teacher support and student achievement. dewaele and li (2021) focused on the pivotal role of teacher enthusiasm in the educational milieu. their research posited that teacher enthusiasm could have a contagious effect in the classroom, subsequently fostering positive student outcomes. while their abstract provides an initial hint into this dimension, further exploration is required to understand the depth of this correlation. romano, angelini, consiglio, and fiorilli (2021) delved into the concept of academic resilience and its association with school engagement. their findings highlighted that students with higher academic resilience tended to be more engaged in school activities. their research identified perceived teacher emotional support as a significant mediator between academic resilience and school engagement, suggesting that fostering an environment of emotional support could amplify the effects of resilience on engagement. gan (2021) contended that teacher-student relationships play a quintessential role in language development. the study emphasized that various factors, including expectations, beliefs, and personalities of both teachers and students, intertwined to shape these interactions. gan’s research provided actionable recommendations to enhance the rapport between teachers and learners, further elevating the quality of english as a foreign language instruction. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 32 the reviewed literature consistently emphasizes the profound impact of teacher engagement on student classroom participation. across the studies, the teacher’s role, whether through active methods like role-play or guiding discourse in specialized subjects like science, emerges as a pivotal factor in shaping student participation. furthermore, there is a recurring theme highlighting the interplay of power dynamics, either in the broader sense of student empowerment or within specific contexts like gender dynamics. despite the extensive focus on teacher engagement and its impact, there is limited exploration of teacher training or professional development that might enhance their skills in facilitating inclusive participation. in addition, while gender dynamics have been discussed, other potential sociocultural or socioeconomic factors influencing participation need further exploration. another gap is the limited geographical diversity in the studies; for instance, much is centered on asian contexts like japan and hong kong, with limited insights from other global educational settings. there is also a relative absence of technology’s role, especially digital tools or online platforms, in shaping or influencing classroom participation in the modern age. 1.2. statement of the problem the primary aim of this study was to examine the correlation between teacher engagement and classroom participation among students. it specifically sought to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the assessment of the respondents on teacher engagement in terms of 1.1. emotional support 1.2. organization and management 1.3. parental engagement 1.4. academic support and enhancement 2. is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents on teacher engagement compared with the demographic profile? 3. what is the assessment of the respondents on their classroom participation in terms of 3.1. teacher influence 3.2. agency and equity 3.3. gender sensitivities 3.4. interpersonal dynamics 4. is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents’ classroom participation compared with their demographic profile? 5. is there a significant relationship between the assessed level of teacher engagement and classroom participation? 1.3. significance of the study with the research centered on exploring the relationship between teacher engagement and student classroom participation, the following cohorts could benefit from this study: students. learners stand benefitting directly from this study. if teachers can optimize their engagement strategies to foster higher levels of participation, students will likely experience more enriching and interactive learning environments. this can lead to better understanding, retention of material, and overall academic performance. teachers. this study will provide educators with insights into the efficacy of their engagement techniques. by understanding the direct link between their engagement and student participation, teachers can adapt their methods to create a more responsive and dynamic classroom environment. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 33 educational administrators. school principals, curriculum developers, and education board members can use the findings of this study to design teacher training programs, create resources, and set policies that promote optimal teacher engagement, directly influencing classroom participation. parents. parents will gain a better understanding of the classroom dynamics that most benefit their children. with this knowledge, they can advocate for teaching methods that prioritize engagement and support their children’s learning at home. future researchers. this study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on teacher engagement and classroom participation, providing a foundation for future research in the field. future researchers can build upon, refute, or expand these findings, leading to a more nuanced understanding of classroom dynamics. policymakers. those in positions of authority, such as in the department of education, can use the study’s results to shape educational policies. by acknowledging the correlation between teacher engagement and classroom participation, teachers can express policies that prioritize teacher training in this area. teacher training institutions. these institutions can incorporate the findings into their curricula, ensuring that the next generation of teachers is well-equipped to engage their students effectively and foster active classroom participation. 1.4. scope and delimitation the scope of this study was to understand the relationship between teacher engagement and classroom participation within educational settings. this investigation considered students within a specific-grade level, focusing on middle or high school students. the setting for this study was confined to select educational institutions or specific classrooms within a designated school district. the study was conducted during the second semester of the academic year 2023–2024. the main issues explored were the various teacher engagement strategies, students’ subsequent participation responses, and any underlying elements that either hindered or facilitated this interaction. this study also focused on 292 student respondents. on the other hand, the delimitations limited the extent of the study. while the primary objective was to decipher the correlation between teacher engagement and classroom participation, the study did not explore external factors affecting classroom participation, like parental involvement or socioeconomic conditions, unless they are intrinsically tied to teacher engagement methodologies. the choice of educational setting further limited the study, as the research conducted in urban public schools might not be directly transferrable to rural or private school contexts. similarly, by focusing on a particular-grade level, the findings may not be extrapolated to students outside this range. additionally, while certain teacher engagement strategies are under scrutiny, others, especially those not prevalent in the selected setting or grade, might be outside the study’s purview. 1.5. theoretical framework the selection of sociocultural theory, with a specific focus on vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (zpd), as the theoretical framework for understanding classroom participation, offers a nuanced perspective on the interplay between individual cognitive development and social contexts. sociocultural theory underscores the profound influence of social interactions, cultural backgrounds, and personal beliefs on cognitive growth, all of which are intricately intertwined within the dynamics of classroom participation. in essence, classroom participation serves as a microcosm of these sociocultural interactions, where students’ cognitive development is shaped not only by their individual abilities but also by the guidance and support provided by their peers and instructors. vygotsky’s zpd is particularly pertinent in this context, as it delineates global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 34 the gap between what learners can achieve independently and what they can accomplish with the assistance of a more knowledgeable individual, such as a teacher. by applying the concept of the zpd to classroom participation, we can discern how teachers play a pivotal role in scaffolding students’ learning experiences. through strategic instructional practices, constructive feedback mechanisms, and adept classroom management strategies, teachers create an environment that encourages students to operate within their zpd. this fosters a dynamic where students are continually challenged and supported to reach their full potential. the congruence between vygotsky’s theoretical framework and empirical studies on classroom participation underscores the critical role of teacher facilitation in fostering student engagement and academic success. these studies consistently highlight the importance of teachers in cultivating a supportive and inclusive classroom environment where students feel empowered to participate actively in their own learning process. by embracing sociocultural theory and vygotsky’s zpd, educators can gain deeper insights into the complex interplay between individual cognition and social interactions within the classroom. this understanding can inform pedagogical practices aimed at optimizing classroom dynamics and promoting meaningful student engagement and learning outcomes. thus, sociocultural theory offers a robust foundation for enhancing classroom participation and fostering student development in educational settings. 2. methodology the methodology section expounds on the approach adopted in this study. this section outlines the research locale, sample and sampling technique, data gathering procedure, and statistical analysis. 2.1. research locale this research was conducted at the music and dance academy of hunan university of humanities and science, a distinguished institution established in 1999. the college boasts a diverse array of undergraduate programs encompassing musicology, dance science, and dance choreography, with the former recognized as a premier professional construction site in hunan province. the student population exceeds 1,200 and is supported by a dedicated faculty of 67 members. this includes two professors, 17 associate professors, 15 with doctoral qualifications, and several honorees with prestigious titles such as provincial-level young teaching experts and high-level performers. the college also benefits from the expertise of over 10 industry specialists who serve as guest educators. 2.2. sample and sampling technique the study targeted students majoring in music in the music and dance academy of hunan university of humanities and science as its accessible population. of the 1,200 students in the college, a scientifically determined sample was selected to ensure accurate representation and insights. utilizing the raosoft sample size calculator and setting parameters such as a margin of error of 5%, a level of confidence of 95%, and a response distribution of 50%, it was ascertained that a total of 292 students will be surveyed for this research. this approach ensured a balance between feasibility and precision, allowing reliable conclusions to be drawn from the collected data. the research employed simple random sampling (srs). this approach ensured that every student from the music and dance academy of hunan university of humanities and science had an equal chance of being selected for the study. by using srs, the study aimed to achieve a representative and unbiased sample, eliminating potential selection biases and ensuring that all students from diverse courses and specializations within the college are equally represented. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 35 2.3. data gathering procedure the process of collecting data for this study was conducted with considerable attention to detail, guaranteeing precision, uniformity, and thorough inclusiveness. this procedure unfolded across multiple phases, with each step adding to the all-encompassing comprehension of the relationship between teacher engagement and classroom participation within the realm of music students. 1. preliminary coordination and permission before the start of data collection, formal permission was obtained from the administration of the music and dance college of hunan university of humanities and science. a brief proposal outlining the research objectives, methodologies, and potential benefits was submitted to the relevant authorities for approval. 2. selection of respondents the sample size of 292 students was determined using the raosoft sample size calculator. these students were selected using simple random sampling to ensure that every student had an equal chance of being part of the study. 3. distribution of questionnaires once the sample was selected, the research instruments were distributed to the participants. they were briefed about the purpose of the study, the importance of their genuine responses, and the confidentiality of their responses. 4. administration of the questionnaires the students were given sufficient time to complete the three-part questionnaire. the first part collects demographic details; the second will gauge teacher engagement, and the third evaluates classroom participation. the researcher was present during this process to clarify any doubts or concerns that the participants might have. 5. collection and safe storage after the completion of the questionnaires, they were collected and stored securely, and any identifying information was removed or anonymized to maintain confidentiality. 6. data processing once all data were gathered, they were checked for completeness. any incomplete questionnaires were set aside, and only fully completed questionnaires were considered for analysis. 2.4. statistical analysis an in-depth statistical analysis of the scores from the teacher engagement and classroom participation questionnaires was conducted. central to this was the computation of the mean to depict the average score for each construct, accompanied by the standard deviation to gauge the spread or variation of the scores. to explore potential differences in teacher engagement and classroom participation based on demographic profiles, specific statistical tests were administered. for comparisons involving two distinct groups, such as male versus female students, an independent t-test was employed. on the other hand, for more complex comparisons, particularly those spanning multiple groups like year levels, analysis of variance (anova) was the preferred method. should anova yield significant differences, subsequent post hoc tests will pinpoint the groups that exhibit these variations. delving deeper into the relationship between teacher engagement and classroom participation, the pearson r correlation coefficient was harnessed. this helped in discerning the strength and directionality of the bond between these variables, offering clarity on how one might influence the others. the correlation coefficient's magnitude signaled the robustness of the relationship, with its sign indicating directionality. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 36 to facilitate the interpretation of the mean scores for teacher engagement and classroom participation, the following scale was used: score range verbal descriptor interpretation 3.51 – 4.00 strongly agree extensive 2.51 – 3.50 agree thorough 1.51 – 2.50 disagree minimal 1.00 – 1.50 strongly disagree lacking 3. results and analysis this section offers an in-depth examination of the data collected from participants in the study. this section elaborates on the results and their relevance concerning the research questions posed, providing a comprehensive understanding of the study’s outcomes. table 1. summary of teacher engagement domains mean sd verbal description and interpretation rank emotional support 3.48 0.59 agree/thorough 3 organization and management 3.49 0.56 agree/thorough 1 parental engagement 3.41 0.62 agree/thorough 4 academic support and enhancement 3.49 0.55 agree/thorough 1 teacher engagement (overall) 3.47 0.58 agree/thorough table 1 presents an aggregate assessment of teacher engagement across four domains: emotional support, organization and management, parental engagement, and academic support and enhancement. it provides a comprehensive view of the perceived effectiveness of teacher engagement from the students’ perspective. in the domain of emotional support, the mean score is 3.48 with a standard deviation of 0.59, which ranks third among the domains and corresponds to an "agree/thorough" verbal interpretation. this suggests that students feel that their teacher is quite supportive of their emotional needs, with a fairly consistent sentiment across the respondents. organization and management, along with academic support and enhancement, share the highest mean score of 3.49, with standard deviations of 0.56 and 0.55, respectively. both domains are tied for the top rank, indicating that students strongly agree that the teacher is well-organized and provides substantial academic support. these domains appear to be the strongest areas of teacher engagement. parental engagement had a slightly lower mean score of 3.41 with a standard deviation of 0.62, placing it in the fourth rank. despite being the lowest among the domains, the interpretation remains "agree/thorough," implying that while students feel there is engagement with parents, it is slightly less consistent or strong compared with the other areas. the overall teacher engagement score was calculated as a mean of 3.47 with a standard deviation of 0.58. this suggests a high level of engagement across all domains, with consistent agreement among the students. the lack of a rank for the overall teacher engagement score indicates that it is an overarching assessment rather than a comparative measure. in summary, table 1 showcases a positive assessment of teacher engagement in various domains according to student perceptions. the consistency in verbal interpretation across all domains indicates a thorough level of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 37 agreement on the effectiveness of the teacher engagement strategies. the slight variations in mean scores and standard deviations across the domains provide nuanced insight into the areas where the teacher excels and where there may be room for improvement. in the context of existing literature, the findings correlate with those of tao et al. (2022), who discovered a positive relationship between perceived teacher support and academic achievement, especially in the emotional support domain. the importance of organization and management, as reflected in the table, aligns with nguyen et al. (2022), who noted the significance of structure in enhancing student engagement. table 1 also suggests that while all areas of teacher engagement are seen positively, there are slight variances in the level of agreement among students. these nuances can have significant implications when developing strategies to enhance teacher-student relationships and, subsequently, student academic outcomes. considering the broader literature, perceived teacher engagement in all domains is crucial for fostering not only academic achievement but also resilience, motivation, and a conducive learning environment. studies by dewaele and li (2021), romano et al. (2021), gan (2021), and others emphasize the importance of emotional support, structured classroom management, and proactive academic engagement in contributing to effective teaching and positive student outcomes. uniform agreement across these domains, as indicated by the verbal description "agree/thorough," points to a shared understanding of the importance of teacher engagement in these areas. the studies by zheng (2021), doño and mangila (2021), and derakhshan (2021) further reinforce the importance of nonverbal communication, clarity, and immediacy in teacher-student interactions. these elements are likely to contribute to the positive perceptions of teacher engagement reported in the table. moreover, the literature underscores the role of teacher enthusiasm (dewaele & li, 2021), teacher-student collaboration (juuti et al., 2021), and teacher emotional labor (burić & frenzel, 2020) as influential factors in student engagement. these factors may well be reflected in the table’s indicators, especially in the high-ranking domains of organization and management and academic support and enhancement. table 2. level of classroom participation domains mean sd verbal description and interpretation rank teacher influence 3.49 0.54 agree/thorough 1 agency and equity 3.49 0.53 agree/thorough 3 gender sensitivities 3.49 0.53 agree/thorough 3 interpersonal dynamics 3.49 0.54 agree/thorough 1 classroom participation (overall) 3.49 0.54 agree/thorough table 2 summarizes the assessment of students’ perceptions of various aspects of classroom participation. the table is broken down into domains such as teacher influence, agency and equity, gender sensitivities, and interpersonal dynamics, with corresponding mean scores, standard deviations (sd), and ranks based on the mean scores. the verbal description provided for each domain is "agree/thorough," indicating a consensus among students in their positive evaluation of these aspects. each domain received a mean score of 3.49, which shows a strong agreement among the students in recognizing the positive influence of these factors on their classroom participation. the scores suggest that students feel that their teacher plays a significant role in facilitating classroom engagement, promoting fairness and agency, being sensitive to gender dynamics, and effectively managing interpersonal relationships. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 38 the standard deviation for all domains was relatively low (between 0.53 and 0.54), indicating a homogeneous response across the student body. this homogeneity points to a shared perception that the classroom environment is inclusive and supportive, which is conducive to active participation. the domains of teacher influence and interpersonal dynamics are particularly highlighted, both ranking 1st. this demonstrates that students strongly feel that the teacher’s personal attributes and their interaction with students significantly foster participation. agency and equity, along with gender sensitivities, are also highly regarded by the students, both ranking third, reinforcing the importance of a classroom environment where students feel empowered and respected regardless of their background or gender. the overall composite score for classroom participation is also 3.49 with an sd of 0.54, which is not assigned a rank but is accompanied by the verbal interpretation "agree/thorough." this composite score underscores a collective affirmation of the supportive and engaging nature of the classroom as perceived by the students, indicating a healthy participatory culture facilitated by the teacher’s efforts in various domains. the results outlined in table 2, "level of classroom participation," when considered in the context of the literature review, offer a multidimensional understanding of student participation in the classroom. the literature posits that participation is crucial for shaping student outcomes and that the nature and quality of interaction in the classroom setting are significant factors in this dynamic. the mean scores across the domains of teacher influence, agency and equity, gender sensitivities, and interpersonal dynamics in table 2 all stand at 3.49, with a standard deviation of 0.53–0.54, indicating a high level of agreement among students that their participation is supported in these areas. these findings are consistent with the literature suggesting that various forms of teacher engagement, including immediacy and supportive demeanor, positively influence student participation (hussain et al., 2020; ahmad, 2018). the literature stresses the importance of creating an environment where students of all backgrounds feel encouraged to participate, which aligns with the high rankings for agency, equity, and gender sensitivities. the proactive steps taken by teachers to create a gender-neutral and unbiased classroom culture, as reflected in the table, can be seen as a response to the disparities highlighted by aguillon et al. (2020) and the need for fostering an inclusive learning environment, as suggested by bergmark and westman (2018). interpersonal dynamics received the top rank alongside teacher influence, suggesting that the supportive communication style of teachers and their constructive feedback are key to encouraging even quieter students to engage in discussions. this is in line with sedova and navràtilovà’s (2020) emphasis on the significance of addressing silent participants in the classroom and the overall thrust toward interactive instructional strategies advocated by dhamija and dhamija (2020). the uniform verbal description across all domains of "agree/thorough" underscores a consensus that the factors influencing classroom participation are well addressed. this is further supported by the interconnectedness of these factors as explored in the literature, from the direct positive correlation between a teacher’s behavior and the level of student participation to the role of gamification in enhancing classroom engagement (beemer et al., 2019). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 39 table 3. relationship between teacher engagement and classroom participation variables emotional support organization and management parental engagement academic support and enhancement teacher engagement teacher influence pearson r 0.57 0.50 0.59 0.53 0.48 p-value 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.03 agency and equity pearson r 0.54 0.60 0.44 0.44 0.41 p-value 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 gender sensitivities pearson r 0.49 0.54 0.59 0.45 0.52 p-value 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 interpersonal dynamics pearson r 0.55 0.43 0.48 0.55 0.59 p-value 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 classroom participation pearson r 0.59 0.44 0.49 0.46 0.57 p-value 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00 *level of significance = 0.05 table 3 presents the correlation between teacher engagement and various dimensions of classroom participation, including emotional support, organization and management, parental engagement, academic support and enhancement, teacher influence, agency and equity, gender sensitivities, and interpersonal dynamics. the analysis revealed significant positive correlations across several dimensions. emotional support exhibits a moderate positive correlation with teacher influence (pearson r = 0.57, p = 0.03), indicating that teachers who provide emotional support tend to have a stronger influence on classroom dynamics. similarly, organization and management showed a significant positive correlation with teacher influence (pearson r = 0.50, p = 0.02), suggesting that well-managed classrooms are associated with greater teacher influence. parental engagement demonstrates a noteworthy positive correlation with teacher influence (pearson r = 0.59, p = 0.02), implying that teachers who effectively engage parents tend to wield more influence in the classroom. academic support and enhancement exhibited the strongest correlation with teacher influence (pearson r = 0.53, p = 0.00), highlighting the critical role of academic support in shaping teacher influence. moreover, agency and equity demonstrate a significant positive correlation with teacher engagement across various dimensions, indicating that teachers who promote agency and equity tend to be more engaged in classroom interactions. gender sensitivities also exhibit significant positive correlations with teacher engagement, further underlining the importance of addressing gender dynamics in fostering teacher engagement. overall, the findings underscore the intricate relationship between teacher engagement and classroom participation, emphasizing the significance of emotional support, organization and management, parental engagement, academic support, agency, equity, gender sensitivities, and interpersonal dynamics in shaping teacher influence and engagement in the classroom. interpreted in light of sociocultural theory, and more specifically through the lens of vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" (zpd), these results can have profound implications. vygotsky’s zpd refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. teacher engagement can be seen as a critical component of the scaffolding that occurs within this zone. the moderate, positive correlation between teacher engagement and classroom participation suggests that when teachers are more engaged—providing appropriate challenges, support, feedback, and encouragement—students global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 40 are more likely to actively participate in the learning process. this active participation is essential for learning and development because it is through participation that students encounter challenges that are just beyond their current capabilities, which vygotsky considered crucial for cognitive development. furthermore, the significant statistical relationship highlights that teacher engagement may facilitate students to operate within their zpd, as engaged teachers are likely to be more attuned to the individual needs of their students, providing scaffolding that is tailored to help each student progress. this individualized support can help students feel more competent and confident, thereby increasing their willingness to participate in class, ask questions, seek help, and take intellectual risks—all of which are behaviors that occur within the zpd and lead to learning and development. the results of this study emphasize the pivotal role of teacher engagement in fostering an inclusive, equitable, and interactive learning environment that supports student participation. the uniform perception of teacher engagement across demographic lines and the positive correlation between teacher engagement and student participation align with educational theories that highlight the importance of supportive and responsive teacherstudent 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research delves into the impact of ei on leadership efficacy by surveying 276 teachers to gauge the perceived effectiveness of leaders in relation to their emotional competencies. the study utilized a correlational design, revealing that domain of ei— such as self-awareness and regulation, empathy and social awareness, interpersonal effectiveness, and particularly motivation and achievement orientation—are positively correlated with perceptions of leadership effectiveness. higher ei levels were consistently associated with enhanced leadership performance, with the strongest agreement in areas like pedagogical leadership, transformational and transactional behaviors, and notably, adaptive leadership in challenging times. the significant pearson r coefficient of 0.90, with a p-value of 0.000, underscored a robust positive relationship between ei and effective leadership. on the basis of these insights, the research advocates for a targeted faculty development program aimed at bolstering emotional competencies to translate into heightened leadership effectiveness, thereby fostering a supportive and progressive educational environment. 1. introduction leadership is not just about possessing a superior academic record, administrative prowess, or strategic planning acumen. it is increasingly about understanding, managing, and leveraging emotions in an environment teeming with diverse challenges and stakeholders. the role of emotional intelligence (ei) has emerged as an imperative construct in the discourse on leadership effectiveness. ei, initially conceptualized by salovey and mayer (1990) and popularized by goleman (1995), encompasses the ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions. research over the past decades has empirically 1adamson univers i ty https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 2 demonstrated the transformative impact of ei on leadership across sectors, yet its role in the context of educational leadership, especially in specific cultural contexts like hunan, china, remains underexplored. hunan, a province nestled in the heart of china, represents a microcosm of the country’s expansive educational and cultural heritage. the province’s schools, characterized by a juxtaposition of traditional educational methodologies and a fervor for modern pedagogical innovations, call for administrators who can navigate the complex sociocultural dynamics intrinsic to the province. the relationship between ei and leadership effectiveness is not merely transactional. effective leadership, particularly in the field of education, requires an intricate dance of empathy, interpersonal relationships, selfawareness, and regulation. an administrator’s ability to comprehend the emotional underpinnings of teacher motivations, student needs, and parental concerns can profoundly shape educational outcomes and institutional culture. moreover, in china, where confucian values emphasize harmony, respect, and balance, the role of ei may be even more pronounced. these values, deeply embedded in the psyche of the people, require school administrators to act not just as managerial heads but also as nurturers of a harmonious educational environment. however, research on the interplay between ei and leadership effectiveness in the context of hunan's educational institutions is sparse. this gap is surprising, considering the growing emphasis on holistic education and the pivotal role of administrators in shaping it. in addition, as china steadily rises as a global powerhouse, understanding leadership paradigms in its educational institutions becomes even more critical, offering insights not only for the nation but also for global educational leadership models. this research endeavors to bridge this knowledge gap by deepening the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness among school administrators in hunan, china. through this exploration, we shed light on the nuances of leadership in a province steeped in tradition yet eager for modernization. moreover, by understanding the role of ei in bolstering leadership effectiveness, we hope to provide actionable insights that can be integrated into training and developmental programs for current and future school administrators in hunan and beyond. 1.1. background of the study the subject of emotional intelligence (ei) has garnered considerable attention in recent years, especially in relation to its impact on job satisfaction and leadership in educational environments. several notable studies have delved into various facets of this theme, shedding light on the intricate relationship between ei and effective leadership. sharma and chalhotra (2022) posit that job satisfaction extends beyond the mere contentment employees feel with their daily tasks. the study articulates that job satisfaction encompasses satisfaction with team members, company policies, the impact of work on personal life, and interactions with superiors. furthermore, they underline ei's central role in ensuring greater job satisfaction. this is especially evident when employees exhibit the necessary skills, chiefly emotional intelligence, to accomplish their objectives. teachers identified factors such as low wages, infrastructural issues, and teacher shortages as primary contributors to job dissatisfaction. heffernan and mills (2022) delve into the intricate emotional work involved in leading schools in marginalized communities. through case studies of principals in australia and england, the research is framed using lynch’s concept of affective justice, spotlighting love, care, and solidarity. the findings underline the immense emotional investment that school leaders make and the potential toll it takes on their personal relationships. this study empowers principals to navigate these emotional complexities without compromising their well-being. zarifsanaiey, mehrabi, z. kashefian-naeeini, and mustapha (2022) highlight the profound impact of digital storytelling on the social and emotional intelligence of female elementary students. this study employed a global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 3 quantitative methodology to discern significant enhancements in the students’ ei and social intelligence when digital storytelling was combined with group discussions. this lends credence to the idea of harnessing modern pedagogical tools to cultivate emotional intelligence among students. drawing threads from both domains, a clear pattern emerges: emotional intelligence and effective leadership are inherently intertwined and play pivotal roles in education. emotional intelligence catalyzes individual success by enhancing cognitive processes and interpersonal relationships. meanwhile, leadership, whether entrepreneurial, pedagogical, or instructional, determines the trajectory of educational institutions. when these two forces converge—where leaders in education harness their emotional intelligence—it potentially sets the stage for optimized learning environments, progressive institutional practices, and holistic student development. the available literature underscores the pressing need for cultivating emotional intelligence in leaders within the educational sector. as schools and educational systems grapple with the challenges of the 21st century, eiequipped leadership could very well be the linchpin ensuring resilience, adaptability, and overall institutional success. 1.2. statement of the problem the primary objective of this research was to delve deeper into the impact of emotional intelligence on the efficacy of leadership within the realm of education. it specifically sought to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the assessment of the respondents on their school administrators’ emotional intelligence in terms of 1.1. self-awareness and regulation 1.2. empathy and social awareness 1.3. interpersonal effectiveness 1.4. motivation and achievement orientation 2. is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents on their school administrators’ emotional intelligence compared with their demographic profile? 3. what is the assessment of the respondents on their school administrators’ leadership effectiveness in terms of 3.1. pedagogical leadership 3.2. transformational and transactional behaviors 3.3. stakeholder collaboration and community engagement 3.4. adaptive leadership in challenging times 4. is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents on their school administrators’ leadership effectiveness compared with their demographic profile? 5. is there a significant relationship between the assessed level of emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness? 1.3. significance of the study the following groups could benefit from this study: educational leaders and administrators. gaining insights into the correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness can help educational leaders understand the value of nurturing emotional competencies. this can influence their decision-making processes, interpersonal relationships, and overall leadership practices, potentially resulting in more effective management and leadership strategies. teachers and educational staff. recognizing the importance of emotional intelligence in leadership can enhance collaborative efforts in schools. when teachers and staff understand the traits and behaviors associated with global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 4 effective leadership rooted in emotional intelligence, they can better support and collaborate with their leaders, fostering a more harmonious and productive educational environment. students. effective leadership influenced by emotional intelligence can lead to a more positive and conducive learning environment. this can enhance the quality of education, student engagement, and overall student outcomes. policymakers and educational boards. the findings can guide policy decisions related to leadership training, professional development, and hiring practices. if emotional intelligence proves to be a significant factor in leadership effectiveness, it might be prioritized in leadership training programs and recruitment processes. future researchers. this study can contribute to the growing body of literature on emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness, offering new insights and potentially guiding future research endeavors in this area. 1.4. scope and delimitation the primary respondents for this study are teachers who are tasked with evaluating the performance and leadership capabilities of administrators. spanning a sample size of 276 teachers, the study aimed to have a comprehensive understanding of the role of emotional intelligence in leadership. geographically, the focus was on a specific district, subsequently shaping the applicability and generalizability of the findings. the research’s timeframe may either offer a cross-sectional glimpse into the current situation or adopt a longitudinal stance, tracing changes over a defined period. while the research sought depth and clarity, there are inherent boundaries and delimitations. for instance, the exclusive focus on teachers as respondents, while offering a grassroots perspective, also means that the study might not capture viewpoints from other educational stakeholders. similarly, while the intent is to gauge the leadership effectiveness of administrators, certain nuances, such as their cognitive intelligence or other leadership styles, might be given less attention. geographical constraints could also play a role, as the study, for practical or other reasons, might be restricted to a specific district or region, thus influencing the broader resonance of the findings. in terms of participant selection, specific criteria such as teaching experience or subject specialization might influence the selection, thereby framing the context of responses. 1.5. theoretical framework the theoretical framework for studying leadership effectiveness in education posits that optimal educational leadership is an interplay between emotional intelligence (ei) and specific educational leadership behaviors. drawing from mayer and salovey’s and goleman’s models, this framework underscores the significance of leaders’ capacities to perceive, understand, regulate, and harness emotions for cognitive activities. these ei competencies enable leaders to empathetically relate to stakeholders, manage challenges, and drive motivation within the educational environment. concurrently, principles from transformational and instructional leadership theories emphasize the role of leaders in inspiring and challenging their teams, providing clear direction, and emphasizing the school’s academic mission and culture. this melding of emotional intelligence and educational leadership constructs suggests that the most effective leaders in education are those who can adeptly combine emotional insights with educational leadership practices to cultivate positive learning environments and drive institutional success. by integrating emotional intelligence into the framework, the study recognizes that leadership, particularly in the nuanced environment of education, requires more than just task-oriented competencies. emotionally intelligent leaders are adept at understanding their own emotions, managing them, recognizing emotions in others, and using this awareness to guide their decision-making. such abilities are vital in an educational setting where leaders often global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 5 deal with diverse stakeholders, including students, parents, teachers, and administrative staff, each with unique emotional and cognitive dynamics. the inclusion of educational leadership behaviors, specifically transformational and instructional leadership practices, underscores the practical and strategic aspects of leadership in schools. transformational leaders inspire and challenge their teams, pushing them toward excellence. instructional leaders, however, remain closely aligned with the academic mission of the institution, ensuring that pedagogical practices are optimal. in educational settings, where the primary goal is student achievement and holistic development, these leadership behaviors are paramount. connecting the framework to the study situates leadership effectiveness not as a singular, isolated trait but as a composite outcome of emotionally resonant interactions and strong instructional and transformational practices. furthermore, this integrated perspective can offer invaluable insights for training programs, recruitment processes, and policy interventions, ensuring that future leaders in education are well-equipped both emotionally and practically to navigate the challenges of the modern educational landscape. 2. methodology this section outlines the strategy employed in this investigation. it begins with a research blueprint designed to investigate the correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. subsequent details encompass the procedures for sampling, including the geographical area, intended participants, and selection methodologies. 2.1. research locale the chosen setting for this research is the esteemed hunan university of humanities and science, an academic institution with a distinguished history dating back to 1978. originally established as a school, the institution gained university status in 2004, marking a significant milestone in its evolution. at present, hunan university comprises 14 secondary colleges, offering a diverse range of 53 full-time undergraduate majors and a comprehensive master’s program. 2.2. sample and sampling technique the participant pool consisted of 966 faculty members at the hunan university of humanities and science. given the diverse range of expertise and roles within this group, careful consideration was essential to ensure that the sampling method adequately captures this diversity while also yielding reliable outcomes. to determine the appropriate sample size, the raosoft online calculator was used. applying the parameters of a population size of 966, a margin of error set at 5%, a confidence level of 95%, and a distribution rate of 50%, the calculated sample size recommended for the study is 276 respondents. the selection of these 276 respondents was performed using simple random sampling. the use of simple random sampling remains justified in the context of examining the emotional intelligence of school administrators as perceived by the faculty at the hunan university of humanities and science. this approach ensures fairness and impartiality in selecting participants, ultimately contributing to the credibility and generalizability of the study’s outcomes. 2.3. data gathering procedure the data-gathering procedure for this study was executed meticulously, ensuring accuracy, consistency, and comprehensive coverage. the study was conducted during the second semester of the academic year 2023–2024. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 6 1. preparation and orientation before data collection began, the participants were informed about the study’s objectives, their involvement, and the confidentiality of their responses. an orientation session was conducted to clarify any questions or concerns. 2. distribution of questionnaires the questionnaires were distributed to faculty members of the hunan university of humanities and science, who completed them at their convenience. 3. data collection the participants completed the questionnaire and provided their responses on the questionnaire prepared. an online version of the questionnaire was used to facilitate data collection. 4. validity and reliability checks completed questionnaires were reviewed to ensure that all items were answered appropriately. a validity check was conducted to verify the content alignment of the questionnaire items with the constructs identified in the literature. reliability was assessed using statistical techniques like cronbach's alpha to confirm the internal consistency of items within each construct. 5. data compilation and analysis once the completed questionnaires were collected, the data were compiled and organized for analysis. descriptive statistics were used for the analysis. 2.4. statistical analysis the study’s data analysis process encompassed a comprehensive approach, strategically designed to unravel the intricate correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness among school administrators. the constructs of emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness were analyzed using mean and standard deviation (sd) values. these statistical measures offered a central tendency view of participants’ responses, enabling a closer look at their perceptions of emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. the standard deviation provided valuable insights into the dispersion and variability of these perceptions among the participants. to explore potential variations in emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness based on different demographic factors, the study employed independent t-tests and anova. these methods enabled the investigation of whether statistically significant differences exist between different demographic groups in terms of their perceptions of emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. furthermore, the correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness was probed using pearson's correlation coefficient (r). this analytical tool quantified the strength and direction of the relationship between these two constructs, thus contributing to a deeper understanding of their interplay. to facilitate the interpretation of the mean scores for emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness, the following scale was used: score range verbal descriptor interpretation 3.51 – 4.00 strongly agree highly evident 2.51 – 3.50 agree moderately evident 1.51 – 2.50 disagree slightly evident 1.00 – 1.50 strongly disagree poorly evident global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 7 3. results and analysis this section presents a comprehensive examination of the data collected from the participants. table 1. summary of emotional intelligence domains mean sd verbal description and interpretation rank self-awareness and regulation 3.42 0.34 agree/evident 4 empathy and social awareness 3.45 0.30 agree/evident 3 interpersonal effectiveness 3.48 0.31 agree/evident 2 motivation and achievement orientation 3.49 0.30 agree/evident 1 emotional intelligence (overall) 3.46 0.27 agree/evident scale: 1-1.50: strongly disagree/poorly evident; 1.51-2.50: disagree/slightly evident; 2.51-3.50: agree/evident; 3.51-4.00: strongly agree/highly evident table 1 summarizes the overall level of emotional intelligence (ei) among school administrators as rated by faculty members, broken down into four domains: self-awareness and regulation, empathy and social awareness, interpersonal effectiveness, and motivation and achievement orientation. each domain is evaluated on the basis of mean scores, standard deviations (sd), and ranks and provided with a verbal description or interpretation. the domain ranked highest in ei is "motivation and achievement orientation" with a mean score of 3.49 and the lowest sd of 0.30, indicating a strong agreement among respondents that school administrators exhibit this quality and that there is a consistent perception of this across the faculty. this domain is described verbally as "agree/evident." closely following is "interpersonal effectiveness" with a mean score of 3.48 and an sd of 0.31, ranking second. this suggests that administrators are also highly regarded for their interpersonal skills, with faculty members largely in agreement. the overall ei score, representing a composite of all domains, is 3.46 with the smallest sd of 0.27, highlighting that respondents generally agree that administrators demonstrate ei. the low sd suggests that this perception is consistent among the faculty members surveyed. table 1 provides a clear picture of how faculty members perceive the emotional intelligence of administrators positively across all domains, with slight variations in the degree of consensus for each domain. the verbal descriptions across all domains being "agree/evident" reinforces the notion that these emotional intelligence qualities are present and recognized among school administrators. integrating the survey results with the scholarly literature reveals a cohesive narrative about the role of emotional intelligence (ei) in educational leadership and its implications for faculty satisfaction and school climate. the survey results demonstrate that faculty members perceive their administrators as possessing high levels of ei across various domains, including self-awareness, empathy, interpersonal effectiveness, and motivation. this agrees with sharma and chalhotra’s (2022) assertion that job satisfaction extends beyond daily tasks to include interactions with superiors and organizational policies. such a high perception of ei among administrators could contribute to a positive work atmosphere and overall job satisfaction. suleman et al. (2020) reinforced this view, emphasizing the crucial role of ei in job satisfaction, particularly in leadership roles. the literature suggests that the emotional labor involved in leading schools, especially in marginalized communities, is substantial (heffernan & mills, 2022). the survey results mirror this by highlighting the administrators’ ability to empathize and maintain social awareness, indicating a capacity to navigate emotional complexities without compromising their well-being. furthermore, the literature emphasizes the importance of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 8 ei in managing crises and rapid transformations (prystai, 2022). the survey findings suggest that administrators are adaptable and effective in their roles, echoing the need for high ei during tumultuous times, such as the covid-19 pandemic. moreover, research across various studies (gómez-leal et al., 2021; patel & tarjani, 2020; kiprawi et al., 2020) underpins the integral role of ei in school leadership. the survey corroborates these findings, presenting a narrative in which ei is not just a beneficial trait but a cornerstone of effective educational leadership. this is further substantiated by studies linking ei with reduced burnout and stress, highlighting its buffering effects in challenging work environments (silbaugh et al., 2021; mérida-lópez & extremera, 2021; ahmed, 2018). lastly, while the survey data do not delve into the gender dynamics of administrators, the literature points to potential differences in ei management between genders (patel & tarjani, 2020; raman et al., 2020). this suggests a nuanced layer of analysis that could further inform the understanding of ei in educational leadership. additionally, the correlation between personality traits and ei (nawi et al., 2018; al-nasser & al-enezy, 2018) may provide insights into the individual characteristics that contribute to the high levels of ei observed among administrators. table 2. summary of leadership effectiveness domains mean sd verbal description and interpretation rank pedagogical leadership 3.47 0.31 agree/evident 4 transformational and transactional behaviors 3.50 0.30 agree/evident 2 stakeholder collaboration and community engagement 3.49 0.32 agree/evident 3 adaptive leadership in challenging times 3.52 0.30 strongly agree/highly evident 1 leadership effectiveness (overall) 3.50 0.28 agree/evident table 2 summarizes the overall level of leadership effectiveness across various domains, as perceived by survey respondents. this includes mean scores, standard deviations (sds), ranks, and verbal interpretations for each domain of leadership. the domain of "adaptive leadership in challenging times" is ranked highest with a mean score of 3.52 and an sd of 0.30, and is described as "strongly agree/highly evident." this suggests that faculty members perceive their leaders as the most effective in adapting to changes and handling unforeseen challenges, reflecting a strong belief in their abilities to navigate difficult situations successfully. "transformational and transactional behaviors" come in second with a mean score of 3.50 and an sd of 0.30, falling under the "agree/evident" category. this indicates that respondents generally agree that their leaders exhibit both transformational leadership qualities (inspiring and motivating) and transactional leadership qualities (managing operations and rewarding performance). the composite score for "leadership effectiveness" is 3.50 with an sd of 0.28, which is interpreted as "agree/evident." this overall score reflects a generally favorable perception of leadership effectiveness, signifying that, on average, respondents agree that their school leaders are effective across all measured domains. the relatively low sd across the domains indicates a strong consensus among the respondents regarding the effectiveness of their leadership. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 9 hayat, ihsan, and tufail (2023) stress the art of motivation in leadership, a theme that resonates with the high scores for "transformational and transactional behaviors" and "adaptive leadership in challenging times." the importance of anticipation, alignment, and action in leadership can be seen in the strong agreement on leaders’ effectiveness in communicating vision, managing operational tasks, and fostering a culture of continuous improvement. baxter and ehren (2023) emphasize the critical role of trust in leadership, a concept that can be paralleled with the survey findings of strong stakeholder collaboration and community engagement. trust seems to be implicit in the positive assessment of leaders’ ability to collaborate with a range of stakeholders, maintain open communication, and engage with the community. drukda (2022) discusses the decoupling of occupational self-efficacy from transformational leadership, which could explain the slightly lower rank for "pedagogical leadership" compared to other domains. this may suggest that while leaders are seen as effective, their transformational behavior does not necessarily correlate with teachers’ self-efficacy in this sample, aligning with drukda’s findings in bhutan. razi and nadi (2022) introduced the concept of "quantum leadership skills," which could be linked to the highestranked domain of "adaptive leadership in challenging times" (table 11). the significant difference in thinking styles and knowledge presentation post-training aligns with the survey results that highlight leaders’ adaptability and innovative problem-solving abilities. the finnish model of trust-based education discussed by maaranen and stenberg (2021) may be reflected in the strong scores across all domains of leadership effectiveness (tables 8-12). the high level of agreement on the effectiveness of various leadership behaviors may indicate a similar culture of trust in the surveyed educational settings. mosin (2021) and kin et al. (2020) discuss the impact of specific leadership styles on organizational outcomes, which can be tied to the high rankings in "transformational and transactional behaviors" and the overall effectiveness score. the emphasis on leadership competencies, including emotional intelligence and digital dexterity, is consistent with the survey results, which indicate a strong presence of adaptive and innovative leadership. studies by landa and donaldson (2020), chandolia et al. (2020), and others provide a broad context for understanding leadership in various educational environments, from the intricacies of teacher collaboration to conflict management and the transformative potential of instructional leadership. the survey results, which uniformly highlight effective leadership across different domains, suggest that the sampled leaders are adept at managing diverse aspects of school leadership. in summary, the survey data on leadership effectiveness, when interpreted using the literature review, underscores the multifaceted nature of effective leadership. the strong consensus on adaptive leadership and effective collaboration with stakeholders, among other areas, reflects a dynamic interplay of skills and behaviors that contribute to the overall effectiveness and success of school leadership. these findings resonate with global research trends and contribute to a nuanced understanding of educational leadership in various contexts. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 10 table 3. relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness variables self-awareness and regulation empathy and social awareness interpersonal effectiveness motivation and achievement orientation emotional intelligence pedagogical leadership pearson r 0.62 0.76 0.78 0.76 0.83 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 transformational and transactional behaviors pearson r 0.60 0.73 0.73 0.75 0.80 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 stakeholder collaboration and community engagement pearson r 0.63 0.78 0.77 0.81 0.85 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 adaptive leadership in challenging times pearson r 0.59 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.79 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 leadership effectiveness pearson r 0.67 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.90 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 *level of significance = 0.05 table 3 presents a comprehensive analysis of the correlation between various facets of emotional intelligence (ei) and leadership effectiveness across different leadership styles. the variables considered include self-awareness and regulation, empathy and social awareness, interpersonal effectiveness, motivation and achievement orientation, and overall emotional intelligence. the pearson correlation coefficients show a strong positive relationship between all components of emotional intelligence and various leadership styles, with correlation values ranging from 0.59 to 0.90, indicating a significant influence of emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness. all p-values are below the level of significance set at 0.05, confirming the statistical significance of these relationships. specifically, leadership effectiveness showed the strongest correlation with emotional intelligence (0.90), emphasizing the critical role of emotional intelligence in enhancing overall leadership capabilities. the data suggest that higher levels of self-awareness, empathy, interpersonal skills, and motivation are strongly linked to more effective leadership, particularly in handling educational improvements, transactional and transformational leadership tasks, stakeholder engagement, and adaptive leadership challenges. these findings support the notion that emotional intelligence is a key driver in cultivating effective leadership, thereby enhancing organizational performance and success in various leadership contexts. within the framework of emotional leadership, several key components of ei, such as self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills, are critical for effective leadership. the significant correlation found in the study implies that self-awareness and self-regulation. leaders who are more attuned to their internal emotional states and can manage their reactions are likely to make more considered decisions and maintain a positive climate within their organizations. empathy. the ability to understand and share the feelings of others helps leaders build strong relationships with their team members, which is essential for teamwork and collaboration. motivation. leaders with high ei are often more driven to achieve beyond their own and others’ expectations, which can lead to higher performance within the team. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 11 social skills. effective communication and interpersonal skills facilitate better conflict resolution and cooperation, further enhancing leadership effectiveness. in practice, the findings from this correlational study could be used to inform leadership development programs. by focusing on enhancing the emotional intelligence of leaders, organizations might improve not only individual leader performance but also overall organizational effectiveness. this could involve training programs focused on developing empathy, emotional regulation, and interpersonal skills, as well as coaching and feedback mechanisms that help leaders better understand and manage their emotional responses. the strong relationship between ei and leadership effectiveness, as evidenced by the correlational analysis, provides empirical support for the importance of emotional leadership. this reinforces the idea that leaders who are emotionally intelligent are not only more aware and in control of their own emotions but are also more effective in leading others, which is crucial in today’s dynamic and often challenging work environments. this study consolidates emotional intelligence (ei) as a singular composite variable encompassing selfawareness, self-regulation, empathy, social awareness, and other related competencies. similarly, “leadership effectiveness” is synthesized as a single variable, representing an aggregate measure of pedagogical leadership, transformational and transactional behaviors, stakeholder collaboration, community engagement, and adaptive leadership in challenging times. the analysis and interpretation of the data proceed with these two variables as the primary focus. despite the literature suggesting potential demographic influences on leadership effectiveness, this study found no significant differences in ei or leadership effectiveness based on sex, age, or years of teaching experience. this indicates that the qualities of emotional intelligence and the attributes of effective leadership are perceived to be distributed consistently across demographic groups within the survey sample. the pearson r correlation coefficient indicates a strong and positive relationship between ei and leadership effectiveness, with a highly significant p-value leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. this finding is crucial as it suggests that emotional intelligence is not just an associated quality but is also potentially predictive of leadership effectiveness in educational settings. in synthesizing these findings, the study supports the notion that emotional intelligence is a foundational element of effective leadership. the robust association between the two consolidated variables highlights the importance of ei in educational leadership. as such, the development of emotional intelligence in leaders can be seen as a strategic investment that potentially leads to improvements in leadership practices, stakeholder relationships, and ultimately, educational outcomes. references ahmad jamli, n. f. b., & syed salim, s. s. 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faculty of foreign studies, beijing language and culture university, beijing, china, 100083 article info abstract keywords: mobile-assisted language learning, mall, language education, electronic devices, language acquisition. doi 10.5281/zenodo.11121211 mobile-assisted language learning (mall) has gained significant attention as electronic devices like computers, tablets, and smartphones have become integral to our daily lives. these devices offer a wealth of intelligent applications that can enhance language learning and teaching experiences. unlike traditional language learning and computer-assisted language learning (call), mall represents an independent mode of language learning that leverages advancements in mobile technology and theories of mobile learning (m-learning). despite its potential, mall faces various challenges, including learner reluctance, low satisfaction levels, frequent interruptions, ineffective learning strategies, and limited communication opportunities. to address these issues and enhance the effectiveness of mall, increased engagement within mobile-assisted classrooms is necessary. this paper provides an in-depth exploration of mall, delving into its development, research trends, and associated challenges. by gaining a comprehensive understanding of mall, educators and learners can optimize language performance, foster greater interest in language acquisition, and establish a solid foundation for language teaching and research endeavors. introduction electronic devices involving computers, tablets, and smartphones were widely used in our daily life and played a great role in language learning and teaching. all kinds of intelligent applications simply downloaded in your smartphones were easily used. as mobile technology improved, mobile-assisted language learning (mall) mode had been independent from traditional language learning and computerassisted language learning (call) which had started an educational reform based on previous outcomes of call, second language acquisition theory and mobile learning (m-learning) theories.[1] however, there were many challenges in mall, such as learners’ unwillingness to learn, poor learning satisfaction, serious learning interruptions, poor learning strategies, insufficient communication, etc. therefore, it was necessary to increase the participation in mobile-assisted classrooms and improve the efficiency of mall. an in-depth understanding of the development, research trends, and problems of mall would help learner to improve their language performance, strengthen their interests, and provide scientific basis and guidance for teaching and research activities.[2] https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 37 therefore, the author searched relevant research findings and found that the research of mall showed an upward trend in different fields and disciplines, aiming to conclude the research status quo and trends of the research on mall at home and abroad from 2000 to 2022, to find the existing problems, and to make efforts for further development of language teaching and practices of mall in china. following research questions guided the study: ①what were the trends of researches on mall? ②what perceptions did learners have toward mall? ③what were the existing problems on the researches of mall? 1. theoretical backgrounds before the analysis of literature, we needed to introduce the theoretical basis, definition and features of mall to make it more clear for subsequent analysis. 1.1. theoretical basis through the analysis of the theories used in mall researches, it revealed that the theories about mall mainly included social and cultural theory, second language acquisition theory, multimedia learning theory and mobile learning related theory. socio-cultural theory was more widely applied, emphasizing that learning was the process of constructing knowledge in social communication activities, rather than simply transferring knowledge through minds.[3] as an important medium, language helped learners construct knowledge and experience from social communication, and aided individuals internalize and develop constructed knowledge from the cognitive level while mobile devices acted as intermediary tools in this process. many papers mentioned second language acquisition broadly without building a strong correlation with mall researches, and seldom cited krashen’s input and output hypotheses.[4] in some researches, the double-decoding theory and cognitive load theory in multimedia learning theory were also combined with mall to jointly explore vocabulary learning design.[4] to make a broad classification, duman et al. , in his research on trends of mall from 2000 to 2012, divided the theoretical frameworks into three categories including learning approaches (47.82%), multimedia design and learning approaches (11.59%), and technology-oriented approaches (10.14%), but the real mall studies followed theoretical framework that was highly agreed with their topic, who provided us a good review of the development of theoretical basis.[5] 1.2. definition of mall mobile-assisted language learning came with the popularity of mobile devices and developed in recent years, so it was difficult to define it in an aggregable way. kukulska-hulme and shield defined mall as formal or informal learning style with portable electronics including smartphones, ipad, tablets, etc.), which happened anywhere, anytime by anybody and any devices.[1] mall was currently defined from technology-oriented and learner-oriented approaches. the former viewed mall as a method of language learning through the use of mobile devices while the latter regarded it as a pan-learning method featured with learner-mobility and contentmobility. 1.3. features of mall mall was characterized by individuality, social interaction, and continuity and scientific management, which could enhance the interest of language learners through augmented reality (ar), virtual reality, and text-to-speech communication which were fairly vivid and real.[6] 1.3.1. individuality mobile devices were personal stuff and users had the right to choose their interested apps and the way to use them.[7] since there were no limitations on time and space, learners adapted themselves to different situations and diversify their learning patterns by combining formal and informal learning. more importantly, they can learn at their own speed and schedule their learning tasks by themselves.[8] 1.3.2. social interaction mobile devices made traditional classrooms no longer limited by time and space, and the interaction between students and teachers, students and students became more diverse. classroom group collaboration, communication, and discussion were carried out either synchronously or asynchronously.[9] mobile devices not only enhanced the efficiency of group learning, but also provided the quality of interaction.[10] learning and teaching activities used to be only carried out in face-to-face scenarios, but now they were extended online, even global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 38 accompanied with various attracting activities like gamified learning. for example, students use language apps, like hujiang english which was mainly used for vocabulary learning, to interact or compete with classmates under the supervision of teachers; various word and speaking tests in language learning applications (apps) drawn a great attention from learners, enhancing the interactivity and enjoyment by completing shared language learning tasks, communicating online and obtaining feedbacks timely. 2.3.3. continuity and scientific management the development and popularization of mobile learning not only allowed learning to happen anytime, anywhere in fragmented time, but also made learning content designed more continuous and scientific.[5] we registered a private account through the mobile phone number, which would be logged in and used on other mobile devices. in the process of mobile learning, learners actively download english learning apps mainly including vocabulary and spoken practices with rich content and a huge body of data. language learners opened these apps anytime, anywhere, and started learning and interactive communication repeatedly, so as to achieve the purpose of onetime investment and unlimited enjoyment. learners had many opportunities to access language learning resources on mobile devices. in the process of traditional teaching and learning, whether personal learning or examination tests were difficult to be measured and analyzed quantitatively, and the learning data needed to be manually recorded and counted which was timeconsuming and laborious. through the mobile learning platform, learners could intuitively and accurately see their daily learning data and the platform automatically kick off statistics analysis. based on analysis of learning data, learning management became more convenient and scientific. 2. materials and methods the review was conducted to extensively examine past studies on mall. its major target was to provide a reference as extensive as possible and to hope that was useful for any interested reader. to achieve this aim, the following methods were used to locate and select studies for the main citation of this review. firstly, the online databases, web of science and cnki, were used to search for the relevant studies ranging from 2000 to 2022. the main key word,“mall” and “m-learning” guided the search. since a variety of disciplines had done researches on this topic, we must refine the web of science and cnki categories, thus linguistics and language linguistics in web of science and in cnki were selected for the study mall over two decades. once an item was located via electronic search, the abstract was perused. after a rough screening, we checked the abstract of these publications. if the abstract looked promising, then the item was obtained. another complementary method involved close examination of the references of the selected articles for citations of additional relevant studies. the criteria of selecting previous studies as the main citation of this study were: 1) the paper included had to be published in a peer reviewed journal in edited collections; 2) master’s or doctoral dissertations and short reports were excluded; 3) the paper had to focus explicitly or implicitly on mobile learning; 4) the paper had to provide a sufficient description of data and data analysis from which the results were concluded. based on these criteria, 15 publications were found to be suitable for inclusion as the main citations (see table 1). table 1. foci and major findings of main citations in mall study n authors foci major findings 1 kukulskahulme and shield (2008)[1] to examine how mobile devices can assist learners’ listening and speaking activities. students using mobile devices made more contributions in listening and speaking classes. 2 kukulskahulme (2009)[6] to discuss whether mobile devices alter language learning. mobile devices brought benefits and some learning choices for learners. 3 godwin-jones (2011)[7] to find out the state and development of language learning apps and mobile devices they use. iphone and android provided many supporting language learning apps for all languages or specific language. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 39 4 cheon et al. (2012 )[8] to explore college students’ perceptions and attitudes toward mall. students hold a positive attitude toward the mobileassisted mode. 5 yang (2012)[4] to investigate vocabulary learning modes through the use of mobile devices. there were four vocabulary modes via messages, database, portable devices, and interactive communication. 6 kondo et (2012)[11] al. to find out whether mall can facilitate self regulated learning. mall encouraged learners to self-study without teachers’ interruption. 7 duman et al. (2015)[5] to trace the development of mobile assisted language learning (mall) in recent years. vocabulary teaching with mobile devices remained very popular, and a great body of researches failed to study from any theoretical framework. 8 dashtestani (2016)[12] to investigate students’ use of mobile devices and their attitudes toward mall. students were positive toward mall but they mainly used mobile devices for nonacademic activities. 9 sung et al. (2015)[9] effects of learning language with mobile devices. mall generated more learning achievement to students. 10 gangaiamaran and pasupathi (2017)[13] to classify language apps according to the different levels of learners. listening skills were better acquired through using language apps. 11 loewen et al. (2019)[14] to explore the effectiveness of large-scale l2 learning apps, such as duolingo. more time they spent on duolingo, the more learning achievements they gained. 12 chen and jia (2020)[15] to conclude the status quo, trends and problems of mall in china. various themes were investigated and most researches employed quantitative and nonempirical methods. 13 xi et al.(2020)[16] the characteristics and mechanism of multiple intelligence on the acceptance and engagement of mobile foreign language learning. mobile foreign language learning effectively promoted learners’ linguistic and musical intelligence. 14 zeng et al. (2020)[17] to compare effects between one-way peer feedback and conversational peer feedback on spoken output of second language in mall environments. conversational feedback promotes the accuracy of spoken output. 15 burston and giannakou (2022)[18] to overview the language learning outcomes with metaanalysis. there were more positive language learning conclusions than negative one. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 40 it was worth mentioning that the included research resources were limited to the author’s own ability. the author could only reach the resources within his own scope. there may be other publications out of the author’s reach. 3. discussion after the collection and analysis of a large number of literatures from cnki and web of science, the paper used descriptive methods to analyze these researches objectively and reasonably, and concluded three major topics which were presented below in order, which were language skills involving listening, speaking, writing, vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, etc., effectiveness of mall and perceptions toward mall, and language learning apps. there were some overlapping and disagreement with this classification since different disciplines, theories and technologies were entwined with each other to complicate mall researches. 3.1. language skills regarding the study of language skills, there was a difference in the research direction at home and abroad. chen and jia, through quantitative research, concluded that among the researches on language skills in china, the number of studies on comprehensive language skills was ranking the first, followed by speaking and listening then the vocabulary skills.[15] in terms of the speaking skills, conversational feedback in a mobile-assisted language learning environment could promote the accuracy of spoken output.[17] in terms of vocabulary skills, yang referred to the previous studies and concluded four vocabulary modes through different ways.[4] however, the most concerned mall researches about language skills were vocabulary skills in foreign studies, followed by listening skills and pronunciation.[5] it was worth noting that learners acquired their listening skills more easily by using mobile devices. combining the domestics and foreign studies, we found that mall researches about grammar, writing skills, and phonetics were neglected over these twenty years. 3.2. effectiveness of mall and perceptions toward mall a large number of studies focused on effectiveness of mall and explored learners’ perceptions toward mall. the use of mobile devices had a moderate effect on language learning,[9] and domestic studies had also proved that mobile learning had a positive effect on language learning, and on the enhancement of language skills.[15] also, burston and giannakou found there were more positive effects than negative one by analyzing literature about mall over two decades.[18]students assisted by mobile devices performed better in spoken classes that those who did not, then kukulska-hulme proved that mobile devices exerted a great positive impact on language learning which offered more choices for learners to suit their own habits and actual situation.[6] besides these linguistic effects, learning assisted with mobile devices promoted the development of non-linguistic ability. by investigating students’ selfregulated ability, kondo discovered that mobile devices aroused students interests and promoted their self-study even when teachers were not around them and mall also played a positive role in students’ musical intelligence.[11] undeniably, every emergence of technology cut two ways in society and schools. mall mode depending on the mobile devices distracted students easily with shallow communication, inadequate teacher training, and incomplete feedback.[9] the majority of students who were interested in mobile learning often engaged in nonacademical activities with their devices.[2] though students had a positive attitude toward mall, a great effort needed to be made to increase their interests by utilizing available meaningful information, building a useraccepted m-learning system, and improving faculty’s instruction.[8] 3.3. language learning apps researches about language learning apps were popular these days with the growing number of apps for all languages, specific language or certain language skills thus the themes about language apps are ranging from specific language apps to design of a language app. in terms of specific language apps, duolingo, as one of the most popular apps, helped students to practice their speaking skills. loewen et al. argued that students made more academical gains as they spend more time in duolingo.[14] in terms of the design of an app. liu aimed to improve students’ listening and speaking skills by creating an app called hello with handheld augmented reality which stored with numerous authentic language materials to help students to develop targeted language skills, proving that students gain more achievements by employing this app.[19] godwin-jones reviewed the development of language apps on mobile devices such as ios, android, and web, and proposed to enhance the mobility, the function of emerging mobile devices since mobile devices featured global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 41 individuality and customization.[7] gangaiamaran and pasupathi collected all kinds of language apps in app store, classified these apps into three categories from primary to secondary and tertiary learners respectively, and labeled each app with name, suitable device, trained language skills, and paid or unpaid, who suggested that off-line apps should be promoted to help students in poor areas access to the learning resources and we need to conduct more teacher training on mall and assist them to overcome the challenges in employing mobile-assisted language teaching.[13] 4. conclusion through the collection and analysis of literature, the paper displayed relevant articles and discussed three popular themes about mall including language skills, effects of mall and perceptions toward mall, and language apps. this study only analyzed and discussed papers based on web of science and cnki, so the number of papers was insufficient, and the listed papers were selected with personal thought and justification without following strict criteria. it was necessary to enlarge the number of papers, to enrich the themes of the research, and to conduct more comprehensive and detailed analysis in the future. based on these discussions on mall, the author put forward some existing problems and implicated the future development of mall to provide a reference for the later researchers. firstly, there was no complete theoretical system about mall. since mall, as an assistant of language teaching, developed for a short time, many studies tended to refer to previous theories and few explored new theories to complete the theoretical system of mall.[5] considering mall combining the mobile devices and language teaching system, it was featured with diversity and complexity whose researches were extended to a wide range of fields and disciplines making it harder to form a unified theoretical foundation. in addition, the theoretical basis of mall altered as the form and content of mobile devices altered so it was necessary to follow the trace of time and to add new theories and improve the old one. secondly, the themes about language skills were not widely ranged. from the review of the studies on language skills of mall at home and abroad, researches on one language skill were insufficient while there are many comprehensive studies. also, there were few researches on phonetics, grammar which needed to be more observed and carried out more exploration. finally, teachers-oriented study needed to be implemented. currently, scholars were more likely to investigate from the students’ perspectives because of its availability to the experimental data and a great number of students. mall, as an assisted instructor, needed to be implemented by teachers and students together. more researches on mall needed to be directed to study from teachers’ perceptions which had a long way to go. as artificial intelligence technologies such as text recognition, speech recognition, natural language processing, and data annotation evolved, language learning supported by artificial intelligence technology will be a new research field waiting to be explored. language learners’ linguistic and nolinguistic skills will change dramatically in form and content with the help of intelligent applications. researchers need to keep up with the change of technologies, learn to understand emerging science and technology, and effectively combine it with language learning to promote the vigorous study of language learning. references kukulska-hulme, a., & shield, l. (2008). an overview of mobile assisted language learning: from content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. recall, 20(3), 271-289. shadiev, r., hwang, w.-y., & huang, y.-m. (2017). review of research on mobile language learning in authentic environments. computer assisted language learning, 30(3-4), 284-303. vygotsky, l. s., & cole, m. (1978). mind in society: development of higher psychological processes. harvard university press. yang lifang. (2012). the application of mobile learning to college vocabulary learning. technology enhanced foreign language education (4), 54-58. duman, g., orhon, g., & gedik, n. (2015). research trends in mobile assisted language learning from 2000 to 2012. recall, 27(2), 197-216. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (3) pg. 42 kukulska-hulme, a. (2009). will mobile learning change language learning? recall, 21(2), 157165. godwin-jones, r. (2011). mobile apps for language learning. language learning & technology, 15(2), 2-11. cheon, j., lee, s., crooks, s. m., & song, j. (2012). an investigation of mobile learning readiness in higher education based on the theory of planned behavior. computers & education, 59(3), 1054-1064. [9] sung, y.-t., chang, k.-e., & yang, j.-m. (2015). how effective are mobile devices for language learning? a meta-analysis. educational research review, 16, 68-84. zurita, g., & nussbaum, m. (2004). computer supported collaborative learning using wirelessly interconnected handheld computers. computers & education, 42(3), 289-314. kondo, m., ishikawa, y., smith, c., sakamoto, k., shimomura, h., & wada, n. (2012). mobile assisted language learning in university efl courses in japan: developing attitudes and skills for selfregulated learning. recall, 24(2), 169-187. dashtestani, r. (2016). moving bravely towards mobile learning: iranian students' use of mobile devices for learning english as a foreign language. computer assisted language learning, 29(4), 815832. gangaiamaran, r., & pasupathi, m. (2017). review on use of mobile apps for language learning. international journal of applied engineering research, 12(21), 11242-11251. loewen, s., crowther, d., isbell, d. r., kim, k. m., maloney, j., miller, z. f., & rawal, h. (2019). mobileassisted language learning: a duolingo case study. recall, 31(3), 293-311. chen zhenzhen & jia jiyou. (2020). twenty years of mall in china: review and prospect. foreign language world, 1. xi jing, wang jianhua, & zhang haizhu. (2020). factors affecting college students’ choices of using language learning: from the perspective of multiple intelligences. foreign language education, 41(4), 58-62. zeng gang, wang yihan, & tan xiaohui. (2020). effects of two peer on english oral performance in mobile assisted language learning environment. foreign languages and their teaching, 1(06), 109. [18] burston, j., & giannakou, k. (2022). mall language learning outcomes: a comprehensive metaanalysis 1994–2019. recall, 34(2), 147-168. liu, t. y. (2009). a context‐aware ubiquitous learning environment for language listening and speaking. journal of computer assisted learning, 25(6), 515-527. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 12; december-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 principals’ assertive communication style as correlate of teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state 1onyekwelu raphael azubuike, phd. article info abstract keywords: principals, assertive communication style, teachers effectiveness, public doi 10.5281/zenodo.14527254 the main purpose of the study was to investigate principals’ assertive communication styles as correlate of teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. one research question guided the study and one hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance. the correlational research design was adopted for the study. the population of the study comprised of 1,616 principals and teachers from the 65 public secondary schools in awka education zone of anambra state, nigeria. this comprised of 65 principals and 1,551 teachers in public secondary schools in anambra state. the sample size for this study was 375 respondents. the instruments for data collection were two structured questionnaires. the instrument was subject to face and content validation. three experts from the faculty of education at nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, reviewed the instruments. a pilot test was conducted with 20 principals from public secondary schools in enugu state to further test the instruments. the application of cronbach alpha reliability method yielded co-efficient values of 0.86 and 0.88 for pcsq and teq. pearson product moment correlation statistics was used to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. the finding of the study revealed that a high positive relationship exists between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. furthermore, finding of the study revealed principals’ assertive communication styles significantly correlate with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. the researcher therefore concludes that principals’ assertive communication style has a positive significant relationship with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. the researcher recommended that the post primary schools service commission (ppssc) should organise regular workshops and training programmes focused on enhancing principals’ communication style, with emphasis on assertive communication style. 1department of educational foundations, faculty of education, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus, anambra state, nigeria global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (12) pg. 2 introduction teachers have an important role as stakeholders in nigerian secondary schools, with great influence over the educational environment. teachers’ involvement is important in curriculum implementation, as they are the major facilitators of learning. this position puts them at the forefront of instructional delivery, making their performance critical to accomplishing school objectives. the effectiveness of teachers is critical for achieving educational objectives. eke (2023) opined that motivated and teachers work better, which improves student learning outcomes. effective teachers not only engage their students, but also create a positive learning environment that promotes academic achievement (ololube, 2019). teachers' effectiveness pertains to how well educators perform their core responsibilities of instruction and their overall disposition towards the teaching profession and its associated tasks (arop et al., 2020). it is considered an intangible concept that cannot be directly observed or quantified. however, many researchers agree that it is a multidimensional construct, comprising various facets and components (okogbaa & igbogi, 2019). according to nwogbo et al. (2019), teacher effectiveness is a multifaceted phenomenon that incorporates different aspects of teaching. these include proficiency in assigned roles, effective communication, thorough lesson preparation and execution, access to instructional materials, fostering a conducive learning environment, and maintaining teacher motivation. consequently, teacher effectiveness requires a deep understanding of professional methodologies and systems, coupled with the ability to address students' needs effectively. enhanced teaching practices often lead to greater student engagement, which improves academic outcomes, particularly when supported by school principals' strategies to promote teacher effectiveness. teachers' effectiveness in this study is defined to their capacity to manage their professional duties and responsibilities in a way that allows them to accomplish more work and deliver expected outcomes. this includes effective classroom teaching, maintaining discipline and overseeing students' academic activities. for teachers to perform effectively, discipline and commitment to their responsibilities are essential. unfortunately, some teachers in public secondary schools within the awka education zone of anambra state appear to lack effectiveness in carrying out their roles. onyekazi et al. (2024) reported a concerning decline in teachers' task performance, emphasising that teachers are the backbone of effective teaching and learning. this decline is evident in the negative behaviours exhibited by teachers in public secondary schools across anambra state (okeke et al., 2023). these behaviours include arriving at school late, leaving without proper authorisation, frequent absenteeism with weak excuses, failure to maintain updated lesson plans and notes, incomplete coverage of curriculum content, and teaching without adequate instructional materials. authors like onyekazi et al. (2024) stated that poor teachers’ effectiveness could be linked to principals’ communication style. communication refers to the exchange of information between individuals or among groups through various channels. ekufu and anetoh (2022) described communication as the process of sharing ideas, receiving messages, and achieving mutual understanding using different methods. communication styles refer to the verbal and nonverbal approaches through which information is shared within an organisation. sdeeq et al. (2021) defined communication styles as distinct methods of transmitting and receiving information in organisational settings. similarly, these styles involve various patterns and strategies managers use to issue instructions or guidance to employees. muhammad (2020) described communication styles as encompassing the methods used to share information, articulate ideas, and receive feedback. according to suyu-tattao (2019), communication styles integrate verbal and written strategies for effectively exchanging information. okotoni and akinwale (2019) categorised communication styles into aggressive, open, inclusive, and assertive styles. chike et al. (2024) expanded this categorisation to include assertive, aggressive, passive-aggressive, submissive, manipulative, and open communication styles. for this study, the researcher concentrated on assertive communication style. the assertive communication style is considered effective in most situations. it involves being aware of and addressing one’s own emotions and needs while also recognising and respecting the emotions and needs of others. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (12) pg. 3 assertive communicators, by prioritising their needs while being empathetic, demonstrate a balance that fosters effective communication. alabi (2022) defined assertive communication as the ability to express opinions clearly and confidently in a calm and controlled manner without infringing on the rights of others. esan (2018) highlighted its effectiveness in enhancing students’ self-esteem and overall academic achievement. assertive communication is regarded as an ideal communication style, as it fosters relationship building, trust, conflict resolution, expectation management, and boundary protection when applied effectively. however, mastering assertive communication requires significant self-control. it emphasises expressing ideas while upholding the rights of others. nwabueze and ohia (2020) described assertive communication as characterised by honesty, respectfulness, and the willingness to listen to others’ perspectives. in the context of school leadership, assertive communication involves principals actively listening to teachers, encouraging them to share their views on school matters, and providing prompt feedback. according to okotoni and akinwale (2019), principals who adopt this style are comfortable expressing their opinions and receptive to the ideas of others. they engage with teachers in a moderate tone, carefully selecting words to avoid causing offence. similarly, alabi (2022) noted that principals who employ assertive communication are open to input from others while confidently sharing their perspectives. akinwale and okotoni (2018) stated that principals’ communication styles has significant influence on school effectiveness. however, this views have not been empirically determined in public secondary schools in anambra state. it is against this background that the researcher investigated principals’ assertive communication styles as correlate of teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. purpose of the study the main purpose of the study was to investigate principals’ assertive communication styles as correlate of teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. research question what is the relationship between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state? hypothesis the null hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance: principals’ assertive communication styles does not significantly correlate with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. methodology the study adopted the correlational research design. the study was carried out in anambra state. the population of the study comprised of 1,616 principals and teachers from the 65 public secondary schools in awka education zone of anambra state, nigeria. this comprised of 65 principals and 1,551 teachers in public secondary schools in anambra state. the sample size for this study was 375 respondents. the sampled the entire population of principals because they are small compared to the number of teachers in the zone. this amounted to 65 principals from the 65 public secondary schools in awka education zone. the researcher used simple random technique to select 20% of teachers from the public secondary schools in awka education zone. this amounted to 310 teachers from the 65 public secondary schools in awka education zone. the combination of the sample of principals and teachers amounted to a sample size of 375. the instruments for data collection was two structured questionnaires. the first questionnaire was titled “principals’ communication styles questionnaire (pcsq)” which contains 10 items. the questionnaire was designed using a 4-point rating scale: strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d), and strongly disagree (sd). the second instrument was titled “teachers effectiveness questionnaire (teq)” and it contains 20-item statements on teachers’ effectiveness. the instrument is structured on a four point rating scale of strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d), and strongly disagree (sd) and a numerical value of 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. the instrument was subject to face and content validation. three experts from the faculty of education at nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, reviewed the instruments. additionally, a pilot test was conducted with 20 principals from public secondary schools in enugu state to further test the instruments. the application of cronbach alpha reliability method yielded co-efficient values of 0.86 and 0.88 for pcsq and teq. the instruments were global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (12) pg. 4 administered by the researchers with the help of three research assistants who are teachers in public secondary schools. the instrument was administered to the respondents on the spot and retrieved after completion. in cases where it was impossible to retrieve the instrument immediately, appointment on the date of retrieval was made. this lasted for two weeks. out of the 375 copies of the instruments administered, 362 copies were retrieved in good condition which amounts to 97% questionnaire return rate. the 362 copies were used for the analysis of data. pearson product moment correlation statistics was used to answer the research question and test the hypothesis. the decision rule was based on the following guidelines price et al (2017) provided: correlation coefficient interpretations plus (+) or minus (-) 0.00 to 0.20 very low relationship plus (+) or minus (-) 0.20 to 0.40 low relationship plus (+) or minus (-) 0.40 to 0.60 moderate relationship plus (+) or minus (-) 0.60 to 0.80 high relationship plus (+) or minus (-) 0.80 and above very high relationship while positive coefficient (+) indicate positive relationship between the variables, negative coefficient (-) indicates negative coefficient between the variables. in interpreting the values of the null hypotheses, when pvalue was less than or equal to .05 (p ≤.05), the null hypothesis was rejected. on the other hand, when the p-value was greater than .05 (p >.05), the null hypothesis was not rejected, meaning that there is no significant relationship between the variables. results research question what is the relationship between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state? table 1: summary of pearson correlation analysis on correlation between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state principals’ assertive communication styles teachers’ effectiveness remark principals’ assertive communication styles pearson correlation 1 .723** high positive relationship sig, (2-tailed) n 362 .000 362 teachers’ effectiveness pearson correlation sig, (2-tailed) n .723** .000 362 1 362 ** correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (12) pg. 5 data in table 1 reveals that the pearson’s correlation coefficient is r = 0.723. this shows that a high positive relationship exists between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. this implies that in public secondary schools where principals’ use assertive communication styles there would be high teachers’ effectiveness. thus, the pearson’s correlation coefficient r of 0.723 indicate that a high positive relationship exists between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. hypothesis principals’ assertive communication styles does not significantly correlate with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. table 2: test of significance of correlation between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state correlation principals’ assertive communication styles teachers’ effectiveness remark principals’ assertive communication styles pearson correlation 1 .723** significant sig, (2-tailed) n 362 .000 362 teachers’ effectiveness pearson correlation sig, (2-tailed) n .723** .000 362 1 362 ** correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). data in table 2 reveals that the pearson’s correlation coefficient is r = 0.723 with a p-value = 0.000. since the p value of 0.000 is less than .05 (p<.05), it means that the effect principals’ assertive communication styles on teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state is statistically significant. this means that principals’ assertive communication styles significantly correlate with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. hence, the hypothesis was rejected. discussion the finding of the study revealed that a high positive relationship exists between principals’ assertive communication styles and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. this finding may have resulted because assertive communication ensures that principals articulate expectations, feedback, and instructions clearly and concisely. this reduces ambiguity, enabling teachers to understand their roles and responsibilities effectively. also, assertive communication promotes a respectful environment where principals value teachers' input and perspectives. this mutual respect enhances teachers’ motivation and commitment to their duties. this finding is in agreement akinwale and okotoni (2018) who revealed that principals’ communication styles has significant influence on school effectiveness. nwabueze and ohia (2020) described assertive communication as characterised by honesty, respectfulness, and the willingness to listen to others’ perspectives. in the context of school leadership, assertive communication involves principals global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (12) pg. 6 actively listening to teachers, encouraging them to share their views on school matters and providing prompt feedback. thus, improving teachers’ job effectiveness. furthermore, principals’ assertive communication styles significantly correlate with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. the finding of the study is in agreement with alabi (2022) who reported that principals’ assertive communication style would impact on teachers’ attitude towards work. okotoni and akinwale (2019) noted that principals who adopt assertive communication style are comfortable expressing their opinions and receptive to the ideas of others and this makes the teachers comfortable in their work environment. conclusion the researcher concludes based on the findings of the study that principals’ assertive communication style has a positive significant relationship with teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in awka education zone, anambra state. the implication of the findings is that there would be higher teachers’ effectiveness in schools where principals apply assertive communication style. it is therefore essential that measures are put in place to improve on principals’ application of assertive communication style in public secondary schools. recommendations the following recommendations were made based on the findings of the study: 1. the post primary schools service commission (ppssc) should organise regular workshops and training programmes focused on enhancing principals’ communication style, with emphasis on assertive communication style. this will equip public secondary school principals with the assertive communication strategies needed to ensure clarity, mutual respect, and constructive feedback in public secondary schools. this would improve teachers’ effectiveness. 2. the anambra state government in collaboration with the ppssc should integrate assertive communication practices into school management policies. this could include guidelines for effective principalteacher interactions. this would ensure that principals adopt assertive communication styles to enhance collaboration, reduce conflicts, and promote a positive school climate that supports teachers' effectiveness. references akinwale, a. s., & okotoni, c. a. (2018). assessment of principals’ communication styles and administrative impact on secondary schools in osun state, nigeria. international journal of advanced research and publications, 2(1), 43-48. alabi, c. o. (2022). organisational communication styles and teachers’ productivity in private secondary schools in nigeria. african journal of educational management, 23(1), 111-122. arop, f. o., owan, v. j., & ekpang, m. a. (2018). administrators’ conflict management strategies utilization and job effectiveness of secondary school teachers in obubra local government area, cross river state, nigeria. iiard international journal of economics and business management, 4(7), 11-21. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3294909. chike, h. n., agu, a. n., & ekweogu, l. b. (2024). principals’ communication styles as predictors of teachers’ job commitment in public secondary schools in anambra state, nigeria. multidisciplinary research and development journal international, 6(1), 75-92. available at: http://www.mdrdji.org eke, e. n. (2023). strategies for improving teachers' job effectiveness in secondary schools in anambra state. international journal of scientific research in education, 16(2), 100–108. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3294909 http://www.mdrdji.org/ global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (12) pg. 7 ekufu, r. n. & anetoh, n. j. (2022). communication pattern and emotional intelligence as factors in marital satisfaction in the new normal. coou journal of educational research, 7 (1), 45-58. mohamed, m., & zainal abidin, k. (2021). principals’ communication styles and school culture in vocational colleges in selangor. asian journal of university education (ajue), 17(4), 69-76. nwabueze, i. e., & ohia, a. n. (2020). managing principals’ communication styles for teachers’ compliance to rules and regulations in public secondary schools in rivers state. british international journal of education and social sciences, 7(11), 1–9. okeke, n. l., obilor, p. u., nwogbo, m. o., & ubah, c. g. (2023). influence of school leadership styles on teachers’ performance in public secondary schools in anambra state, nigeria. african journal of educational management, teaching and entrepreneurship studies, 9(2), 69-77. okogbaa, v. e., & igbogi, i. (2019). teachers’ effectiveness as a tool for students’ performance in junior secondary schools in bayelsa state. international journal of novel research in education and learning, 6(4), 113–121. okotoni, c. a., & akinwale, a. s. (2019). principals’ communication styles and teachers’ job commitment in secondary schools in osun state, nigeria. british journal of education, 7(12), 7–19. ololube, n. p. (2019). practical guide to human resources management and organizational theory. pearl publishers. onyekazi, p. i., ohamobi, i. n., osegbue, g. c., oguejiofo, c. s., anagor, n. a., & anyaeche, i. c. (2024) principals’ stress management techniques as correlates of teachers’ task performance in public secondary schools in anambra state, nigeria. educational administration: theory and practice, 30(5), 14776 14783 doi: 10.53555/kuey.v30i5.7427. sdeeq, b. m. m., sulaiman, e. f., hamad, c. z., & abdullah, z. d. (2021). proper communication styles in educational setting from lecturers’ perspectives. international journal for educational and vocational studies, 3(1), 17–23. suyu-tattao, l. (2019). communication style and learning style of students in higher education institution. international journal of advanced research in management and social sciences, 8(6), 816–831. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 10; october-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 9 rethinking strain theory: a critical review of its applications and implications for understanding school violence 1makanjuola seyi joseph, 2bankole sunday adelowo, 3ogunbiyi oluwadare deji, ph. d. and 3ogedengbe ayotunde e-mail: makanjuolaseyi@gmail.com / bankoleadelowo23@gmail.com / oluwadarebest@gmail.com / ayotundeogedengbe@gmail.com article info abstract keywords: strain theory, review, implications, school violence doi 10.5281/zenodo.13928896 this review critically examines strain theory, a prominent sociological framework for understanding deviance and violence. we discussed an overview of strain theory and defined school violence. the theoretical framework section explains strain theory, its application to school violence, and the factors contributing to strain in schools. the impact of strain theory on school violence is examined in the following section, which discusses the link between strain and aggressive behavior, the role of strain in the development of violent tendencies, and the effects of strain on academic performance and social relationships. this section also includes case studies illustrating the connection between strain and school violence. finally, the article concludes with prevention and intervention strategies, emphasizing the importance of early identification and intervention, the implementation of supportive programs and resources, collaboration between schools, families, and communities for prevention, and evaluating prevention strategies and their effectiveness. 1. introduction schools are created as secure and nurturing environments where students can study, grow, and prosper. however, incidences of school violence undermine this ideal, impacting not only the immediate victims but also the entire school climate and academic performance. violence in schools is a critical issue that has garnered significant attention in educational settings around the world. it is a pressing concern that significantly affects the learning environment and the well-being of students, teachers, and staff in educational settings. school violence encompasses various behaviors, including bullying, victimization, and physical altercations. the prevalence of school violence raises concerns for educators, students, parents, and communities at large. the consequences of 1 ayede grammar school. ayede-ekiti, nigeria 2 federal government girl’s college, efon-alaye, ekiti, nigeria 3 department of educational leadership studies, school of graduate studies, memorial university of newfoundland, canada https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear mailto:makanjuolaseyi@gmail.com mailto:bankoleadelowo23@gmail.com mailto:oluwadarebest@gmail.com mailto:makanjuolaseyi@gmail.com global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (10) pg. 10 school violence can be severe, leading to physical and psychological harm to both students and educators and hindering the educational process. to completely address this issue, exploring the causes and mechanisms of school violence is essential. this literature review will examine the application of strain theory to better understand the underpinnings of school violence. creating secure and supportive learning environments in schools is primarily the responsibility of educators. school violence has numerous adverse consequences, including physical and emotional harm to students, academic performance decline, and overall deterioration of the learning environment. to address and prevent school violence, educators must comprehend the root causes and risk factors associated with these behaviors. they can develop strategies, interventions, and policies to effectively address school violence and create a safer educational space. this literature review focuses on applying strain theory to understand the underlying causes and mechanisms of school violence. strain theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how various stressors, challenges, and strains in students’ lives may contribute to violence within educational institutions. by exploring this connection, this review sheds light on the dynamics of school violence and provide educators with insights into potential preventive and intervention strategies. strain theory strain theory was initially developed by robert k. merton and later expanded upon by robert agnew, provides a useful framework for comprehending the reasons behind violence in schools. it posits that individuals experience strain or stress when they perceive a disjunction between their societal goals and the means available to achieve them. strain theory posits that societal expectations and pressures can lead to deviation and violence. although influential, the theory has faced critique and requires reevaluation in the context of school violence. this strain, in turn, can lead to negative emotions and deviant behaviors. in the context of school violence, strain theory can be used to understand the fundamental causes of different violent and aggressive behaviors among students. strain theory is formulated based on foundational concepts that help us understand its core principles, which are as follows: 1. anomie and strain: at the heart of strain theory lies the concept of anomie, which describes a state of normlessness. in this context, individuals must be more consistent in their aspirations, culturally accepted goals, and the legitimate means available to achieve them. when applied to school violence, this disconnection becomes evident when students encounter obstacles hindering their academic success, like economic disparities, limited access to educational resources, or discrimination (agnew, 1992). 2. negative emotions: strain theory underscores that individuals who experience disconnection and strain are prone to develop negative emotions. these emotions encompass a spectrum of anger, frustration, and resentment. these negative feelings motivate individuals to seek alternative ways to alleviate their strain. this can result in deviant behaviors, such as school violence (james et al., 2014). 3. strains leading to delinquency: strain theory further posits that individuals enduring prolonged or intense strains may turn to delinquent or criminal activities to cope with their negative emotions. in the context of school, students under strain may resort to violence, bullying, or other forms of aggressive behavior as a means of releasing their pent-up frustration or asserting themselves (higgins et al., 2010). strain theory offers a valuable framework for comprehending the complexities of school violence, with its core components shedding light on the phenomenon. this theory’s heart is perceived injustice, where individuals experience a profound sense of unfair treatment or mistreatment. when applied to the context of school violence, this finding implies that students may perceive various forms of unfairness in the school environment. this perception of injustice is a source of strain that significantly contributes to the emergence of violent behaviors. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (10) pg. 11 james et al. (2014) delves into this critical link, exploring how perceived injustice has become enmeshed in school violence. another pivotal aspect is the role of negative emotions. strain theory underscores "\res that individuals grappling with strain tend to experience various negative emotions, including anger, frustration, and resentment. in the context of school violence, these negative emotions can serve as triggers that motivate individuals to engage in aggressive or violent behaviors. moon et al. (2010) on "general strain theory and school bullying" underscores the crucial role that negative emotions play in school bullying, which is a notable form of school violence. finally, strain theory posits that individuals may resort to delinquent or criminal activities when confronted with prolonged or intense strains as a coping mechanism. within the school setting, these strains manifest as behaviors such as bullying, physical violence, and other forms of school violence. higgins et al. (2010) explored the intricate relationship between strain, peer rejection, and delinquent behaviors, all of which are closely associated with school violence. strain theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding school violence's root causes and dynamics. the foundational concepts of strain theory, which include perceived injustices, negative emotions, and strains leading to delinquency, offer insights into the motivations and factors contributing to school violence. applying strain theory to school violence provides a deeper understanding of this complex issue. this provides a basis for developing effective strategies and interventions to prevent and address school violence. school violence the term "school violence" describes acts of violence that occur in schools. this includes acts of violence on school grounds, during school-related outings and excursions, and while traveling to and from school. although it can be committed by professors, staff members, or other students, student-on-student violence is the most frequent type. in other words, anything that contains a direct or indirect threat qualifies as school violence; it can be verbal, sexual, physical, or both, and it can be committed with or without the use of weapons. school violence occurs when someone intentionally hurts someone or behaves in a way that makes someone feel threatened. the types of school violence based on existing international surveys on violence at schools, unesco (2020) defined the following types of school violence: 1. physical violence is defined as any type of aggressive behavior intended to cause harm committed by classmates, teachers, or school staff. 2. psychological violence is defined as verbal and emotional abuse that includes isolating, rejecting, ignoring, insulting, spreading rumors, fabricating lies, name-calling, ridiculing, humiliation, and threats, as well as psychological punishment. 3. sexual violence includes sexual intimidation, sexual harassment, unwanted touching, sexual coercion, and rape, and it is committed by a teacher, school personnel, or a student or classmate. 4. bullying is characterized as a pattern rather than isolated episodes, with intentional and aggressive behavior directed at a victim regularly. it can occur in a variety of forms: physical bullying (beating, kicking, property destruction), psychological (teasing, insulting, threatening), or relational (rumor spreading and exclusion from a group). 5. cyberbullying is defined as posting or transmitting messages, photographs, or videos with the intent of harassing, threatening, or targeting another person using a variety of media and social media platforms. spreading rumors, posting false information, sending nasty messages, making embarrassing comments or images, or blocking someone from online networks or other forms of communication are all examples of cyberbullying. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (10) pg. 12 causes of school violence there is often no simple, straight forward reason why someone engages in school violence. a child may have been bullied or rejected by a peer, perhaps under much academic pressure, or perhaps enacting something they have seen at home, on tv, or in their neighborhood. these are a few risk factors that may increase a child’s likelihood of engaging in violent behavior in schools, according to ehiri et al. (2017). ➢ inadequate academic achievement ➢ violence in the past ➢ problems related to mental health ➢ experiencing or witnessing violence ➢ use of tobacco, drugs, or alcohol dysfunctional lifestyles within the family ➢ abuse or violence at home ➢ possession of firearms by peers with criminal records ➢ the community’s high crime rate or poverty. the trauma of school violence can lead to significant psychological anguish. adults may also find it difficult to deal with trauma; however, if a person whose brain is still developing experiences trauma, particularly if it occurs over an extended period, their brain may go into survival mode, which may have an impact on their long-term health, attention, and emotional regulation. it can therefore be said that anybody affected by school violence, especially children, may experience trauma. when children watch or experience classroom violence, they may experience long-term adverse effects on their physical and mental health, making prevention efforts crucial. 2. empirical evidence of strain theory and school violence understanding and addressing school violence requires a comprehensive examination of various factors, including opportunities for victimization and the school's role as a potential "hot spot" for criminal activities. while initially developed as a framework for comprehending criminal behavior, strain theory has proven instrumental in shedding light on school-based violence, including traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and other forms of aggressive behavior among students. moon et al. (2010) explored the application of strain theory to school bullying in south korea. the researchers found that students experiencing strain, such as academic pressure and perceived injustice, were more likely to engage in bullying behaviors. this study highlights the role of negative emotions and perceived unfairness in the context of school violence, emphasizing that strain can lead to bullying as a coping mechanism. patchin and hinduja (2011) examined traditional and cyberbullying through the lens of strain theory. the study revealed that strains such as peer rejection and academic pressure were linked to various forms of bullying among youth. the findings underscore the importance of considering strain factors when understanding school violence, including new forms of bullying facilitated by technology. higgins et al. (2010) explored the connection between peer rejection and delinquent or criminal behavior, emphasizing the role of strain theory in understanding the factors contributing to delinquency and crime, which are often intertwined with school violence. the findings suggest that peer rejection can be a significant source of strain, leading to various delinquent behaviors, including school violence. james et al. (2014) examined the role of perceived injustice as a strain factor that contributes to school violence. the study found that perceived injustices, such as unfair treatment by teachers or peers, were associated with violent behaviors among students. the implications of this study highlight the importance of addressing perceived injustices to prevent school violence. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-makes-some-teens-behave-violently-2610459 https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940 https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (10) pg. 13 paez (2016) extended the scope of strain theory to cyberbullying and revealed how strain experienced in online interactions can manifest as harmful behaviors. the study emphasized that strains in the digital realm, such as online harassment and cyberbullying, contribute to the overall landscape of school violence. yang et al. (2019) examined the role of strains, such as academic pressure and family problems, in generating negative emotions and bullying behaviors among school-aged children. the study emphasized that negative emotions resulting from strain were linked to aggressive behaviors, reinforcing the importance of addressing strain to prevent school violence. button (2019) conducted a qualitative study focused on lgb youth’s experiences with victimization and risky behaviors through the lens of strain theory. the results show the notable impediments confronted by lgb youth, including strains related to discrimination and victimization that may lead to risky behaviors, including violence. these studies reveal several common themes and patterns. they consistently underscored the significance of perceived injustices as a central source of strain, with students experiencing academic pressure, peer rejection, and discriminatory treatment being more likely to engage in various forms of school violence. negative emotions arising from this strain act as mediating factors that motivate aggressive behaviors. these negative emotions and perceived injustices together contribute to bullying, whether traditional or cyberbullying, as a coping mechanism. the impact of strain on peer relations is evident, as peer rejection emerges as a notable source of strain, leading to delinquent or violent behaviors often involving peers. the studies also highlight the adaptability of strain theory to contemporary issues, emphasizing the role of digital strains in online harassment and cyberbullying. additionally, marginalized groups, such as lgb youth, face unique challenges related to discrimination and victimization that may lead to risky behaviors and violence. these common themes collectively emphasize the importance of addressing perceived injustices, negative emotions, and strains to effectively prevent and mitigate school violence, incorporating both traditional and modern forms of aggression among students. 3. critique and gaps in literature these studies offer insightful information about the application of strain theory to school violence, shedding light on the role of perceived injustices, negative emotions, and strains in various forms of violence within educational settings. however, acknowledging some limitations and critiques within these studies is essential. they include: first, many studies in this collection rely on self-reported surveys or questionnaires to gather student data. this methodology may introduce response biases because students may under-report or over-report their experiences of strain, perceived injustices, and involvement in school violence due to social desirability or recall bias. furthermore, some studies did not consider the broader ecological factors that influence school violence, such as community characteristics, school policies, and socioeconomic disparities. a more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of school violence would benefit from considering these broader contextual factors. another limitation to consider is the potential for omitted-variable bias. although strain theory offers valuable insights, it does not account for all relevant variables contributing to school violence. focusing on individuallevel factors, like strains and perceived injustices, may overlook structural and systemic issues, including school culture, neighborhood violence, and family dynamics, which play substantial roles in shaping students' behaviors. therefore, future research should adopt a more holistic approach by considering the broader factors that may interact with or mediate the relationship between strain and school violence. although the studies in this collection make valuable contributions to understanding school violence through the lens of strain theory, several gaps in the existing literature warrant further research. many cross-sectional studies have provided a snapshot of the relationship between strain and school violence at a specific time. a longitudinal global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (10) pg. 14 analysis that tracks students over an extended period can offer insights into how strains and perceived injustices may accumulate and impact students’ behavior over time. this will afford a better understanding of the temporal dynamics of school violence. in addition, these studies often focus on individual strains and perceived injustices. however, they may not adequately address how various identities, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status, intersect to create unique strain and school violence experiences. future research should explore how these intersecting identities influence the relationship between strain and violence while acknowledging that different groups of students may face distinct challenges. further, the studies in the collection cover various cultural and regional contexts. further research is required to explore how cultural and contextual factors influence the applicability of strain theory to school violence. the extent to which this theory holds in diverse cultural settings and the influence of cultural norms and values on students’ strain experiences should be reviewed. although these studies provide insights into the factors underlying school violence, there is a need for research that evaluates the effectiveness of preventive interventions informed by strain theory. understanding which interventions can successfully reduce school violence is crucial for educators and policymakers seeking to create safer learning environments. the reviewed studies encompass various school settings and cultural contexts, including south korea, the united states, and other international settings. the applicability of strain theory to different environments is an essential consideration. the findings suggest that strain theory's core principles, including perceived injustices, negative emotions, and strains leading to delinquency, are relevant in various cultural contexts and school settings. however, the specific stressors and strains experienced by students may vary according to cultural and regional factors. for example, academic pressures in some asian countries may be particularly pronounced, leading to unique strains that contribute to school violence. cultural norms and values influence students’ perceptions of injustices and react to strains. therefore, it is crucial to consider the cultural context when applying strain theory to school violence. educators and researchers should be attentive to students’ challenges in different cultural settings and should tailor interventions accordingly. 4. implications for school violence the insights gained from applying strain theory to school violence offer educators and school policies valuable guidance. teachers can create more effective preventive and remedial measures for school violence by understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms of this problem. early identification of at-risk students becomes possible when educators recognize signs of strain and perceived injustices, enabling timely interventions that address the root causes of potentially violent behaviors. additionally, schools can foster supportive and inclusive environments by implementing anti-bullying programs and promoting positive peer relationships to reduce strains and perceived injustices. by developing targeted interventions and teaching students healthy coping mechanisms, educators empower students to manage their emotions constructively and avoid resorting to violence as a means of release. furthermore, promoting inclusivity and equity ensures that all students have equal access to resources and are treated fairly, addressing strains related to discrimination, bullying and academic pressure. by understanding how strains can lead to cyberbullying, schools can implement comprehensive prevention programs to address such strains. tailoring strategies to the cultural context recognizes the influence of cultural norms and values on students’ experiences, thus leading to more effective approaches in diverse settings. collaboration with parents and communities in prevention and intervention efforts maximizes the impact of these strategies, and regular assessment of the effectiveness of interventions ensures ongoing improvements. equipping educators with global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (10) pg. 15 professional development opportunities enhances their ability to apply strain theory and effectively address strains and perceived injustices in educational settings, ultimately creating safer and more conducive learning environments and benefiting all student’s well-being and academic success. 5. conclusion strain theory provides a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of school violence. this study highlights the role of strain in eliciting negative emotions and deviant behaviors among students and sheds light on the underlying causes of such violence. educators and administrators can leverage this understanding to proactively develop safer and more supportive learning environments. by applying the principles of strain theory, evidence-based strategies for preventing and managing school violence can be developed. this has the potential to enhance student outcomes and foster a more conducive learning atmosphere. 6. references agnew, r. 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(2019). the role of strain in the negative emotions and bullying behaviors of school-aged children. children and youth services review, 96, 373–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.10.016 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 5; may-2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 9 influence of the open school climate on teachers job performance in the administration of secondary schools in enugu state 1ogbuanu, henrietta chidi ph. d, 1udeani, justina ph. d, and 1aroh, mercy oluchi ph. d. article info abstract keywords: open school climate, teachers' job performance, school administration, secondary education, enugu state. doi 10.5281/zenodo.15546511 this study examines the influence of an open school climate on teachers’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools in enugu state. an open school climate, characterized by transparency, collaboration and mutual respect among stakeholders plays a critical role in enhancing teachers' effectiveness and overall job satisfaction. this study employs a descriptive survey research design. the population of the study is 1077, principals 286 and teachers 791 .collecting data from secondary school teachers and administrators through structured questionnaires. the principal mean rating in research question 1, range from 2.91-3.05 while teachers mean range from 2.96to3.03,. the value for cluster means for principals and teachers are 2.99 and 3.00, respectively, with standard deviations of 0.81 and 0.81. the finding demonstrate that an open school climate influences teachers’ job performance in secondary schools. in research question 2, the principal mean range from 2.92-3.02 while teachers’ mean ranges from 2.97 to 3.02, with a standard deviation of 0.82. findings reveal that an open school climate fosters professional commitment, motivation, and improved teacher-student relationships, which positively impact instructional delivery and school administration. this study highlights the need for school leaders to cultivate an environment that promotes trust, shared decision-making, and open communication. it recommends that policymakers and education administrators implement policies that sustain an open school climate to enhance teachers’ productivity and improve educational outcomes in secondary schools. introduction education is the grease resource that society can provide to a child. education is an agent of change toward formation of the intended projection, which requires education reform to meet the obligation with the compulsive 1 department of educational foundations, faculty of education, godfrey okoye university, enugu. email: ogbuanuhenriettac@gouni.edu.ng, tinaudeani@gmail.com, and mercyluchie@gmail.com https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear)16 (5) pg. 10 detailed information to achieve the goals, vision, and mission toward academic excellence (entoh and abdullah, 2019). according to obiakor and oguejiofor (2020), qualitative education remains the fulcrum for global development and freedom. there are different levels of education in nigeria, which include pre-primary, primary, secondary, and higher education (federal republic of nigeria (frn), 2013). however, in this study, the researcher focused on secondary school education. secondary education is the education received after primary school and before the tertiary level. fabunnia in abdulrasheed and bello (2015) defined secondary school education as the form of education that children receive after primary education and before the tertiary level. secondary school education is an important level of education in nigeria, where a solid foundation for higher education and useful living is laid (ogbu, 2014). the quality of a nation’s educational sector, especially secondary education, depends considerably on teachers (emu and nwannunu, 2018). teachers are human resources that make school and education objectives a reality. according to ibikunle and afolakeni (2021), teachers are indispensable for the effective running of schools and education systems. teachers are the implementers who impact learners, values and ideas that are considered vital to socio-cultural, political and economic development through the teaching of basic relevant concepts. according to offorma and chukwuma and nosike (2016), teachers are the people that coordinate all the factors in teaching and learning process to promote educational objectives. healthy interpersonal relationships are required for a teacher to e well on top of his work, hereby enhancing his/her job performance (abubakar, udechukwu, ogbuoji and chuwujekwu, 2016). job performance is the overall behaviors in relation to the job. it assesses whether a person performs a job well or otherwise. job performance is the implementation of an action or one’s ability (fauzilah, noryati and zaharah in ibikunles and afolakami, 2021). teachers’ job performance is the duly performed by a teacher at a particular period in the school system is achieving organizational goals (obilad inwachira, gitumu and mbugua, 2017). one of the factors that seem to influence teachers’ job performance is school climate (okeke-james, igbokwe, ogbo, ekweogu and anyanwu, 2020). school climate is a general term that refers to the feelings, atmosphere, tone, ideology, or milieu of a school. school climate is a broad term and concept that embraces the classrooms, libraries, workshops, laboratories, instructional materials, and the school environment in general (ibikunle and afolakemi, 2021). wang and degot (2015) also postulated that school climate includes academic, community, safety, and institutional environment dimensions that encompass just about every feature of the school environment that impacts cognitive, behavioral, and psychological development. according to peretomode, (2014) and nwangwu (2017), there are six types of school climate: open, autonomous, controlled, familiar, paternal, and closed school climate. in this study, the researchers focused on an open school climate. open school climate reflects a climate in which the principals, teachers and students are accessible and actively prepared to jointly achieve school objectives. the open school climate is defined and characterized by sincerity, frankness, genuineness, low hindrance, low disengagement, average intimacy, high esprit of teachers, high thrust and consideration of the school head (coda, dasilva and custodio, 2015). according to nwangwu (2017, in an open school climate, the members of the school are creative, innovative and freely interact with one another. an open school climate is healthy unlike other school climates in achieving general school objectives (okorji, igbokwe and ezeugbor, 2016). despite measures taken by both the state and federal governments in nigeria to enhance teachers’ job performance, teachers’ job performance in enugu state seems to be low, which is the worry of the present study. furthermore, other concerns of researchers are students’ poor performance in both internal and external examinations, and the host of disciplinary cases, which have been reported by principals involving teachers’ poor global journal of education and allied research (gjear)16 (5) pg. 11 performance (eze, 2018). the attitudes of some principals are equally devastating, as they issue orders arbitrarily and use abusive language on teachers and usually side where there is a problem among staff or students. it is against this background that the researchers conducted a study on the influence of an open school climate on teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in enugu state. statement of the problem the decline in thee learning outcomes of students at the various levels of education in nigeria and enugu state in particular has triggered some concerns from education stakeholders about the job performance of teachers in educational institutions. in enugu state in particular, stakeholders in education are worried about the drop in students’ academic performance over some years now, both in internal and external examinations between 2018 – 2023as observed by the researchers are alarming. teachers who are supposed to play a crucial role in achieving learners’ goals and objectives are also complaining of irregularity in salary payment, poor working conditions and leadership styles. the reason could be attributed to the school climate, and when not addressed, the students will continue to perform poorly. purpose of the study the general purpose of the study was to determine the influence of open school climate on teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in enugu state. specifically, the study determined the; a) the influence of the open school climate on teachers’ job performance teaching and learning in secondary schools in enugu state. b) influence of opening-up school climate on principals’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools in enugu state. research questions the following research questions guided the study; i) to what extent does the open school climate influence teachers’ job performance in teaching and learning in secondary schools in enugu state? ii) to what extent does the open school climate influence principals’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools in enugu state? methods this study used descriptive survey techniques, which are appropriate for gathering information from a sample of the typical tire population using questionnaires as research tools. the sample of secondary school teachers considered representative of the population to determine the influence of the open school climate on teachers’ job performance. a structured questionnaire with the title “influence of open school climate on teachers’ job performance in secondary school (isctjpq)” was used as the method for collecting data. the survey’s 15 (15) questions are broken up into two groups called clusters. cluster a only has eight elements, while cluster b has seven. the survey responses were graded on a four-point scale. the extent scale consists of very great extent (vge) 4 points, great extent (ge) 3 point, low extent (le) 2 points, and very low extent 1 point. three specialists from godfrey okoye university, two in educational management and one in measurement and evaluation, all from the faculty of education, were given the questionnaire to determine the instrument’s face validity. they carefully considered the study’s objectives, research questions and hypothesis as they evaluated the instruments precision, sufficiency. the researchers used their suggestions and opinions to improve the instruments before using the final data collected for the study. global journal of education and allied research (gjear)16 (5) pg. 12 the researchers and research assistants distributed the questionnaire to the respondents. the researchers hired two research assistants on the course of a one-day meeting. the researchers instructed the research assistants, who received lessons on how to react to the comments and ask questions in a suitable manner. the researcher examined the data and achieved the research objectives using mean scores and standard deviation. the average value of the option made it possible to establish the extent. if the computed mean score was 2.50 or greater, the item was evaluated as being to a big extent if it was 2.50 or lower. the criterion means of 2.50: 10/4 were calculated by dividing the total number of response option = 4+3+2+1 = 10/4. a significance level of 0.05 was chosen to test the null hypothesis using the t-test statistics. according to the decision rule for the hypothesis, the hypothesis us bit rejected when the t-calculated value is less than the ---- results the results of the study are presented in tables (1) one according to the research question and null hypothesis. research question 1: to what extent does the open-school climate influence teachers’ jo performance in teaching and learning in secondary schools? table 1: mean scores and standard deviations of principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences teachers’ job performance. s/n items principal 286 teachers 791 overall, 1,077 the open school climate influences teachers’ job performance. x sd x sd x sd dec 1 teaches are exposed to adequate staff development programmes. 3.01 .80 2.99 .82 3.00 .81 ge 2 school management exhibits positive attributes toward teachers. 2.97 .81 3.00 ..83 2.99 .82 egr 3 teachers are involved in decision-making. 3.05 .82 3.02 .79 3.03 .80 ge 4 there is mutual understanding between students and teachers. 3.00 .80 3.01 .82 3.01 .81 gee 5 teachers are constantly motivated 2.91 .83 3.00 .83 2.98 .83 ge 6 teachers are properly supervised 3.01 .79 2.99 .82 2.99 .81 ge 7 teachers are respected by students 2.95 .80 3.02 .83 3.00 .82 gee 8 teachers’ routine duties do not interfere with their instructional delivery efforts. 3.00 .84 2.96 .81 2.97 .82 ge 9 there is a proper relationship between schools and host communities. 3.01 .85 3.03 .81 3.03 .82 ge global journal of education and allied research (gjear)16 (5) pg. 13 cluster mean/sd 2.99 .81 3.00 .81 3.00 .81 ge the data analysis on table one (1) above shows that the mean rating of principals’ and teacher job performance on the extent to which open school climate influences teachers’ job performance in secondary schools. the above table shows that the principal mean range from 2.91 – 3.05 while the teacher’s mean range from 2.96 3.03. the value of the cluster mean for the principal and teachers are 2.99 and 3.00 with standard deviations of.81 and.81. the standard deviation of the respondents demonstrated homogeneity in their responses. the findings show that the findings of the study signifies that open school climate influence teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in enugu state. research question 2: to what extent does the open school climate influence principals’ job performance in administration in public secondary schools? table 2: mean scores and standard deviation of principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences principals’ job performance in administration. s/n items principal 286 teachers 791 overall, 1,077 open school climate influences job performance in administration when: x sd x3.01 .83 x sd dec 1 principals adopt a democratic leadership style in school administration. 2.92 .80 3.04 .83 2.98 .83 ge 2 principals are supportive of teachers’ industrial delivery effort. 2.99 .83 3.04 .83 3.03 .83 ge 3 principals operate an open-door policy. 2.97 .83 3.02 .83 3.02 .83 ge 4 there is mutual understanding between teachers and principals. 3.02 .81 3.02 .80 3.02 .80 ge 5 principals create a conducive environment for teachers and students. 2.92 .80 3.05 .82 3.01 .82 ge 6 principals create an enabling environment between host communities and school management. 3.01 .85 3.03 .81 2.97 .82 ge 7 when principals allow teachers to participate in recreational activities in school. 2.99 .83 2.97 .82 2.97 .82 gee cluster mean/sd 2.97 .82 3.02 .82 3.00 .82 ge data analysis on table two shows that the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences principals’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools. in the above table, the principal’s mean ranged from 2.92 to 3.02, while teachers’ mean ranged from 2.97 to 3.05. the values of the cluster mean for principals and teachers were 2.97 and 3.02, respectively, with standard deviations of.82 global journal of education and allied research (gjear)16 (5) pg. 14 and.82. the findings show that open school climate influences principal job performance in the administration of secondary schools. table 3: summary of t-test analysis of mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences teachers’ job performance in secondary schools. group ղ x sd df p-value decision principals 286 3.01 .85 h01: rejected 1,075 .060 teachers 791 3.03 .81 .060 data in table three for principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climates influence teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in enugu state shows that 1,075 degrees of freedom, the p-value.060, which is greater than the 0.05 level of significance set for this study. it is an indication that the null hypothesis was rejected and therefore, no significant difference was found between the mean rating of principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in enugu state. table 4: summary of t-test analysis of mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences principals’ administration of secondary schools; group ղ x sd df p-value decision principals 286 2.97 .82 1075 .055 h02: rejected teachers 791 3.02 .82 data in table four for principals and teachers on the extent to which open school climate influences principals’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools shows that 1,075 degree of freedom, p-value was.055, which is greater than 0.05 level of significance set for the study, which shows that the hypothesis was not rejected, and therefore, there was no significant difference between the mean rating of principals on the extent to which open school ciliate influence principals job performance in the administration of secondary school schools in enugu state. discussion: the results of the survey show that the open school climate influences teachers’ and principals’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools in enugu state to a certain extent. the evidence from the finding of the study revealed that teachers who are exposed to adequate staff development programmes in school management exhibit a positive attitude toward teachers; teachers are involved in decision making. principals adopt democratic leadership styles in administration; there is mutual understanding between students, teachers, and principals. the findings of the study are in line with okeye (2012) and paige (2016), who stated that an open school climate greatly influences teachers’ job performance and principals job performance in the administration in secondary schools. the findings of the study are in agreement with yusufu and adigun (2010), who posited that an open climate is the most predominant climate in nigerian secondary schools. conclusion the study examined the influence of school climate on teachers’ and principals’ job performance on administration on secondary schools in enugu state. the open school climate influences teachers’ job performance and principals’ administration to a great extent. based on the findings, the following recommendations were proffered; global journal of education and allied research (gjear)16 (5) pg. 15 1. principals should create a more balanced and open school climate to encourage innovation and creativity and motivate more teachers to increase their job performance. educational planners and stakeholders 2. principals and teachers to help adopt the needed school climate that will promote teachers’ and principals’ job performance in the administration of secondary schools in enugu state. references entol, n. & abdullah, m.k. (2018). “the influence of school organizational climate on metacognitiod be organizing workshops, seminars often for among primary school teachers in the north island zone of sabah,” malaysian journal of social sciences and humanities, 4(1), 60–73. essien, e.e. & njoku, p.c. (2019). school environment and teachers’ job performance in social studies in cross river state, nigeria prestige journal of education, 2(1), 197–203. ibikunle, f.a. & afolakemi, o.o. (2021). school climate indices as predictors of teachers job satisfaction and performance in oyo state, nigeria. teacher education and curriculum studies, 6(2), 51–60. nwagwu, c. (2017). school climate and educational management, lagos: amfitop book. obiakor, m.i. & oguejiofor, c.n. (2020). impact of classroom size on the academic performance of secondary school students in enugu north local government area of enugu state, nigeria. african journal of educational management, teaching and entrepreneurship studies, 1(1), 51–59. offorma, g.c. chukwuma-nosike, c. (2016). sustainable development goals: enriching teacher education curriculum for quality education and lifelong learning. journal of the nigerian academy of education, 13(1), 1–9. ogba, j.o. (2014). pricipals’ motivational strategies and teacher job satisfaction in benue state. (unpublished thesis. department of educational foundations, university of nigeria, nsukka. okeke-james, n. j. igbokwe, i.c. ogbo, r.n. ekweogu, l.b. & anyanwu, a.n. (2020). school climate as a predictor of teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in anamabra state, nigeria. international journal of education and research, 8(3), 17–26. okorji, p., igbokwe, i., & ezeugbor, c. (2016). relationship between school climate and principals’ job performance in secondary schools. european scientific journal; (12): 1857–7881. peretomode, v.f. (2014). theories of management: implicaiton for educational administration. abraka: university printing press. unachukwu, g.o. & emenike, c.b. (2016). online social network usage and its influence on the academic achievement of secondary school students in anambra state, nigeria. implications for school administrators, international educational scientific research journal 2(8), 10 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 1; january-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 15 managing globalization and cultural norms: impact of same-sex marriage legislation on state autonomy 1sarah eze and 2benjamin thompson article info abstract keywords: heterosexual union, same-sex marriage, human rights, international law, cultural values. doi 10.5281/zenodo.10571677 the foundational role of heterosexual unions in human society is undeniable, serving as the origin of human existence and the family structure. this study addresses the imperative of upholding traditional heterosexual relationships within the context of the contemporary push for same-sex marriage (ssm) rights, which challenges established norms. the significance of the heterosexual partnership as the fundamental principle of human society, as espoused by udokang (2000:154), underscores the potential societal consequences if this principle is violated or distorted. in this landscape, where western societies and their allies advocate for the global acceptance of same-sex marriage, the need to safeguard citizens' united nations human rights is paramount. nigeria, like many other nations, staunchly opposes same-sex marriage. the anti-gay (prohibition) act of 2013, signed into law by nigeria's former president, goodluck jonathan, reflects this stance, imposing severe penalties for contravening the legislation. however, criticisms from international entities, such as ms. navi pillay, assert that nigeria's position on same-sex marriage is inconsistent with international law. this paper contends that the internationalization of human rights places limitations on states' autonomy to regulate the treatment of both citizens and aliens. the struggle between upholding cultural and traditional values and adhering to evolving global standards of human rights is a central theme in this analysis. introduction there is no gainsaying the fact that human society arose and remains through the family or the natural appetite between opposite sexes. it is the heterosexual union between man and woman, male and female, not the reverse that gives birth to human beings including advocates of same-sex marriage (ssm) relationship. udokang (2000:154) conceived this arrangement as “the first and original principle of human society” which can never be violated or distorted without potential tragic consequences. therefore, the call to evolve more proficient ways of guaranteeing and appropriating the un human rights of citizens could not have come at a time better than now 1 department of political science evangel university, akaeze, ebonyi state 2 department of political science akwa ibom state university nigeria obio akpa oruk anam lga – nigeria https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 16 that the west and their allies are canvassing for support to globalize the entire human race with same-sex marriage practice. nigeria, like most countries of the world, is 99 percent anti-gay or same-sex marriage. consequently, nigeria’s former president, goodluck jonathan, on january 13, 2014 signed into law the anti-gay (prohibition) act 2013 with 14 years of imprisonment and/or death penalty for anyone flouting the legislation. uganda followed suit the succeeding month with tougher penalties; even the us arizona state same month abhorred gay union as does russia without president obama raising eye brows. but due to the poor socio-political, economic, scientific and technological status of their target countries, ms. navi pillay said nigeria’s position on homosexuality or samesex marriage laws contravened international law and must be resisted, fought and ended (etimette, 2014; ogundele, 2014; uwalaka, 2014). invariably, the assertion that due to the internationalization of human rights, a state is no longer free to treat its nationals and aliens the way it pleases, is indeed what this paper articulates and will yet do. notably, pro-gay have argued that so long as governments and leaders who oppose them are members of the un and as signatories of various human rights laws in the un treaties, they are bound to oblige the us position. this they say with little consideration for the fact that no international law, with respect to state sovereignty can function in any state without it being domesticated through legislative processes by the national assembly of a given country (adebambo, 2014). another argument seeking to justify gay laws is that homosexuals are capable of no other sexual activities – being born so. meanwhile scientists and medical experts refute in entirety, the existence of such gene (muanya, 2014). they rather reveal a lot on health implications of same-sex marriage to include anal cancer, genital warts, hiv/aids and other serious health risks constantly ignored by homosexuals. really this is where globalization as the extension, expansion and intensification of interests of world powers to places and people for good or for bad speaks volumes. advocacy for same-sex marriage in the current world system appears to have grossly undermined not only the sovereign status of states but, also the first and original principle of human society called “family”. similarly, the basis of their argument that the gay “having been created by nature as such, it is unfair for the society to discriminate against their sexual preferences” is devoid of the needed cogency (agbiti 2007:15). one wonders why the advocates would not proffer the same arguments for “the kleptomaniacs, nymphomaniacs and those with obsession to kill without justification, who all claims (sic) to be victims of instinctive compulsion”. refuting this claim, the nigeria coalition of civil society organizations (csos) posited: “there is no such gene as a homosexual gene! therefore we reject born that way fallacy” (muanya (2004). in the same vein, natural law thinkers, robert george and john finnis revealed that “people with homosexual or heterosexual tendencies who really intend to use their sexual appetites in morally right ways will not engage in homosexual acts” (ukachukwu, 2014:13). it is the contention of this paper that the state-based ethical cum domestication provisions in the un charter for rights of sovereignty, dignity of human person and their allies are untenable due to human rights pursuits without traditional or god’s kind of morality. as a polarized global phenomenon, the western states divide are the us, uk, canada and, the non-western states africa and others. the west are promoting and over-liberalizing individual rights, as opposed to africa and others’ conservative – collective right of the society. the west couldn’t be any less formidable owing to a number of collaborators among which are amnesty international, human rights watch, governmental and other nongovernmental agents currently engaged in threats, pressure, lobbying and advocacy-drives in poor countries like nigeria. historically speaking, it could be recalled that twenty-four years ago, the cureless dreaded disease, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (aids) started in the us as a result of sexual promiscuity involving man and animal. ironically, the same america is spearheading the spread and legalization of another form of bestiality (same-sex marriage) in all countries of the world. it is imperative to note at this point that as at 2007, no fewer than “67 of the then 192 member countries of the united nations including all the european union member states and the united states” supported the proposal co-sponsored by argentina, brazil, and uruguay to stop anti-gay or same-sex marriage laws. conversely, syria initiated counter proposal “signed by 57 member nations, including all 27 nations of the arab league as well as iran and north korea”. in africa, south africa, as lately as 2006 signed into law the freedom for homosexuals to global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 17 contract same-sex marriage. in february 2014, president yoweri museveni, who, to many (due to america’s threat), seemed gullible and vulnerable, suddenly, like his nigeria’s counterpart, president goodluck jonathan, proved his worth by signing the anti-gay law with death penalty. in the meantime, uganda reportedly goes tougher than nigeria, as women wearing miniskirts are stripped naked publicly by the police. as at 2011, homosexual behaviour was illegal in 76 countries and punishable by execution in seven others (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human rights april, 2014). the paper’s attempt at understanding the pulse of international society on globalization and same-sex marriage laws is limited to examining issues and prospects for states’ sovereignty using the un human rights laws as the basis. in doing this, the paper considered some selected case studies on same-sex marriage laws in the united states of america, nigeria, china, and britain. consequently, the paper sought to answer some vital questions, viz: to what extent is same-sex marriage related to globalization and state sovereignty in contemporary international system? what could be responsible for the us moral/ethnical decline after it had attained unprecedented scientific/technical heights? these questions constitute the major thrust of this paper. therefore, their answers will aid in recommending possible ways to checkmate the excesses of the us team and advise targeted vulnerable countries on the way forward. conceptual clarification globalization globalization as a process is better described than defined if its essence and practices are to be fully grasped. marshal (1998, in engwemi and usman, 2010:187) itemized the description to include among others: existence of a world satellite information system; the emergence of global patterns of consumption system and consumerism; the decline of the sovereignty of the nation state; the emergence of world political systems such as the league of nations and the united nations; the development of world-wide health problems such as aids; extension of human rights and the complex interchange between world religions, inter/intra cultural groupings and ethical or moral issues. these and lots more constitute emerging issues and/or factors towards global consciousness. according to kessler (cited in ikpe, 2010:284), globalization “is the expression and shrinking of the world in terms of time, space and distance; manifesting in the way in which, and the speed with which money and communications generally move round the world. through this process, the world has been compressed into a “television screen”. in other words, globalization, as exemplified by (ikpe, 2010:384-385) anchors on speedy communications in that: in 1776 it took 50 days for news of the english reaction to the american declaration of independence to get back to the united state. in 1950, british reaction to the outbreak of the korean wars was broadcast in america in 24 hours. with advances in satellite broadcasting, reports filmed in britain now take a mere 25 seconds to reach american tv screens and vice versa. we now take for granted the almost immediate transmission of newsworthy events around the world. same-sex marriage same-sex marriage is a legally recognized relationship between two people of the same sex. the concept, like most others in social sciences, not only lacks a universally accepted definition due to its newness, absurdity, strangeness, abrasive and embarrassing disposition. descriptively, same-sex marriage is the marriage relationship between persons of same sex (man to man, woman to woman). same-sex marriage is homosexual in nature and structure. it is institutional like its heterosexual opponent. it is made up of branches such as: lesbianism, gay, bisexual, transgender, homosexuality, alternative sexual orientation among others. while lesbianism involves women only, homosexuality and gay involves men in particular. gay is more synonymous with same-sex. the “alternative sexual orientation” as etimette (2014:19) explained, is an act of “a man poking his genital” or male organ “into a fellow man’s anus, and a woman sucking a fellow woman’s” vagina to satisfy sexual urge or just for the fun of it. again, this forms the basis and essence of same-sex marriage which america and her allies are determined to indoctrinate the rest of the world with. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 18 human rights laws human rights are moral principles regularly protected as legal rights in national and international laws. they are supposed to be universal, egalitarian and persuasive, not forceful. in recapitulation, the laws though applicable everywhere, the same for everyone, no sovereign state can be forced to obey or apply any of them without first and foremost domesticating it as an act of the national assembly. according to john (2000:45), of the three major rights (civil rights, legal rights and human rights), human rights is the most problematic. to him, the first two rights vary from state to state while the last right is global, inalienable and claimable by man as a member of the human race or family. shaw (2005:148), while linking human rights with ethics/morality see chances of their successful implementation only as they reflect values of the state or community. otherwise the totalitarian collective soviet union would not have endorsed the un human rights treaties. the westerners (america and europe) value individual rights as opposed to asianchinese value for honest, effective and efficiency government or collective society as does africa. be it also noted that virtually all matters that today would be classified as human rights issues were in the 19th century universally regarded as within the internal sphere of national jurisdiction. state sovereignty and international system sovereignty has to do with supreme authority. its classical form implies supreme control of the state over its domestic affairs including its citizens at home or abroad, over aliens residing within the state except those enjoying diplomatic immunity. contemporarily, sovereignty is limited to the rules and procedures for decisionmaking which admit of flexibility instead of rigidity or risk relevance in the current world system. to many, sovereignty of states died before the 20th century while others still believe in its existence as the basis of interaction. the above views could be supported by the frowning of the united states, european union, and united nations on the signing into law anti-gay marriage with death penalty by nigeria and uganda, and the fact that “constitutional arrangements of japan and germany were directed by the united states after world war ii. the united kingdom, despite its rejection of the euro, is part of the european union” (eminue, 2001:144). on the other hand, international system could be defined as the study of the interactions among the various actors that participate in international politics, including states, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, sub-national entities, and individuals. it was the concept of globalization that shaped and brought about the system in its contemporary form (shrinkage of the world) through advancement in modern technology, the source added. comparatively, the law is above individuals in domestic system, but international law exists as between the states. individuals only have the choice to obey it or not. legal structure and authority in states are hierarchical and vertical while the international system is horizontal, consisting of over 190 independent states legally sovereign and equal (shaw, 2005). for instance, it was the impact of the second world war and its aftermath which necessitated the drive for adequate international system to maintain international peace and protection of human rights. be it noted at this point that in spite of article 2(7) which provides that “nothing contained in the present charter shall authorize the united nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state, this has over the years been flexibly interpreted, so that human rights issues are no longer recognized as being solely within the domestic jurisdiction of states” (shaw, 2005:258-259). accordingly, owugah (2003:253) contended that: we are now in an international system in which the united states, as the only super power, bestrides the world like a colossus, supported by the european union and japan with their transnational corporations (tncs), the imf/wb and the wto as the agents or institutions of globalization charged with the responsibility of imposing and supervising the effective implementation of the principles of free market system on the weak, underdeveloped and dependent economies in the south. it is also worth noting that globalization policies have ostensibly turned from the promised development, technological advancement, peace, and high standard of living into exploitation, threats, suppression, poverty, confusion, sodomy and moral depravity. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 19 theoretical framework the paper adopted the cyclical (rise-and-fall) theory as the framework for analysis because apart from its ability to examine the apparent paradoxical moral decline surrounding the un human rights laws and the us purportedly established morality, the theory adequately captures and explains most of the variables and dynamics that inform prospective effects of globalization on same-sex marriage, state sovereignty and other related issues. the cyclical theory was developed by oswald spengler and theodore caplow (ikpe, 2010:446-447). the theory argues that societies grow, reach a peak and then inevitably decline. ikpe joined historians and other social thinkers to observe the conformity of past civilizations egyptians, babylonian, cretan, greek, carthaginian, roman and others to the cyclical process of birth, growth and decline within a span of five thousand years. toynbee and capplan (1972 cited in ikpe, 2010) equated the noted societal tendency with the life cycle of man birth, grow to maturity, aged and then die. therefore, protagonists of the cyclical theory see those social changes as normal and inevitable. akpan (2003:296) corroborated the above position by observing that “in most cases, just as such nations reached the apogee of materialism and culture or consolidate the gains they already had, they declined and fell and were replaced by other power centres”. he cited greek, rome, portugal, spain, turkey, britain, france and russia as another set of case study of the theory. with regard to the west, cyclical theorist, oswald spengler blamed its decline, supposedly in the 70s, on the replacement of energetic social builders by entrenched minorities who rule by force (andreson and taylor, 2008 in ikpe). ikpe observed that though oswald’s prediction of the decline and rise of the west and asian countries respectively has not occurred in the envisaged forms, asian countries such as china, japan, india and the so called asian tigers are actually emerging as economic and technological powers. owing to the above submission, and the fact that leadership (human factor), according to akpan (2003:300), “not geography, population, natural resources, political structure or system, military strength etc. constitutes the greatest determinant of national power”, it is the contention of this paper that the same human factor constitutes the decline and fall in the same degree albeit negatively (ojo, 2014:23; isu, 2014:14). furthermore, another major cyclical theorist, theodore caplow (1991 cited in ikpe, 2010) also analysed cyclical theory using three different cycles viz: (1) idealistic culture, (2) ideational culture, and (3) sensate culture. in the idealistic culture, the society struggles with tension arising from what is considered ideal and practical (ikpe, 2010). it is a period involving contradicting issues like same-sex marriage and state sovereignty with the society trying to establish, reconcile and legalize the controversies involving contesting groups. again, anderson and taylor (2008) in the ikpe uses america to illustrate idealistic culture thus: that as regards american situation, the constitution and other legal documents and protocols emphasizes “equality for all despite intractable racial class, and gender stratification in the american society”. this is followed by ideational culture which according to caplow (1991), operates in the spiritual dimension. this is where several faith-based and religious groups claim solution to individual and societal moral decadence ostensibly and ironically propagated by america in the name of fostering equality and human rights laws globally. in his sensate culture, a behavioural pattern of people in the society is hedonistic or pleasuredriven with indulgence in alcohol, drugs, music, sex et cetera. the culture, he added, “grows to a level where it becomes abhorring or unacceptable to a larger number of people and resulting in the society seeking solutions once again in the idealistic culture which completes and begin the cycle again”. homosexuality and other related same-sex marriage acts in less than one month after anti-gay law in nigeria has been signed by the president, the punch newspaper of february 11, 2014 reported the arraignment in ibadan magistrate court of two nysc members for engaging in homosexuality with a pupil. the culprits were reported by the prosecutor to have “procured and got hold of the male pupil, (themselves being males) took him into a room, laid him on a bed, caressed him and orally sucked his manhood until the minor ejaculated”. they were granted bail in the sum of n100,000.00 each with one blood relation as surety. relatively too, is the fact that while other people in other parts of the world celebrate the tying of marital knots, divorce is the most celebrated event in japan now. the story reveals that requests for divorces have tripled (with global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 20 expensive average of 55,000 yen) ceremonies to mark the transition of the couples to their former single status since the 9.0 magnitude earthquake of march 11, 2013 which set off a massive tsunami. divorcees confess after ceremonies of their feeling relieved to make clean breaks. femi (2008:16) reported of incest involving one of the former nigeria’s presidents with his daughter in-law. similarly, the sermon newspaper of july 29, 2008 carried on its front page picture of a man caught having sex with goat. the man, a sudanese, was ordered by community elders to pay the sum of 15,000 sudanese dinass ($50, about n18,250) as dowry for his goat-wife. the man pleaded for pardon as he claimed ignorant of what moved him to such an abominable act (silas, 2008:1-3). as if those sexual abuses were not enough, a newspaper report with the caption “sacrilege” carried the picture of a man of god, and a pack of used condom a worshipper gave as an offering in his church. the man of god wept over what he called “man’s ingratitude to god”. he saw this as a way of mocking god by the antichrist. he particularly decried the approval of same-sex marriage by some countries of the world, “describing the constitutional recognition accorded to such couples as an indication of the reign of anti-christ in the world” (oti, 2013). oladinde (2010:40) sees homosexuality as being caused by pornography, masturbation and the like, not necessarily, generic, hormonal, congenital, and biologically pre-determined or mental illness as speculated by some scientists, biologists and social engineers. he went on to advice that any counselee should see the act as a sin against allah’s marital laws in the holy qur’an and make effort to repent and go through a process of deliverance or rehabilitation. issues and prospects for states sovereignty in the globalization and same-sex marriage laws discourse globalization has led to internationalization of most issues in human and state existence. and due to the internationalization of human rights, a state is no longer free to treat its nationals and aliens the way it pleases; and the extent to which a sovereign state can use the human rights laws to treat its citizens and non-citizens seem unjustly grossly limited. on the front burner now is the much heated, debated and polarized issue of same-sex marriage laws. as earlier stated in the problem statement, the paper contends that same-sex marriage is a product of serious moral decay; and the un human rights laws purportedly founded on morality have woefully failed. more so, western morality is paradoxically war against humanity and divinity. it does not require amendment but sincere restoration replacement of the philosophy of the founding fathers like george washington with the motto: “in god we trust”. outside this fundamentally therapeutic ethics/morality grounds, there remains little hope for america and it same-sex marriage allies. oke and esikot (1999:85) postulated that though ethics lack the capacity to make one moral, it offers the individual excellent mental training in the analysis and evaluation of moral problems and cases. in other words, with ethics, they added, the individuals are well equipped with requisite knowledge to objectively deal with vital moral issues and not to base judgment on emotion, sentiment and generally held opinions. undoubtedly, the current controversial gay or same-sex marriage advocacy is driven by contemporary western morality. in january 2014, following the signing into law of the antigay law by nigeria’s president goodluck ebele azikiwe jonathan with death penalty on culprits and 14 years imprisonment on their accomplice(s), the western and european world powers have been raising eyebrows. some of their representatives, robert fitzpatrick, head of press and public affairs, william hague, british foreign secretary, stormed abuja to contend that nigeria’s position on the bill is a direct infringement “on fundamental right of expression and association which are guaranteed by the nigerian international treaty obligations”, and that they are concerned about the prospect of this action on homosexuals. they promised sanctions and increased pressure against nigeria and indeed any country that is anti-gay until they succumb to their bid (chukwu and akinola, 2014). the envoy in their moral dilemma statement added that as far as issues of human rights are concerned, they are “not telling nigeria what kind of legislation to practice, or advocating for homosexuality, or what same-sex marriage should be. we are not imposing our own morality or culture. indeed, western morality, as opposed to the traditional, cannot be any less denied”. obviously, these statements are not only ostensible and diplomatic; they are exhibits of minds full of guilt. be that as it may, the position of this paper as earlier stated remains that advocates of same-sex marriage are morally bankrupt and fraught with over-liberalization of immoral issues such as incessant divorces, fornication and global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 21 adultery euphemistically called “fun” in the west; over-pampering of children etc., all in the name of human rights promotion and protection. given the stated problems of the us on one side and, that of the economically vulnerable countries on the other, we observe that as a desideratum, america should retrace its steps back to the ethical/moral philosophies of their founding fathers or risk global relevance in the nearest future; and for economically vulnerable countries like nigeria, onwuka (2014) opined that the best way to resist america’s obnoxious amoral demands is to evolve means and explore all there is to achieve buoyant and enticing economy like china, saudi-arabia, russia, among others, which have not only refuted gay practice but are totalitarian and dictatorial in many human rights issues like using undue force to detain dissidents on peaceful demonstrations; cutting of the limbs or killing of those found guilty of minor offences. evidently, china has not only fast-taken-over african market from them (ogundele, 2014), it is the us largest creditor to the tune of $1.317 as at november 2013, (onwuka, 2014). another example is saudi-arabia which the us would not like to be seen as anti-islam or being ungrateful for saudi’s highest patronage of their arms sales worth $60 billion (largest anywhere till date) the source added. in sum, and indirectly, the main advantage of american ideologies ranging from democracy, economic policies, globalization et cetera is in the challenges it poses on countries to fight their way through or continue to suffer subjugation in many areas of their existence. possible pathways to same-sex marriage practice although there may not be any known available causes of homosexuality or same-sex marriage, available reports and confessions point in the following directions: masturbation or fantasy: in this sexual activity, the victim robs his penis while fancying on his mind a particular woman as the object of his affection to achieve stimuli or sexual satisfaction with or without ejaculation. studies shows that many who indulges in masturbation are prone to either being homosexual, bisexual or the like. in the same view, the female folk use their fingers and/or artificial penis on their genital organ for same purpose. pornography: this has a lot to do with magazines, films etc. that show sexual acts and images in a way that is intended to make people feel sexually excited. there had been major campaigns in recent times against it because of its adverse effects on people and children in particular. illegal human trafficking: from the united states estimation, human trafficking worth us$5-7 billion annually and having over four million persons moved from one country to another and within countries for sexual purposes have led to more than 500,000 females being trafficked or exported to western europe alone a serious violation of human right (raymond, 2002 in ifeayichuhwu and titus, 2014). bad company: many gay escapees testify to the above biblical fact. in terms of homosexuality involving two males, this paper is yet to know how long the one playing the female role maintains such status in the union, or do they exchange roles and act accordingly? if so, the introduced wife today would possibly become the husband, the following day; ridiculous! forced celibacy: using the catholic church as case study onwuka (2014:25) observed that “stories of catholic priests sexually molesting male and female children have been on the increase in recent times” due to forced celibacy upon the catholic clergy. besides making catholic priests appear unique with less financial need arising from no family upkeep-bills, onwuka, sees celibacy in the catholic priesthood as a failure which will never succeed because like its contemporary abomination in gay marriage, it is against natural law. onwuka went on to posit that “if it is subdued forcefully, it brews like a latent volcano, exploding one day in a destructive and embarrassing manner”. it needs to be channelled to a fruitful venture (family) via marriage. the safest outlets are neither fornication, masturbation, paedophilia (someone sexually attracted to young children) nor homosexuality. regrettably, the embarrassment is beyond the catholic church (for which the pope has recently apologized to the mass public), it is one on the faces of all the stakeholders in christendom. however, with the coming of radical revolutionary popes like pope benedict xvi and his successor pope john paul ii who broke the tradition of dying in office and prefer to retire and be called “pope emeritus” the present pope francis can change the celibacy policy if he so wishes. this is the prospective view of onwuka which we also affirm at least for the sake of homosexuality and same-sex marriage affinity. in the same vein, the attorney general of federation of nigeria, adoke (san) looks forward to seeing the appellate courts come up with rulings that will put all issues of international treaties and nigeria’s constitution clear and beyond all doubts (adebambo, 2014). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 22 the positives and negatives of same-sex marriage like forced celibacy, same-sex marriage makes one appear unique, and since there is no possibility of pregnancy (wanted or not) there is no emotional trauma or temptation to commit abortion as it is the case with their heterosexual counterparts. some people see homosexuals and the gay or same-sex marriage folks as saviours or potential parents of abandoned babies. and they are reported to be in the habit of celebrating their adopted babies with pomp and ceremony. from the above seeming merits, demerits cry out to say, the so called uniqueness, is that of aberration, abomination and sin against god and man. their union being prone to short-live, their parenting and celebration of abandoned or adopted children do more harm than good at short or long run to those children and society for their bad examples. once again, if all peoples were to be gay how would we have had the george washington, abraham lincoln, helen sir leaf or the principal advocate of same-sex marriage barrack obama? more so, if their argument that gays are born with such sexual preferences or orientation were to be valid, why are they not in support of the kleptomaniacs, the nymphomaniacs (i.e. stealing instinct, insatiable sex-driven women respectively) and those with obsession to kill without justification, who all claim to be victims of instinctive compulsion? same-sex marriage and its allies are socially confusing, strange and, stigmatizing to most countries of the world; legally artificial and ambiguous; spiritually prone to curses and divine judgement as in the time of noah; psychologically, traumatic and suicide prone; scientifically untrue; morally animalistic and depraved; medically unhygienic, health hazardous as highlighted below: health implications of same-sex marriage muanya (2014) corroborates the report of the coalition of civil society organization (csos) of nigeria that illness, chronic disease, psychological problems and early death are the legacies of homosexuals. the author quoted dr. nkechi asogwa of the foundation for african cultural heritage as having profoundly stated that “although homosexuality is presented to society as a healthy and sometimes even superior alternative to heterosexuality, the truth is that homosexual behaviour represents a serious threat to individual and public health”. apart from the homosexual being more hiv/aids prone (due to their reckless sexual tendency and multiple sex partners) diseases such as “anal cancer, genital warts and other known 34 ones are prevalent among them” (muanya, 2014). statistically, in 2005 the us center for disease control (cdc) reported that homosexuals accounted for 72 percent of all hiv infections among men and 53 percent among all individuals hence their being banned from donating blood. moreover, psychiatric and psychological illnesses associated with homosexuality include depression, loneliness leading to suicide tendencies, addiction and violence due to the overtly exploitative nature of such relationship. between 1994 and 1997 the center also reported an increase of anal sex in the us from 57.6 percent to 61.2 percent while those using condoms declined from 69.6 percent to 60 percent. most homosexuals engage in unprotected oral, anal and vaginal sex. if, according to the center, 43 percent of white male-homosexual (in the 90s) had sex with 500 or more partners and, with 28 percent having 1,000 or more sex partners, what would we say of the female? statistically, according to umoh (2010:5), hiv/aids in 1981 started among homosexuals in the us with few cases. by 1999 no fewer than 34 million people globally got infected and most of them live in sub-saharan africa. the big poser therefore is: what is the prospect of same-sex marriage pandemic not following suit in africa? selected countries study on same-sex marriage as earlier indicated in the scope of this study, britain will represent the continent of europe; china, asia; nigeria, africa and, the last but least the united states of america (usa), north america. china china recognizes neither same-sex marriage nor civil unions. a poll conducted in 2009 showed that over 30 percent of the beijing population supports same-sex marriage while the rest were unsure or opposed. china does not have any sex union recognition laws. beijing and hong kong currently provide dependent residency status to the same-sex marriage partners of legal residents (wikipedia april 9, 2014). on january 13, 2010, china daily published a front-page splash photo of a chinese couple, zenge auquan, a divorced architect aged 45, and pan global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 23 wenjie, a demobilized pla solider aged 27, being married at a gay bar in chengdu. the marriage is understood as having no legal basis in the country and the families of both men reacted negatively to the news of the union. the marriage law of the people’s republic of china explicitly defines marriage as the union between one man and one woman. however, “the attitude of the chinese government toward homosexuality is believed to be three nos: no approval; no disapproval; no promotion”. accordingly, china’s ministry of health officially removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses in 2001. to most chinese, same-sex marriage is not an issue to worry much about because many countries of the west (principal advocates of the movement) have not recognized it (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/same-sex-marriage). nigeria a working partner of us-based gallup poll, no. 1 polls limited, conducted a poll among nigerians on the subject of same-sex marriage between 4 and 6 june 2013. the result showed that 92 per cent of nigerians supported the bill to criminalized same-sex marriage. this means that less than 8 percent of the 170 million nigerians are against same-sex marriage; and the us, european union and, canada have threatened to withdraw their supports to nigeria in areas such as hiv/aids, research work and anti-malaria programmes. canada’s prime minister, stephen harper, cancelled president goodluck jonathan’s scheduled visit to his country (http://dailyindependenting.com/2014/03/same-sex-marriage-nigeria-vs-thewest). in the same vein, no fewer than twenty-four leading nigerian academics, researchers and journalists in diaspora advocated strong diplomatic discipline on nigeria for the prohibition. to them, nigeria’s problem is not same-sex marriage but corruption which nigerian leaders have refused sincere fight (http://nigeriasrenaissance.com.index.php/news/item/3600danti-gay-law...). united states of america in fact, it is on the backdrop of the results of a recent opinion poll among those aged 18-29 which showed as high as 70 percent support for same-sex marriage that informed the decision of the us government in adopting samesex marriage. accordingly, as at may 9, 2014, sixteen countries: argentina, belgium, brazil, canada, denmark, france, iceland, netherlands, new zealand, norway, portugal, spain, south africa, sweden, united kingdom (britain), uruguay, and several sub-national jurisdictions (part of mexico and the united states) allow same-sex couples to marry (enwikipedia.org/wiki/same-sex-marriage). united kingdom in may 2012, three religious groups (quakers, liberal judaism and unitarians) sent a letter to the uk prime minister, david cameron asking for permission to solemnize same-sex weddings (en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/samesex-marriage). the government’s consultation first came a month after on a permissive basis, and later on july17, 2013 passed through the readings in the houses of commons and lords (366 votes to 161 and 390 votes to 148 respectively). reportedly, the above source adds that the first same-sex marriage took place on march 29 this year. popular opinions on same-sex marriage opinions of the world public were sought by the researcher using the internet facilities on the polarized same-sex marriage laws between april 1 and may 15, 2014. the single question poll went thus: in view of the controversial same-sex marriage laws currently propagated by the us and its allies, do you support the practice? after one and a half months, the facilities (using 20 friends within and outside nigeria to mount the opinion on their social media (using 2 platforms) got a total of 2,855 responses from which 2,500 representing 87.56% voted in the negative while 355 respondents representing 12.44% voted in the affirmative. the response rate, no doubt, is indicative that most people in the world are against same-sex marriage laws. the overriding proposition for this study was that threat and/or logic against anti-gay practices, without due respect for the first and original principle of the family poses serious challenge to effective implementation of human rights laws across states’ borders. going by the votes of respondents above, it is expedient to say that same-sex marriage advocacy is a product of serious ethical/moral depravity in our contemporary society; and stands being rejected by most people and countries of the world. the following, among others, are the reasons adduced for this position: global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 24 1. beginning with the issue of selected pressure by the us. right from january 2014 which saw to the signing into law of the bill prohibiting same-sex marriage in nigeria by president goodluck jonathan, the media have been awash with bullies from the us, eu and un vowing that they will do everything to see that nigeria has repealed the prohibition. uganda joined nigeria a month later to prohibit the shameful act with death penalty. surprisingly, the us and its allies never say anything against china, saudi arabia or its own state arizona which also joined the rest of the anti-gay world recently to abhor the practice, all because african countries are technologically and economically poor. 2. the us argument for gay, that they were born with sexual inclination toward samesex hence homosexuality and same-sex marriage. the question is, if the pro-gays were to be that concerned for people born with natural tendencies, why are they not also fighting to legalize those with instinct to steal (klepmatoniacs), (nymphomaniacs) or a woman with instinct to sleep with many a man. therefore, their message of equality is also driven on a vehicle of partiality and falsehood. 3. the us concept of individual rights as opposed to the collective (exemplified by maslow’s selfactualization) promotes homosexuality and same-sex marriage. to them, the intensity or the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth-rate adequate to survival of the species. indeed, the difference or missing link between individualist and collectivist societies is the ethical/moral code. the former being western operates over-liberalized-indiscipline morality, while the rest of the world remains traditionally disciplined in terms of sex and marriage. 4. although with the globalization, the superpowers have unlawfully penetrated virtually all sovereign states; weaker states are the most vulnerable. meanwhile every state needs recognition and/or finance which cannot be accessed without membership and, submission to international laws. and in the system there are intrigues even in the globalization processes to maintain status quo by the developed countries worsening matters for the less developed countries (lcds). indeed, due to the internationalization of human rights, a state is no longer free to treat its nationals and aliens the way it pleases as in the recent same-sex marriage controversies. 5. in spite of the fact that in 1981, hiv/aids started in the us through sexual promiscuity and africa becomes the most infected, the same america is once again spearheading another sexual act considered abominable by most countries and people of the world with africa as their main target. conclusion same-sex marriage (ssm) laws are violations of god’s original principles for human society the family. moral decline and eventual depravity is worse than hiv/aids infection. america’s moral decay started some decades ago when divorce amongst legally marriage couples was not given a damn. it penetrated the church and graduated into the current infamy called same-sex marriage. truly, if god allows america to continue to police the world, before the next century, the superpower might legalize boundless sexual practices where plato’s state of nature would return and the bible’s man of sin in the new world order (ukpe, 2013) would view america as veritable tool to fight godliness and promote lawlessness to the full. what uwalaka (2014) considers as “big things start small and small things turn big” with regard to same-sex marriage is the pivot around which most of the issues and prospects in this study revolve. not as though the world had not been having cases of homosexuality and the like, but with the unprecedented dimension it is taking, the worst may ensue if stakeholders like the christians, muslims and other faith-based organizations will not rise to the occasion. recommendations in order to encourage the fight against same-sex marriage and its related abominable acts, the following recommendations are proffered: the united nations should not only recognize that developing countries and countries in transition face special difficulties in responding to globalization challenges, and that only through broad and sustained efforts to diversity can globalization be made fully inclusive and equitable, but also to have the political will to compel america (and its allies) to, concessionally, promote development of african countries as in the asian tigers. indeed, developing countries need sustained development not spread of immorality. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (1) pg. 25 developing countries, like nigeria, needs to evolve buoyant and enticing economy in order to be freed from america’s bullies, and threats of sanctions. with a strong economic base plus tyranny america would look the other way and do business with them; and the abominable advocacy would die a natural death. closely related to the suggestion for economic emancipation are those of science and technology. developing countries, like nigeria, should look inward and stopped being technologically dependent, as this would continue to make a mockery of their political independence and sovereignty. with good governance orchestrated by exemplary leadership devoid of corruption, brain drain would be checked, patriotism would be encouraged, homegrown science and technology would spring up in less developed countries. going by the polarized and controversial nature of same-sex marriage and its allies, the un charter should be amended to accommodate non-western morality. references adebambo, o. 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(2014). same-sex marriage and human rights. the punch, march 7, p.23. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 6; june-2025; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 8.97 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg.19 impact of digital mathematics laboratory on senior secondary school students’ development of entrepreneurship skills in kogi state, nigeria 1sunday yomi phd, 1haruna hajarat ozozoma, 1aliyu-ohiare fati and 1salami dharriyat email: sundayy@custech.edu.ng article info abstract keywords: digital, mathematics laboratory, entrepreneurship, skills, students doi 10.5281/zenodo.15781936 this study investigated the impact of the digital mathematics laboratory on senior secondary school students’ development of entrepreneurship skills. the study adopted a descriptive research design, three research questions were raised and a research hypothesis was developed with a sample of 300 senior secondary school ii students and 40 mathematics teachers, which were all purposively selected. two instruments were used for data collection; the instruments were validated, and reliability indexes were obtained. the data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation while the hypothesis was tested using t-test at a significance level of 0.05 level. the findings of the study revealed that the digital mathematics laboratory helped students develop entrepreneurship skills, and gender did not influence the impact of the digital mathematics laboratory. hence, it was recommended that mathematics teachers should be trained in the use of digital mathematics laboratories to help students develop entrepreneurship skills. introduction as digitalization increases in education systems worldwide, many countries issuing legislation and action plans to speed up the process (mulenga & marbán 2020). the issue of effectively integrating digital technology into teaching and learning practices has become critical. related research is largely concerned with understanding how schools handle digitalization. mathematics is the study of numbers, sets of points and various abstract elements, together with their relationships and operations performed on them. mathematics goes beyond formulas. it gives a reasonable explanation of what, how and why, to invoke logical thinking that enables one to understand how formulas are derived as well as their applications. digital technology, as a tool that is believed to 1 faculty of science and technology education, confluence university of science and technology, osara, kogi state nigeria global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.20 make a significant contribution to the development of education, is also a challenge in its application, especially concerning the development of mathematical knowledge and skills, and, mathematical literacy. sunday, et al (2023) highlighted the importance of mathematics in terms of four broad functions-utilitarian, cultural, social, and personal. different approaches have been employed to the teaching of mathematics from time immemorial, but the use of instructional resources has been identified as the most meaningful way to approach mathematics teaching. this is because instructional resources reduce mathematical abstractions to a minimum reality of concrete evidence for learners’ understanding of the concept, aside reducing the stress a teacher experiences in teaching the concept. sunday, olaoye, and hauwa (2021) attested to the fact that instructional materials, when properly used in the teaching and learning situations, can arouse and sustain interest necessary for co-opting conceptual thinking and making learning more permanent for students. according to abdulaziz (2021). instructional resources for mathematics teaching are those resources (both human and material) used for stimulating and maintaining interest as well as facilitate learning in the mathematics classroom. instructional resources enhance the teaching-learning process and enhance entrepreneurship skills since learning is hands-on and mind-on when adequate instructional resources are kept and used in the mathematics laboratory. the mathematics laboratory is a place where learners are exposed to explain difficult mathematical concepts and verify mathematical facts, formulae and theorems/results in various activities. it helps students create mathematical awareness, skill-building, and positive attitudes toward the subject and, above all, ideas of learning by doing (esangbedo, 2014). this implies that it is an effective tool for the effective teaching and learning of mathematics which will help to sustain students’ interest and performance in mathematics. salman (2002) argued that the teaching of mathematics must be practical, exploratory and experimental, which could easily be carried out in the mathematics laboratory. the mathematics laboratory could be an intelligent synergy of the physical structure of a classroom equipped with different mathematics manipulatives and an instructional strategy of refocusing the role of the teacher and the students such that the students take the dominant role in a lesson while the teachers’ role is drastically reduced to a facilitator. the students are the focal point of learning in the mathematics laboratory, not the teacher. the students use manipulative, construct models, and design all forms of mathematics activities that suit their interests either as an individual, in a group of four or five students or as a whole class. adenegan (2011), while applying the macro-instructional versus a micro-instructional role of activity learning, which takes place in the mathematics laboratory, believed the macro-instructional use of mathematics laboratory could mean its application to many contents and objectives of a given class. the micro-instructional use of the mathematics laboratory is application to teaching a single concept. for example, the macro-use of a mathematics laboratory could mean using a mathematics laboratory to teach either the ss1, or ss2, or ss3 mathematics content. micro-use could also be used for teaching concepts such as geometry. the micro-use of mathematics could be very expensive if a mathematics laboratory could be developed only for teaching and learning a single concept. however, the focus of this study will be on the micro-use of teaching geometry. the mathematics laboratory is mathematics, and its consequent connectivity to the real world is entrepreneurship. it is learning by doing instead of being told. a highly structured learning strategy involving planned experiences with concrete embodiments of certain mathematical concepts which could be seen as totally unstructured, open-ended involvement in well or loosely defined real-world situations (maschietto, 2012). alan (2012) viewed mathematics laboratory as an activity-centered instruction where the child is placed in a problem-solving situation, and through self-exploration and discovery, a solution is provided based on the experiences, needs, and interest of the learner. the author stated that there exist some common characteristics of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.21 mathematics laboratories: first, the room is well organized by staging several activities where the learner(s) can work at the same time on several materials at different rates. second, the room is equipped with several materials (foreign-made, local-made, teacher-made, students-made, parents-made, school-made) devices. third, the teacher works with all students who wants to learn in the mathematics laboratory atmosphere, either as individual, group, whole class, whole class or a whole school in this learners-centered environment of instruction. moreover, the students’ progress with their discoveries in their own space as far as they wish. in addition, the organization and structure of the mathematics laboratory is flexible, and it gives room for learners to easily switch from one mathematical activity to another based on their needs and interest. furthermore, there is a multi-media or multi-sensory approach to teaching and learning using video tapes, films, concrete objects, projectors, flipped classrooms among others. the full use of textbooks, encyclopedias, four figure tables, charts, and other reference materials that the learner could easily consult on their own for further discoveries as the concluding part of the bond. there are four types of mathematics laboratory as a physical structures i. centralized/full hall mathematics laboratory ii. decentralized or classroom mathematics laboratory iii. team-room mathematics laboratory iv. roving or moving mathematics laboratory v. digital mathematics laboratory this study focused on the digital mathematics laboratory. digital mathematics laboratory. a digital mathematics laboratory is a computer-based learning environment that allows students to interact with mathematical concepts through virtual simulations and interactive software. it provides a space where students can explore, manipulate, and visualize mathematical ideas in a hands-on manner, like a traditional laboratory but without physical constraints. students can use virtual tools and models to explore mathematical concepts and solve problems. digital mathematics laboratory often includes gamified elements and interactive activities to make learning more enjoyable and engaging. students can directly manipulate virtual objects and experiment with different scenarios to deepen their understanding of mathematical principles. digital mathematics laboratory can be tailored to individual learning styles and needs, allowing students to work at their own pace and focus on areas where they need more practice. digital mathematics laboratory can facilitate collaborative learning, allowing students to work together on problems and share their findings. virtual simulations help students visualize abstract mathematical concepts and make them more interactive activities and gamified elements can make learning more enjoyable and motivate students to participate more actively. students develop critical thinking and problemsolving skills as they work through different scenarios and challenges in the laboratory, digital mathematics laboratory can provide access to mathematical resources and learning materials for students who may not have access to traditional labs or materials. the digital mathematics laboratory can be used in various learning environments, including traditional classrooms, blended learning courses, and online platforms. examples of digital mathematics laboratory are geometric modeling: data visualization, algebraic manipulation and calculus simulations. an entrepreneur is defined as someone who is willing to take risks that other people dare not take while or as someone who starts and builds successful business (mind tools, 2012). ajileye and adebayo (2004) in agboegwu, abakpa and adikwu (2013) described entrepreneurs as people who could see and evaluate business opportunities, gather the necessary resources, take advantage of them, and initiate the appropriate action to ensure success. othman, othman and ismail (2012) identified entrepreneurship as a catalyst for expanding economic global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.22 growth and maintaining competitiveness in facing global challenges. entrepreneurship education is a pathway to tertiary education levels. furthermore, they described entrepreneurial skills as individuals’ ability to explore and develop risk awareness, creativity, and innovations in business and employmentrelated activities. also, reich in wikipedia (2013) considered leadership, management ability, and term-building as essential qualities of an entrepreneur. according to mind tools (2012), successful entrepreneurs have some common traits. these include personal characteristics; interpersonal skills; critical and creative thinking skills; and practical skills. other authors listed six basic skills that successful entrepreneurs should possess. these are: (i) communication skills (ii) mathematics skills (iii) human relation skills (iv) business mathematics skills (v) technique skills (vi) basic business skills (www.powerhomebiz.com/-/skill). the implication of the above definitions is that successful entrepreneurs require certain levels of mathematical skills to manage their entrepreneurial work more efficiently than their counterparts that are not proficient in the subject. okpala and anene (2013) also reported that successful entrepreneurs are good at mathematics. this shows that a strong mathematical foundation is key to a successful career in any industry. weintraub (2018) further argued that issues in business whether in small or big organization, the ability to compute percentages, decimals, fractions, financial statements, salary negotiation, and incentive-based performance depends on basic mathematical ability. this implies that there exists a strong positive relationship between mathematics skills and entrepreneurial skills. language entrepreneurship is likely to attract youth because it speaks on their ability to make wealth. the lack of entrepreneurial skills among learners may be attributed to several factors. notable among them is the influence of the learning environment. the environment determines the opportunity that a child may use. from the environment, they will be able to relate learning experiences in a meaningful form to the learners’ understanding. thus, mathematics teachers have the herculean task of developing the basic skills that an entrepreneur requires. literature review ausubel’s learning theory ausubel’s (1962) learning theory emphasized that meaningful learning occurs when new concepts are linked with concepts existing in the learners’ cognitive structure. meaningful learning implies achieving a deep understanding of complex ideas relevant to students’ lives. it assumes that students already have some knowledge relevant to a new experience they are about to encounter and that they are ready and willing to do the mental work necessary to create connections with the new knowledge they are about to acquire. ausubel’s cognitive theory states that learning is only meaningful to the extent to which the learner can integrate old learning experiences with new learning experiences. this theory rests principally on two major issues: i. the most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of details and specificity and ii. instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old materials. ausubel is concerned with the learning of content, facts, principles, and concepts, among others, as opposed to mastering skills and processes. there are four principles underlining ausubel’s theory: principle of subsumption or integration; principle of progressive differentiation; principle of integrative reconciliation; and principle of consolidation. in a study by sunday, akanmu and fajemidagba (2016) on fostering entrepreneurship using mathematics laboratory in abuja, the study suggested that mathematics teachers should be encouraged to use mathematics laboratory to enhance students’ entrepreneurship skills. in another study sunday, et al (2023) discovered that mathematics laboratory enhances students’ creative skills in entrepreneurship. naugra (2021) in a study http://www.powerhomebiz.com/-/skill global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.23 discovered that mathematics laboratories bring out the creative skills of students in mathematics classrooms which could enhance their entrepreneurship abilities. none of these studies were carried out in a digital mathematics laboratory for the development of entrepreneurship skills which this study sought to achieve. the findings of several studies (muhammad and ibrahim (2015); musa and bolaji(2015); akanmu, sunday and ayinla (2016); ahmed and iliyasu (2017); sunday and anaduaka (2021) ) indicated that students taught using the mathematics laboratory approach outperformed all their counterparts in terms of understanding and mastery of concepts of mathematics of which gender is of no effect on using the strategy. these studies show that the mathematics laboratory indeed enhances students’ knowledge, positive attitudes and achievement in mathematics since students have greater opportunity to relate with concrete mathematical materials that help them to bridge the gap between the abstract and real world. however, none of these studies have investigated the efficacy of digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills, hence the need for this study. the relevance of gender as a difference in students’ variables that influences students’ mathematics is often reported. researchers have argued severally that high or otherwise achievement of students is closely linked to the students’ gender, statement of the problem ogwu (2023) considered entrepreneurship as a process of creating or developing a new business venture to make a profit. similarly, ogunode and adanna (2022) views the entrepreneur as a person who possesses the ability and innovation to develop a business where none exists. therefore, an entrepreneur constantly engages with new markets and tries to determine how to supply those markets efficiently to make a profit (ogwu, 2023). here, one can easily conclude that an entrepreneur can be considered an innovator or creator of wealth. entrepreneurs do not engage in any business that does not generate profit. he/she usually takes risks creating products to maximize profit and create wealth. entrepreneurship is a platform for youths to transform opportunities to business ventures towards creation of jobs and poverty reduction (okehi, 2019). in nigeria, particularly in north central nigeria, millions of teenage girls are forced into poverty because of early pregnancy, which is a result of forced into early marriage (aborisade, 2019). to arrest this ugly trend among these vulnerable groups of people, the ministry of women affairs, non-governmental organizations (ngos), and some religious bodies in nigeria organized entrepreneurial skills training to help teenagers get out of poverty. however, no group has exploited the digital mathematics laboratory to develop students’ entrepreneurship skills. however, the researcher seeks to determine whether the digital mathematics laboratory helps students in entrepreneurial skills development in the kogi state of nigeria. research questions 1. what mathematics skills are required for entrepreneurship? 2. what is the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills? 3. what is the difference in the male and female students’ responses regarding the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills? research hypotheses h01: there is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female students’ regarding the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills. methodology the study was descriptive study. the population for this study were all senior secondary school’s mathematics teachers and students in kogi state. the sample of this study consisted of 300 (150 male and 150 female) senior secondary school ii students which were selected from schools based on schools that have digital mathematics laboratory and are co-educational schools and 40 mathematics teachers selected. two instruments were used in this study: digital mathematics laboratory entrepreneurship questionnaires (dmlq) and mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship questionnaires (msrfeq). the instruments were questionnaires developed by the researchers. the questionnaires were validated by three experts in mathematics education and educational technology. the instruments were trial tested on 40 students and 10 teachers and reliability indexes of 0.73 and global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.24 0.69 were obtained for the two instruments, respectively. the questionnaires were distributed to both data students and mathematics teachers. data analysis research question one: what mathematics skills are required for entrepreneurship? table 1: identifying the responses of mathematics teachers to the mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship. s/n items mean standard dev. remark 1 been very optimistic 3.8 0.6 agreed 2 initiative 3.1 0.8 agreed 3 risk taking 2.9 1.1 agreed 4 drive and persistence 4.2 0.7 agreed 5 resilience 3.4 0.8 agreed 6 critical thinking 4.1 1.2 agreed 7 problem-solving ability 3.5 0.9 agreed 8 goal setting 3.6 0.6 agreed 9 decision making 2.7 0.4 agreed 10 planning and organizing 3.9 0.9 agreed grand mean 3.8 table 1 indicates that being very optimistic(mean=3.8), initiative(mean=3.1), risk taking(mean=2.9), drive and persistence(mean=4.2), resilience(mean=3.4), critical thinking(mean=4.1), problem-solving ability(mean=3.5), goal setting(mean=3.6), decision making(mean=2.7), planning and organizing(mean=3.9) with a grand mean of 3.8 were all agreed to as mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship by the responding mathematics teachers. research question two: what is the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills? table 2: showing teachers and students’ responses to the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on their development of entrepreneurship skills. sn items mean standard deviation remarks 1 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me to develop the software skills required for entrepreneurship 4.4 0.9 agreed 2 the digital mathematics laboratory have helped me to be very optimistic required for entrepreneurship. 3.6 1.1 agreed 3 the digital mathematics laboratory have helped me to acquire more initiatives skills required for entrepreneurship. 3.7 0.7 agreed 4 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop risk-taking skills required for entrepreneurship. 3.9 0.9 agreed 5 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop the drive and persistence skills required for entrepreneurship 3.5 0.9 agreed 6 digital mathematics laboratory have helped me develop resilient skills required for entrepreneurship. 2.6 1.2 agreed 7 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop the critical thinking skills required for entrepreneurship. 3.2 0.8 agreed 8 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop problem-solving skills required for entrepreneurship. 4.1 0.7 agreed global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.25 9 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop the goal setting skills required for entrepreneurship. 3.3 0.9 agreed 10 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop decision making skills required for entrepreneurship. 3.5 1.1 agreed 11 the digital mathematics laboratory helped me develop planning and organizing skills required for entrepreneurship. 4.1 0.6 agreed table 2 indicated that the digital mathematics laboratory helped the students to develop the following skill required for entrepreneurship: software skills (mean =4.4), being very optimistic(mean=3.6), initiative(mean=3.7), risk taking(mean=3.9), drive and persistence(mean=3.5), resilience(mean=2.6), critical thinking(mean=3.2), problem-solving ability(mean=4.1), goal setting(mean=3.3), decision making(mean=3.5), planning and organizing(mean=4.1) with a grand mean of 3.5 h01: there is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female students regarding on the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills. table 3 t-test analysis of the difference between the mean responses of male and female students’ regarding the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills variable categories n mean std df level of sig t-cal t-val decision male 150 3.32 0.91 538 0.05 1.47 1.96 not rejected female 150 3.16 0.86 table 3 indicates that the calculated (cv) 1.47 is less than table value (tv) 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis was therefore not rejected. this means that there is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female students regarding the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills. summary of findings 1. the mathematical skills required for entrepreneurship are being very optimistic, initiative, risk taking, drive and persistence, resilience, critical thinking, problem-solving ability, goal setting, decision making, and planning and organizing, with a grand mean of 3.8, were all agreed to as mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship by the responding mathematics teachers. 2. the digital mathematics laboratory helped the students to develop the following entrepreneurship skills: digital mathematics laboratory helped the students to develop the following skills: software skills, being very optimistic, initiative, risk taking, drive and persistence, resilience, critical thinking, problem-solving ability, goal setting, decision making, planning and organizing. 3. there is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female students’ regarding the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills. discussion of findings the mathematical skills required for entrepreneurship are being very optimistic, initiative, risk taking, drive and persistence, resilience, critical thinking, problem-solving ability, goal setting, decision making, and planning and organizing, which were all agreed to as mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship by the responding global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (6) pg.26 mathematics teachers. these skills are necessary for any successful entrepreneur, and they showcase how useful mathematics is to the prosperity of any nation. this finding is in line with ichipi and panya (2016), whose findings revealed that tolerance, resilient, objectivity, teamwork and conflict management are the required mathematics skills necessary for setting-up small and medium enterprises. this is also supported by the findings of ojo (2016), who believed organization and problem-solving techniques are skills required for entrepreneurship. the digital mathematics laboratory helped the students to develop the following entrepreneurship skills: software skills, being very optimistic, initiative, risk taking, drive and persistence, resilience, critical thinking, problemsolving ability, goal setting, decision making, planning and organizing. this could be as results of the hands-on and minds-on skills that the digital mathematics laboratory provides. this finding also agrees with the findings of sunday, akanmu and fajrmidaga(2016) and sunday et al (2023), whose findings revealed that mathematics laboratory helped students in the development of entrepreneurship skills in secondary schools. there is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female students’ regarding the influence of the digital mathematics laboratory on students’ development of entrepreneurship skills. this finding agreed with that of naugra (2021), (muhammad and ibrahim (2015); musa and bolaji (2015), whose findings revealed that students taught mathematics using mathematics laboratory performed equally well irrespective of gender. conclusion this study concludes that the digital mathematics laboratory positively influenced students’ development of entrepreneurship skills at the senior secondary schools’ level, irrespective of their sex. in addition, mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship are software skills, being very optimistic, initiative, risk taking, drive and persistence, resilience, critical thinking, problem-solving ability, goal setting, decision making, planning and organizing. recommendations 1. secondary schools should be equipped with digital mathematics laboratory as this will enhance the development of students’ entrepreneurial skills. 2. mathematics teachers should be properly trained on the use of digital mathematics laboratory for entrepreneurship. 3. the mathematics curriculum should clearly state the mathematics skills required for entrepreneurship. acknowledgments we would like to acknowledge tetfund nigeria and the management of confluence university of science and technology osara, kogi state for sponsoring this research work. 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(2020). from static to dynamic: teachers' varying use of digital technology to support conceptual learning in a curricular activity system. zdm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-02001182-6 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 11; november-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 12 instructional leadership in music education and academic outcomes among university students in china 1zhou dong and 1mantuhac pamela b. article info abstract keywords: instructional leadership, music education, academic outcome doi 10.5281/zenodo.14142825 this study explored the impact of instructional leadership on student outcomes in music education, with a focus on goal-setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality. the study also examined the relationship between leadership practices and academic outcomes such as classroom performance, subject motivation, and resource availability. a descriptive-comparative research design was employed, using a total enumeration sampling technique involving 400 student respondents from taishan university. the findings revealed that students positively assessed their teachers’ leadership across all areas, with no significant differences in perceptions based on demographic factors such as age, sex, grade level, or specialization. moreover, a significant positive relationship was found between instructional leadership and academic outcomes, indicating that strong leadership practices contribute to improved student performance, motivation, and resource access. based on these findings, a comprehensive program is proposed to enhance instructional leadership, optimize resource management, and promote student engagement in music education. the program focuses on professional educator development and continuous monitoring of leadership’s impact on academic success. this study highlights the importance of effective leadership in fostering a conducive learning environment and improving educational outcomes in university music programs. 1. introduction leadership plays a crucial role in contemporary education, particularly in university music programs. this study sought to explore the definition of educational leadership, the unique characteristics and challenges faced in music education, and the critical importance of effective leadership in enhancing music education programs. music education is essential for developing various student abilities, including creativity, expression, social skills, and cognitive functions (huang & zhang, 2020). through structured music programs, students’ intellectual growth, emotional development, and artistic appreciation can be significantly advanced (li et al., 2018). educational leadership is instrumental in creating and maintaining a robust music education framework. leaders in education are responsible for setting and communicating clear objectives, motivating and guiding teaching 1 graduate school, emilio aguinaldo college https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 13 teams and ensuring that the necessary resources are available (wu & liu, 2016). they play a key role in providing support, establishing partnerships, and fostering a positive learning environment that enhances the effectiveness of music education (yang & li, 2017). furthermore, educational leaders must continuously monitor and evaluate teaching quality to ensure ongoing improvements in music education (guo & xu, 2017). the ongoing evaluation and adaptation are vital for maintaining high standards and achieving educational goals. comprehensive student development relies heavily on music education and effective educational leadership. leaders in education not only set goals and provide resources but also actively support and enhance the implementation of music education programs (tang & he, 2021). their efforts in shaping the music education framework ensure that programs are effective and responsive to students’ needs, ultimately fostering a more enriching and successful educational experience. in university music education, effective leadership is pivotal in the comprehensive planning and execution of music teaching and the creation of an enriching learning environment (chen & wang, 2019). leadership in this field involves the careful selection of teaching methods and content, setting clear educational goals, developing strategic plans, managing resources, and engaging with external stakeholders (huang & zhang, 2020). educators’ leadership is crucial in guiding and organizing music instruction, requiring a forward-thinking approach to adapting and refining educational practices based on societal and student needs (tang & he, 2021). the quality of music education is closely linked to the professional competence of educators. effective educational leadership prioritizes the ongoing professional development of teachers by offering diverse training and growth opportunities (guo & xu, 2017). by advancing teachers’ skills and fostering innovation, leadership not only improves teaching quality and supports the sustainable development of music education programs (wu & liu, 2016). educational leadership is crucial for advancing music education. this involves transforming educational administration and teaching policies to reflect current student needs and global standards (yang & li, 2017). effective leadership in music education supports teachers’ development and improves overall educational outcomes by fostering efficiency and benefiting educators and students (huang & zhang, 2020). research on music teachers’ educational leadership can reveal how leadership qualities and practices contribute to the growth of music education programs. this study underscores the vital role of educational leadership in enhancing music education at the university level. in focusing on the development of leadership skills and practices, this study aimed to improve the quality of music education and support the ongoing professional growth of educators (li et al., 2018). understanding and cultivating the traits of successful leaders can provide valuable insights into effectively advancing music education and its impact on student development (guo & xu, 2017). 1.1. background of the study educational leadership refers to the ability of leaders in the field of education to guide organizations to achieve predetermined goals through a series of behaviors and decisions. it encompasses multiple aspects such as forward thinking, effective communication, teamwork, and innovative thinking (yin et al., 2022). it is also a new requirement for educational development in today’s era and an essential comprehensive ability for educators (chen & zhang, 2021). it was founded on several core principles, including the establishment of a clear vision and mission, innovative thinking (sousa & tomlinson, 2019), and interdisciplinary and interdisciplinary collaboration (huang & zhang, 2020). in the specific context of music education, educational leadership involves fostering an environment that nurtures creativity and artistic growth. robinson and wager (2020) highlighted that leaders in music education must support educators, develop curricula that reflect both classical and contemporary musical traditions, and create opportunities for student performance and engagement. this role requires a deep understanding of music global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 14 educators’ and students’ unique needs, as well as the ability to advocate for the importance of arts education within the broader educational landscape. students are the primary beneficiaries of music education, and their comprehensive development is the core goal of all educational programs. educational leaders must pay attention to students’ needs and growth by providing diverse learning resources and a conducive learning environment. hence, the development of music education in universities is also heavily reliant on external support and resource integration. educational leaders must actively coordinate relationships with external entities to secure additional resources and support. educational leadership in general higher education and music education shares some commonalities but also exhibits distinct differences. in general, in higher education, leadership focuses broadly on academic and operational management, strategic planning, and fostering an inclusive academic culture. leaders in this context must navigate complex governance structures, promote interdisciplinary collaboration, and address diverse challenges such as technology integration, diversity, and equity (kezar & holcombe, 2017; zhang & huang, 2016). despite progress, further research is needed on the influence of cultural contexts, particularly in non-western settings like china, and the role of technology in transforming music education leadership (wang, 2017; zhao & li, 2019; smith, 2020). interdisciplinary approaches, evaluation systems, and professional development for educators are areas that require more practical studies to improve teaching quality (wu & xu, 2021; chen & li, 2020; liu, 2021). additionally, the impact of globalization on music education leadership, including international partnerships, needs further exploration to enhance global perspectives (chen & zhang, 2018). more empirical research is necessary to bridge the gap between leadership theory and practice in music education, which may lead to better student outcomes, faculty performance, and program success (smith, 2020). by addressing these areas, educational leadership can continue to evolve, benefiting students, educators, and institutions alike. current research often focuses on general educational settings or other disciplines, overlooking the unique aspects of music education. this omission indicates that there is a lack of specific insights into how instructional leadership can be optimized for music programs. addressing this gap provides evidence-based recommendations for improving leadership practices and enhancing educational experiences in music education. 1.2. statement of the problem this study explored how leadership factors can help improve leadership practices and enhance the overall educational experience for all music educators. specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: is there a significant difference in the assessment of teachers’ instructional leadership when respondents’ profiles are considered? is there a significant difference in the assessment of academic outcomes when respondent profiles are considered? is there a significant relationship between the assessment of teacher instructional leadership in music education and academic outcomes? based on the research results, what intervention programs can be developed? 1.3. the significance of the study this study examined the impact of music education on students. this study focused on students’ perceptions within an academic institution regarding their respective leaders’ transformational leadership styles. the study is significant as it enriches the understanding of the relationship between the transformational leadership of deans and the job satisfaction of teachers in the field of pedagogy. specifically, it is beneficial to students. the study enhances students’ educational experiences and outcomes through the development of the systems that govern their teachers, as well as the resources they use, hence, optimizing the learning opportunities offered to them. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 15 school administrators. school administrators can use the study's findings to refine their approaches to supporting music education programs. by understanding the specific impacts of leadership practices on educational outcomes and institutional culture, administrators can implement targeted strategies to strengthen leadership competencies and optimize resources for music education. policymakers. policymakers can benefit from empirical evidence on how educational leadership influences music education in universities. this knowledge can guide the formulation of policies that promote effective leadership development initiatives, enhance educational standards, and support the integration of innovative practices into music departments. education sector. within the broader education sector, the study provides critical insights into the transformative power of educational leadership in music education. these insights can inform sector-wide efforts to nurture leadership talent, improve teaching and learning experiences, and elevate the overall quality of music education. music sector. stakeholders in the music sector, including educators, performers, and industry professionals, can leverage the findings of this study to understand how leadership practices shape the development of musical talent and the advancement of music education. this understanding can support initiatives that enhance artistic growth, promote interdisciplinary collaborations, and prepare students for diverse careers in music. future researchers. this study provides a foundational understanding of how educational leadership practices influence music education. future researchers can build upon these findings to explore specific aspects such as leadership styles, teaching methodologies, and student outcomes in greater depth. 1.4. scope and delimitation this study explored the impact of instructional leadership on music education learning among students at taishan university (tai'an city, shandong province, china. the research focused on 400 students, including those majoring in music studies and others enrolled in music-related courses across various disciplines. this study assessed how instructional leadership elements such as goal-setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality influence students’ academic performance, motivation, and classroom participation in the context of music education. geographically, the study was confined to taishan university, a prominent educational institution known for its strong emphasis on teacher education and comprehensive academic programs. the findings from this specific setting may not be directly applicable to other universities or regions, which could limit the study’s broad applicability. additionally, the research exclusively targeted students involved in music-related courses, intentionally excluding faculty, administrators, and students from other departments, thus narrowing the scope to those directly engaged in music education. the study was conducted within a defined academic period and focused on current practices and outcomes, which may not reflect long-term trends or future changes in instructional leadership. this time-bound approach restricts analysis to this context and does not account for evolving educational dynamics. moreover, the research primarily examined the role of instructional leadership, without delving into other factors such as curriculum design, teaching methodologies, or external socioeconomic conditions that might also influence student learning outcomes. 1.5. theoretical framework the study used the transformational leadership theory, which offers a robust framework to examine how leadership influences various facets of music education. transformational leadership, rooted in the work of james macgregor burns and further developed by bernard bass, emphasizes leaders’ ability to inspire and motivate followers toward higher performance through a shared vision and values (bass & riggio, 2006; northouse, 2018). this theory posits that effective leaders transform individuals’ and organizations’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, which are particularly relevant in the dynamic and creative environment of music education. in educational global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 16 contexts, transformational leaders are associated with higher levels of teacher motivation, student engagement, academic achievement, and organizational commitment (leithwood & jantzi, 2008; leithwood et al., 2004). research applying the transformational leadership theory to music education can explore how the components of transformational leadership contribute to student engagement and learning outcomes. studies can investigate how inspirational motivation enhances students’ commitment to music studies, how intellectual stimulation fosters creativity and innovation in musical performances, how individualized consideration supports student well-being and academic success, and how idealized influence shapes the ethical and professional standards of future musicians and educators. moreover, the application of transformational leadership theory in music education research can examine its impact on faculty performance and professional development. 2. methodology the techniques and steps used to gather data required to complete this study are addressed in this chapter. the research design, sample and sampling strategy, research instrument, data collection process, and statistical data treatment are among the elements covered in this chapter. these elements all help this study achieve its objective. 2.1. research locale for the purposes of this study, taishan university was selected as the research site. the university is a full-time undergraduate university approved by the ministry of education and offers a comprehensive range of academic courses. taishan university is recognized as one of the 19 provincial teacher education bases in shandong province and is among the first universities in the province to admit state-funded normal students. the university employs 1,500 faculty members, of whom 1,100 are full-time faculty members, including 450 senior educators. 2.2. sample and sampling technique this study targeted students majoring in music at the university’s music colleges as well as students from other colleges taking music courses. the distinction between these groups lies in their objectives: students in music colleges pursue professional development for future careers, while those taking music courses aim to enhance their comprehensive artistic literacy. a total enumeration sampling technique was applied, involving the selection of 400 student respondents to participate in the survey. this method was chosen to ensure comprehensive data collection from the entire study population. the total enumeration guarantees that the participants represent the entire group of interest. participants were selected based on their enrollment status at taishan university, ensuring that the data collected was both detailed and inclusive for thorough analysis. 2.3. data gathering procedure the data gathering procedure for this study on the impact of educational leadership on music education in universities involved several systematic steps to ensure accuracy and reliability. first, the researcher identified the specific population and developed a sampling frame. the selection criteria ensured a representative sample that could provide comprehensive insights into the research questions. next, a structured questionnaire was designed based on the study objectives. the questionnaire consisted of items related to the respondents’ demographic profiles, assessments of educational leadership practices, and perceptions of their impact on music education. a four-point likert scale was used to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement with various statements. beprior tohe full deployment of the questionnaire, a pilot test was conducted with a small group of respondents from the specific population. this preliminary test helped identify any ambiguities or issues with the questionnaire, which was then subsequently revised to improve its clarity and reliability. with the refined questionnaire ready, the researcher sought and obtained permission from university administrators to conduct the research. then, the main data collection phase began. participants were contacted via email or in-person meetings, and the purpose of the study was explained. informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring that they were fully aware of the study’s aims, their role and their right to withdraw at any time. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 17 the questionnaire was distributed to the selected respondents. participants were given a specified time frame to complete and return the questionnaires. follow-up reminders were sent to maximize the response rate and ensure comprehensive data collection. upon receiving the completed questionnaires, the researcher meticulously checked for completeness and consistency. incomplete or inconsistent responses were excluded from the analysis to maintain data integrity. the collected data were then systematically entered into a statistical software for analysis. descriptive statistics, comparative analysis, and correlation studies were conducted to address the research questions and test the hypotheses. the results were interpreted and discussed in the context of the existing literature on educational leadership and music education, providing insights and recommendations based on the findings. the data gathering procedure was conducted with strict adherence to ethical standards, ensuring the confidentiality and privacy of all participants throughout the study. 2.4. statistical analysis the data were statistically analyzed so that the researcher could rapidly study and comprehend the findings. data had to be statistically processed in order to be used for the intended purposes. for accurate conclusions to be drawn, data layout is crucial. as a result, statistical analysis was performed using appropriate statistical techniques to assess the given data. a statistical data description’s primary objective is to caution researchers against making assumptions about the results that the data do not support. the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) software was used to conduct the study objectives and subsequent statistical methods. 3. results and analysis the following section presents the findings of the study, analyzing the data collected from the respondents. the results are discussed in relation to the research objectives, focusing on the impact of instructional leadership on student outcomes in music education. table 1 summary of instructional leadership in music education domain mean sd rank interpretation goal setting 3.74 0.60 1 highly manifested resource management 3.67 0.68 4 highly manifested development skills 3.69 0.64 3 highly manifested leadership quality 3.72 0.61 2 highly manifested instructional leadership in music education 3.70 0.63 highly manifested scale: 3.51–4.00 highly manifested; 2.51–3.50 manifested; 1.51–2.50 slightly manifested; 1.00–1.50 not manifested table 1 presents a summary of the assessed level of instructional leadership in music education, with each domain evaluated by its mean, standard deviation (sd), rank, and interpretation. all domains were interpreted as "highly manifested," indicating a strong perception of instructional leadership across different areas of music education. the highest-ranked domain is "goal setting," with a mean of 3.74 and an sd of 0.60. this suggests that setting clear, achievable goals is the most prominent aspect of instructional leadership among the teachers evaluated, with a focus on aligning these goals with both course objectives and students’ needs. overall, the mean for instructional leadership in music education was 3.70, with an sd of 0.63, indicating that, across all domains, instructional leadership was consistently perceived as strong and highly manifested. the top three domains, in order, are goal setting, leadership quality, and development skills, with resource management ranking the lowest among the four domains, although it still receives high ratings from respondents. the overall high mean score (m = 3.70) across leadership domains underscores the strong positive impact of leadership on music education’s educational outcomes. effective leadership, as noted in resource management (m = 3.67) and leadership quality (m = 3.72), aligns with the literature that stresses the importance of visionary and collaborative leadership in fostering an enriching learning environment (kezar & holcombe, 2017). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 18 table 2: differences in instructional leadership based on age domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision goal setting less than 18 years old 3.72 0.95 0.73 not significant/accept h0 18-21 years old 3.69 22-25 years old 3.71 more than 25 years old 3.72 resource management less than 18 years old 3.70 0.97 0.50 not significant/accept h0 18-21 years old 3.71 22-25 years old 3.72 more than 25 years old 3.71 development skills less than 18 years old 3.69 1.16 0.41 not significant/accept h0 18-21 years old 3.71 22-25 years old 3.69 more than 25 years old 3.70 leadership quality less than 18 years old 3.69 1.01 0.26 not significant/accept h0 18-21 years old 3.71 22-25 years old 3.69 more than 25 years old 3.71 instructional leadership less than 18 years old 3.72 1.19 0.24 not significant/accept h0 18-21 years old 3.71 22-25 years old 3.69 more than 25 years old 3.70 *level of significance = 0.05. table 2 outlines the differences in instructional leadership based on the age of respondents across four domains: goal setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality. the mean values for each age category, fvalue, significance level (sig.), and the corresponding interpretation/decision are presented for each domain. across all domains, the findings indicate no significant differences in instructional leadership based on age, as all significance values (sig.) are greater than 0.05, leading to the acceptance of the null hypothesis (h0). in summary, across all domains—goal setting, resource management, development skills, leadership quality, and overall instructional leadership—there was no significant difference in the assessment of instructional leadership based on the age of the respondents. this suggests that instructional leadership is perceived uniformly across age groups. no significant differences were observed in instructional leadership based on age (sig. > 0.05) suggest that leadership approaches in music education are effective across various age groups. this reflects the inclusivity of modern leadership strategies that accommodate diverse student needs and backgrounds (yin et al., 2022). table 3: differences in instructional leadership based on sex domain categories mean t-value sig interpretation/decision goal setting male 3.69 –0.50 0.66 not significant/ accept h0 female 3.70 resource management male 3.71 –0.72 0.73 not significant/ accept h0 female 3.72 development skills male 3.71 0.85 0.57 not significant/ accept h0 female 3.69 leadership quality male 3.70 -0.51 0.77 not significant/ accept h0 female 3.71 instructional leadership male 3.72 0.40 0.51 not significant/ accept h0 female 3.71 *level of significance = 0.05. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 19 table 3 presents the differences in instructional leadership based on the sex of the respondents across four domains: goal setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality. the table provides the mean scores for both male and female respondents, the t-value, significance level (sig.), and the corresponding interpretation or decision. across all domains, the results indicate no significant differences in instructional leadership based on sex, as all significance values are greater than 0.05, leading to the acceptance of the null hypothesis (h0). in summary, across all domains—goal setting, resource management, development skills, leadership quality, and overall instructional leadership—there were no significant differences between male and female respondents in their assessment of instructional leadership. this suggests that instructional leadership is perceived similarly by both sexes. similar findings with no significant differences in leadership based on sex (sig. > 0.05) highlight the gender-neutral impact of leadership in music education. educational leadership should embrace gender equity, ensuring that both male and female students benefit equally from leadership efforts (yang & li, 2022). table 4: differences in instructional leadership based on grade level domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision goal setting 1st year 3.70 0.53 0.66 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 3.70 3rd year 3.72 4th year 3.72 resource management 1st year 3.70 1.21 0.19 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 3.70 3rd year 3.72 4th year 3.72 development skills 1st year 3.72 0.57 0.87 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 3.71 3rd year 3.69 4th year 3.70 leadership quality 1st year 3.72 1.38 0.17 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 3.71 3rd year 3.69 4th year 3.72 instructional leadership 1st year 3.71 0.73 0.53 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 3.72 3rd year 3.71 4th year 3.70 *level of significance = 0.05. table 4 examines the differences in instructional leadership based on the grade level of the respondents across four domains: goal setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality. the mean scores for each grade level (1st to 4th year), f-value, significance level (sig.), and the corresponding interpretation or decision are presented. across all domains, no significant differences were found based on grade level, as all significance values were greater than 0.05, leading to the acceptance of the null hypothesis (h0). in summary, no significant differences in instructional leadership were observed across all domains—goal setting, resource management, development skills, leadership quality, and overall instructional leadership— based on the grade level of the respondents. this indicates that students consistently perceive instructional leadership. non-significant differences in leadership based on grade level (sig. > 0.05) indicate that leadership strategies are perceived consistently across different student cohorts. leaders must adapt to the developmental needs of all students, regardless of their year-level (chen & zhang, 2019). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 20 table 5: differences in instructional leadership based on specialization domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision goal setting percussion 3.72 0.95 0.81 not significant/accept h0 woodwind 3.72 brass 3.71 strings 3.71 resource management percussion 3.71 0.64 0.65 not significant/accept h0 woodwind 3.71 brass 3.72 strings 3.69 development skills percussion 3.70 1.11 0.10 not significant/accept h0 woodwind 3.69 brass 3.70 strings 3.70 leadership quality percussion 3.70 0.91 0.55 not significant/accept h0 woodwind 3.70 brass 3.71 strings 3.71 instructional leadership percussion 3.71 0.48 0.66 not significant/accept h0 woodwind 3.70 brass 3.71 strings 3.71 *level of significance = 0.05. table 5 examines the differences in instructional leadership based on the specialization of the respondents across four domains: goal setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality. the table provides the mean scores for each specialization (percussion, woodwind, brass, and strings), f-value, significance level (sig.), and the corresponding interpretation or decision. across all domains, no significant differences were found based on specialization because all significance values were greater than 0.05, leading to the acceptance of the null hypothesis (h0). in summary, across all domains—goal setting, resource management, development skills, leadership quality, and overall instructional leadership—no significant differences were observed based on the specialization of the respondents. this indicates that instructional leadership is consistently perceived across different specializations in music education. the absence of significant differences across specializations (sig. > 0.05) suggests that instructional leadership is equally effective across different music disciplines. this aligns with the notion that leadership must accommodate interdisciplinary collaboration in education (sousa & tomlinson, 2019). table 6: summary of academic outcomes domain mean sd rank interpretation classroom performance 3.72 0.61 1 highly evident subject motivation 3.71 0.61 3 highly evident resource availability 3.70 0.63 4 highly evident academic outcomes 3.71 0.62 highly evident scale: 3.51–4.00, highly evident; 2.51–3.50, evident; 1.51–2.50, slightly evident; 1.00–1.50, not evident global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 21 table 6 provides a summary of academic outcomes across three domains: classroom performance, subject motivation, and resource availability. each domain was evaluated based on its mean, standard deviation (sd), and rank, with the overall interpretation being "highly evident" for all domains. the summary also includes the overall academic outcomes derived from the three domains. overall, the mean for academic outcomes was 3.71, with an sd of 0.62, indicating a high level of consistency in students’ perceptions of the positive impact of instructional leadership on their academic performance, motivation, and access to resources. the top-ranked domain highlights the critical role of instructional leadership in classroom performance, whereas resource availability, though essential, ranks slightly lower in contributing to academic outcomes. the overall academic outcomes (m = 3.71) were highly influenced by leadership in music education, as demonstrated by the high scores in classroom performance, motivation, and resource availability. effective leadership drives student success through strategic resource management, goal setting, and student engagement (chen & zhang, 2019). table 7 relationship between instructional leadership and academic outcomes variables goal-setting resource management development skills leadership quality instructional leadership classroom performance pearson r 0.81 0.80 0.83 0.79 0.85 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 subject motivation pearson r 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.83 0.79 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 resource availability pearson r 0.84 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.81 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 academic outcomes pearson r 0.79 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.80 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 *level of significance = 0.05. table 7 presents the significant relationships between instructional leadership dimensions—goal-setting, resource management, development skills, and leadership quality—and various academic outcomes, including classroom performance, subject motivation, resource availability, and overall academic outcomes. in summary, table 7 highlights the critical role of instructional leadership in influencing academic outcomes, confirming that strong leadership practices in goal setting, resource management, and development skills significantly improve student performance, motivation, and resource availability. all relationships were statistically significant, emphasizing the importance of effective leadership in fostering a positive educational environment. based on the data, all academic outcomes—classroom performance, subject motivation, resource availability, and overall academic outcomes—are significantly and positively correlated with instructional leadership. this highlights the critical role that instructional leadership plays in fostering better academic results. the strongest relationship was found between instructional leadership and classroom performance (r = 0.85, p = 0.00), supporting the idea that effective leadership significantly enhances students’ academic achievements in music education (chen & zhang, 2019). the strong positive correlation with subject motivation (r = 0.79, p = 0.00) reflects how leaders who set clear goals and foster engagement can drive student interest and enthusiasm (guo & xu, 2020). the significant relationship between leadership and resource availability (r = 0.81, p = 0.00) further emphasizes the leader’s role in ensuring that adequate resources are provided, enhancing the overall learning environment (bryson, 2018). the significant, strong, positive correlation between instructional leadership and academic outcomes (r = 0.80, p = 0.00) underscores the central role of leadership in shaping educational success, which aligns with the broader global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 22 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(2020). teacher training and professional development in music education. journal of teacher education, 31(3), pp. 201–217. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 7; july-2025; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 8.97 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg.11 enhancing the academic achievement of physics students in electricity through guided discovery method 1abdulwaheed, opeyemi ibrahim ph.d. and 2sunday yomi ph.d. corresponding author: oabdulwaheed9@gmail.com article info abstract keywords: achievement, electricity, enhancing, conventional, guided discovery method. doi 10.5281/zenodo.16567447 the study examined the effectiveness of guided discovery method on secondary school students’ academic achievement in electricity in anyigba, kogi state, nigeria. the study adopted a quasi-experimental research design. the study population consisted of all the ssii students studying physics in all public co-educational secondary schools in anyigba, kogi state during the 2024/2025 academic session. the study was guided by four research questions and three hypotheses, which were tested at 0.05 level of significance. the sample comprised 122 ssii students in two intact classes from two co-educational public secondary schools, selected using the probability proportional size (pps) sampling technique. the instrument used for the collection of data was electricity achievement test (eat), which was developed by the researcher and validated by experts in test and measurement and physics education. the internal consistency of eat using kuder richardson 20 (kr20) formula stood at 0.87. the obtained data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. the findings from the study revealed that students exposed to the guided discovery method achieved higher in electricity than their counterparts who were exposed to the conventional method. on the basis of this, it was recommended that physics teachers should be encouraged to adopt the use of guided discovery method as a mode of teaching electricity concepts and that it should be also incorporated into the teacher education program. introduction science is a great enterprise that brought advance technology because of its significance and relevance to life, society, and the nations. science is both a process (scientific method) and a product (knowledge, fact and principles). both the process and product of science are acquired through education which is a specialized type of education such as science education. science plays an important role in the society because it relates to our 1 department of science education, faculty of education, prince abubakar audu university, anyigba, kogi state, nigeria. 2 department of science education, faculty of education, university of ilorin, nigeria. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.12 daily life and career (abdulwaheed, 2022). the importance of science in our society led the federal government of nigeria, through the federal ministry of education to introduce science subjects in the nation’s secondary school curriculum. physics is one of the major of such subject introduced. physics can be describe as the backbone of science and technology because many of the tools on which scientific and technological advancement depends are direct products of physics. knowledge of physics is one of the key factors that led to the guided discovery of light, vehicles, solar panels, and electrical appliances and farm machines such as tractors, bulldozers and plow. bello (2019) saw physics as the core subject in science and technology because it studies the essence of natural phenomena and helps people understand the rapidly technological changing society. physics therefore is an intentional enterprise that plays a key role in the future progress of mankind. despite the importance of physics as a subject and electricity as a topics in physics, the achievement of students in external examinations has remained unsatisfactorily poor especially in the anyigba education zone. evidence from the waec chief examiner’s report across the years shows that from 2019 to 2023 shows that the percentage number of students who passed the subject at a credit grade and above kept fluctuating. in some of the years, a high number of students passed at the credit level such as 68.74% in 2019, whereas a significant decrease was noted in 2020, with the number of students who passed at the credit level and above reduced to 46.77 percent. a similar trend was observed in 2022 where 60.01 percent passed at the credit level and above. this trend decreased in 2023, where 58.95 percent of students passed at credit level and above. a comparison of students’ performance is often given by the waec chief examine inform of a raw mean score indicating the average achievement of students in the subject, followed by a standard deviation score which further shows the variance in the performance of students for the years. factors such as lack of well-equipped and functional physics laboratory, method of teaching, lack of qualified teachers, shortage of experienced and committed physics teachers, teaching methodology such as traditional method among others. the teaching methods adopted by physics teachers hold common place. based on the deplorable trend of physics students’ low achievement, some researchers have recommended some instructional strategies to help in salvage the problem of low achievement in physics. for instance, kapur (2010) suggested problem-based learning for better performance, problem-solving, and line graphing skills in physics orji (2013), cooperative learning strategy (abdulwaheed, 2023) among others, but the problem is yet to solve. science teachers have always recognized the importance teaching of teaching methods as a means of introducing learners to the scientific process of experimentation. to this end, the united nations educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco) and the international union of pure and applied physics (iupac) have participated in numerous international meetings to promote inexpensive experimental teaching in physics. guided discovery teaching method is a style or method of teaching where the learner is seeks to discover and create answers to recognized problems through procedure of making a diligent search, some time with minimum guidance from the teacher (callahan, et al., 2015). guided discovery method is a powerful instructional approach that guides and motivates learners to explore information and concepts in order to construct new ideas, identify new relationships, and create new models of thinking and behavior, adams & freeman (2016); o'neil& pegrum (2018). guided discovery method is a method that encourages learners to explore the content by using of concrete experience, uwameiyi and ogunbemeru (2015). therefore, guided discovery method is characterized by convergent thinking and enables students to make references with limited guidance from the teacher with the opportunity to discover principles or explanations (nguyen, 2018). global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.13 gender as a factor in science subjects has generated some concern for science educators. ocho (2017) observed that female students achieve better than male students in science. ezeudu (2015) observed that sex has significant effect in favor of females in cognitive performance. this shows that there is controversy on science performance by gender. gender refers to the socially/culturally constructed characteristics and associated with males and females in any society (okeke 2017). gender is the outcome of cultural learning and socialization that continues throughout life because undue attention is paid to socialization during childhood. it is socially constructed and not biologically determined. in response to this challenge, the researcher finds it necessary to empirically verify empirically the effectiveness of guided discovery method in enhancing physics students’ achievement in electricity and whether the method is gender biased. the study was anchored on constructivist’s theory such as ausubel (1969) theory of meaningful verbal learning. this theory is based on anchored on the principles of meaningful learning, prior knowledge, and advanced organizer. the theory emphasizes that meaningful learning occur when new information is linked or associated with existing concepts in the learner’s current knowledge. the implication of the theory for the present study is that the teacher who acts as a facilitator motivates learners to discover facts and principles for themselves, and also provides a preview of the concept to be learnt with the use of advance organizer. the theory is relevant to the present study because learning is a process through which the learner actively constructs new ideas based on his/her previous knowledge. this is applicable to the guided discovery method. statement of the problem the persistent poor achievement in physics has been partly ascribed to inadequate teaching and instructional methods adopted by teachers. in support of this view, derek (2017) reported the seriousness of the deplorable performance of secondary school students in physics and identified the persistent use of traditional methods of instruction as one of the major shortcoming affecting learning and higher performance in physics. many students find physics to be a hindrance in attaining their objectives. therefore, it is necessary to properly groom the students’ right from the secondary level to enable them to improve their academic achievement in physics. the low achievement of students in science subjects, particularly physics, has assumed a serious dimension as reported by the west african examination council (2021). considering this, the study intent to investigate in enhancing physics students’ achievement in electricity through the guided discovery method. purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to investigate in the enhancing physics students’ achievement in electricity through guided discovery method in anyigba, kogi state. the specific objectives are as follows: i. determine the achievement levels in electricity before and after exposure to the guided discovery method ii. determine the mean scores of the ssii students’ pretest and posttest achievement in the experimental and control groups? iii. determine the mean pretest and posttest achievement scores of male and female ssii students in the experimental and control group? iv. determine the interaction effect of methods and gender on the mean scores of students’ achievement in electricity? research questions the study was guided by the following research questions: i. what are the ssii levels of achievement in electricity before and after guided discovery method exposure? ii. what are the mean pretest and posttest achievement scores of the ssii students in the experimental and control groups? global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.14 iii. what are the mean pretest and posttest achievement scores of male and female ssii students in the experimental and control group? iv. what is the interaction effects of methods and gender on the mean scores of students achievement in in electricity? hypotheses the following hypotheses were used to guide the study ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean posttest achievement scores of the ssii students in the experimental and control groups ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean posttest achievement scores of male and female ss ii students in the experimental group. ho3: there is no significant interaction effect of methods and gender on the mean scores of students’ achievement mean scores in electricity. method the study adopted quasi experimental, specifically pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group research design. the study population for the study comprised all ssii students studying physics in all public secondary schools in anyigba, kogi state during the 2024/2025 academic session. a total of 122 ssii physics students in two intact classes from two co-educational public schools were used as the sample for the study. in selecting the two schools used in the study, the probability proportionate to size (pps) sampling technique was adopted. the choice of using only the public co-educational schools was based on the fact that the students have a similar learning environment. the instrument used for data collection was electricity achievement test (eat), which was developed by the researcher and validated by experts in the fields of measurement and evaluation and physics education. a pilot study was conducted on 34 ssii intact class physics students from a public secondary school that was not part of the selected schools but had a similar learning environment. data obtained from the pilot study was used to establish the reliability of the instrument. the internal consistency of eat using kuder richardson 20 formula (kr20) stood at 0.87. the items for eat was developed based on the secondary school physics curriculum on the concepts of electricity in the secondary school physics curriculum and structured based on the table of specifications. the eat comprised of 20 multiple-choice questions on the principle of electromagnetism. the 20 items have four options, a to d, with only one correct option in line with senior school certificate examination standard. each correct option attracted 5 marks, while wrong option attracted 0 mark. therefore, the maximum and minimum mark obtainable were 100% and 0% respectively. for eat, the students’ scores were categorized into high, average, and low achievement levels. high achievement level indicates the range of scores from 60% and above. the average achievement level indicates the range of score from 50 to 59%, while a low achievement level indicates a score range from 0 to 49%. the two intact classes were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. there were 63 students in the experimental group (33 males and 30 females) and 59 in the control group (34 males and 25 females). both the experimental and control groups were pretested before the start of the treatment. treatment started one week after the administration of the pretest for each groups. the students in the experimental group were taught electricity by a physics teacher who served as research assistant using guided discovery method, while the students in the control group were taught the same concept by the physics teacher who was also the research assistant, using the conventional teaching method. the lesson plans prepared by the researcher were used by the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.15 research assistant teachers for four weeks to teach electricity in the experimental and control groups using the normal school schedule for physics lesson. after the four (4) weeks’ treatment, both the experimental and control groups were post -tested. the students’ scores of the students for the pretest and posttest were sorted out and analyzed. descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analyze the obtained data. the four research questions were answered using simple percentages, means and standard deviations, and the three hypotheses were tested at a significance level of 0.05 using analysis of covariance (ancova). results research question one: what are the ssii students’ levels of achievement in electricity before and after exposure to guided discovery method? to answer this research question, the electricity achievement test (eat) was administered to the students in the experimental group. the analysis results are presented in table 1. the analysis in table 1 shows a total number of 63 students in the experimental group. the analysis revealed that before the students were exposed to guided discovery method, no student was found at high achievement level (60-100%). this indicates 0%. 15(23.81%) students were found at average achievement level (50-59%), while 48 (76.19%) students were at low achievement level (0-49%). however, after the exposure of the students to the intervention, 20(31.75%) students were found at high achievement level (60-100%). 24(38.09%) students were found at average achievement level (50-59%), while 19(30.16%) students were at low achievement level (0-49%). the analysis showed that guided discovery method was effective in enhancing students’ achievement in electricity. table 1: levels of achievement of ssii physics students before and after exposure to generative instructional method achievement range of the scores before after levels in percentage n % n % high 60-100 0 0 20 31.75 average 50-59 15 23.81 24 38.09 low 0-49 48 76.19 19 30.16 total 63 100 63 100 research question two: what are the mean pretest and posttest achievement scores of the ssii students in the experimental and control groups? to answer the second research, the analysis is presented in table 2. the analysis in table 2 indicated a pretest and posttest achievement mean scores of 28.36 and 50.63 with standard deviations of 3.87 and 2.75, respectively, for the students exposed to the guided discovery method (experimental), while those exposed to conventional method (control) had a pretest and posttest achievement mean scores of 24.65 and 28.58 with standard deviations of 3.11 and 3.55, respectively, the mean differences between the two groups were 22.27 and 3.93. this implies that students exposed to guided discovery method had higher achievement than their peers exposed to the conventional method. table 2: mean pretest and posttest achievement scores of ssii students in the experimental and control groups pretest posttest variable n mean std. mean std. mean difference dev dev experimental 63 28.36 3.32 50.63 2.75 22.27 control 59 24.65 3.41 28.58 3.30 3.93 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.16 research question three: what are the mean pretest and posttest achievement mean scores of male and female ssii students in the experimental and control groups respectively? to answer third research question, table 3 presents the mean achievement scores with the standard deviations of male and female students in the experimental and control group. the analysis in table 3 revealed that in the experimental group, the mean score of the pretest and posttest achievement of 28.23 and 36.33, respectively, with standard deviations of 3.42 and 2.38 were recorded for male students, whereas those of 25.14 and 32.33, respectively, with standard deviations of 3.15 and 2.24 were recorded for female students. similarly, in the control group, the pretest and posttest achievement mean scores of 23.35 and 24.69 with standard deviations of 3.10 and 3.90 were recorded for male students, while those of 24.76 and 23.58 with standard deviations of 3.11 and 2.73 were recorded for female students. the mean differences for male and female students in the experimental group were 8.34 and 7.13, respectively, whereas those of the control group were at 1.35 and 1.18 respectively. table 3: mean pretest and posttest achievement mean scores of male and female ssii students in the experimental and control groups. pretest posttest mean variable gender n mean std. mean std. difference dev dev male 33 28.23 3.42 36.33 2.38 8.10 experimental female 30 25.14 3.15 32.33 2.24 7.19 male 34 25.13 3.15 28.69 3.85 3.56 control female 25 24.32 3.10 26.42 2.69 2.10 research question four: what are the interaction effects of method and gender on the mean score of students’ achievement mean scores in electricity? to answer the forth research question, table 4 presents the mean differences of male and female students in the experimental and control groups. the analysis in table 4 showed that the mean achievement (8.10 and 7.19) were higher at the two gender levels (male and female) in the experimental group than that of their peers in the control group. this implies that there was no interaction effect of the methods on the students’ mean achievement in electricity. this implies that guided discovery method was superior to the conventional method in enhancing students’ achievement in electricity in anyigba. table 4: interaction effects of methods and gender on the achievement mean scores of ssii students in electricity gender the experimental group (gdm) control group (conv) category (mean difference) (mean difference) male 8.10 3.56 female 7.19 2.10 hypotheses the data collected from both the experimental and control groups were subjected to analysis of covariance (ancova) in order to test hypotheses 1, 2 and 3. the summary of the analysis is presented in table 5. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.17 table 5: summary of ancova test of significance on the effects of treatment, gender and methods on the achievement mean scores of ssii students in electricity sources of variation type iii sum of squares df mean square fcal. p decision corrected model 232.738 4 79.312 9.421 0.000 intercept 4837.142 1 4837.142 57.823 0.000 treatment 2440.380 2 334.281 37.821 0.000 s gender 38.832 2 6.784 0.783 0.512 ns treatment*gender 232.540 2 9.214 1.234 0.063 ns error 46372.832 115 8.356 total 249342.421 122 corrected total 3461.632 121 * significant at p<0.05 level note: hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were tested in table 5. ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean posttest achievement scores of the ssii students in the experimental and control groups. table 5 reveals the two-way ancova test on the main effect of the method on the mean scores of students’ achievement in electricity. the analysis showed a significant outcome f(2, 115, = 37.821, p = 0.000 < 0.05). since the p-value of 0.000 is less than the significant level set at 0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected. this means that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the posttest achievements score of the ssii students taught electricity using guided discovery method and those taught the same concept using conventional method. ho2: there was no significant difference between the mean posttest achievement scores of male and female ssii students in the experimental group. table 5 presents the analysis of the ancova test on the interaction effects of method and gender on the students’ achievement mean scores in electricity. the analysis indicated f(2, 115 = 0.783, p = 0.512> 0.05). since the pvalue of 0.512 is greater than the significant level set at 0.05, the null hypothesis was retained. this means that there was no significant difference between the mean scores of posttest achievement of male and female ssii students taught electricity using guided discovery method. the method is not gender biased. ho3: there are no significant interaction effects of methods and gender on the mean score of students’ achievement in electricity. table 5 presents the analysis of the ancova test on the interaction effects of method and gender on the students’ achievement mean scores in electricity. the analysis revealed no significant interaction effects f(2, 115 = 1.090, p = 0.063 > 0.05). since the p-value of 0.061 is greater than the significant level set at 0.05, the the null hypothesis was upheld. this means that there was no significant interaction effect of methods and gender on the mean achievement mean scores of students in electricity. the implication of this is that guided discovery method did not discriminate across gender. discussion of the findings the overall result of the study revealed that the students taught electricity using guided discovery method achieved higher than their peers taught the same concept using the conventional strategy. this finding is in consonant with the studies of ogunleye and babajide (2011); nwafor and aja (2017); olagbaju (2019) found that students exposed to guided discovery method had higher achievement in physics. this implies that if physics and science global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.18 teachers alike could adopt the guided discovery method in teaching-learning processes, there will be an improvement in students’ mastery and achievement in electricity will improve. the study also showed that there was no significant difference between the mean score of posttest achievement of male and female students taught electricity using guided discovery method. the study further revealed that there was no significant interaction effect of methods on the mean scores of the students’ achievement in electricity. this finding is in agreement with those of oludipe and oludipe (2010) and okoli and ofodum (2017), who reported that the guided discovery method reduce gender differences. this implies that guided discovery method does not discriminate across gender and was more effective than the conventional method in enhancing students’ achievement in electricity. conclusion this study examined the effectiveness of the guided discovery method on the achievement of secondary school physics students in electricity and found that the strategy was effective in improving the learning outcomes of students in electricity. this could be attributed to the basic feature of the metod as a learner-centred approach where students carry out activities themselves. that is, they build their own ideas, identify their conceptions and misconceptions, and correcting such identified misconceptions. gender has no effect on the mean academic achievement score students in electricity. treatment and gender have no significant interaction effects on the mean academic scores of the students in electricity. based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that guided discovery method has great potential in enhancing students’ achievement in electricity and the method built better teacher-student and student-student interaction during lessons and developed greater confidence in the students. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were provided. 1. physics teachers should be encouraged to adopt the use of guided discovery method in the teachinglearning processes to improve students’ achievement in electricity. 2. governments at all levels, in collaboration with professional bodies such as the science teachers association of nigeria (stan), nigerian educational and research development council (nerdc), should organize capacity building programs for secondary school physics teachers and science teachers alike, through seminars, workshops, symposia and conferences among others, on the effective use of guided discovery method. 3. guided discovery method should be incorporated into the science teacher program for equipping the trainee teachers with the skills on the effective use of the method. in addition to this, the strategy should be incorporated into the science curriculum of secondary schools and advocate that learners should be part of the knowledge creation process. references abdulwaheed o. i (2022): effect of thematic teaching strategy on secondary school physics students’ achievement in ilorin, kwara state. ilorin journal of education (ije) 42(2) 18-24. available online at https://ije.unilorin.edu.sch.ng/index.php/ije abdulwaheed o. i (2023): effect of cooperative learning strategy on secondary school physics students’ achievement in ilorin, kwara state. journal of curriculum and instruction (jci) 4(1) 36 44. available online at https://jci-ilorin.org.ng adams, b. s. & freeman, a. (2016). nmc/cosn horizon report: 2016 k-12 edition. the media consortium, austin, texas https://ije.unilorin.edu.sch.ng/index.php/ije https://jci-ilorin.org.ng/ global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.19 ausubel, d. p. (1969). educational psychology: a cognitive view. new york: grunge and stratton. bello, t.o (2012). effect of availability and utilization of physics labouratory equipment on students’ academic achievement in senoir secondary school physics. world journal of education, 2(5); 1-7 callahan, j.f., clark, l.h. & kelloough, r.d. (2015). teaching in the middle of secondary schools, (5thed.) englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall derek, n. (2017). measuring catholic school performance.a comprehensive study of student performance in secondary schools. juillary school publishers. ezeudu, f.o. (2015). effect of gender and location on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools in nsukka local government area of enugu, nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences, 3(15) 50-55. kapur, m. (2010). productive failure in mathematical problem solving. instructional science, 38(6), 523-550. nguyen, v. t. (2018). project 2020 and professional development for high school efl teachers in vietnam. in professional development of english language teachers in asia (pp. 105-118). routledge. nwafor, c. e. & aja, l. (2017). effect of constructivist based teaching strategy on junior secondary school students’ achievement in basic science. journal of the science teachers association of nigeria, 52 (1), 33-42. ocho, c. (2017) effects of cooperative and product learning – teaching strategies on secondary school students’ achievement in essay writing in ebonyi state. unpublished ph.d. thesis, ebonyi state university, abakaliki. ogunleye, b. o. & babajide, v. f. t. (2011). generative instructional strategy enhancing senior secondary students’ achievement in physics. european journal of educational studies, 3 (3), 453-463. okeke, e.a.c. (2017). gender difference in the understanding of some important science concepts. nigeria journal of education. 2(1), 125-132. okoli, j. n. & ofodum, c. i. (2017). effect of generative learning model on secondary school students’ achievement in genetics. journal of the science teachers association of nigeria, 52 (1), 108-119. olagbaju, o. o. (2019). effect of generative instructional strategy on senior secondary school students’ achievement and attitude to summary writing. international journal of innovation in social science, 3 (4), 2454-6186. oludipe, b. & oludipe, d. i. (2010). effect of constructivist based teaching strategy on academic performance of students in integrated science at the junior secondary school level. educational research and review, 5 (7), 347-353. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.20 o'neil, f., & pegrum, m. (2018). keeping up the momentum: a longitudinal evaluation of professional development in digital technologies for academic librarians at an australian university. journal of academic librarianship, 44(4), 439-445. orji, n. s (2013). interactive guidance and counseling workshop for imsa subject’s selection based on the new curriculum. retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/2501 302/subjects_selection_based_on_the on 17/2/2022 uwameiye, r. & ogunbameru, m. t. (2015). a comparative analysis of two methods of teaching financial accounting at senior secondary school. unpublished manuscript, department of vocational and technical education, university of benin, benin city. http://www.academia.edu/2501 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 7; july-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 inclusive education and cognitive development among students with disabilities in primary schools in nigeria: implications for curriculum implementation 1ire, eunice and 1osuji, gregory ekene article info abstract keywords: inclusive education, cognitive development, learners with disabilities, curriculum implementation, enugu-nigeria doi 10.5281/zenodo.13615782 this study investigated the curriculum implementation dimension of the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities in the enugu education zone, nigeria. two research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. a descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. a simple random sampling technique was used to select 400 teachers who participated in the study. a questionnaire was used to collect data. means and standard deviations were used to answer the research questions, while independent sample t-test statistics were used to test the hypotheses. the study found that inclusive education positively influences the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. this approach enables learners to improve their academic performance. it also demonstrates enhanced engagement in the learning process and better subject comprehension. the study therefore recommends that stakeholders work toward creating an inclusive and equitable education system that empowers all learners to reach their full potential. introduction education is the foundation of social change, and the results of an educational system are very dynamic. education is intended to transform entire societies for the benefit of all. every child is supposed to access educational opportunities created to meet their fundamental learning requirements. the salamanca agreement of 1994 established the necessary theoretical framework for the implementation of inclusive education, aiming to provide educational opportunities for every child (unesco, 2015). the introduction of inclusive education was a response to the pursuit of equal access to school for all children, regardless of social and physical circumstances. inclusive education refers to the systematic improvement of an educational system’s ability to cater to the needs of various learners. according to adedokun and oluremi (2014), inclusive education refers to the practice of educating children with vision impairments or other disabilities within mainstream schools rather than segregating them into specialized educational institutions. inclusive education, as posited by triviño-amigo et al. (2022), refers to an educational approach that is intentionally designed to cater 1 department of educational foundations, faculty of education, godfrey okoye university https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 2 to the needs of learners with special needs within the context of restructured public, private, or community schools. the concept of inclusion refers to the entitlement of a child to engage in educational activities and the responsibility of the school to nurture the child. the concept of inclusion involves rejecting the practice of segregating learners with disabilities from their non-disabled peers through the use of special schools or classrooms (osuji & oluoch-suleh, 2017). there is a strong emphasis on promoting active engagement of learners with disabilities and upholding their social, civil and educational rights. numerous advantages associated with attending educational institutions manifest in the long term, particularly in terms of establishing a sustainable means of subsistence during adulthood. participating in school activities is of significant importance for children with disabilities because it helps dispel misconceptions that hinder their inclusion. moreover, when children are allowed to attend school, parents and caregivers can allocate time for additional pursuits, such as employment and leisure. the fundamental concept asserts that every child possesses an equal right to education; nevertheless, in reality, children with disabilities encounter disproportionate denial of this right. therefore, individuals’ capacity to fully exercise their rights as citizens and contribute meaningfully to society, primarily through gainful employment, is compromised (osuji & oluoch-suleh, 2017). disabilities can be classified into many categories according to their inherent characteristics and extent to which they affect an individual’s daily functioning. the aforementioned categories are not inseparable, and it is possible for an individual to possess many disabilities simultaneously. the primary focus of this study is on developmental impairments that frequently manifest at early stages of life and can impact an individual’s physical, cognitive, communicative, social, and emotional growth. autism spectrum disorder (asd) exemplifies a type of developmental disability. autism spectrum disorders (asd) are characterized as enduring developmental disabilities that impede individuals’ ability to comprehend sensory stimuli, including visual, auditory, and other perceptual stimuli. consequently, individuals with asd often encounter significant challenges in social interactions, communication, and behavioral patterns (bossaert et al., 2015). according to kavale and mostert (2013), autism spectrum disorders (asd) encompass a range of linked illnesses characterized by social and communication difficulties in children. additionally, these disorders may exhibit atypical behavioral manifestations, including repetitive motor motions. according to burstein et al. (2014), autism spectrum disorder (asd) is a multifaceted disability that distinguishes itself from other disabilities by encompassing a variety of disabling conditions. furthermore, individuals diagnosed with asd exhibit a distinctive combination of characteristics that is exclusive to each individual and cannot be replicated in any other individual with the same disability. the global prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (asd) is 1 in 160 children, as stated by the world health organization in 2023. additional statistical data reveal that there are approximately 135 million documented cases of autism worldwide, with nigeria alone accounting for over one million affected children and teenagers. these observations suggest that autism spectrum disease exerts a widespread impact. autism spectrum disorders encompass various conditions, including persistent developmental syndrome-not otherwise specified (pddnos), asperger’s syndrome, rett’s disorder, and childhood disintegrative disorder. the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (asd) remains uncertain; however, some researchers have suggested that both hereditary factors and environmental influences significantly contribute to its development (kavale & mostert, 2013; chireshe, 2011). despite being an illness with a genetic basis, this illness presents challenges in social functioning, impacting children’s ability to engage with peers, communicate effectively, and interact appropriately. according to kavale global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 3 and mostert (2013), issues with executive function and the theory of mind play a part in communication and social interaction deficits. children with autism spectrum disorder (asd) frequently struggle in various areas, such as making social connections, communicating with others, and understanding others. the observed occurrence can be traced to a triad of genetic, prenatal, and postnatal elements that work together to affect child development. as a result, teaching learners with autism in an inclusive educational environment poses several challenges for teachers, especially regarding the extent to which the implementation of inclusive education curricula influences the cognitive development of learners. an inclusive education system is characterized by its commitment to acknowledging and valuing all learners without any form of exclusion. it recognizes and appropriately acknowledges the achievements and abilities of students based on their merit. furthermore, an inclusive education system must be built upon leveraging the strengths and capabilities of all the students. this system is guided by evidence-based practices and effective approaches. according to osuji and oluoch-suleh (2017), inclusion of learners with disabilities in schools is crucial for attainment of education for all (efa). this is because in inclusive education, learners with disabilities cultivate a constructive perception of themselves and their peers, establish meaningful social connections, acquire crucial scholastic competencies, and engage in personalized learning experiences that align with their individual pace and preferred approach, all within a supportive educational setting. on the contrary, excluding learners from inclusive educational settings deprives them of the enduring advantages associated with education, such as enhanced employment prospects, social and economic stability, and the ability to fully engage in societal activities. therefore, the extent to which inclusive education curricula are implemented is crucial to the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. effective implementation of inclusive education can significantly influence the developmental and educational outcomes of learners with disabilities. inclusive education is a multifaceted cultural phenomenon that occurs across various dimensions of the educational sphere. researchers and specialists in the field of education have made significant contributions to understanding the domains of learning. the research conducted by bloom in the cognitive domain, krathwohl in the emotive domain, and harrow in the psychomotor domain has been integrated into the framework of the three domains of learning (susanna, 2015). the process of learning contributes to the cultivation of individual mindset and facilitates the acquisition of novel abilities. the cognitive domain is concerned with cultivating an individual’s mental abilities and learning knowledge. the cognitive domain has six distinct categories: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. knowledge refers to the cognitive capacity of an individual to retrieve and recollect factual data or knowledge. subsequently, comprehension is conducted to evaluate learners’ capacity to grasp the significance of their acquired knowledge. in this scenario, learners demonstrate their ability to articulate preexisting ideas using their own language (adedokun & olaleye, 2014). subsequently, the application phase occurs, during which the learner’s capacity to apply abstract information in novel contexts is demonstrated. the quality of human existence is significantly influenced by cognitive development, which manifests rapidly between the ages of 24 and 72 months. cognitive development pertains to the cognitive processes exhibited by individuals and encompasses several aspects such as attention, memory, reasoning ability, creativity, and linguistic proficiency. according to rahman et al. (2022), a significant portion of children’s cognitive capacity (50%) develops by the age of 4. by the age of 8, around 80% of the overall intelligence that will be attained by the age of 18 is achieved. cognitive development is established throughout the conception process and is subject to the influence of genetic factors. however, to maximize intelligence development, environmental factors and the child's level of social maturity (arimbi et al., 2018; linh & azar, 2019; waxman et al., 2019). both factors are dependent on realizing this cognitive potential. according to saefudin (2019), a few environmental factors present in the home context have global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 4 a profound impact on children’s development. according to rahman et al. (2022), there exists a direct correlation between stimuli and cognitive growth because stimuli exert a notably positive impact. according to lacruz-pérez (2021), the use of simulation games can enhance the cognitive, emotional, and psychomotor intelligence of primary school children through intentional design. moreover, drawing from mani (2013), the enhancement of cognitive abilities in children with disabilities is a crucial aspect of early childhood development. in a recent study, marimuthu and cheongb (2022) posited that inclusive education is key to the enhancement of children's cognitive capacity. the location of the schools (urban and rural) and the gender (male and female) of the implementers of the inclusive education curriculum are also important variables that cannot be overlooked in this study. salend and duhaney (2019) observed that a significant proportion of children with disabilities who had no access to necessary support and services were situated in rural regions. most learners with disabilities were typically placed in residential institutions within their own state or in out-of-state facilities. a limited number of rural school districts have made efforts to provide educational services to children with disabilities who have low incidence rates within their individual districts (segal, 2015). furthermore, according to mitchel (2020), there exists a higher prevalence of developmental disorders among children residing in rural settings, along with a lower likelihood of accessing specialized educational services or early intervention programs, compared to their urban counterparts. teachers serve as exemplars for learners, and the concept of inclusion in education implies ensuring that the composition of the teaching staff reflects the diverse makeup of learners. within this context, gender is a crucial determinant of the establishment of inclusive educational environments. chireshe (2011) concluded that female educators exhibit greater tolerance in their efforts to adopt inclusive education. supporting this perspective, a study conducted by timo (2018) found that female instructors tended to hold slightly more positive attitudes toward inclusion than their male counterparts. regardless of the potential influence of gender on the concept of inclusion, it is noteworthy that effectively managing learners with disabilities requires individuals to exhibit qualities such as sacrifice, patience, tolerance, and accommodation skills. educators who have favorable attitudes toward inclusion are more inclined to foster a supportive educational environment for inclusion. this, in turn, promotes collaboration and the exchange of classroom management strategies. therefore, it is against this backdrop that this study investigated the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities in primary schools located in both rural and urban regions within the enugu education zone of enugu state, nigeria. statement of the problem inclusive education refers to the comprehensive integration of learners with and without disabilities within the same educational environment, such as classrooms and schools. this approach provides equal learning opportunities for all students, regardless of their individual skills and limitations. this approach encompasses inclusive education of individuals, regardless of their disabilities or learning challenges, within mainstream primary schools, colleges and universities, facilitated by suitable network assistance. this represents a convergence of factors that contribute to the gradual rise in student engagement, as well as a decrease in their marginalization from the cultural, curricular and communal aspects of nearby educational institutions. despite the well-intentioned nature of inclusive education, social concern remains over the cognitive development of learners with disabilities in primary schools within the enugu education zone. the cognitive domain encompasses objectives related to the retrieval or identification of knowledge and the cultivation of intellectual activity. however, learners with disabilities in enugu education zone, nigeria are experiencing challenges in the realm of education. the assessment reports of several schools have indicated, on several occasions, a significant level of underachievement exhibited by these pupils during examinations. this observation indicates that the global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 5 implementation of inclusive education has not yet had a significant impact on the learning outcomes of learners with disabilities in the cognitive domain. furthermore, it has been noted that a limited number of learners with disabilities can successfully communicate or demonstrate indications of strong educational foundation. it is evident that the students have a limited command of language, insufficient proficiency in the necessary technical abilities, and deficiencies in both oral and written communication. these observations collectively indicate that the successful execution of inclusive education in primary schools is currently in a state of distress. it is against this backdrop that this study investigated the curriculum implementation dimension of the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities in enugu education zone, enugu state, nigeria. purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities in primary schools in enugu, nigeria. specifically, the study sought to 1. determine the extent to which inclusive education has influenced the cognitive development of learners with disabilities 2. analyze the perceived constraints teachers face when implementing inclusive curricula for learners with disabilities research questions the following research questions guided this study: 1. to what extent has inclusive education influenced the cognitive development of learners with disabilities? 2. what are the perceived constraints teachers face when implementing inclusive curricula for learners with disabilities? research hypotheses the following null hypotheses guided the study: h01: there was no significant difference in the mean responses of teachers from rural and urban schools regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. h02: there was no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female teachers regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. review of related literature inclusive education can be characterized as a pedagogical style that involves the integration of students with disabilities into the same classroom or learning environment as their non-disabled peers. the aim of this is to provide collective instruction to all students. inclusive education is significant in that it not only enhances academic performance but also provides individuals with disabilities the opportunity to engage socially with their non-disabled classmates in typical classrooms. regarding studies on inclusive education and learners’ cognitive development, rojas (2021) examined the relationship between inclusive education and cognitive development within the context of catalonian public schools. the purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which inclusive education policies are implemented in public primary schools in catalonia, spain. the aim of this study was to assess the extent of inclusion in schools using an online questionnaire and to examine the association between inclusive education and students’ cognitive growth as assessed by the catalan external evaluation assessment in their final year of primary education. the results revealed progress in the implementation of inclusive education across the 615 schools that were involved in the study. the evaluated work has relevance to the current study as both likely encompass significant findings on inclusive education and the use of a comparable data gathering method. however, a key difference between the study being evaluated and the current study is the geographical location. the previous global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 6 study was conducted in catalonia, spain, while this study focused on enugu, nigeria. the reviewed study did not explore additional dimensions through which inclusive education may impact students, which is a gap that the current study addressed. in another study, kago (2017) examined the impact of inclusive education on the cognitive abilities of refugee children attending public primary schools in ruiru, kenya. the main objectives of this study were to determine how the setting for learning, socio-behavioral assistance, teachers’ instructional abilities and the creation of an inclusive curriculum affected the cognitive performance of children from refugee backgrounds who attend public primary schools. the research design employed in this study was exploratory. in ruiru sub county, there exist a total of thirty (30) public elementary schools that cater to the educational needs of refugee children. the researchers employed the purposive sample technique to carefully select 28 public primary schools. the target population of this study consisted of 536 teachers and 30 head teachers. the researchers employed a simple random sampling procedure to obtain a sample size of 221 instructors, while purposive sampling was used to select a group of 28 head teachers. the findings of the study indicate that several factors, such as the sociobehavioral support, learning environment, inclusive curriculum creation and teachers’ instructional skills, affect the cognitive performance of refugee children. the current investigation shares similarities with the current study in terms of the expressions of subject matter and the target group. nevertheless, there are notable distinctions between these two studies in terms of their respective areas of focus. the former study was conducted in ruiru sub-county, kenya, while the current research delved into the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities in enugu state, nigeria. furthermore, ladoke, romola, ige, and oladejo (2010) examined disability status and cognitive domain improvement in a nigerian university. the findings of this research are significant for instructional practices in inclusive distance education. the research design used in this study was descriptive and followed the ex-post facto approach. the researchers employed a stratified, simple random sampling strategy to select 1500 participants for the study. additionally, a purposive selection technique was used to select the national open university of nigeria as the specific institution of focus. the data were obtained via a questionnaire administered at the contact session in 2009. the study addressed and examined two research questions and one hypothesis. the data analysis involved the use of pearson’s correlation, regression analysis, and the t-test. the disability status of students significantly contributes to the cognitive domain. a notable disparity in the cognitive domain of the pupils was observed, which was contingent on their impairment status (t=2.39, df =1488, p<0.05). the study also revealed that inclusive distant education influences learners’ cognitive domain. the assessment study is pertinent to the current one as it explores the connection between social integration and inclusive education. furthermore, there is a connection between them in terms of the instrument used for data gathering. the disparity between the previous study and the current one lies in the fact that the prior study examined higher education institutions, whereas the present study specifically targeted primary schools. furthermore, there are distinctions between the two in relation to their research design and field of study. regarding teachers’ perceived constraints in the implementation of inclusive education, mpu and adu (2021) examined the obstacles associated with the adoption and enactment of inclusive education within south african schools. the study was structured as a multiple-case study using a qualitative research approach. the study involved the participation of three schools within the buffalo city metro, with three participants selected from each school. the examination of qualitative data was based on an interpretive philosophy. the results of this study indicate that several key factors contributed to educators experiencing a sense of inadequacy when teaching in inclusive education classrooms. these factors included overcrowding, inadequate training, and insufficient knowledge and skills among educators. the reviewed and current studies are interconnected in terms of their global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 7 subject area, inclusive education. nevertheless, these two entities exhibit disparities in relation to their respective fields of study, demographic composition, and methodologies employed in their research. in another study, mwangi and orodho (2014) examined the obstacles encountered during the implementation of an inclusive education program inside public primary schools in nyeri, nyeri county, kenya. this study employed a descriptive survey research design. the research used a stratified random selection method to select 80 participants from the study area. the participants included 12 head teachers, 60 teachers, and 8 education officials. questionnaires and observation checklists were used for data collection. the primary observations revealed that the availability and condition of physical and key instructional learning materials were insufficient or significantly deteriorated. furthermore, a notable deficiency was noted in the availability of qualified instructors capable of effectively delivering adapted curricula for learners with disabilities. furthermore, a few socioeconomic and cultural factors served as limitations on the efficacy of teaching and learning in most of the schools included in the sample. the review is pertinent to the current study in the context of inclusive education. additionally, there is a connection between them in terms of their research design and the equipment used for data collection. the disparity between the study that was evaluated, and the current one lies in the aspects of geographical location and participants. methodology the study adopted the following methodological procedures: design of the study the study employed a quantitative paradigm, specifically, a descriptive research survey design. this study design was appropriate for this study because it involved collecting data to describe and analyze pertinent variables without altering or exerting influence on the participants. area of study this study was carried out among primary schools located in the enugu education zone of enugu state, nigeria. the enugu education zone comprises three local government education authorities (lgeas), namely, the enugu east, enugu north and isi-uzo local governments. the demographic composition of the inhabitants within this local government area is primarily characterized by a significant presence of individuals who identify as igbo and adhere to the christian faith. the primary occupation of individuals residing in rural areas is agriculture, with a focus on farming. a significant number of educational institutions, government agencies, and private institutions are situated in this region due to its proximity to the urban areas of the state. the population exhibits an agrarian lifestyle characterized by a significant presence of traders and civil servants. additionally, they possess a strong inclination toward education. the selection of the study’s location was influenced by the isolation experienced by learners with disabilities from the mainstream curriculum, as well as the establishment of separate educational institutions (special schools) for these learners, which contradicts the principles of inclusive education. population of the study population the study population consists of all primary school teachers employed in the enugu education zone. the enugu education zone comprises 146 public elementary schools, which are supported by a teaching staff of 1,585 individuals (esubeb's 2022 annual report). sample and sampling techniques regarding the sample of the study, 30% of the total population (osuji & oluoch-suleh, 2022) was used to determine the sample size of 400 teachers. a multi-stage sampling procedure was used to identify the study participants. using a straightforward random sampling procedure, two local government areas were selected from the three selected local government areas in the first step. each local government had an equal chance of being 73 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 8 selected for the study. the proposed method adopted a simple random selection. each of the names of the local governments was inscribed onto individual pieces of paper, which were subsequently folded and deposited in a box. the contents of the box were then thoroughly mixed to ensure a randomized arrangement. the researchers subsequently employed a method of balloting with replacement to select the local government region, and in the second stage, 10 (10) primary schools per local government area were chosen using the purposive sampling technique from the two (2) local government areas selected for the study. the purposeful sampling technique was employed to identify schools with substantial instructors. the schools included in this study were deliberately chosen to reflect those that use inclusive education. instrument for data collection the questionnaire entitled "influence of inclusive education on learners living with disabilities (iielld)” was employed as the primary data collection instrument for the study. the questionnaire was deemed suitable for this study because it enabled the researchers to gather the perspectives of participants regarding a pre-established and currently existing phenomenon. validation of the instrument the questionnaire was subjected to face validation by three specialists from the faculty of education, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state, nigeria. the specialists were from the special education, curriculum studies, and measurement and evaluation disciplines. they were formally requested to assess the documents, appraise the suitability of the language used and determine the adequacy and relevance of each item in relation to the research questions. updates and feedback provided by the specialists were employed to implement the modifications to the questionnaire. these modifications led to the development of the final version. instrument reliability the instrument’s reliability was determined through a trial-testing activity involving 10 instructors from the nsukka education zone, which is located outside the study area due to its distinct curriculum characteristics. cronbach’s alpha statistical approach was used to calculate the internal consistency for each instrument cluster. a coefficient dependability of 0.87 was achieved, suggesting that the instrument used for data collection in this study has a positive direction and is highly reliable. method of data collection regarding the data collection method, the researchers personally administered the questionnaire to the teachers. two research assistants also helped administer the questionnaire. the questionnaire was administered to the participants by the researchers and research assistants, who promptly retrieved the completed questionnaire copies. the primary objective of employing research assistants was to enhance the efficiency of the process of distributing and collecting completed surveys. method of data analysis with the help of the statistical package for social sciences (spss ibm version 21), descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to answer the research questions, while inferential statistics (independent sample t-test) were used to test the hypothesis at an alpha level of 0.05. a benchmark value of 2.5 for the research questions was considered accepted, whereas the general rule for the hypotheses was: when the p-value greater than 0.05 (significant level), it means that the result is not significant. a p-value of less than 0.05 is statistically significant (p˃0.05 = not significant; p˂0.05 = significant). ethical considerations the researchers considered research ethics in the study. the research protocol was reviewed and approved by the institutional review board of the department of educational foundations, faculty of education, godfrey okoye university, enugu, nigeria. second, the researchers received research permits from the gatekeepers of the schools global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 9 where the study was conducted. consequently, the researchers sought informed consent from the participants of the study, and this was granted. then, confidentiality was maintained throughout data management, including collection, storage, and analysis. most importantly, the participants were informed that they were free to withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty. lastly, various steps were put in place to reduce potential risks to participants during data collection, and the researchers tried their best to prioritize the wellbeing of the participants throughout the study. results rq 1: to what extent has inclusive education influenced the cognitive development of learners with disabilities? table 1 extent inclusive education has influenced the cognitive development of learners with disabilities s/no items: inclusive education influences the cognitive development of learners living with disabilities by; �̅� sd. decision 1 increasing sustained attention in class 2.67 1.11 accepted 2 helping individuals refrain from impulsive behavior 3.03 1.99 accepted 3 expanding their working memory 2.89 1.88 accepted 4 offering learners the opportunity to truly meet the goals of preparation for the future 2.89 1.82 accepted 5 inculcating fluency in their communication 2.93 1.12 accepted 6 creating awareness about information processing in the classroom 2.79 1.35 accepted 7 opportunities related to language development 2.75 1.87 accepted 8 establish a standard level of reasoning 2.61 1.87 accepted grand mean 2.82 1.32 accepted table1 shows the mean responses of the respondents regarding the extent to which inclusive education has influenced the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. the results showed that the respondents agreed to all the items with mean responses of 2.67, 3.03, 2.89, 2.89, 2.93, 2.79, 2.75, and 2.61, respectively. the analysis revealed that all items reached a benchmark of 2.5 the analysis revealed that the cluster mean response was 2.82, and the standard deviation was 1.32. this implies that inclusive education influences the cognitive development of learners with disabilities to a high extent. research question 2: what are teachers’ perceived constraints in implementing inclusive curricula for learners with disabilities? global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 10 table 2 perceived constraints teachers face in implementing inclusive education curriculums for learners with disabilities s/no items (�̅�) sd. decision 1 poor knowledge of teachers in inclusive education 3.15 1.88 accepted 2 teachers’ lack of interest in the inclusive education implementation process 2.88 1.99 accepted 3 teachers’ poor understanding of curriculum content 2.92 1.90 accepted 4 few teachers compared to the workload and the effectiveness of the work. 2.94 1.88 accepted 5 poor payment of teachers 2.76 1.78 accepted 6 teachers lack the relevant competencies necessary for curriculum implementation 2.99 1.87 accepted 7 non-inclusion of inclusive education programs in teachers’ training curricula and/or at basic levels of education 2.82 1.99 accepted 8 lack of finance 2.51 0.99 accepted grand mean 2.87 1.53 accepted table 2 shows the mean responses to the perceived constraints teachers face when implementing an inclusive education curriculum for learners with disabilities. the result showed that the respondents agreed to a high extent on all the items whose mean response is 3.15, 2.88, 2.92, 2.94, 2.76, 2.99, 2.82, and 2.51, respectively. all items had a mean average greater than 2.5, which is the accepted benchmark. the analysis revealed that the cluster mean response was 2.87, and the standard deviation was 1.53. this indicates that the respondents agreed that the listed items represent the perceived constraints teachers face when implementing inclusive education curricula for learners with disabilities. hypotheses ho1: there was no significant difference in the mean responses of teachers from rural and urban schools regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. table 3 t-test of significant difference in mean responses of teachers from rural and urban schools regarding the influence of inclusive education on cognitive development of learners with disabilities location n �̅� sd. df t-cal t-crit level of sig. decision urban 296 3.01 1.10 90 1.98 1.96 0.05 not rejected rural 104 2.65 0.95 table 3 presents the independent sample t-test analysis of the mean difference in the responses of teachers from rural and urban schools. the results presented in table 3 indicate that the calculated t-value (1.98) was less than the critical value of (1.96). the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there is no significant difference global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 11 between the mean scores of teachers from rural and urban schools regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. ho2: there was no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female teachers regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. table 4 t-test of significant difference in mean responses of male and female teachers regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities gender n �̅� sd. df t-cal t-crit level of sig. decision female 344 2.85 1.21 90 1.97 1.96 0.05 not rejected male 56 2.75 1.88 table 4 displays the independent sample t-test analysis of the mean difference in the responses of female and male teachers regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. the results presented in table 4 indicate that the calculated t-value (1.97) was less than the critical value (1.96). the null hypothesis was not rejected. therefore, there is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female teachers regarding the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. conclusions the first research question explores the extent to which inclusive education has influenced the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. the evidence from the study shows that the affirmation of the respondents that inclusive education influences the cognitive development of learners with disabilities to a high extent. inclusive education, when implemented effectively, can lead to improved cognitive development for learners with disabilities. exposure to diverse learning environments and interactions with peers without disabilities can stimulate cognitive growth through increased engagement, access to varied perspectives, and enhanced problem-solving opportunities. exposure can contribute to the acquisition of academic skills and knowledge. this finding agrees with umar (2019) and tassew (2012), who stated that inclusive classrooms often employ differentiated instruction and various teaching strategies to accommodate diverse learning needs. these approaches can stimulate the cognitive development of learners with disabilities by addressing their individual learning styles, strengths, and challenges. the second research question was more emphatic in addressing the perceived constraints teachers face when implementing inclusive curricula for learners with disabilities. the evidence from the study showed that the respondents agreed that teachers are faced with constraints when implementing inclusive education for learners with disabilities. implementing inclusive curricula for learners with disabilities can present various challenges and constraints for teachers. these perceived constraints may vary depending on the specific context, resources and available support. teachers may feel inadequately prepared to address the diverse needs of learners with disabilities. they may lack specialized training in inclusive education strategies, curriculum adaptation, and assistive technologies. this finding is in line with kago, (2017) and triviño-amigo et al. (2022), who stated that teachers struggle with limited access to appropriate teaching materials, assistive devices, and adapted curriculum resources to effectively support learners with disabilities. inclusive classrooms often have a mix of students with varying abilities and needs. teachers find it challenging to provide individual attention and support to each learner, particularly in larger class sizes. adapting lessons, creating differentiated materials, and providing additional support to learners with disabilities can be timeconsuming. teachers may feel overwhelmed by the demands of managing diverse needs within limited global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 12 instructional time. effective inclusive education requires collaboration among educators, specialists, and support staff. teachers may struggle with limited opportunities for collaboration, consultation, and co-planning with special education professionals. some learners with disabilities may exhibit challenging behaviors that require special management and support strategies. teachers may face difficulties in effectively addressing these behaviors within an inclusive classroom setting. the findings from the hypotheses present it vividly that there is no significant difference in the mean responses of teachers, both male and female, and from rural and urban schools on the influence of inclusive education on the cognitive development of learners living with disabilities in the enugu education zone of enugu state, nigeria. conclusion and recommendations based on the findings presented in this study, it can be concluded that inclusive education has a significant and positive influence on the cognitive development of learners with disabilities. the findings demonstrated that inclusive classrooms provide a conducive environment for learners with diverse abilities to thrive academically. the study revealed that learners living with disabilities showed improved academic progress, increased engagement in the learning process and higher achievement in inclusive settings. the presence of typically developing peers in the same classroom facilitated social interaction and the development of essential social skills, fostering stronger peer relationships, and reducing stigmatization. based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommend the following: 1. educational policymakers should develop and enforce comprehensive policies that support and promote inclusive education practices. these policies should focus on providing adequate resources, training and support for teachers as well as ensuring that schools are adequately equipped to implement inclusive strategies. 2. inclusive education training and professional development programs should be provided to all teachers by the state ministry of education. these programs should emphasize inclusive teaching strategies, understand diverse learning needs and create supportive and inclusive classroom environments. 3. schools should develop and implement individualized education plans (ieps) for learners with disabilities. these plans should outline specific learning goals, accommodations, and support services tailored to each student’s unique needs. 4. schools should provide accessible learning materials and assistive technologies to support learners with disabilities in their learning journeys. this includes accessible textbooks, audio resources, adaptive software, and other assistive devices. 5. educational institutions should foster a positive and inclusive school culture that celebrates diversity and promotes the acceptance of all students. this involves organizing awareness campaigns, inclusive events, and workshops to sensitize students, teachers, and the community about disability inclusion. 6. schools should actively involve parents or caregivers in the education of learners with disabilities. regular communication, parent-teacher meetings, and collaboration on individualized plans can help ensure consistent support for the child’s development both at school and home. 7. the government should encourage collaboration and communication among teachers, administrators, parents, policymakers, and disability support organizations. the collaboration will facilitate the development of comprehensive and sustainable inclusive education strategies. references adedokun, m., & oluremi, o. 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(2019). a comparative study of the inclusive education policy in vietnam and malaysia: proposed solutions for sustainable development education in vietnam. education quarterly reviews, 2(3), 539–550. mani, m. n. g. (2013). inclusive education in india: policies and practice. the education reading the unreached through inclusive education, 6(1), 44-49. marimuthu, s., & cheongb, l. (2022). inclusive education for social transformation. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 1(7), 2-10. mitchel, r. (2020). designing learning environments for cultural inclusivity: a case study of indigenous online learning at tertiary level. australian journal of educational technology, 16(1), 58-72. mpu, y., & adu, e. o. (2021). the challenges of inclusive education and its implementation in schools: the south african perspective. perspectives in education, 39(2), 225-238. mwangi, e., & orodho, j. (2014). challenges facing implementation of inclusive education in public primary schools in nyeri town, nyeri county, kenya. journal of education and practice, 5(16), 118-124. osuji, g. e., & oluoch-suleh, e. a. (2017). implementation of inclusive education for learners with disabilities in primary schools in nairobi county, kenya. journal of education and practice, 8(34), 22-32. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (7) pg. 14 osuji, g. e., & oluoch-suleh, e. a. (2022). educational research supervision: a guide for supervisees and supervisors. utafiti foundation. rahman, m., ismail, g., & peruman, l. (2022). stimulating the cognitive and the psychomotor domains of pupils with special needs through theatre. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 11(5), 397-409. rojas, i. (2021). inclusive education and academic performance in catalan public schools. international journal of inclusive education, 6(7), 19-27. saefudin, a. w. (2019). inclusive parenting patterns for families of the same religion and different religions: a model of tolerance education in bondo village, jepara. research journal of islamic social and religious sciences, 16(2), 123–137. salend, s. j., & duhaney, l. m. (2019). the impact of inclusion on pupils with and without disabilities and their educators. remedial and special education, 20(2), 114–126. segal, n. (2015). mapping the field inclusive education: a review of indian literature. international journal of inclusive education, 5(6), 17-23. susanna, l. (2015). influence of preschool centers on children’s social and cognitive development. economics of education review, 26(1), 52-66. tassew, w. (2012). the effect of early childhood education attendance on cognitive development: evidence from urban ethiopia. journal of education, 24(15), 113-164. timo, s. (2018). attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education in finland. scandinavian journal of education research, 64(2), 270-282. triviño-amigo, n., barrios-fernandez, s., mañanas-iglesias, c., carlos-vivas, j., adsuar, j. c., acevedo-duque, á., & rojo-ramos, j. (2022). differences among male and female spanish teachers on their self-perceived preparation for inclusive education. international journal of environmental research and public health, 19(6), 3647. umar, k. (2019). influence of infrastructures in the implementation of inclusive education on skills acquisition among pupils with learning disability in agricultural science subjects. the international organization of scientific research (iosr) journal, 1(5), 32-28. unesco. (2015). guidelines for inclusion, ensuring access to education for all. unesco. waxman, s., figlio, d., garfield, c., jordan, n., sabol, t., davis, m. m., & bridgman, a. (2019). social policy. report brief, 32(1), 1-6. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 1 importance of collaboration between school, family, and community prof. lorenzo antonio de luca department of education and human sciences, niccolò cusano university, rome, italy keywords: inclusive education, physical activity, diversity in learning, educational equity, school-family collaboration abstract in today’s educational landscape, inclusive education—particularly through the medium of physical activity—plays a vital role in promoting equity and holistic development. physical education serves not only as a tool for physical well-being but also as a powerful vehicle for social inclusion and educational success. by fostering collaboration among schools, families, and extracurricular settings, inclusive physical education supports the diffusion of universal values and promotes the acquisition of life-changing skills for all students, especially those facing learning and social barriers. this inclusive approach shifts the focus from viewing diversity as a challenge to embracing it as a valuable educational resource. inclusive teaching methods encourage the recognition and capitalization of individual differences, ensuring that all students, regardless of ability, can fully participate in the learning process. far from being limited to students with disabilities or special educational needs, inclusivity is now understood as a broader educational strategy that enhances the learning environment for everyone. an inclusive school does not merely adapt to the needs of a few but proactively designs its teaching practices, environments, and community interactions to support the success of every learner. this requires rethinking educational contexts, employing adaptable strategies that serve both individual needs and collective growth. the italian educational system, aligned with modern pedagogical frameworks, emphasizes the value of diversity and promotes inclusive classrooms as dynamic spaces where every student contributes to and benefits from shared learning experiences. ultimately, physical education emerges as a critical domain where inclusiveness can thrive, offering moments of aggregation, empowerment, and personal growth. when applied inclusively, it becomes not only a physical pursuit but a socially transformative practice that strengthens the educational mission and supports the development of empathetic, resilient, and collaborative individuals. introduction in recent years, the concept of school inclusiveness has gained increasing prominence in educational discourse across the globe. central to this discussion is the recognition that inclusive education is not merely about integrating students with disabilities or special educational needs into mainstream classrooms, but about transforming schools into environments where every student, regardless of ability, background, or circumstance, has equal opportunities to succeed. inclusiveness, in this sense, transcends physical presence in the classroom and encompasses active participation, meaningful learning, and a sense of belonging for all learners. an inclusive school is defined not simply by its openness to diversity but by its proactive and intentional efforts to design educational practices that are mindful of everyone. such a school does not aim to "fix" the individual to fit into a rigid system; rather, it aims to modify the context—its curricula, pedagogy, environment, and relationships—so that the system adapts to the diverse needs of its students. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 2 in this model, inclusivity becomes both a principle and a process. it is a principle in the sense that it affirms the inherent dignity and rights of every learner to be educated alongside their peers. it is a process in that it involves ongoing efforts to eliminate barriers to learning and participation through thoughtful planning, differentiated instruction, and the cultivation of supportive classroom cultures. the italian school system, like many others in europe, has been called upon to engage more deeply with these inclusive values. current pedagogical guidelines advocate for a shift from a deficit-based view of student diversity to one that sees difference as a strength and a resource. this perspective encourages educators to recognize and nurture the unique potential of each student, thereby enhancing the collective learning experience. classrooms are envisioned as communities where students are not isolated by their limitations but empowered by their capabilities, and where collaboration and mutual respect are foundational. in such inclusive settings, the presence of a student with a disability is not seen as a challenge to be managed but as an opportunity for the entire class to grow in empathy, patience, and adaptability. these students often serve as mirrors through which others can reflect on their own limitations and strengths, leading to a more holistic educational experience. this view is supported by contemporary research, which highlights how inclusive education benefits not only students with special needs but the entire student body. when schools embrace the full spectrum of human diversity, they become more dynamic, innovative, and effective in preparing all learners for life in a pluralistic society (brennan, king, & travers, 2021; óskarsdóttir et al., 2020). moreover, inclusive education fosters a stronger connection between the school, families, and the broader community. it calls for a cultural shift in which collaboration, shared responsibility, and a common commitment to every student’s success are paramount. the involvement of families, educators, and support personnel in designing and implementing inclusive strategies is essential to ensure that education becomes a truly transformative experience. as such, the inclusive school is not just a theoretical ideal but a practical necessity in today’s diverse and complex societies. it represents a commitment to educational equity, social justice, and the full realization of human potential. it challenges educators to reimagine their roles not merely as transmitters of knowledge but as facilitators of inclusive and meaningful learning experiences for all. 1. the inclusive didactic approach inclusive teaching is the teaching of all, which is based on personalization and individualization through active, participatory, constructive, and affective methodologies. the quality of inclusive teaching is determined by educational reflexivity and intentionality, by the search for alternative motivations and hypotheses, by the ability to change perspectives of meaning and to produce transformative learning (dematthews, serafini, & watson, 2021). as pennac (2010) argues, "each student plays his own instrument, there is nothing to be done. the difficult thing is to get to know our musicians well and find harmony. a good class is not a regiment marching in step, it is an orchestra playing the same symphony." inclusive teaching is, therefore, a teaching conceived, designed and planned, from the beginning, based on individual variability, capable of being accessible for all students and not only for some with special educational needs. designing in an inclusive way means thinking, whatever the content to be conveyed, of personalized, multi-modal, and multilevel forms of teaching, because each student faces learning at different levels and ways, thus avoiding "path emergencies" that force, a posteriori, to modify what has been designed for an "ideal class", thus avoiding loss of effectiveness of the teaching action itself. poorly designed and poorly conducted teaching can run the risk of creating barriers to learning itself (graham, 2020). inclusive teaching is therefore an innovative and flexible teaching "style" that facilitates the participation, enhancement, and educational success of all students. inclusive teaching challenges teachers to develop a wide repertoire of teaching strategies that are considered effective, not only for pupils with special needs, but for everyone. this means that every teacher can improve their effectiveness, first of all by knowing and then using, monitoring and evaluating the best strategy, so as to help students become more effective learners themselves. there is a lot of research that shows how meta-cognitive, cooperative strategies, the strengthening of social and emotional skills, as well as the creation of a positive classroom climate, are essential for inclusive teaching. developing a broad repertoire of effective strategies is essential as long as they reflect knowledge of the global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 3 characteristics, needs of students and environmental circumstances, as well as teachers' professional and personal knowledge and skills (garg, & sharma, 2020; sleeter, & zavala, 2020). in addition to the dimension of effectiveness with respect to methodological-didactic choices and actions to be made, an inclusive teacher cannot forget the importance of relational and emotional skills. numerous studies show that teachers' appropriate mental attitude, emotional closeness, and ability to give appropriate and positive feedback to students are decisive elements for their academic success and the creation of a good classroom climate. the training of teachers with respect to their social and emotional skills, in an inclusive school context, certainly cannot be underestimated. the quality of the classroom climate (made up of relationships and emotional experiences) is crucial for the success of students, who learn best when they are in an emotionally safe and predictable environment, which motivates them and stimulates them towards positive and inclusive goals (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). the concept of inclusivity in contemporary schools goes beyond disability, learning disorders, explicit difficulties in integration and behavior and concerns all pupils with respect to whom it is necessary to give different answers for their educational needs. the goal of inclusive teaching is, in fact, to make all students reach the highest possible degree of learning and social participation, enhancing the differences present in the class. unesco's guidelines for integration policies in education (2009) emphasize that: "inclusive schooling is a process of strengthening the capacities of the education system to reach all students. [...]. an inclusive school system can only be created if mainstream schools become more inclusive." in other words, if they become better at educating all the children in their community. for pupils with certified disabilities, on the other hand, legislative decree no. 66 of 13 april 2017 lays down specific rules for the promotion of their full school integration. in particular, it refers to the so-called plan for inclusion that each school must prepare to overcome all those factors that may hinder its implementation, for the coordinated use of resources and to design specific improvement interventions. the inclusion plan must include an analysis of strengths and weaknesses, objectives to increase inclusiveness for the following school year, resources (support teachers, assistants, contact persons), methodologies, methods of involving families, relations with local social and health services that are intended to be activated, actions for the acquisition and distribution of additional resources for the implementation of inclusion projects, the preparation of interventions for entry into the school system, continuity between the different levels of school and future integration into the world of work (ciyer, 2010). the inclusive school, therefore, equips itself in a synergistic way to propose multiple educational and didactic strategies, according to a holistic approach, which considers the student as a complex and multidimensional person with his or her own socio-cultural and biological characteristics, and aims at the overall development of the potential and skills of each one for the achievement of the highest possible level of learning and socialization. to achieve this, however, schools must have the courage to renounce the standardization of teaching (kinsella, 2020). it must allow all its members to feel part of a community in which the same educational ideals are shared, the individuality of all its members is respected, each with his or her own interests, needs and talents, and offers multiple possibilities and formative opportunities, so that each one can realize his or her aspirations. fundamental to this new vision of the school is respect for the right to self-determination and to the construction of future life projects adapted to the potential of each and everyone, to the aspirations of families and to the new demands of society and culture. the school intends to achieve these important educational objectives with the collaboration of families with whom it is necessary to share, in respect of roles and specific responsibilities, objectives, goals and strategies for the healthy growth of young people. an inclusive systemic vision must also consider the contributions that can come from collaboration with other public and private entities, and from associations operating in the area and that are able to contribute to ensuring the educational success of students (kim, yi, & hong, 2021; miller et al., 2022; stinken-rösner et al., 2020). in the process of individualization of teaching, activities are provided for disabled pupils so that it is possible to achieve knowledge and skills global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 4 common to the rest of the class. common objectives, therefore, to the class group, but different, individualized methodologies, which consider the potential, skills, and personal abilities of the disabled student, which become a resource, trying to eliminate the factors that originate or maintain the difficulty. personalized teaching, on the other hand, provides for the achievement of objectives that are different from those of the class, because they are built ad hoc on the disability of the individual student, enhancing his or her strengths. in this way, by specifically considering the different ability of the pupil as a peculiarity of his own, the pupil will be given the opportunity to develop his full potential and give him the opportunity to transmit his different ability to others (väyrynen, & paksuniemi, 2020). to interpret inclusion as a "day-to-day" way of managing classrooms, training must be aimed at both support teachers and all curriculum teachers. indications and guidelines remind us that diversity poses a great challenge to didactic and educational action, such as being able to face it, having adequate skills in inclusive teaching strategies, in order to respond adequately not only to the needs of disabled pupils or with specific learning disorders, with other difficulties or developmental disorders and with social and cultural disadvantage, but also emphasizing the quality of learning of all pupils (sturm, 2019). a key aspect is also that of "taking charge" of the student, which must be carried out by the entire "educating community", avoiding processes of delegation to the support teacher alone. hence, therefore, the need for targeted, specific, modular training interventions that consider the different starting levels of those who access training and, above all, based on a participatory vision of inclusion and oriented towards cooperation and cooperative teaching (mihajlovic, 2020). nevertheless, the school, which for over forty years has been trying to be a welcoming and inclusive context, today feels it must oppose the adverse pressures that come from the outside with a decisive and constructive commitment to inclusion. these educational ideals are expressed through pedagogical challenges from which the school cannot move away. learning and teaching practices can guide inclusive actions in the classrooms, through participation, cooperation, interdependence, and laboratory methodology. 2. physical education as a means of inclusion the stimulating encounter between physical activity and the world of disability takes place starting from the origins of school inclusion. physical education, in fact, is one of the school disciplines that contributes decisively to the formation of one's bodily identity, personality and the acquisition of communicative-relational skills (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). it is considered fundamental for the harmonious development of the personality and for the formation of citizens capable of expressing themselves and relating in today's world, so much so that it has been defined as a "hinge discipline between the scientific, communicative and expressive, relational and citizenship fields" (miur, 2018). physical education promotes selfknowledge and one's potential in a constant relationship with the environment, others, and objects. it also contributes to the formation of the student's personality through the knowledge and awareness of one's own bodily identity, as well as the continuous need for movement as a constant care of one's person and well-being. motor activities provide students with opportunities to reflect on the changes in their bodies, to accept global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 5 them and live them serenely as an expression of each person's growth and maturation process (sánchez, de haro-rodríguez, & martínez, 2019). they also offer opportunities to reflect on the significance of self-image in comparison with peers. the primary objective of physical education is, in fact, to promote the growth of physically educated people through the acquisition of skills, such as motor skills, knowledge, socio-affective behaviors and motivations such that they are urged to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles based on awareness of the bodily (haegele, 2019). this orientation frames the discipline in a holistic approach, which identifies among its main purposes the physical, cognitive, and social development of children, together with the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, assigning it the role of a privileged tool for the structuring of personality, social relationships and for the acquisition of the necessary life skills throughout life. it is for this reason that physical education is proposed as an essential element for integrated growth. it follows that, through a conscious pedagogical orientation aimed at proposing significant motor experiences and the acquisition of new skills, it is necessary to promote an adequate motor planning that correlates with a coherent pedagogical intentionality, in order to adequately define motor action and to attribute a fair value to it. therefore, education through the body and movement cannot be linked to didactic strategies linked only to doing but must also and above all be realized in a condition linked to the deepest meaning of being a person acting in the environment (hutzler, meier, reuker, & zitomer, 2019). starting from these assumptions, the school must, therefore, become the ideal setting in which to build a didactic of motor and sports activities that looks at the educational conception of the body and movement understood as a factor of promotion not only of the aspects of self-construction but also as an educational exercise for the acquisition of healthy lifestyles that allow to improve the wellbeing and health of the individual. in this sense, it becomes necessary to integrate in the teaching practice both the purely physical and the sociorelational aspects, in order to allow a global taking charge of the psychophysical health of the subject. physical education must, therefore, necessarily become essential to the formation of young people. in fact, it contributes to their growth both in structural terms and to the formation of the self that concerns the body, its potential and its limits, its position in physical space, its perception in relation to others, its image. it also plays a crucial role in directing motivation to improve one's individual skills and selfdetermination in achieving psycho-physical wellbeing. therefore, it not only has the educational value that contributes to the development of motor skills, abilities, and competences, but also and above all the value of all those activities that, through movement, contribute to the structuring of identity and awareness of the potential of one's own body (rekaa, hanisch, & ytterhus, 2019). physical education conceived and experimented in this way puts into practice a didactic that becomes a tool for the metacognitive development of the body and mind, in a framework in which the subjects can recognize themselves in body and movement. the education of the body and movement is therefore aimed at a training process capable of allowing learners to achieve an ever-greater awareness of their body in movement in order to obtain that intrinsic pleasure and the achievement of cultural, social and expressive factors that global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 6 identify the value aspect of motor activities (vilchez, kruse, puffer, & dudovitz, 2021). it follows that the educational process represents the tool through which the individual gives shape to his or her personal identity, integrating all those knowledge, skills and competencies that allow him or her to live and mature an increasingly complete self-awareness. the body and movement are, therefore, two fundamental elements of the individual and social dimension in the personal development of the individual, it follows that physical activities provide a special contribution to the creation and strengthening of skills that can be used in other contexts of life. within the didactic path of motor and sports education, due to the specific experiential characteristics of the discipline, the curriculum helps to develop transversal skills capable of making students capable of transforming the knowledge, attitudes and values acquired into real skills, such as "what to do" and "how to do it" in every circumstance of life (nilholm, 2021). this type of offer characterized by a multiplicity of accessible, interdisciplinary, situated, and immersive learning opportunities, based on plural and differentiated didactic mediations in their complementarity, represents the methodological framework within which the knowledge and skills acquired through physical, and sports education can contribute to the development of educational and social equity. 3. physical education as a perspective for the development of individual potential physical education unquestionably assumes an educational value for everyone, able bodied and disabled; for the latter, play, movement, and sport take on an added value by giving visibility to their physical and cognitive abilities. every form of educational intervention stems from the teacher's ability to remove "obstacles", focusing on functional abilities and hypothesizing suitable, not adapted, educational proposals (kirk, 2019). the presence of a person with disabilities within a group changes relationships, relationships, balances, emotions on an intra and interpersonal level: there begins to be more collaboration, sharing and there is a tendency to face any obstacle in order to resolve the various conflicts. disability also produces advantages for ablebodied people to the extent that they are in an inclusive dimension that is not limited only to welcoming diversity. various didactic and educational strategies must be put in place in order to create a learning community, a community that manifests solidarity and sensitivity. everyone should perceive difference as a value or resource and not as a threat precisely because, when an individual meet someone "different" from yourself, you create a greater awareness of your identity. it is necessary to create a new educational paradigm, it is necessary to educate to the difference, to the other and to the different to create those effective conditions in which the subject can express his potential and the most hidden reactions (sulasmi, & akrim, 2019). it becomes necessary to identify the skills of the most "fragile" in order to enhance their abilities within the class group. the resulting didactic proposal will have to respond to the needs of the students, taking into account the conditions of extreme heterogeneity of the classes, aiming at the discovery of their own body and their motor and communication skills to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. starting from the assumption that every student needs, indifferently, appropriate educational proposals and that whatever the "difficulty", the educator will have to create the conditions of welcome and collaboration such as to allow adequate global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 7 participation in the activity, motor and sports education could intervene as a facilitator of school learning in subjects with special educational needs. the person, the goal, and the context (rules and people) are the factors that unite the world of play and sport and the world of disability: everyone indiscriminately uses their skills and determination to achieve the same goal, that is, to reach the limit of their limits by overcoming obstacles. from this point of view, it is important to be able to train the teachers themselves in order to make them understand the real and personal needs of the students in order to create inclusive actions that can make the disabled person feel the protagonist of their own life project and no longer a simple spectator in which others play their game (opstoel et al., 2020). physical education, in fact, becomes effective when the focus is on the student and not on sport, when the teacher is able to motivate the student and create a positive teacher learner relationship, making him more and more autonomous in his activity and personal choices. the educational process and the related training project require an educational space in which motor and sports paths are flexible and personalized in relation to the characteristics and peculiarities of each subject, which allow not only to "overcome" the deficit but also to increase in each subject the awareness of his possibilities, thus contributing to the formation of his identity. it happens, in fact, that every student has special needs to be transformed into special desires and life prospects, as each subject is unique and unrepeatable, with his or her own experience and his or her own life project. the line to be taken is, therefore, that of "valuing differences in the awareness of diversity as an indispensable value" in order to confront the diversity of each student in a new learning environment that ensures convergence and balance between different characteristics and needs and above all is able to change flexibly with changing attitudes, aspirations, environments, fragility and potential of the person (white et al., 2021). looking at the disabled person beyond their deficit means considering their life history by providing different possibilities for personalized and integrated growth. physical education is well suited to this training approach as motor activities allow you to "abandon the pressures of everyday life, have more bodily contact, be cooperative, resolve conflicts, get to know the other and, consequently, socialize with all people beyond disability" (juvonen, lessard, rastogi, schacter, & smith, 2019). physical education, as a training process, therefore, represents a real breaking down of social barriers, a tool capable of giving life to an innovative and mature paradigm based on the promotion of social inclusion. for the disabled person sharing the same experience, the same spaces and the same moments with others represents an opportunity for growth and social integration. physical education should be considered as a method of intervention in the difficult educational path and integration of the disabled person. the motor and sports field, in fact, is a favorable context for the development and consolidation of fundamental cognitive skills and, at the same time, the body, motor activity, games and recreational activities aimed at integration, become concrete and coherent educational tools for the affirmation of this paradigm. through motor activities, exploiting a psychoeducational intervention model that integrates the educational aspect with the psychological and relational one, it is possible to create the conditions for the subject with disabilities to benefit from a learning context, global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 8 understood as growth and structuring of the personality (search for autonomy). this means, first of all, valuing the diversity of the student: difference is to be considered a resource and a richness and, in this sense, collaboration and teamwork are essential for everyone's growth (pangrazi, & beighle, 2019). sport and play, in addition to spreading the values of solidarity, loyalty, respect for the person and the rules, which are the founding principles of any healthy society, are extraordinary tools for building skills that can be transferred to other contexts of life. the organization of a competition, the definition of roles, the determination of timing, game strategies, are real intellectual skills that can be transferred to any context of life and represent skills that everyone should be able to put into practice when they must make decisions or prepare a program of action. movement activities are opportunities to privilege creativity and emotional investment because the educational perspective is to support the processes that lead to autonomy, the growth of self-esteem, the ability to initiative and selfawareness at various levels, physical and emotional. conclusions educating the person to become himself, also by concentrating on his bodily realization, means helping him to become aware of his being a whole person, which is expressed and fulfilled through movement, action. this means accompanying the subject to read the body not only as a set of muscle bundles to be controlled as such and therefore a mere expression of coordinative and conditional capacities, but to ensure that it grasps itself integrally in its total corporeality, which also involves relating to others. the body, as a co-builder of knowledge and self-knowledge, in its being "in situation", is correlated with motivation, with the intentionality that each subject puts into his action and not only with his mechanical action of a merely reproductive model. physical education, conducted in formal, nonformal and informal educational systems, calls for the acquisition of the person's awareness of his transformation as a bodily identity, in his existence, acting and perfecting himself. in this sense, pedagogical intentionality has as its peculiarity the feeling and becoming of bodies, embodied and embodied actions that give meaning and significance to the person's experience, including those who may show deficits and disabilities. physical education has, in essence, the purpose of allowing each and every one to develop their own personal life project according to an eco-systemic approach, using a multi-perspective vision in relation to the contribution that the different motor activities can offer in order to achieve a "formative" design. references brennan, a., king, f., & travers, j. 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(2020). physical activity. https://www.who.int/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1843151 https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1843151 https://doi.org/10.23770/rt1839 https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1441333 https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1441333 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000177849 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000177849 https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1458594 https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1458594 https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13033 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103247 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103247 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) volume 16, number 2; febuary 2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 challenges of aligning nigeria’s national curriculum with global standards while preserving indigenous knowledge 1nwafor alphonsus onyeachonam, ph.d. article info abstract keywords: nigeria, national curriculum, global standards, indigenous knowledge, education reform, cultural preservation, hybridisation theory doi 10.5281/zenodo.17492626 the challenge of aligning nigeria’s national curriculum with global standards while preserving indigenous knowledge has become a pressing concern in contemporary education discourse. globalisation has intensified the demand for curricula that emphasise skills such as digital literacy, scientific innovation, and critical thinking, yet nigeria risks cultural erosion if indigenous values, languages, and communitybased knowledge systems are neglected. this study explores the complexities of balancing these competing demands by examining nigeria’s curriculum in relation to international benchmarks and the role of indigenous knowledge in shaping identity and sustainable development. guided by globalisation theory, cultural relativism, and hybridisation theory, the paper adopts a qualitative and conceptual approach, drawing from secondary data including policy documents, academic research, and international reports. findings reveal that nigeria’s curriculum reforms are constrained by weak implementation, inadequate teacher preparation, limited infrastructural capacity, and insufficient integration of indigenous perspectives. the study concludes that achieving a balanced curriculum requires deliberate hybridisation of global competencies and local knowledge. it recommends targeted teacher development, community participation, robust policy integration, and adequate infrastructure investment as pathways to harmonisation. such an approach ensures that nigeria’s education system remains globally relevant while safeguarding cultural heritage and fostering national development. 1.1 introduction education is universally recognised as a critical driver of national development, social progress, and global competitiveness. in a knowledge-driven economy, the curriculum serves as the principal vehicle through which societies transmit values, skills, and competencies to younger generations. for nigeria, africa’s most populous country and one of its largest economies, the national curriculum is not only an educational roadmap but also a strategic instrument for cultivating human capital, preserving cultural heritage, and engaging with global 1 department of educational foundations, faculty of education, godfrey okoye university, enugu global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 2 knowledge systems. however, the imperative to align nigeria’s curriculum with international benchmarks, while simultaneously safeguarding indigenous knowledge, has generated a significant policy and pedagogical dilemma (okebukola, 2021). the notion of curriculum alignment with global standards arises from increasing internationalisation of education. globalisation has fostered interconnectedness in educational practices, leading to the diffusion of global benchmarks such as the sustainable development goals (sdgs), particularly sdg 4 on inclusive and equitable quality education, the oecd’s programme for international student assessment (pisa), and unesco’s education 2030 framework for action (unesco, 2017). these frameworks emphasise competencies such as critical thinking, problem-solving, stem proficiency, digital literacy, creativity, and adaptability qualities deemed essential for thriving in a competitive global workforce (schleicher, 2019). countries that fail to integrate these global trends risk marginalising their learners and undermining their socio-economic development. nigeria, with its persistent developmental challenges and aspirations for global relevance, cannot afford to be left behind. at the same time, the nigerian curriculum must preserve and transmit indigenous knowledge, which encompasses local languages, cultural practices, oral traditions, ecological wisdom, and community-based innovations. indigenous knowledge systems (iks) have been integral to the survival and resilience of african societies for centuries, providing solutions in agriculture, medicine, conflict resolution, and environmental management (odora hoppers, 2019). for nigeria, a nation with over 250 ethnic groups and a rich cultural heritage, integrating indigenous knowledge into formal education is essential for maintaining cultural identity, promoting inclusivity, and ensuring sustainability. scholars argue that educational systems that neglect indigenous epistemologies inadvertently contribute to cultural alienation, erosion of identity, and dependency on foreign knowledge systems (iwara, 2020; adebayo, 2021). the tension, however, lies in reconciling the universalist orientation of global education standards with the particularist emphasis of indigenous knowledge. global standards often carry western epistemological underpinnings, privileging scientific rationality, digital technologies, and neoliberal conceptions of productivity. in contrast, indigenous knowledge systems are holistic, experiential, and community-oriented, prioritising sustainability and cultural continuity (nakata, 2018). for nigeria, the challenge is not only about content inclusion but also about pedagogical orientation, teacher preparedness, policy consistency, and institutional capacity to create a curriculum that reflects both global and local realities. this dilemma is exacerbated by structural challenges in nigeria’s education sector. despite periodic reforms, nigeria’s curriculum remains criticised for being overloaded, examination-driven, and misaligned with labour market needs (olatunji, 2019). funding constraints, infrastructural deficits, teacher inadequacies, and weak policy implementation mechanisms further hinder the operationalisation of a curriculum that simultaneously meets global standards and integrates indigenous knowledge. moreover, globalisation has accelerated cultural homogenisation, heightening the risk of marginalising indigenous languages and cultural practices (mbah & ede, 2022). without deliberate strategies, nigeria may either embrace global standards at the expense of local relevance or cling to indigenous content while isolating learners from global competitiveness. 1.2 statement of the problem nigeria’s national curriculum faces the challenge of balancing the demand for global competitiveness with the preservation of indigenous knowledge. while international standards emphasise skills such as digital literacy, critical thinking, and scientific innovation, the curriculum often struggles to adequately integrate these competencies. at the same time, indigenous knowledge, which embodies local languages, cultural heritage, and community-based wisdom, remains underrepresented, risking cultural erosion. weak policy implementation, inadequate teacher preparation, and infrastructural gaps further complicate the situation. this creates a dilemma global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 3 where nigeria risks global irrelevance if it neglects international standards, or cultural disconnection if indigenous knowledge is ignored. 1.3 research objectives the objectives are to: (i) examine the historical and contemporary evolution of nigeria’s national curriculum, (ii) analyse the requirements of global educational standards, (iii) explore the role of indigenous knowledge in nigerian education, (iv) identify the challenges of harmonising global and indigenous imperatives, and (v) propose strategies for achieving curriculum balance. 1.4 research question the question guiding this article is: how can nigeria align its national curriculum with global standards without eroding indigenous knowledge systems? literature review 2.1 conceptual clarifications curriculum the term curriculum has been defined in multiple ways depending on context and scholarly orientation. broadly, it refers to the totality of learning experiences that educational institutions provide to learners in order to achieve desired goals (kelly, 2009). for nigeria, the curriculum is a reflection of the nation’s philosophy of education and its development aspirations, serving as both a roadmap for knowledge transmission and a tool for social transformation. the nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc) defines the curriculum as all planned learning experiences provided by schools to enable learners acquire desirable knowledge, skills, and values for national development (nerdc, 2013). globally, curricula increasingly emphasise competencies such as problem-solving, adaptability, and digital literacy, thus reflecting the realities of a rapidly changing world (schleicher, 2019). global standards in education global standards in education are benchmarks and frameworks promoted by international organisations and widely adopted by countries to improve quality and comparability of educational outcomes. these include unesco’s education 2030 agenda, which advocates inclusive and equitable education, the oecd’s programme for international student assessment (pisa), which measures key competencies of learners, and the world bank’s human capital index, which evaluates how education contributes to national productivity (unesco, 2017; oecd, 2020). global standards prioritise knowledge and skills that prepare learners to participate effectively in the global economy, while also fostering values of tolerance, equity, and sustainability. indigenous knowledge indigenous knowledge (ik) refers to the complex set of understandings, skills, philosophies, and practices developed by communities over time through interactions with their environment. it is context-specific, holistic, orally transmitted, and often embedded in cultural and spiritual life (odora hoppers, 2019). in nigeria, indigenous knowledge includes traditional medicine, folklore, agriculture, oral literature, languages, and ecological wisdom. it sustains cultural identity, strengthens resilience, and provides locally relevant solutions to societal challenges (adebayo, 2021). integrating indigenous knowledge into education is therefore crucial for ensuring cultural continuity and promoting sustainable development. 2.2 theoretical framework a robust theoretical grounding is essential for understanding the tension between aligning with global standards and preserving indigenous knowledge. this paper draws upon three complementary theories: globalisation theory, cultural relativism, and hybridisation theory. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 4 globalisation theory globalisation theory explains the increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and knowledge systems across the world (held & mcgrew, 2007). in education, it highlights how countries adopt similar curricula, pedagogical methods, and standards to remain competitive in the global economy. according to spring (2015), globalisation has led to the spread of educational models that prioritise scientific rationality, digital skills, and employability. for nigeria, globalisation theory underscores the need to align the national curriculum with international benchmarks to produce graduates who can compete globally. however, critics argue that uncritical adoption of global standards risks marginalising local knowledge and deepening cultural dependency. cultural relativism cultural relativism posits that all cultural systems have intrinsic value and must be understood within their own contexts (herskovits, 1972). applied to curriculum studies, it advocates for the preservation of indigenous epistemologies and practices within formal education. from this perspective, nigerian education should not simply emulate western standards but should also reflect the cultural heritage, values, and worldviews of its people. cultural relativism provides the philosophical basis for integrating indigenous knowledge into the curriculum, ensuring that education remains relevant to local contexts while resisting cultural homogenisation. hybridisation theory hybridisation theory offers a middle ground by recognising that global and local knowledge systems can be combined to create new, contextually appropriate forms of education (pieterse, 2009). in curriculum development, this means blending global competencies with indigenous content to achieve both international relevance and local authenticity. for example, nigeria can incorporate digital literacy alongside indigenous languages, or combine modern environmental science with traditional ecological knowledge. hybridisation thus addresses the limitations of both globalisation and cultural relativism by promoting a curriculum that is adaptive, inclusive, and innovative. a visual diagram of the conceptual and theoretical framework, showing how globalisation theory and cultural relativism intersect and are synthesised through hybridisation theory, which serves as the anchoring framework for your study. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 5 nigeria’s national curriculum in context 3.1 historical evolution of nigeria’s curriculum the evolution of nigeria’s national curriculum reflects the country’s political history, socio-economic realities, and global educational influences. during the colonial era, education was largely designed to produce clerks, interpreters, and low-level administrators for the colonial administration. the curriculum was heavily eurocentric, focusing on literacy, numeracy, and religious instruction, with little regard for indigenous knowledge or local needs (fafunwa, 2004). post-independence reforms sought to reorient education towards national development, self-reliance, and cultural identity. one of the most significant milestones was the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 system under the national policy on education (1977, revised 1981, 1998, and 2013), which aimed to balance general education with technical and vocational training. the nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc) became the central body responsible for curriculum development and review, ensuring that the curriculum was not only nationally relevant but also responsive to global trends. despite these efforts, critics argue that many of the reforms have been more rhetorical than practical, as implementation challenges persist (olatunji, 2019). 3.2 current structure of the curriculum the nigerian curriculum is structured in line with the 9-3-4 system of education, comprising nine years of basic education (six years of primary and three years of junior secondary), three years of senior secondary, and four years of tertiary education. basic education curriculum (bec): at the primary and junior secondary levels, the curriculum integrates subjects into broad themes such as science and technology, religion and national values, and cultural and creative arts. it is designed to promote literacy, numeracy, life skills, and foundational knowledge. senior secondary curriculum: this level provides specialisation, offering subjects across fields such as sciences, humanities, business, and technical education. in recent revisions, emphasis has been placed on entrepreneurship education to address unemployment challenges. tertiary education curriculum: managed by institutions under the oversight of the national universities commission (nuc), national board for technical education (nbte), and national commission for colleges of education (ncce), the tertiary curriculum has increasingly integrated global trends such as ict, research skills, and innovation. despite these structures, misalignment persists between the curriculum and labour market needs, leading to concerns over graduate unemployment and skill mismatches (olawale, 2020). 3.3 goals of the curriculum and national policy on education the national policy on education outlines several goals for the nigerian curriculum, including: 1. development of the individual into a morally sound, patriotic, and effective citizen. 2. provision of opportunities for all citizens to acquire functional literacy and life skills. 3. preparation of learners for self-reliance and national development. 4. promotion of national unity while respecting cultural diversity. 5. equipping learners with the competencies required for global competitiveness. these goals demonstrate a dual ambition: fostering global standards while retaining cultural and national identity. however, achieving this balance has proven difficult due to competing pressures of globalisation and local realities. 3.4 achievements of the nigerian curriculum despite its challenges, the nigerian curriculum has recorded notable achievements. it has broadened access to education through the universal basic education (ube) programme, mainstreamed subjects such as civic global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 6 education and entrepreneurship, and incorporated cross-cutting issues like hiv/aids awareness and environmental education. additionally, periodic reviews by the nerdc have attempted to keep the curriculum responsive to emerging trends. for example, ict has been introduced as a compulsory subject at the basic level, reflecting global technological shifts (nerdc, 2013). nevertheless, these achievements remain uneven, with rural schools often lagging behind urban counterparts in terms of resources and quality of delivery. furthermore, the integration of indigenous knowledge into the curriculum has been minimal and often tokenistic, limited to subjects such as cultural and creative arts, local languages, or history. 3.5 persistent gaps and criticisms several gaps remain in nigeria’s curriculum. first, it has been criticised for being overloaded, with too many subjects, thereby overwhelming learners and teachers (okebukola, 2021). second, implementation is weak due to inadequate teacher training, poor instructional resources, and insufficient monitoring. third, there is inadequate integration of vocational and technical education, despite the country’s high unemployment rate. finally, indigenous knowledge is not sufficiently embedded in mainstream curricula, leading to a disconnect between formal education and the socio-cultural realities of learners (adebayo, 2021). these gaps underscore the need for reforms that balance global imperatives with local priorities. without deliberate integration of indigenous knowledge and alignment with global competencies, the nigerian curriculum risks producing graduates who are neither globally competitive nor locally grounded. 4. global standards in education global standards in education refer to internationally recognised frameworks, policies, and practices that seek to ensure the quality, relevance, and comparability of learning outcomes across nations. these standards emphasise competencies such as critical thinking, digital literacy, collaboration, creativity, and problem-solving, which are increasingly essential in the 21st-century knowledge economy (unesco, 2021). the drive towards global standards has been influenced by international benchmarks, including the united nations sustainable development goal 4 (sdg 4), which calls for inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all (united nations, 2015). similarly, initiatives such as the programme for international student assessment (pisa) and the international baccalaureate (ib) have become yardsticks for measuring and aligning educational outcomes across different regions (oecd, 2019). one of the defining features of global standards is the prioritisation of skills over rote memorisation. while many developing countries continue to emphasise content-heavy curricula, global frameworks encourage inquiry-based learning, digital competence, and adaptability to rapidly changing technological environments (schleicher, 2018). moreover, global education standards often advocate for equity and inclusivity, ensuring that gender, disability, and socio-economic status do not hinder access to quality education (unesco, 2022). these principles are increasingly relevant in contexts such as nigeria, where disparities in access and quality remain significant. however, critics argue that global standards risk imposing a one-size-fits-all model that may not fully account for local cultural and historical contexts. some scholars note that an overemphasis on international benchmarks could inadvertently marginalise indigenous knowledge systems and undervalue local educational traditions (tikly, 2020). therefore, while alignment with global standards is crucial for competitiveness, it must be carefully adapted to avoid cultural homogenisation and the loss of educational sovereignty. in this regard, many countries have sought to localise global standards, adapting them in ways that harmonise international competencies with national priorities. for nigeria, the challenge lies in adopting global benchmarks while tailoring them to reflect the nation’s socio-cultural realities, linguistic diversity, and indigenous knowledge global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 7 systems. the process requires not only curriculum redesign but also teacher training, infrastructural investment, and policy reforms that ensure a balance between global relevance and local authenticity. 4.1 case studies: translating global standards into local curriculum practice finland: competence-based learning with local autonomy finland consistently performs strongly on international assessments while resisting hyper-standardisation. the national core curriculum emphasises transversal competencies (e.g., thinking skills, multiliteracy, ict competence), phenomenon-based learning, and extensive teacher autonomy to localise content (finnish national board of education [fnbe], 2016; sahlberg, 2011). municipalities and schools design local curricula that interpret national goals through community priorities, allowing indigenous languages (swedish, sámi) and local culture to permeate schooling. the lesson for nigeria is that clear national competency goals + strong local curriculum ownership + high-quality teacher education can achieve international comparability without erasing locality. singapore: global benchmarks, “teach less, learn more,” and values in action singapore aligns tightly with global competencies (stem, ict, problem-solving) but embeds them within a values-driven framework “21st century competencies” and values in action to cultivate civic identity and social cohesion (ministry of education singapore, 2015). strategic initiatives like skills future connect uppersecondary and post-secondary curricula with labour-market needs while maintaining mother tongue languages (mandarin, malay, tamil) to safeguard cultural identity. singapore shows how systems coherence, targeted teacher development, and bilingual policy can deliver globally benchmarked outcomes without cultural dilution. south korea: high standards with iterative curriculum renewal south korea’s curriculum cycles (e.g., the 2015 revised national curriculum) focus on core competencies, digital literacy, and creativity, informed by pisa and timss evidence (korea institute for curriculum and evaluation [kice], 2016). a sustained pipeline from teacher selection to rigorous professional learning supports implementation. despite pressure from high-stakes exams, recent reforms broaden experiential learning and character education, signalling a move from rote learning to balanced competence development. nigeria can draw from korea’s iterative review culture and implementation discipline to move beyond policy documents to classroom practice. new zealand: alignment with māori knowledge through te tiriti obligations new zealand’s new zealand curriculum is competency-based and deliberately flexible, enabling local curriculum design (“local curriculum”) by schools (ministry of education new zealand, 2007/2020). the companion framework te marautanga o aotearoa and strategies like ka hikitia embed mātauranga māori (māori knowledge), te reo māori, and culturally sustaining pedagogy (ministry of education new zealand, 2020). this architecture demonstrates that bicultural commitments, legal recognition of indigenous rights, and dual curriculum pathways can harmonise global competencies with indigenous knowledge an instructive model for nigeria’s multilingual, multi-ethnic context. south africa: caps, indigenous knowledge systems, and inclusion south africa’s curriculum and assessment policy statements (caps) integrate learning outcomes aligned to global expectations while national policy explicitly recognises indigenous knowledge systems (iks) (department of science and technology, 2004; department of basic education, 2011). practical infusion appears in natural sciences (e.g., traditional medicine, ethnobotany), history, and languages. progress is uneven teacher global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 8 preparedness and resources vary but the policy infrastructure legitimises iks in formal schooling. nigeria can adapt this policy recognition + subject infusion approach, backed by teacher guides and community partnerships. india: nep 2020 competency focus with classical/local languages india’s national education policy (nep) 2020 shifts towards competency-based learning, flexible pathways, and holistic, multilingual education. it promotes mother-tongue/region-language instruction in early grades and elevates indian knowledge systems (iks) (e.g., yoga, ayurveda, classical arts) in higher education and research (government of india, 2020). large-scale roll-out hinges on teacher training and state capacity, but nep offers a blueprint for balancing global readiness with civilisational knowledge relevant to nigeria’s ambition to elevate indigenous languages and knowledge domains. cross-cutting lessons for nigeria 1. competency clarity + local flexibility: finland and new zealand show that a tight national focus on competencies paired with school/municipal curriculum autonomy sustains local identity and responsiveness. 2. bilingual/multilingual policy: singapore and india illustrate how mother-tongue policies can coexist with english-medium global competitiveness vital for nigeria’s indigenous languages. 3. indigenous knowledge legitimacy: new zealand’s dual frameworks and south africa’s iks policy demonstrate the power of formal recognition, dedicated curricula, and teacher resources for indigenous content. 4. implementation discipline: south korea underlines iterative review, teacher quality, and assessment realignment areas where nigeria must strengthen capacity. 5. system coherence: align standards, teacher education, textbooks, assessment, and inspection toward the same competency-and-culture goals; avoid fragmented reforms. 5. indigenous knowledge in nigeria indigenous knowledge (ik) in nigeria encompasses the cumulative body of skills, practices, beliefs, and innovations developed by local communities through interaction with their environment and cultural heritage. it is transmitted orally and experientially across generations, often embedded in language, folklore, proverbs, arts, agriculture, traditional medicine, and communal practices (okeke, 2019). as a multicultural nation with over 250 ethnic groups, nigeria possesses a rich and diverse corpus of indigenous knowledge that reflects the values, spirituality, and social structures of its people (eboh, 2018). in education, indigenous knowledge provides cultural grounding, identity formation, and contextually relevant learning for students. it fosters critical life skills, such as problem-solving within local realities, environmental stewardship, and intergenerational solidarity (agrawal, 2009). for instance, indigenous agricultural knowledge, such as yam cultivation techniques in igboland or millet preservation methods in northern nigeria, demonstrates sustainable practices that modern science continues to validate. similarly, traditional medicine and oral literature contain insights into health, moral development, and conflict resolution that remain pertinent in contemporary society. despite its value, indigenous knowledge is underrepresented in nigeria’s formal curriculum. the national education system remains heavily oriented towards western paradigms, often marginalising local epistemologies in favour of global frameworks (adegbija, 2019). subjects like history and cultural studies, where ik could be systematically embedded, have at times been deprioritised, raising fears of cultural erosion and disconnection among younger generations. additionally, challenges such as lack of documentation, inadequate teacher training, and the perception of ik as “inferior” to western knowledge exacerbate its exclusion (nwafor, 2020). integrating indigenous knowledge into the national curriculum holds significant potential for sustainable development and cultural preservation. it ensures that education is not only globally competitive but also locally meaningful, enabling learners to navigate international contexts without losing their cultural identity. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 9 furthermore, alignment with indigenous perspectives can enhance community engagement in education, making schooling more relevant to local needs. nigeria, therefore, stands at a critical juncture: to design a curriculum that leverages indigenous wisdom while adopting global standards to prepare learners for the demands of the 21st century. 6. challenges of aligning nigeria’s curriculum with global standards while preserving indigenous knowledge aligning nigeria’s national curriculum with global standards while safeguarding indigenous knowledge presents a complex dilemma shaped by structural, cultural, and policy-related challenges. although the ambition is to produce globally competitive graduates who remain culturally grounded, several obstacles hinder effective integration. 6.1 policy inconsistencies and weak implementation frequent changes in education policies and lack of continuity in curriculum reforms undermine coherence. policies that emphasise indigenous knowledge, such as the inclusion of nigerian languages and cultural studies, often suffer from poor implementation due to political instability, limited funding, or weak monitoring mechanisms (obanya, 2019). as a result, global frameworks are often adopted superficially, while indigenous elements remain tokenistic. 6.2 perceived inferiority of indigenous knowledge a persistent challenge is the societal perception of indigenous knowledge as inferior to western paradigms. many parents, policymakers, and even teachers prioritise english-medium instruction and western scientific knowledge as the gateway to global competitiveness (adegbija, 2019). this perception relegates indigenous languages, oral literature, and traditional practices to informal domains, leaving them marginalised in formal schooling. 6.3 teacher preparedness and professional development teachers play a central role in curriculum delivery, yet many lack the training to integrate indigenous knowledge into pedagogy while also adopting global competencies. teacher education programmes rarely emphasise bilingual or multicultural instructional strategies, creating a gap between policy aspirations and classroom realities (okeke & nwankwo, 2020). without professional development, efforts at integration remain superficial. 6.4 infrastructural and resource constraints effective curriculum implementation requires adequate infrastructure, teaching materials, and technology. nigeria faces chronic underfunding in education, with schools often lacking libraries, laboratories, or digital tools necessary to teach global competencies (odukoya et al., 2018). at the same time, there is a shortage of documented indigenous knowledge resources, particularly textbooks and teaching guides, which limits systematic integration. 6.5 tension between standardisation and local diversity global standards emphasise comparability across nations, often through standardised assessments such as pisa. however, nigeria’s cultural and linguistic diversity makes uniform curriculum design challenging. striking a balance between standardisation for global competitiveness and localisation to reflect indigenous realities creates ongoing tension (tikly, 2020). this tension risks homogenising diverse local contexts or diluting global benchmarks. 6.6 influence of globalisation and digitalisation globalisation and digitalisation expose learners to global cultures, values, and knowledge systems, sometimes at the expense of local traditions. the widespread adoption of western curricula in private schools in nigeria reflects the demand for globally recognised qualifications (e.g., cambridge igcse, ib) (uche & ogbonnaya, 2017). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 10 while these pathways enhance global mobility, they often neglect indigenous knowledge, exacerbating cultural disconnection. 6.7 political will and stakeholder engagement sustaining curriculum reforms requires strong political will and the active involvement of stakeholders, including communities, traditional leaders, and parents. in nigeria, weak collaboration between government agencies and local communities often sidelines indigenous voices in curriculum design (eboh, 2018). this exclusion hinders ownership and sustainability of reforms that seek to integrate both global standards and indigenous knowledge. strategies for harmonising global standards with indigenous knowledge in nigeria’s curriculum addressing the dual imperative of aligning with global standards while preserving indigenous knowledge requires a holistic approach that combines policy reforms, pedagogical innovation, and stakeholder engagement. several strategies can support nigeria in achieving this balance. 7.1 policy integration and curriculum reform nigeria needs coherent education policies that deliberately integrate indigenous knowledge within globally benchmarked curricula. this can be achieved through frameworks that highlight competency-based learning while embedding local content such as folklore, traditional sciences, and cultural practices. establishing clear policy mandates for bilingual and multicultural education can ensure both global relevance and cultural continuity (unesco, 2021). 7.2 teacher training and professional development teachers are central to translating curriculum intentions into classroom realities. teacher education institutions should integrate indigenous knowledge methodologies alongside global pedagogical strategies. continuous professional development in multicultural pedagogy, bilingual instruction, and indigenous content integration will empower teachers to create balanced learning environments (okeke & nwankwo, 2020). 7.3 documentation and resource development a critical step in mainstreaming indigenous knowledge is systematic documentation. collaboration between universities, local communities, and cultural institutions can generate textbooks, digital archives, and multimedia content that capture nigeria’s rich indigenous knowledge. these resources can be incorporated into subjects such as science, history, and civic education, bridging traditional wisdom with modern competencies (eboh, 2018). 7.4 assessment reform standardised assessments often privilege rote learning and global benchmarks at the expense of local knowledge. nigeria’s assessment system should be redesigned to capture both 21st-century competencies and indigenous knowledge-based skills, such as problem-solving in agriculture, local crafts, and community-based decisionmaking. this dual assessment model would value cultural knowledge while ensuring international comparability (schleicher, 2018). 7.5 community engagement and stakeholder collaboration communities are the custodians of indigenous knowledge. their active participation in curriculum development can ensure authenticity and sustainability. strengthening partnerships between policymakers, educators, parents, and traditional leaders will foster ownership and ensure that curriculum reforms reflect both global standards and local realities (tikly, 2020). 7.6 leveraging technology for integration digital platforms can serve as powerful tools for preserving and teaching indigenous knowledge. e-learning modules, mobile apps, and online repositories can make local knowledge accessible to younger generations while global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 16 (2) pg. 11 also connecting learners to global content. blended approaches that combine global online resources with locally developed digital archives will promote both competitiveness and cultural pride (unesco, 2022). 7.7 incremental and context-specific implementation rather than wholesale adoption of global models, nigeria can pursue incremental reforms tailored to its unique socio-cultural and economic contexts. pilot projects in selected regions, followed by phased nationwide scaling, can help identify best practices and adapt them for diverse local settings. this flexible approach reduces resistance and enhances the likelihood of success. methodology this study adopts a qualitative and conceptual research design. it relies on secondary data drawn from peerreviewed journal articles, nigerian education policy documents, and reports from international organisations such as unesco and the oecd. sources were selected based on relevance and credibility, with priority given to recent works (2015–2023), while older texts were included where they offered foundational insights. the analysis followed a thematic review approach, categorising issues under global standards, indigenous knowledge, challenges, and strategies for harmonisation. this allowed for the synthesis of diverse perspectives and the identification of policy and practice gaps. the study was guided by globalisation theory, cultural relativism, and hybridisation theory, which together provided the conceptual framework for interpreting findings and shaping recommendations. conclusion this study examined the challenges of aligning nigeria’s national curriculum with global standards while preserving indigenous knowledge. it established that nigeria faces a dual dilemma: the need to modernise its curriculum to meet international benchmarks in science, technology, and innovation, while ensuring that indigenous languages, values, and cultural practices are not marginalised. the analysis showed that inadequate policy implementation, weak teacher capacity, infrastructural gaps, and limited integration of indigenous perspectives hinder effective curriculum reform. anchored on globalisation, cultural relativism, and hybridisation theories, the study highlights that sustainable curriculum development requires a balanced approach that embraces global best practices without eroding cultural identity. recommendations i.curriculum reform should deliberately blend global competencies such as digital literacy with indigenous knowledge systems, ensuring mutual reinforcement rather than exclusion. ii.continuous training programmes should be designed to equip teachers with skills for integrating global and local content. iii.local stakeholders, including traditional institutions and cultural custodians, should be actively engaged in curriculum design and implementation. iv.adequate funding should be channelled into educational technology and local resource development to support curriculum delivery. v.regular review mechanisms should be established to track curriculum 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(2017). education 2030: incheon declaration and framework for action for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4. paris: unesco. unesco. (2021). reimagining our futures together: a new social contract for education. unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707 unesco. (2022). global education monitoring report 2022: inclusion and education. unesco. https://www.unesco.org/gem-report united nations. (2015). transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. united nations. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 7; july-2025; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 8.97 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg.21 exploring the nexus between corruption and school violence in nigerian schools in the context of the national policy on safety, security, and violence-free schools 1rufai m. d. (phd), 1adeleke a.a (ph. d), 2odulano j.a., 3saheed f.a and 1bakare s.o tel; +2348028628584, +2348060846778, +2347066210761, +2349062151505, +2348033435144, orcid id: 1https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3449-4395/ 2https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6675-3046 3https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9960-4466/ 4https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5664-7793 article info abstract keywords: corruption, school violence, national policy on safety, security, and violencefree schools, educational insecurity, community engagement, policy implementation doi 10.5281/zenodo.16567933 a worsening problem marked by rising school violence and falling educational standards has been exacerbated by corruption, which has severely damaged nigeria's educational system. defined as actions taken by individuals in power for personal gain, corruption manifests in various forms within academic institutions, leading to unethical practices that compromise the integrity of education and produce low-quality graduates. this environment fosters a culture where violence is normalized, as students exposed to corrupt practices may resort to aggression to resolve conflicts, evident in the alarming incidents of physical assaults on teachers and peers. the nigerian government’s response, encapsulated in the national policy on safety, security, and violence-free schools, aims to create secure learning environments by implementing comprehensive safety plans and addressing the root causes of violence. however, the interrelation between corruption and school violence remains a critical challenge, necessitating a concerted effort to combat corruption to ensure a safe and effective educational atmosphere that promotes the development of nigeria’s human capital and aligns with global standards for education. 1 department of educational management, faculty of education lagos state university, ojo lagos state, nigeria. 2 department of academic planning, lagos state university of education, oto/ijanikin, lagos state, nigeria. 3 lagos state teaching service commission https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3449-4395 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6675-3046 https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9960-4466 https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5664-7793 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.22 introduction corruption has permeated nearly every sector of the nigerian economy, including the education system. this has exacerbated the country's educational crisis, leading to a growing number of children being excluded from formal schooling. corruption has become an inevitable evil in nigerian society today. it is on this note that the term corruption has been defined as any form of action or omission enacted by a member of an organization by using the advantages of the position he occupies at the moment to violate the rules, regulations, norms and ethics of the organization for personal or selfish interest at the detriment of the organization or other parties involved (azelema, 2008). corruption also means the violation of established rules and regulations for personal aggrandizement or gains. being a polymorphous issue in our society today, it has also been defined as deviation from the moral values and ethical standards of the society, which needs reversal in all spheres of our national life. these immoral and unethical behaviors are capable of causing decline and decay in all sectors of the economy. in addition, the catholic secretariat forum of nigeria (2002) says corruption may be explained as gratification by an official person receiving anything in cash or kind in favor or disfavor of a person or group of individuals in the course of discharging his official duties in an organization. educational corruption depicts a situation whereby members of an academic institution infringe on the rules, regulations and ethical standards of the institution for selfish reasons, leading to the production of low-quality graduates or professionals. the goal of nigeria’s national policy on safety, security, and violence-free schools is to provide a secure learning environment for all students, highlighting the significance of school security as the cornerstone of a successful education. the rising rates of physical violence, bullying, and threats of armed conflict against children in educational settings prompted the development of this policy. the national policy on safety, security and violence-free schools in nigeria is therefore aimed at guiding policy, setting a standard for implementing comprehensive school safety plans and providing prevention and response mechanisms at the national, state, local government and individual school levels. among other things, the policy will contribute to early warning, disaster risk reduction (drr), and disaster risk management (drm). school safety and security is defined in this policy as a set of rules and regulations guiding the prevention and mitigation of hazards occurring in formal education settings (primary, secondary and tertiary schools in nigeria, whether private or government-owned) and/or informal education settings that have adverse effects on education; such hazards have been a major issue in nigeria. furthermore, it is noteworthy that a critical factor in the safety and security of schools in nigeria is the increase in the incidences of violence against children (vac). the president of the federal republic of nigeria muhammadu buhari (gcfr), launched the year of action to end vac on september 15, 2015 in abuja. nigeria’s commitment to end vac falls in line with the sustainable development goal 4 (sdg 4), which requires schools to provide safe and welcoming environments that are free of the threat of all forms of violence, including those based on sex, age, religion, socio-economic background, ability, disability and hiv infection status. the national policy on safety, security, and violence-free schools aims to create a safe learning environment by ensuring that all schools are free from violence, bullying, and other threats, thereby fostering a conducive environment for education. it adopts a zero-tolerance approach toward any threats to school safety, including gang activity, substance abuse, gender-based violence, and risks from natural disasters and armed conflicts. the policy emphasizes the need for comprehensive safety and security plans that incorporate prevention and response mechanisms at various levels—national, state, local government, and individual schools. a significant focus is placed on child protection, recognizing that a safe school environment is essential for the development of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.23 nigeria’s human capital. additionally, it includes strategies for disaster risk management to prepare schools for various hazards, encourages inter-sectoral collaboration among stakeholders to enhance school safety, and provides guidelines for implementation and monitoring to ensure compliance and effectiveness in creating secure educational environments. relationship between corruption and school violence corruption and school violence are interrelated issues that can significantly impact educational environments and societal stability. the relationship between these two phenomena can be understood through several key aspects: the focus of insecurity and violence in schools have shifted from the bandits and insurgents’ attack on schools and abduction of students. a teacher at the army children’s high school, epe, lagos, ahmed saheed, dead by one of his students who he flogged. also, a final year microbiology student of the university of ilorin, salaudeen waliu aanuoluwa, allegedly beat a female lecturer, dr. rahmat zakariya, to a coma over a minor disagreement. another case of unruly behavior by students led the ogun government to direct 12 schools to proceed on compulsory vacation from november 30, ahead of the december 10 vacation date. students of the affected schools were said to have engaged in riotous behavior, including physical assault on teachers and fellow students. the most disturbing case of a violent attack is that of the late sylvester oromoni of dowen college, lagos, who five students allegedly assaulted for refusing to join a cult. unfortunately, the incident claimed the boy’s life. because it creates a climate in which violent acts are accepted and normalized, corruption plays a major role in school violence. because of their exposure to corrupt practices that erode respect for authority and legal standards, students in educational institutions rife with corruption may believe that using violence to settle disputes or exercise control is appropriate. for example, in nigeria, situations such as student attacks on teachers and the emergence of cultism are examples of how corruption and violence are intertwined. these events not only disturb the educational environment but also have serious consequences, including fatalities according to the study, corruption can also change people’s perceptions of violence, increasing the likelihood that people will consider aggressive behaviors acceptable. this can intensify the cycle of hostility in schools. significance of combating educational corruption research on corruption in education is lacking, although corruption in general has attracted attention from the media and scholars in recent decades. still, with an increasing amount of research being done in this field, things are starting to change. executives in the education sector may have avoided scrutiny for fear that a tarnished reputation would diminish the sector’s resources (poisson, 2010). however, given the harmful effects of corruption, it is of paramount importance to recognize and address corruption in education. below are some core arguments that support the combating of corruption in education. these arguments are universal and relevant to learning environments in both developed and developing countries. 1. the education system molds people from childhood to maturity. these effects are felt on an individual basis concerning lifetime earnings, health, family life, and subjective well-being, as well as on a societal level regarding the nation’s skill base, which supports economic growth, income distribution, and intergenerational mobility (burgess, 2016). when skills and employment are mismatched, corruption produces net losses and negates the benefits of education at all levels. 2. particularly vulnerable people are the targets of corruption in education. ambitions are stifled for both students and parents who wish the best for their children. this ultimately results in parents agreeing to pay a price requested by an administrator of the school to guarantee their child's spot there, or in paying a fee requested by a global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.24 teacher to guarantee their child receives a positive report card. in circumstances where pupils are too impoverished to pay in the traditional manner, professors may also sexually exploit them. deeply troubling the interaction between educators and students entrusted to their care is the payment of sexual favors and other unethical practices in the educational setting (poisson, 2010). 3. corruption in education replaces good values and morals with a cynical view of the world when young and highly impressionable students learn that fighting corruption does not pay off, but siding with it might. corruption has "disastrous consequences" when it interferes with the "development of attitudes and values related to citizenship and justice" (poisson, 2010). if citizens do not trust the education system to be fair and impartial, then all senior positions, whether in business, science or politics, are perceived to have been gained through privilege rather than achievement. this erodes the credibility of and trust in educational institutions, creates frustration and disengagement, and damages aspirations and social cohesion that are necessary for all successful societies (altbach, 2015; heyneman, 2004). 4. education is the key to sustainable development, as recognized by goal 4 of the sustainable development goals (sdgs). by undermining the quality of education and access to it, corruption significantly hampers the attainment of the sdgs. 5. high-quality and accessible education empowers societies and individuals and is thus one of the most effective channels for advancing a productive and moral society. corruption negates all that. school violence in nigeria: school violence refers to various violent acts that occur in educational environments and impact staff, teachers, and students. it encompasses sexual, psychological, and physical abuse and can take different forms, each with unique attributes. school violence involves a spectrum of crimes occurring within educational institutions. ensuring safer schools requires establishing valid and reliable indicators of the current state of school crime and safety across the nation and periodically monitoring and updating such indicators. two decades ago, the term “school violence” itself was widely used to describe violent and aggressive acts on school campuses. today, the definition is much broader in scope (center for prevention of school violence, 2004). school violence is a major facet of the broad health problem that is youth violence. this involves any physical force or power that is used intentionally against another person or group, with physical or psychological harm being the likely result. youth violence, which typically occurs between the ages of 10 and 24, is likely to originate from violence that begins in early childhood. examples of violent behavior include: i. bullying ii. fighting or hitting iii. use of weapons iv. electronic aggression v. gang violence school violence occurs: i. at the school ii. on the way to or from school iii. during a school-sponsored event iv. on the way to or from a school-sponsored event global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.25 cause and consequence of school violence in nigeria the intentional use of physical force to threaten oneself, another individual, a group or community, or both, with the intent to cause pain, psychological distress, deprivation of growth, injury, or even death is known as violence. according to okafor (2020), violence differs among cultures. in addition, violence committed against people based on their gender identity is known as gender-based violence. girls who experience violence are unable to grow and fully exercise their rights. female infanticide, forced pregnancy, female genital mutilation, honor killing, acid attacks, emotional, sexual, bullying, intimate partner violence, degrading treatment, sexual abuse, forced abortion, and early marriage are a few instances of gender-based violence (okafor 2021). the causes of school violence in nigeria are multifaceted, stemming from domestic hostility and child abuse, frustration and lack of parental care, the influence of peers and media, lack of counseling in schools, access to weapons, and poverty. the consequences are far-reaching, including declines in academic performance, mental health problems such as depression and anxiety in victims, physical health issues, social difficulties, and broader community impacts that damage the school's reputation, breed anger and fear, and place higher demands on services while limiting economic growth. addressing this complex problem requires a comprehensive approach that targets the root causes and provides support for both victims and perpetrators. national policy on safety, security, and violence-free schools safety and security are two words that are often confused by people. they get tossed around and together all the time, mentioning the others when one means the other one. they are often used interchangeably either correctly or incorrectly. however, safety and security are, of course, strongly related but are two distinct concepts. to this effect, the author of this article attempts to illuminate the distinction between these concepts so that their application is also clear and most likely would be straightforward. specifically, the focus is on the application of safety and security in terms of school environments. the questions at hand are, what is school safety and school security? are these two terms similar in meaning and application? what is the importance of a safe and secure school? what characterizes a safe and secure school environment? the foregoing questions are the ones that the author attempts to clarify. this is because the definition of concepts enables people to have a common understanding of a word or subject, which enables meaningful conversations and better decision making. more so, how safety or security is defined affects its application in the school environment and provides an opportunity to influence positive outcomes for learners, teachers and other school staff. in order to fully exploit the concepts, it is important that we categorically look at their meanings. the word "safety," comes from the latin word solvus, which means “uninjured or in good health” (maddox, 2010). the first records of the word were noticed from around 1250. according to safeopedia (2021), safety is a concept that includes all measures and practices taken to preserve the life, health, and bodily integrity of individuals. safety is the condition of being protected from harm or other non-desirable outcomes. safety can also refer to the control of recognized sources of danger (hazards) to achieve an acceptable level of risk. defining security is problematic because the term has had many different meanings to different people in different places and different times over the course of human history. actually, there has been a never-ending debate on its nature and dimension because there is not a broad consensus on its meaning. according to the online etymology dictionary (2017), the word “secure” entered the english language in the 16th century. it was derived from the latin word securus, meaning freedom from anxiety. the term security is related to the presence of peace, safety and the protection of people and their resources. it also relates to the absence of threats to human life and dignity. according to stone (2009), security is about freedom from threat global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.26 and the ability of states to maintain independent identity and their functional integrity against forces of change, which they see as hostile. security is generally agreed to be about the feeling of being safe from harm, fear, anxiety, oppression, danger, poverty, defense, protection and preservation of core values and threats to those values. william (2008) also contributed to the definition of the word security. he stated that security is most commonly associated with the alleviation of threats to cherish values, especially those threats that threaten the survival of a particular reference object. from the foregoing definitions, security generally refers to the freedom from, or resilience against, potential harm or other unwanted coercive change caused by others. morgan (2021) provided a clear definitional distinction between safety and security. he contended that one of the primary differences between the two terms is their definition. security refers to the protection of individuals, organizations, and properties against external threats that are likely to cause harm. it is clear that security is generally focused on ensuring that external factors do not cause trouble or unwelcome situations to the organization, individuals, and the properties within the premises (morgan, 2021). on the other hand, safety is the feeling of being protected from the factors that cause harm. the nexus between corruption and school violence corruption severely compromises security officer training, safety protocols, and efforts to prevent violence, resulting in a vicious circle of dysfunction that makes social unrest and violence worse. economic loss and inefficiency although obtaining exact figures on the economic costs of corruption is difficult, a 2016 report from the international monetary fund (imf) estimated the cost of bribery alone to be between $1.5 and $2 trillion per year. this represents a total economic loss of approximately 2% of the global gdp. yet, it does not consider the economic cost of all other forms of corruption. regarding fraud, money laundering and tax evasion, for example, the thousands of leaked documents known as the mossack fonseca papers (commonly referred to as the panama papers) exposed the vast economic implications of offshore entities for many nations and for economic inequality in general. finally, beyond the deadweight economic loss, there is economic inefficiency to consider. when jobs (or contracts) are given to people (or companies) who offer bribes or share a personal connection, this occurs to the detriment of competition. the result is that more qualified candidates and firms are turned down. the more widespread such practices are, the more inefficient the economy becomes. corruption in developing countries may cause underdevelopment. this can occur when international economic and humanitarian initiatives are derailed as funds disbursed from loans and aid are embezzled or handed out to inferior contractors who have won their bids through corrupt means (kickbacks, bribery, nepotism, etc.). furthermore, investment in physical and human capital is reduced as resources are diverted from their most beneficial use. poverty and inequality corruption is generally not the weapon of the week. in nigeria, an (in)famous bribery case, involving the international oil company shell, deprived the nigerian people of over $1.1 billion as the money went to corrupt officials instead of to the national budget (global witness, 2017). meanwhile, according to the world bank (2019), more than 50% of the population of the oil-rich country live in extreme poverty. this example shows that as political and economic systems are enlisted in the service of corrupt actors, wealth is redistributed to the least needy sources. certainly! here's a reframed version of the paragraph with improved clarity and flow, while preserving the original meaning: mechanisms like political representation and economic efficiency are undermined by self-serving behavior and covert dealings. in corrupt environments, resources intended for education, healthcare, poverty alleviation, elections, and the operational costs of political parties are often diverted for the personal gain of party officials, https://www.imf.org/en/publications/staff-discussion-notes/issues/2016/12/31/corruption-costs-and-mitigating-strategies-43888 https://panamapapers.sueddeutsche.de/articles/56febff0a1bb8d3c3495adf4/ https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/oil-gas-and-mining/shell-knew/ global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.27 government bureaucrats, and contractors. as a result, social programs are weakened, and the redistributive functions of political systems are significantly impaired. ultimately, these practices lead to a state of unequal opportunity, where benefits are reserved for individuals connected to corrupt networks. growing division and disturbance citizens may be divided into two camps when corruption, especially state capture, becomes the norm: those who support corrupt governments due to favors and bribes, and those who reject them. compromise and rational discourse are diminished in a society where groups that are vehemently opposed to one another exist. the criteria used to evaluate policy are the identities of the policy proponents and the advantages that rival networks stand to gain, not the ideology or intrinsic virtues of a project. impact on school violence because corruption in the educational system fosters an atmosphere of mistrust, unfairness, and resentment among communities and students, it greatly intensifies violence in schools. this investigation looks at the various ways in which corruption affects society dynamics and educational quality, which in turn causes more violence. education quality and student motivation education quality declines because of the pervasiveness of corruption. due to financial misappropriation for private benefit, schools frequently lack sufficient infrastructure, trained staff, and necessary instructional supplies. students may become demotivated because of this decline in educational standards and begin to doubt the worth of their education. when students adopt the corrupt values of the system and think that success can be attained through corrupt means rather than hard work, they may act unethically, which includes bullying and cheating. kirya (2019), marginalization and inequality as noted by borcan et al. (2017), corruption disproportionately affects disadvantaged groups, thereby exacerbating socioeconomic inequality. poorer students, often lacking the means to pay bribes, may find themselves excluded from educational opportunities. this systemic marginalization can foster feelings of resentment and alienation among students, potentially manifesting as violence within school settings. when education is perceived as a privilege reserved for those who can afford it, it undermines social cohesion and may drive marginalized individuals to express their frustrations through conflict and aggression. violence as a reaction to inadequate systems in response to systemic failings in the educational system, such as insufficient support, unsafe environments, and subpar academic performance, students may turn to violence as a coping strategy or a form of protest. when schools are unable to offer a secure and encouraging atmosphere, children may turn to violent means as a way to vent their concerns. when corruption becomes more accepted, it can strengthen the cycle of violence by encouraging children to imitate the immoral actions they see in adults. philip g. (2015). corruption in nigeria has significantly impacted safety protocols, leading to cases of violence and insecurity. several case studies illustrate how corruption has undermined safety measures, resulting in tragic consequences. case studies of corruption-related violence and a lack of safety procedures 1. boko haram rebellion: systemic corruption inside the nigerian government is directly associated with the rise of the militant group boko haram. public dissatisfaction with government inefficiencies and corruption, notably in the areas of resource management and public safety, has contributed to the group’s rise to prominence. because of corruption, security services have not received enough funds or assistance, which has allowed boko haram to take advantage of the situation and carry out multiple deadly attacks against citizens and public servants in northern nigeria. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.28 2. militancy in the niger delta: violence in the niger delta region has increased due to oil business corruption. poverty and animosity are pervasive because of the mishandling of oil money and the disregard for the local communities. to get a fair part of the resources taken from their country, militants have turned to violent protests directed at the government and oil firms. when protests are handled improperly, there is a high likelihood that violent altercations between militants and security officers may result. 3. lagos building collapses: numerous building collapses in lagos that have resulted in casualties and fatalities are attributed to corruption in the construction industry. because of bribery and a lack of enforcement by regulatory organizations, safety requirements are frequently disregarded. for example, the 2014 synagogue church of all nations building collapse, which claimed over 100 lives, was blamed on insufficient safety protocols and regulatory supervision, both of which were weakened by unethical behavior. conclusion corruption in nigeria’s educational system has far-reaching implications, particularly in relation to school violence and the overall quality of education. the pervasive nature of corruption undermines the integrity of educational institutions, leading to a decline in the quality of education and fostering an environment where violence can thrive. the relationship between corruption and school violence is complex. corruption creates a culture of impunity and normalizes unethical behavior, which can manifest as violence among students and against educators. incidents of violence, such as assaults on teachers and students, are often rooted in the broader societal acceptance of corruption, leading to a cycle where aggressive behavior is seen as an acceptable means of conflict resolution. addressing educational corruption is not only crucial for improving the quality of education but also for fostering a safe and conducive learning environment. the national policy on safety, security, and violence-free schools aims to combat these issues by establishing comprehensive safety protocols and promoting a culture of accountability within schools. the fight against corruption in nigeria’s education sector is essential for breaking the cycle of violence and ensuring that all students have access to a safe and high-quality educational experience. by prioritizing integrity and accountability, nigeria can work toward creating a more equitable and effective educational system that empowers its youth and contributes to the nation’s development. recommendations this study recommends that lowering the perception of corruption should be the priority in anti-corruption campaigns to combat violence. nigeria’s civic society and government should endeavor to instill trust in the anticorruption progress that has been made, without resorting to deceptive or manipulative propaganda. this could increase public support for advancing initiatives to combat corruption in education and reduce violence in the society. one way to tackle the perception of corruption is through public art and tv psas, which are two platforms where social and political concerns are already discussed in nigerian society. the precise reasons why perceptions of corruption rather than real-world examples of corruption appear to be the driving forces behind violence should be the subject of future research. additionally, this study suggests the following: 1. strengthening governance and accountability: establishing robust governance frameworks that promote transparency and accountability in educational institutions is crucial. this includes regular audits, clear reporting mechanisms, and the establishment of independent bodies to oversee educational practices. 2. implementing comprehensive anti-corruption policies: developing and enforcing strict anti-corruption policies within schools can help deter corrupt practices. this should involve training educators and administrators on ethical standards and the consequences of corruption. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.29 3. enhancing school safety measures: schools should adopt comprehensive safety and security plans that address both physical safety and emotional well-being. this includes training staff on conflict resolution, establishing clear protocols for reporting violence, and creating supportive environments for students. 4. promoting community engagement: engaging parents and community members in school governance can foster a sense of ownership and accountability. community involvement in decision-making processes can help to ensure that schools are responsive to the needs of their students. 5. increasing funding for education: adequate funding is essential for improving the quality of education and infrastructure. allocating resources transparently and efficiently can help mitigate the effects of corruption and enhance educational outcomes. 6. fostering a culture of integrity: educational institutions should promote values of integrity and respect among students. this can be achieved through character education programs that emphasize the importance of ethical behavior and civic responsibility. 7. providing support services for victims of violence: establishing counseling and support services for students affected by violence can help address the psychological impacts of such experiences. creating safe spaces for dialogue can also facilitate healing and conflict resolution. 8. monitoring and evaluation: regular assessment of the effectiveness of implemented policies and programs is necessary. this includes gathering data on incidents of violence and corruption to inform future strategies and interventions. by implementing these recommendations, nigeria can work toward creating a more transparent, safe, and conducive educational environment that ultimately enhances the quality of education and reduces violence in schools. references azelema, j. (2008). administration of nigerian tertiary institutions ever-blessed publishers, benin city edostate. poisson, m. (2010). corruption and education. education policy series. paris: international academy of education. altbach, p. g. (2015). academic corruption: the continuing challenge. international higher education, 38, 5-6. okafor, i. p. (2021). roles of catholic women in cubbing gender-based violence, trafficking and discrimination against women and girls in nigeria a paper delivered by dr. ifeoma p. okafor as a guest speaker on the day 20 june 2021 being the mother’s day celebration of st. joseph’s catholic church cathedral parish, ilorin, kwara state, nigeria. kirya, m. (2019), education sector corruption: how to assess it and ways to address it, u4 issue 2019:5, p. 4, bergen, norway: u4 anti-corruption resource center, chr. 4.2 [jp] michelsen institute, altbach, p. g. (2015). academic corruption: the continuing challenge. international higher education, 38, 5-6. borcan, o., mikael lindahl and andreea mitrut (2017). fighting corruption in education: what works and who benefits? american economic journal: economic policy, vol. 9, issue 1, pp. 180-209. https://www.iaoed.org/downloads/web_11_corruption%20and%20education_final_.pdf https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe/article/download/7454/7918 https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe/article/download/7454/7918 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.30 taming corruption-violence in nigerian schools: https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/12/08/ download 1627-1-corruption-is-one_html (https://journalofbusiness.org/index.php/gjmbr/article) with inline=1 https://ppl-ai-file-upload.s3.amazonaws.com/web/direct-files/27203959/ff3a5c08-17cc-48f3-a59893dcf7986a93/paste.txthttps://ppl-ai-file-upload.s3.amazonaws.com/web/directfiles/27203959/6fa8bea4-137d-4e12-928c-d86e918d1291/paste-2.txt global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 4; april-2025; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 role of principals in secondary school administration in nsukka education zone of enugu state, nigeria 1ugwu, jude okwudili and 2tambe micheline taku-mbi 1department of educational foundations, faculty of education godfrey okoye university, enugu, nigeria 2educational foundation, university of nigeria nsukka article info abstract keywords: role, principals, secondary school, administration, nsukka education zone. doi 10.5281/zenodo.15276528 this study investigated the role of principals in secondary school administration in nsukka education zone of enugu state, nigeria. the objectives of the study were to: identify the various roles principals play in secondary schools’ administration, ascertain the ways principals establish discipline among students and staff and determine the ways principals enhance the performance of students and staff. the study adopted a descriptive survey research design and was carried out in nsukka education zone. it made use of questionnaires as the instrument for data collection. mean and standard deviation were used to analyse the research questions. the researcher discovered that the major findings are that principals’ roles include instructional supervision, planning, discipline enforcement, management of fa cilities and fund; that establishment of discipline involves rules/regulations, disciplinary committee, assignment of form teacher and appointment of students’ functionaries; that enhancement of performance calls for in-service training, carrying teachers along in decision making and positive rein enforcement. the researcher concluded that discipline begins with the principals if it is to be enforced to teachers and students through rules and regulations, setting up disciplinary committee and functionaries, and assigning form teachers. hence the principal must be a role model. it was recommended among other things that all nigeria conference of principals of secondary schools (ancorpss) should always organized training/workshop for principals and principals – to – be. introduction 1.1. background of the study the principalship and leadership are synonymous in education. the principal is the cornerstone of the school and plays an important role on development of education programme (abdikadir, 2013). for linnenburg and ornstein (2012), usually each school has a single administrative officer, a principal, who is responsible for the operation of the school. the principal is the highest in the order of importance, who takes a leading role in a drama, the chief person in authority, the most important leader of a school or college. concurring to the above view, okoroma https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 2 (2016) opines that the leadership of secondary schools in nigeria is provided by principals. he or she is an experienced teacher, or trained and educated to provide leadership in school administration. he further opined that the principal is the chief executive officer of secondary school who influences the results that are obtainable with available educational resources. furthermore, the principal is that major component of school administration on whose ability and skill, personality and professional competence will largely depend the tone and efficiency of the school. in other words, the school is as great as the principal is. as is the principal, so is the school. the principal is the keystone in the arch of school administration. more still, principalship is a well-established position of the chief executive who provides instructional leadership. the principals, being instructional leaders, are at the vantage position to supervise, monitor, asses, evaluate and disseminate current information on educational issues and modern teaching techniques to teachers in order to stimulate them for scholarship and best practices in curriculum delivery. for onyeike and nwosu (2018), in nigeria, principals head secondary education, and such head should have demonstrated quality and the information to accomplish his managerial goals. the job of principal according to ramon (2019) can get out of hand first, but skilled principals around the world all share some common traits: managing risks; active listening; priority management; tempering others; delegating more tasks; acting decisively; motivate changes; communicate clearly; promote visions; educate first/administrate second. society wants that the principal should be a good leader to be able to inspire those who work under his or her direction. the work of the principal then is to see that parts of the machinery work spontaneously and in harmony and unison – not under an artificial compulsion. his or her role is to give direction that others will follow. supporting this, shamaki (2015) opines that the success of any school depends on the ability of the principals in his or her leadership style since he or she is the leader of teachers and students. the principal is also faced with the leading function. for northouse (2010), the leading function is also called facilitating, collaborating or actuating but no matter what it is called, leading entails guiding and influencing people. being the driving force behind the school programme, the principal needs to proactively mobilize all members of staff, teaching and non-teaching, the governing board, parents and the community towards identifying the school’s strength and weakness and take appropriate decision on types of follow-up action required to improve teachers’ inputs and students’ learning outcomes in the school. discipline is another area that the role of the principal extends to. unfortunately, many overlook the aspect of discipline in order to have greater number and make name in public especially in areas of external examination by allowing misconducts. udeme (2013) is of the view that indiscipline behaviour appears to be endemic in schools in recent times, being manifested by students at all levels particularly among the secondary school students. for him, the social problem of juvenile delinquency which is the main cause of indiscipline has eaten deep into the fabrics of the society like a cankerworm and there is need for something to be done to rid the society of this cankerworm. other causes may include: bad school management, poor staffing, lack of adequate facilities and unwholesome advertisement which are capable of corrupting the morals of the young ones. indiscipline has led to withdrawal or expulsion of some students, hence, about 13.5% (boys) and 4.5% (girls) of the students leave school on themselves in fear or are expelled because of these cases of indiscipline. (mudemb, 2013). however, principals have great tasks in this regard. derrick (2019) opines that a large part of any school principal’s job is to handle students’ discipline. the first step, he says, of having effective students’ discipline is to ensure that teachers know the expectations. he maintains that discipline starts with you (the enforcer). from the variables explored, it is clear that when proper roles are played by the principals of secondary schools, the expected outcome or objectives of secondary education are achieved and such schools become successful. however, certain areas of importance were left unaddressed by earlier scholars. some of those areas include: cure global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 3 of indiscipline, pre-service training for would-be principals, proximity of residence of principals to their schools etc. these gaps will be looked at in the discussion of this study but before then, we shall be looking at the context from which this study emanates. the context of this study therefore lies on the rate of indiscipline noticed in the public secondary schools in nsukka education zone of enugu state, nigeria. this results from the neglect in playing the necessary roles by the principals who are the executive heads of secondary schools. asako (2015) has it that principals’ managerial performances in secondary schools in south-south nigeria has remained questionable and he opined that evidences abound for poor infrastructure, teachers’ poor attitude to work due to vacillating nature of principals like nagging, and non-involvement of teachers in decision making. hence, indiscipline among staff and students are not uncommon. even though teachers, parents, ministry of education share in the blame, the principal carries the greater lot of the blame because they stand as the hub of education. therefore, this is a very big problem facing education not only in nsukka education zone but beyond even though our focus will be delimited to nsukka education zone. 1.2 statement of the problem it is quite unfortunate that despite the efforts made by the federal and state governments in bringing out objectives of secondary education, what one sees now is never anything impressive or something to write-home about. one of the objectives bordered on raising a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those values specified under nigerian broad national goals and live as good citizens. a look at what is obtainable now both on those presently undergoing secondary education and the recent products of secondary education shows that this has not been met as it borders on discipline. there is a lot of undisciplined acts portrayed by both the staff and the students which has led to reduction in standard of education and expectations on school learners thereafter. lack of knowledge, inexperience and negligence on the side of principals as regards their roles in administration of their schools have caused a whole lots of indiscipline and poor performance of students and staff equally. every year, the society experiences cases of cultism, disregard for teachers/elders, vandalization of facilities in the school, examination misconduct and other nonchalant attitudes from students and some teachers and as such, mudemb (2013) shows that about 13.5% (boys) and 4.5% (girls) of the students leave school on themselves in fear or are expelled because of these cases of indiscipline. how indiscipline will be curbed, pre-service training for would-be principals for proper knowledge of their role as well as living within or near the school premises were not addressed by scholars, hence, they have contributed to the problem of today. this study tends to proffer a solution to this problem. it is against this background that this study seeks to determine roles of principals in secondary school administration in nsukka education zone of enugu state, nigeria. 1.3 purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to determine the roles principals play in secondary school administration in nsukka education zone of enugu state, nigeria. specifically, the study’s objectives are to: 1. identify the various roles principals play in secondary schools’ administration. 2. ascertain the ways principals establish discipline among students and staff. 3. determine the ways principals enhance the performance of students and staff. 1.4 research questions the following research questions will guide the study: 1. what are the various roles of principals in secondary school administration? 2. in which ways do principals establish discipline among students and staff? 3. what are the ways principals enhance the performance of students and staff? global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 4 review of related literature 2.1 conceptual review 2.1.1 role of principal before we look at what the roles of principals are, it will make sense clarifying the concept of principal. in america, the term principal is used for the supervisory head of school. the principal of a secondary school is seen as the chief executive who provides instructional leadership and is responsible for the general administration of the secondary school. onyeike (2018) sees the principal as the custodian and book keeping officer of their various institutions. the principal is the first citizen of the school as well as the chief executive of the school and the chief communication and public relations officers. role has to do with the position or purpose that someone or something has in a situation, organization, society or relationship. here, when we talk of the role of principal, we refer to those sets of connected behaviours, rights, obligations, beliefs and norms as conceptualized by people in the social situation precisely, the school system expected of the principals in running a school for achievement of the goals. obi (2010) noted that in the age of enlightenment, ignorance relative to the rights, duties and obligations of school administrator may no doubt be costly if not disastrous to the individual, the educational system and others within the school environment. by implication, the roles should be specific and known. some of them are discussed below. the principals are tasked with the role of instructional leadership. shaked, glanz and gross (2018) observed that, practically, instructional leadership reflects the actions taken by a principal to promote students leaning and academic success. present-day school principals are expected to become instructional leaders, facilitating the improvement of teaching and learning (hallinger & wang, 2015). in giving a support to this serious role as being paramount, murphy and torre (2014) equally opined that scholars contend that contemporary school principals should enact instructional leadership as one of their core responsibilities. the importance lies in the fact that research has discovered a linkage between principals’ instructional leadership and their students’ achievement (glickman, gordon & ross-gordon, 2014). other roles include: educational supervision which, for yunus (2012), is a dynamic process in education aimed at improving the quality of teaching and learning. then again, handling of students’ discipline which according to derrick (2019) is achieved by ensuring that first, it begins from the enforcer, and secondly, seeing that teachers know their expectations is a role principal play. another is finance manager/accounting officer (ogbonnaya, 2010); school climate provider (waweru & orodho, 2014) etc. generally, we can say that the role of principal includes the task of planning, organizing, coordinating, controlling, staffing, directing, reporting and budgeting. 2.1.2 school administration administration is the act of administering; government of public affairs; the service rendered, or duties assumed, in conducting affairs. to administer or manage has to do with harnessing both human and material resources available for the achievement of goal. administration has four important features: manipulation of certain operation; goal oriented; collective/cooperative human effort; and decision making done at the top. some concepts in administration include decision making, management by objective (mbo) planning, programming and budgeting system (ppbs), scientific management movement, administrative management. school administration has to do with how the human and material resources responsible for the attainment of school goals are harnessed (udor, 2015). some factors that may hinder successful administration of schools include: lack of qualification and experience; inadequate funding; lack of facilities; poor staffing; lack of cooperation between the principal and teachers. there are numerous other problems but we shall be limiting them to these ones above as we go on to look at the theories that this study will be hinged on. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 5 2.1.3 discipline discipline is a controlled behaviour, an enforced compliance or a systematic method of obtaining obedience. it has been pointed out earlier that a large part of any school principal’s job is to handle staff and students’ discipline. when principals perform highly in their tasks, discipline becomes the fruit ripped. but if not, indiscipline, which is seen as a problem in secondary schools (eke, 2018) and a cankerworm, will invariably affect the quality of teaching and learning, uncovered/unfinished school curriculum. the effect will lead to poor results, dropouts, wastage of resources invested by stakeholders of education such as parents and the government. in maintaining discipline in schools, nzoka and orodho (2014) observe that guidance and counselling becomes a good way because, students make choices in life reasonably and independently. however, when improperly handled, discipline infractions distract the class, throw lesson off schedule, and negatively impact teacher-student relationship (meador, 2019). the society gets the effect also when not handled properly. it is the thrust of this work, therefore, to create the awareness of the vital role of maintaining discipline among teachers and students on the part of the principal. 2.1.4 performance performance can be understood as the act of performing, carrying into execution or action; as well as the amount of useful work accomplished aestimated in terms of time needed and resources used. principal’s performance, for ibukun (2011), is seen as the rate or frequency at which they carry out their daily functions towards the attainment of educational goals. high performance of principals’ tasks will lead to discipline and overall improvement in the teaching and learning process in the school system. orodho (2014) sees a relationship between educational management and students’ academic performance. this is also supported by onyeike and nwosu (2018) who opined that principals’ role performance to a great extent determine the effectiveness of the teachers in the performance of their job. such high performance in teachers can be achieved when principals spur them through intrinsic motivating factors like nature of work, recognition, responsibilities (ejike, 2011). frn (2014) outlined that among the roles of principals in administering secondary schools is the role of providing effective managerial skills and styles (performance) which will enhance better job performance among teachers that could enhance students’ academic performance. how effective the principal is in performing these roles according to fika, ibi and aji (2015) has been a matter of concern to many educationists. to this, this present study tries to determine the extent principals enhance the performance of teachers and students. 2.2 theoretical framework of the study this study is anchored on the system theory. 2.2.1 system theory the system theory was propounded by a german biologist ludwig von bertalanffy in the year 1954. for him, there exist models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their component elements, and the relationships or “forces” between them. it seems legitimate to ask for a theory, not of systems of a special kind, but of universal principles applying to systems in general. he asserted that a system is like model developed which starts with the input, which is processed over different stages until the output is obtained. system theory can be defined as an entity composed of a number of parts, the relationships of these parts and the attributes of both the parts and the relationship. a system as computer – related technology was introduced in organizations, a new approach which is known as the “system approach” began to emerge. this theory claims that an organization consists of a number of sub-systems and whatever happens to one sub-system affects the whole system. a lot of strengths have been recorded on this theory. the strength lies in the interdependency, adaptability, and exchange of resources energy from the different systems. for instance, in dynamic system theory, there is an global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 6 emphasis on removing obstacles in the system like institutional racism as a barrier for people of colour. it also focuses on inclusion rather than separation, and a connectedness to all living things on earth, even earth itself. system theory was later furthered by reigeluth, bathany, and olson in the year 1993 when they talked about system view. for them, a system view suggests that essential quality of a part resides in its relationship to the whole; the system and its parts should be designed from the perspective of the whole system and in view of its embeddedness in its environment; and that the systems design notion requires both coordination and integration. ashby (1957) concept of cybernetics was also built on the foundation of system theory. system theory is not immune from limitations or weaknesses. the limitations of the system theory lie in structural functionalism theory. this theory places emphasis on the homeostasis. it only agrees with changes that stabilize the system. this can pose a problem when presented with problems such as racism, lgbtq (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer), and the poor. again, through this theory, only slow and steady change can occur rather than radical changes. with regard to the impact of the theory on education system or its link to this study, it is noted that, systematic change recognizes the interrelationships and interdependencies among the parts of education system, with the consequence that desired changes in one part of the system are accompanied by changes in other parts that are necessary to support those desired changes. it also recognizes the interrelationship and interdependencies between the educational systems and its community. by implication, principals will do their best in coordinating the entire system (the learning experience subsystem, the instructional subsystem, the administrative subsystem, and the governance subsystem) without neglecting any area or leaving it undisciplined. hence this theory is linked to this study in the sense that negligence in any aspect of the school part, be it curriculum, discipline, structural will certainly affect the other systems and so, principals should through delegation of function and supervision, see to it that all aspects of the school are carried along. when applied well, it will provide the organization (school) and its leaders a holistic approach to view the complete value chain and the impact of the organization in creating a favourable environment in which to achieve the stated goals. 2.3 empirical review ugwu (2009) conducted a research on delegatory functions of secondary school principals in all the public secondary schools in nsukka education zone using a descriptive survey research design. 441 staff and the whole 59 principals were used for the study using a simple random sampling. three research questions and two null hypotheses were used and questionnaire titled “delegatory functions of secondary school principals (depq) was used in gathering data for the study. the statistical tools used for answering the research questions were mean, and standard deviation while student t-test statistics was used to test the two null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. the result showed that there was no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and staff with regard to the extent principals delegate functions to their staff and how they control delegated functions in the school. the educational implication is that delegating duties helps the principals to cover the whole areas awaiting his attention. this research is related to the present study on the aspect of considering delegation as a function or role of the principal and for the fact that it is the same education zone but differs from it as it based on delegation. renuka, vusi, and onoriode (2015) carried out a research on leadership role of school principals in democratic schools in south africa: case studies of two schools. this paper reports on a qualitative case study located within interpretative paradigm. this study aimed at understanding the role of school principals in leading and managing democratic schools. towards that, semi-structured interviews were used to obtain data from research participants. purposive sampling was used to meet the purpose of this study. in sum, eight participants were selected for the study. the findings of the study reveal that leadership is a major role of principals in democratic schools, as it global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 7 also extended to others in the school community. this has educational implication in the sense that assuming the position of leaders, principals will play their roles properly. hence, the present study has a relationship with it as it clarifies the principal as a leader but goes beyond to cover the gap created by limiting the roles of principals to only leaders, incorporating other numerous roles such as maintaining discipline, providing a good school climate, delegation, planning, coordinating, budgeting etc. onyeike and nwosu (2018) conducted a research on principals ‘administrative and supervisory roles for teachers’ job effectiveness in secondary schools in rivers state. two research questions and two hypotheses guided their study. descriptive survey was adopted while the population of the study was 8452 teachers of secondary schools in the state. the sample size of 265 teachers which represented 3.1% of the entire population was drawn through cluster sampling technique. a questionnaire titled principal’s administrative and supervisory role for teachers’ job effectiveness questionnaire (pastjeq) was developed and used for data collection. measures of central tendency; mean, mean set, standard deviation and rank order statistics were used to answer the research questions, while the null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using z-test statistics. the findings among others were as follows: principals engage in staff personnel administration and providing assistance on instructional activities to teachers in rivers state. the educational implication is such that the principals should maintain supervisory role as a way of leading the school. the study is related to this research considering supervisory role as part of the roles of principals but differ from it from the point that the purpose is on teachers’ effectiveness. it was also conducted in another state. it therefore closed the gap of considering only an aspect of the school components. barongo (2016) conducted a research on school administration strategies and students’ discipline in public secondary schools in kisii central district, kenya. it was done at kisii university, kenya. the research was guided by four objectives which included: to establish how the principals’ use of democratic leadership influences students’ discipline in public secondary schools, to determine the extent to which the principals’ means of communication influence students’ discipline in public secondary schools, to examine how the involvement of prefects’ body in decision making process affects students’ discipline in public secondary schools. the researcher applied descriptive survey research design. this is because the design was useful since it collected data from members of the population in order to determine the current status without manipulating the variables. the target population consisted of all 52 public secondary schools in kisii central district, 52 principals and 1,560 teachers in the administration of the school affairs. simple random sampling was used in selecting teachers at school level from the 16 principals and 30 teachers per school who participated. data were gathered by use of questionnaires and analysed using quantitative method in frequency distribution tables, percentages and bar graphs. the findings showed that principals use democratic leadership style, communication techniques as well as involvement of prefects’ body on behalf of all students in decision making process as strategies for maintaining discipline. the educational implication is such that when principals use democratic method, establish communication means as well as involves the students’ council in decision making in school, discipline will be achieved. this study is related to the above research on the aspect that it sought out how discipline is maintained by principals but differs from it because it looked at discipline from the perspective of the principal’s role. also, it is different, from the fact that it is being carried out from a different site/country. omemu (2017) carried a research on relationship between principals administrative strategies and student disciplinary problems in secondary school, bayelsa state, nigeria. this study examined the relationship between administrative strategy by principals and their effectiveness in tackling disciplinary problems. three research questions were asked and one hypothesis was raised and tested at 0.05 level of significance. ninety-five randomly selected principals from bayelsa state constitute the sample. the instrument for the study is made up of three global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 8 parts-first part is biodata of the respondents; second part solicits information on administrative strategy, while the third part solicits information on disciplinary problems. it has a test re-test validity. the r-value for this instrument is 1.96. this measures internal consistency. the findings reveal a significant relationship between principal’s administrative strategy and their effectiveness in handling disciplinary problems. it also shows that there is a significant relationship between administrative strategy and their assessment of students’ behavioural outcomes. its educational implication shows that the principals ought to adopt strategies in their roles for maintaining discipline. this study considered also principals’ role in attaining discipline however, it considered beyond discipline to other roles. ñzokurum and iremeka (2017) researched on students’ discipline management, personnel services and teachers’ productivity in public secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria. the study investigated extent students discipline management and personnel services contributes to teachers’ productivity in senior secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria. two research questions with two null hypotheses in line with two objectives guided the study. the study adopted a correlation research design. the sample of the study comprised all the 291 principals (211males and 80 females) in the 17 lga of enugu state. the purposive sampling technique was used to arrive at the sample size. two self-designed instruments titled “principal students’ discipline and personnel management scale” (psdpms) and “teacher productivity questionnaire” (tpq) were used to collect data. face and content validities of the instruments were ensured. the reliability of psdpms is given at 0.79 while tpq was given at 0.82 respectively using cronbach alpha statistics. linear regression coefficient of determinism was used to answer the research questions while t-test associated with linear regression was used to answer the null hypotheses. it was found among others that, the principals’ provision of students discipline contributes only 6.1% of teachers’ productivity in senior secondary schools in enugu state while 93.9% is contributed by some other factors. its educational implication is that, among other things, students’ attitude towards education should be developed by the principals and teachers through incentives and rewards on acceptable behaviours in order to enhance teachers’ productivity to a great extent in secondary schools in enugu state, nigeria. this study agrees with it that achievement is not only determined by discipline. lokuruka and ronoh (2017) conducted a research on the role of head teachers in the management of the kenya certificate of secondary education performance in public secondary schools in turkana county, kenya. the objective of this study was to examine the role of head teachers in the management of the kenya certificate of secondary education performance in public secondary schools in turkana county. the study adopted descriptive survey design with a total of 160 teachers selected from 16 public secondary schools. the instrument was tested in three public secondary schools and a reliability coefficient of 0.7 was obtained. the data collected was analysed using descriptive statistics. the study findings suggested that to improve performance; availability of teaching and learning resources, good teacher-head teacher working relationship, teacher quality and consultative decisionmaking process should be enhanced. the educational implication lies on the fact that both management and resources must be adequately available and utilized. this study relates to it on the ground that it is the schoolheads’ role to manage resources. it covered the gap of limiting the roles to relationship and resource management. 3.0 methodology the research design for this study was descriptive survey research design. it was targeted at providing the opinions of the respondents on what the role of principals are in the administration of secondary schools of nsukka education zone. the study was carried out in nsukka education zone of enugu state, nigeria. this education zone comprises of three local government areas, namely; igbo etiti, nsukka and uzo-uwani local government areas. this education zone is the surrounding place of the northern part of enugu state (southern part of nigeria), the home site of the famous university of nigeria, nsukka (unn) and shares boundary with kogi and anambra global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 9 states. the population of the study comprises of all the 61 principals of the 61 public secondary schools in nsukka education zone {source: post primary school management board (ppsmb) nsukka planning research and statistical unit (2018/2019)}. the sample size of the study is 53. this sample was determined using the formula: n= n/1+n(e)2 , where n= sample size, n=population, 1=constant and e= error term or significant level (0.05) as was recommended by taro yamane (1967). this sample comprises 53 of the total population of 61 principals selected from the secondary schools using simple random sampling technique. the instruments for data collection was a structured questionnaire designed by the researcher. the questionnaire was administered to the respondents, which included 53 principals, directly. the responses for each item of the research question were tallied and weighted using 4-point rating scale. the total weighted frequencies were used to determine the mean score for each item. mean score from 2.50 was considered acceptable while any mean score below 2.50 was considered rejected. the mean and the standard deviation were used to analyse the five research questions posed for the study. data analysis and result presentation research question one what are the various roles of principals in secondary school administration? table 1cluster a: mean and standard deviation of various roles of principals in secondary school administration s/n items n = 53 − 𝐗 sd dec 1 principal supervises instruction in classes. 3.47 0.36 a 2 principal plans, organises and coordinates school activities. 3.79 0.62 a 3 principal gives information about the school to the community. 3.21 0.43 a 4 principal enforces discipline and maintains standards in school. 3.70 0.58 a 5 principal manages school facilities and accounts for fund meant for the development of the school. 3.34 0.51 a grand mean 3.50 0.50 a key: n = number of subjects, − 𝐗 = 𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧, sd = standard deviation, dec = decision, a = accepted & r = rejected the grand mean response score of 3.50 with its associated standard deviation 0.50 which is above the mean rating bench mark of 2.50 indicated that respondents agreed with the five items under cluster a as roles of principals in secondary school administration. research question two in which ways do principals establish discipline among students and staff? table 2cluster b: mean and standard deviation of principals’ discipline among students and staff s/n items n = 53 − 𝐗 sd dec 6 principal is a role model to staff and students. 3.68 0.61 a 7 principal sets up framework for discipline (rules and regulations) among staff and students. 3.38 0.62 a 8 principal constitutes disciplinary committee that recommends disciplinary measures on staff and students 3.53 0.53 a 9 principal assigns classes to form teachers to maintain order and decorum in class. 3.68 0.68 a 10 principal appoints students’ functionaries to help maintain discipline among students. 3.02 0.31 a grand mean 3.46 0.55 a global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 10 key: n = number of subjects, − 𝐗 = 𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧, sd = standard deviation, dec = decision, a = accepted & r = rejected the grand mean response score of 3.46 with its associated standard deviation 0.55 which is above the mean rating bench mark of 2.50 indicated that respondents agreed with the five items under cluster b as principals’ established discipline among students and staff in secondary schools. research question three what are the ways principals enhance the performance of students and staff? table 3 cluster c: mean and standard deviation of principals’ performance enhancement s/n items n = 53 − 𝐗 sd dec 11 principal provides professional training and workshops for teachers. 2.72 0.58 a 12 principal motivates teachers and involves them in decision making process. 3.52 0.65 a 13 principal communicates his or her expectations of teachers and students. 3.25 0.59 a 14 principal uses positive reinforcement on teachers and students. 3.57 0.63 a 15 principal provides quality teachers and facilities for students’ academic performance. 2.55 0.48 a grand mean 3.12 0.59 a key: n = number of subjects, − 𝐗 = 𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧, sd = standard deviation, dec = decision, a = accepted & r = rejected the grand mean response score of 3.12 with its associated standard deviation 0.59 which is above the mean rating bench mark of 2.50 indicated that respondents agreed with the five items under cluster c as principals’ performance enhancement strategies in secondary schools. summary of findings the results of the analysis presented above showed the following findings: 1. supervision of instruction, planning, discipline enforcement and management of facilities and funds are various roles of principal in administration of secondary schools in nsukka education zone. 2. establishment of rules and regulations, disciplinary committee, assignment of form teachers and appointment of students’ functionaries are the major ways principals can establish discipline in secondary schools. 3. encouraging in-service training, carrying teachers along in decision making and positive reinforcement are principal’s way of enhancing students and staff performance. conclusion principals’ roles are multifaceted and include among others: supervision of instructions; planning, organization and coordination of activities; communication with the host community; discipline and standard enforcement; and facilities management and fund accountability. discipline begins with the principals if it is to be enforced to teachers and students through rules and regulations, setting up disciplinary committee and functionaries, and assigning form teachers. hence the principal must be a role model. provision of professional training for teachers and quality teachers for students, carrying staff and students along by communicating his/her expectations and involvement of them in decision making will enhance performance by the principal among staff and students. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 11 recommendations based on the findings of this study, the researcher recommends the following; 1. all nigeria conference of principals of secondary schools (ancorpss) should always organized training/workshop for principals and principals – to – be. 2. the state government should help in funding the secondary schools to minimize the constraints faced in administration. 3. the enugu state post primary school management board (ppsmb) should post qualified and 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(2015). effective administration of secondary schools in cross river state, nigeria: a panacea for academic excellence. science journal of sociology and anthropology, 2015(214), 1–3. ugwu, l. c. (2009). delegatory function of secondary school principals in nsukka education zone of enugu state (unpublished master’s dissertation). university of nigeria, nsukka. https://www.pikmykid.com/top-10-skills-every-school-principal-must-have https://www.pikmykid.com/top-10-skills-every-school-principal-must-have global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (4) pg. 13 waweru, p. n., & orodho, a. d. (2013). management practice and students’ academic performance in national examinations in public secondary schools in kiambu county. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332761302-gender-difference-in-instructional-leadershiphow-male-and-female-principals-perform-their-instructional-leadership-role https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332761302-gender-difference-in-instructional-leadership-how-male-and-female-principals-perform-their-instructional-leadership-role https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332761302-gender-difference-in-instructional-leadership-how-male-and-female-principals-perform-their-instructional-leadership-role global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 6; june 2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 nigerian's education system policy review for effective educational management: a century of transformation and innovation (1925–2025) 1veronica egonekwu mogboh ph.d and 2eneh nnamdi sunday ph.d, article info abstract keywords: nigerian education, system policy, effective education, management, transformation and innovation. doi 10.5281/zenodo.15706314 this paper presents a comprehensive review of nigeria’s educational policy evolution over the past century, analyzing the trajectory from colonial educational ordinances to recent 21st-century reform frameworks. it critically examines the policies within the context of political transitions, regional autonomy, post-independence reconstruction, and global educational paradigms. special focus is given to recent innovations aimed at inclusivity, digital transformation, and skills development, positioning the nigerian education system for more effective management and socio-economic relevance. the study recommends strategic policy coherence, robust data infrastructure, and institutional accountability as foundational pillars for sustainable educational reform in nigeria. introduction education remains the cornerstone of national development and a powerful catalyst for socio-economic transformation. in both emerging and advanced economies, robust educational systems are essential for fostering human capital development, innovation, and inclusive growth. in the context of nigeria, a country marked by a rich cultural tapestry and complex political history, educational policy serves not only as a vehicle for literacy and enlightenment but also as a strategic tool for national integration, economic competitiveness, and global relevance (adebayo & olayemi, 2018). during the last century, nigeria's educational sector developed parallel to its broader national developments including both traditional and modern administrative changes. nigerian educational policies have adapted to shifting sociocultural needs and international and domestic policy requirements. during the colonial period, the educational system focused on creating elite classes but was controlled by missionaries who placed western ideas ahead of traditional nigerian ways of understanding. the post-independence era included purposeful educational policies that promoted unity as well as solved manpower issues while expanding education opportunities for all (akinfolarin & akinwale, 2019). 12department of educational foundations, faculty of education, godfrey okoye university enugu. e-mail: nekwuvero@yahoo.ca, enehsunday5@gmail.com global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 2 the universal basic education (ube) program introduced in nigeria in 1999 became a critical turning point in national educational history after its reform into a program that supported the country's participation in both efa and sdgs. the purpose of the program was to provide free basic education to all nigerian children but limited effectiveness occurred because of insufficient infrastructure along with teacher shortages and weak system monitoring methods (eze, 2019). education in nigeria faces significant transformations as the country adapts to worldwide trends throughout technological innovation together with the urgency of the covid-19 crisis. the pandemic specifically exposed the substantial digital gap across nigeria's educational framework while demonstrating that technology adoption in educational procedures requires urgent implementation (ngumbi, 2020). online school platforms established successfully by urban educational institutions exposed existing educational inequalities further because numerous rural students without access faced circular disadvantages (yusuf & onifade, 2021). the educational infrastructure experiences extreme stress due to two main factors: first is the growing number of young people in the country and second is the quick expansion of urban areas. a proper strategy for educational planning allows nigeria to turn its youth population into economic advantages through demographic transformation (unesco, 2022). educational policies require a shift from basic educational access to concentrate on developing high-quality programs that address issues of equity and relevance together with the ability to match current situations. nigeria's educational system will determine its future direction through carefully planned policies jointly with sustained funding as well as innovative teaching methods that maintain global standards. the system requires urgent policies about digital transformation together with inclusive education provisions teacher development assistance and public-private partnership promotion. the analysis within this paper tracks nigeria's educational policies from the start of 1925 through to 2025. the paper examines policy transformations through the assessment of drivers leading to changes and outcome analysis and presents strategic suggestions for designing a future-proof education system. the author uses recent literature as well as policy documents and empirical studies to generate findings that support better educational governance in nigeria through informed decision-making. colonial foundations and the institutionalization of formal education (1925–1948) formal education in nigeria obtained its foundational roots during british colonial rule, especially during the time span of 1925 to 1948. during this time period, the british colonial administration executed systematic educational growth, which served both to administer the colony while controlling society and creating limited economic development. the colonial government started implementing controlled educational influence during this period by introducing several laws and administrative reforms that formed the basis for future nigerian education development. the phelps-stokes commission reports from the early 1920s became significant because they shaped british educational policies across all of africa. these reports established two fundamental premises, which stated that education needed to accommodate african circumstances and deliver development goals instead of following european educational concepts (salami & adeyemi, 2020). the 1926 education ordinance established colonial authority in nigerian education through a framework that aligned with the ideas from earlier decisions. the ordinance established colonial regulatory powers for schools and developed operational criteria for schools receiving financial assistance and pursued primary educational expansion through curriculum control designed for colonial administrative needs (okonkwo, 2018). the 1926 ordinance served as an educational standardization tool; however, it encountered significant operational deficiencies in practice. the policy demonstrated its flaws by failing to provide systems that integrated traditional global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 3 african teachings and failing to create substantial local participation in governing education. bureaucratic efficiency from the centralized model led to regional diversity minimization, and it strengthened the social hierarchies perpetuated through colonial administration (idogho & enoma 2021). educational opportunities during this period ended up being distributed in an unequal manner, so the southern parts received more benefits because of stronger missionary influence and colonial administrative interests. the 1948 education ordinance became a significant milestone because it introduced educational decentralization in governance systems. under the 1948 education ordinance, the government formed both a central board of education as well as four separate boards that governed the western jurisdiction and eastern jurisdiction and northern regions and lagos state. the development of regional governance emerged as a localized educational policy solution due to growing political awareness and nationalist agitation which boiled up during the era leading to nigerian independence (usman & agbo, 2019). the decentralization process facilitated regional governments to use their understanding of local educational needs and cultural contexts for generating relevant curricula and school management. the 1948 ordinance established principles that would determine nigeria's education system becoming federal. this policy change brought forward a method where multiple parties could actively participate in decision-making although colonial authority continued to maintain ultimate control. the regional boards functioned in two ways by managing administrative issues while providing newly emerging nigerian leaders with platforms to influence and shape public policies that strengthened educational links with national development objectives (nwachukwu & adebayo, 2021). secondary education institutions expanded under colonial management yet maintained their status as generally being accessible only to elite groups of students. the university college ibadan gained its founding importance in 1948 when it became affiliated with the university of london. university college ibadan became nigeria's first tertiary institution due to colonial intentions of creating limited educated professionals for colonial department work (ojo & olanrewaju, 2020). although the colonial educational policies created institutional structures that would support future educational reforms, they also maintained defects which increased social inequalities while restricting professional mobility for most nigerians. the principles of regional differentiation, formal administrative structures, and the idea of education as a public good were crystallized during this period and continue to influence nigeria’s educational governance today. regional autonomy and experimentalism (1951–1959) nigeria entered the 1950s with two major changes taking place in its educational system: regional policymakers began experimenting while simultaneously pursuing native control of policy initiatives. following the education ordinance of 1952 and lyttleton constitution of 1954 the eastern western and northern nigerian regional governments obtained major regulatory power. based on these legal instruments education policy decentralization enabled regions to build separate education programs that matched their unique social political and cultural elements (adebisi & olanrewaju, 2018). each nigerian region adopted ambitious education policies during this era to enhance literacy numbers gain political strength and stimulate socioeconomic development. chief obafemi awolowo and his action group party led the western region to become a leader when they introduced the universal primary education (upe) scheme in 1955. through its innovative policy, upe aimed to extend both financial grants and mandatory primary education to every nigerian child regardless of their gender parental status, or social position (eze & chukwuma, 2019). through this change, the region developed enduring structures that would serve as building blocks for achieving widespread literacy throughout the area. global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 4 school enrollment numbers surged significantly within the western region after initiating the universal primary education (upe) program, especially among both female students and students from rural areas. the initiative triggered investments in teacher education built new classrooms and manufactured new textbooks (okoh & usman, 2020). despite schoolroom congestion and deficient skilled teaching staff, the program established itself as an innovatively constructed social policy that implemented visionary reforms for social change. the program demonstrated that when political willpower collaborates with regional autonomy it results in immediate substantial education achievements (alabi & bamidele, 2021). during the period of colonial rule, the eastern region started to advance educational progress through a slowerpaced system of development. the region built up its teacher education systems and expanded its missionary school network by including practical vocational training programs in its academic curriculums. the northern region maintained a reserved approach by giving preference to islamic education alongside quranic studies and they carefully increased their western-style school system through educational institutions based on native authority and teacher training colleges (musa & garba, 2022). different approaches to education gained acceptance across the regions because of separate ideological sectors as well as specific historical religious and cultural aspects for each specific area. the educational approach of the 1950s proved effective by demonstrating how local governance at the regional level functioned properly. educational institutions granted power along with resources enabled sub-national bodies to present context-specific learning solutions that proved effective. the experimentations of regional governments during the 1950s have become an essential source for today's federalism talks and educational changes in nigeria (nwosu & bello, 2021). educational policies during the post-independence era were rooted in the developments made in the 1950s. education during this period evolved to represent three things: state pride, advanced political development, and national advancement goals. this period taught valuable lessons about planned inclusivity together with consistent funding support along with community involvement which continue to be crucial principles for nigeria's contemporary educational policies. post-independence nationalization and structural reforms (1960–1999) post-independence nigeria sought to unify its fragmented educational landscape through centralized planning and national policy frameworks. universal primary education (1976) the 1976 upe initiative pursued its national expansion by replicating the successful western nigerian approach. despite its positive goals, the policy encountered three major obstacles that continue to impact education in nigeria. they include: deficient resources, unprepared faculty, and limited funding. national policy on education (1977) the 1977 national policy on education (npe) introduced the now-famous 6-3-3-4 system, emphasizing functional and vocational education. this policy was nigeria’s first attempt at holistic curriculum reform tailored to national development goals, including self-reliance and technological advancement. universal basic education (ube), 1999 as a response to the shortcomings of the upe, the ube policy was enacted in 1999 to provide nine years of free, compulsory education. it integrated primary and junior secondary education into a single framework, with renewed attention to literacy, numeracy, and civic education. institutional strengthening and the ube act (2004) the 2004 ube act institutionalized the universal basic education commission (ubec), which became the regulatory and coordinating body for basic education. this move represented a transition from policy aspiration global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 5 to implementation infrastructure. it introduced performance-based disbursement, improved monitoring mechanisms, and minimum standards enforcement, signaling a new era of educational accountability and governance. recent policy innovations: toward inclusivity, digitalization, and skills development (2023–2025) the post-2020 educational landscape in nigeria reflects a paradigm shift toward inclusivity, innovation, and systemic restructuring to meet global standards. national policy on inclusive education (2023) ratified in 2024, this policy champions a rights-based approach to education, ensuring that learners with disabilities, linguistic minorities, and marginalized communities are accommodated within the mainstream school system. it positions nigeria in alignment with the un sustainable development goal 4 (sdg-4) on inclusive and equitable education. national education quality assurance policy (2023) launched in 2025, this framework outlines clear quality benchmarks and performance indicators for school assessments, curriculum delivery, and teacher evaluation. it institutionalizes routine audits and establishes feedback loops for continuous improvement, fostering a culture of excellence and transparency. comprehensive education sector reforms (dots, 2024) the dots framework emerged under president bola tinubu as a thorough reform package which focuses on the following aspects: •data repository: a national education database for evidence-driven policy and resource planning. •out of school children inclusion: administrative efforts will work toward integrating out-of-school children through targeted re-enrolment programmes that include about ten million drop-out students. •teacher training& digital pedagogy: educational institutions focus on training teachers on how to implement digital skills along with blended learning and utilise ai assistance for teaching. •skills acquisition and national skills framework: aligning curriculum with emerging sectors such as green tech, software engineering, and vocational entrepreneurship. several educational programmes work toward creating a flexible continuous learning environment that is focused on the needs of the future. policy flexibility and access reform (2024) the ministry of education, led by dr morufu olatunji alausa, made progress toward equity by eliminating the 18-year restriction for university entry and setting 16 years as the minimum age while making exceptions for talented young individuals. the government seeks to eliminate systematic entry obstacles through this policy change while decreasing the number of overaged out-of-school youth. challenges and opportunities the educational sector in nigeria faces persistent complex problems despite multiple policy changes, strategic reforms and increased focus on education development. the barriers to quality access as well as sustainable national development and international competitiveness represent serious nationwide threats. inadequate funding combined with financial leakages presents one of the major obstacles that needs resolution. the public sector devotes insufficient education funds compared to unesco-recommended spending levels of 15–20% of the national budget (unesco, 2022). funds that should be distributed end up delayed in time, and systematic corruption causes leaks and misappropriation that results in project discontinuation and unfulfilled payrolls while leaving education facilities in neglectful condition (akinyemi & ogunleye, 2021). the system faces a series of adverse consequences due to the failure to establish permanent funding systems, which creates problems for infrastructure development, learning material acquisition and teacher education improvement. global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 6 the outcomes of national education are made more challenging by how educational quality varies between urban and rural settings. urban educational facilities typically exceed rural facilities in terms of equipment quality and human capital as well as technological capabilities. the educational environment in distant regions consists of busy classrooms alongside distant schools that lack sufficient water and electric resources (olowu & ezeani, 2020). the educational disparity maintains social inequalities while damaging the prospect of inclusive education, primarily against girls, along with nomadic populations and disabled children. the problem of insufficient teachers together with educator migration has developed into a dangerous crisis. nigeria experiences an extreme shortage of trained teaching personnel that exceeds the national increase in students who require instruction, particularly in science-based subject areas including technology, engineering and mathematics (stem). the combination of reduced pay and poor working environments with limited professional advancement causes numerous qualified instructors to pursue positions either overseas or outside their educational field (bello & ayinde, 2022). when teaching experts leave their positions, the education sector becomes depleted of trained staff, which has negative effects on classroom learning standards. a significant problem exists regarding the digital divide. the incomplete digital infrastructure prevents education institutions from implementing technology solutions, which affects teaching and learning in rural regions in particular. the recent growth in distance learning during the covid-19 outbreak masks the systematic inconsistencies that persist regarding internet availability, electronic devices and information and communication technology fluency in different regions. the implementation of blended learning frameworks and digital competency training becomes difficult because of this problem, which prevents learners from acquiring the necessary skills for modern work requirements (okafor & ijeoma, 2021). the difficulties create vital openings to achieve substantial changes. a promising development exists through public-private partnerships (ppps). strategic alliances between public institutions and private businesses enable the education system to receive necessary funding and innovative solutions that boost productivity focused on school-building projects as well as technical training and modern digital education initiatives. modern business entities dedicate company social responsibility funds toward educational programmes through scholarship programmes, technical aid and instructional material donations. the establishment of international alliances creates vital access to new possibilities. through its participation in unesco’s education 2030 agenda and the world bank’s education for all programme, nigeria acquires technical help, research information and financial support. these partnerships facilitate the educational reconstruction of teaching curricula along with training programmes and the improvement of assessment procedures. technology-based learning solutions function as an advanced method to lead educational change. the combination of mobile learning technology with virtual classrooms and artificial intelligence in the education sector enables nigeria to bypass legacy obstacles when delivering education to underserved areas. funding investments toward ict infrastructure together with digital skills training and local content development will boost learning results at the same time it will enhance the operational efficiency of the system. the education system of nigeria faces tough issues but remains solvable based on available solutions. strategic education policies combined with interdepartmental teamwork and boundless dedication to both innovation and inclusion will enable nigeria to create an education system suitable for modern times. conclusion and recommendations the development of nigeria’s education policy underwent various phases, starting from colonial times through regional experimentation into national reform until it faced contemporary issues. the educational systems have gained ground in accessing wider populations and making institutional changes, yet essential factors, including global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 7 limited resources, staffing issues and building defects, cause stunted educational expansion. higher education results from future-ready systems require an inclusive education system, which must be built based on the following recommendations: 1. all education policies should be unified throughout national levels, including federal, state, and local administration, to achieve national education goals. 2. the government should focus on building education bureaus' capabilities to establish better governance as well as service delivery and accountability systems. 3. enhancing financial support for teacher professional development together with their welfare and recruitment practices will create an inspired and competent teaching staff. 4. schools should implement modern tools and digital devices that enhance learning processes, particularly in places without enough resources. 5. a trustworthy funding mechanism should be established which provides reliable support to schools and educational programmes. innovative actions combined with continued dedication will transform the education sector of nigeria into an influential tool for national advancement. references adebayo, f. a., & olayemi, a. a. 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(2022). teacher migration and brain drain in nigeria: causes, consequences, and policy options. nigerian journal of human capital development, 7(1), 61–75. eze, a. n. (2019). universal basic education in nigeria: issues and prospects. african journal of educational research and development, 12(3), 88–97. eze, k. o., & chukwuma, h. c. (2019). free education policy in western nigeria: historical lessons for contemporary education planning. african educational policy journal, 7(3), 77–90. idogho, p. o., & enoma, a. (2021). colonial legacies and contemporary challenges in nigerian education. african journal of education and development, 9(2), 33–48. global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 8 musa, s. m., & garba, y. a. (2022). colonial legacies and northern nigeria’s educational development: challenges and progress. nigerian journal of development studies, 14(2), 29–43. ngumbi, e. (2020). resilient education systems for post-covid recovery in africa. journal of african educational development, 7(4), 59–73. nwachukwu, i. a., & adebayo, o. o. (2021). educational decentralization and regional policy dynamics in nigeria: historical foundations and future implications. journal of nigerian studies, 14(1), 89–105. nwosu, i. k., & bello, r. m. (2021). regional governance and educational policy in nigeria: rethinking federalism in the 21st century. west african public policy review, 6(1), 15–30. ojo, s. a., & olanrewaju, t. m. (2020). university education in colonial nigeria: a study of the university college, ibadan. journal of african educational history, 11(1), 58–71. okafor, f. c., & ijeoma, l. a. (2021). digital divide and educational inequality in nigeria: bridging the gap. contemporary educational technology review, 5(2), 45–59. okoh, g. c., & usman, a. t. 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(2021). digital learning and the covid-19 pandemic: opportunities and constraints in nigerian education. contemporary educational research journal, 13(1), 45–60. https://www.unesco.org/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 11; november-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 27 integration of digital technology and implementation challenges of football education in selected universities in henan province, china 1zhao gongyan and 1mantuhac, pamela b. article info abstract keywords: digital technology, soccer coaching, sports education, technological integration, campus sports, challenges, student engagement, training effectiveness doi 10.5281/zenodo.14142831 this study investigated the integration of digital technology in campus soccer coaching at henan university and examined its impact on skill development, training effectiveness, student engagement, and ease of use. the study used a quantitative descriptive correlational design and surveyed 209 student respondents who actively participated in campus soccer and interacted regularly with their coaches. data collection was facilitated through a researcher-made questionnaire, validated by experts, and administered through an online platform. the findings revealed that although the use of digital tools in soccer training was generally effective, significant challenges were identified, particularly in terms of resource limitations and technological adaptation. the results underscore the need for targeted interventions to improve digital technology implementation in sports education, addressing resource allocation, training support, and adaptability to new technological advancements. recommendations include enhanced training programs for coaches, better resource allocation, and improved access to technical support to maximize the benefits of digital tools in soccer coaching. 1. introduction this research examined the impact on soccer where video analysis has become a preferred teaching tool. as liu et al. (2019) showed in their study, it allows players to evaluate how they do in trainings to specify points of improvement. it also gives them a chance to review films, break down the negative aspects of the practice, and obtain data to make responses to what is lacking. in turn, the gap between actual application and theoretical claims is breached, thereby turning into a more efficient skill improvement regime. online coaching platforms have also played similar roles. these platforms offer students a variety of tools that provide them with ideal drills and expert guidance for further improving their skills and even their own physical ability and physique. this was supported by a study by bunker and thorpe (2019), who also argued that such 1 graduate school, emilio aguinaldo college https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 28 platforms also improve the availability of such resources to students, leading to a more holistic and personalized football training. conversely, vr simulations provide near-actual immersions to the real sports experience, where students can practice their abilities in pseudo-in-game situations. harris et al. (2020) demonstrated that vr can develop spatial awareness and response ability, which also includes decision-making. using such in-game instances, vr can develop the physical and mental abilities of users required for continuous soccer skill development and eventual success. although there have been benefits to using digital technologies, there will also be challenges in terms of their actual use and application. these issues include proper understanding of how to use the devices or tools. with such inability, students may not be able to meet what potrac et al. (2018) labeled the necessity of good training and assistance, which is optimizing the improvements being received from sports education trainings assisted by digital technologies. this, in turn, lowers the tools’ effect on students’ learning progress. the efficacy of digital technology in the delivery of soccer education may be dictated by how it is implemented and its loyalty to the objectives of the institution that uses it. as claimed by wang et al. (2021), such technologyassistance methods must be of optimal quality in terms of suitability to the target, comprehensibility, and applicability to specific soccer training needs. poorly prepared tools that are not related to educational goals have fewer chances to yield expected results, which highlights the need for understanding the technology and strategy to be applied. this study also wanted to put the prospective ability of digital technology into perspective to increase student motivation and engagement. acknowledging the society’s shift to a digital age, such tools featuring game-like and interactive elements may make training appeal more appealing to the present generation (zhou et al., 2021). moreover, if applied to football, these principles can encourage more participation and willingness to train, which in turn improves skills and the learning curve. looking at the case of henan university, the aforementioned appeared to be greatly true, as the institution is currently reaping exemplary results from its pedagogical techniques, as reflected in the improvement of its students in the football program. however, it is also essential to remember that different coaches may also have similarly diverse needs for improvement, especially regarding the use of technology in sports education. hence, integrating such resources and techniques requires a comprehensive look to transform them into efficient and student-centered programs. 1.1. background of the study since the dawn of the digital age, the inclusion of technology in the pedagogy of sports education and training has gradually attracted significant attention. with the continuous evolution of teaching techniques, the importance of using technology in optimizing sports teaching techniques has been growing, namely, in increasing the effectiveness of training regimes for sportsand physical education-related programs. such changes bring a wider shift in the methods used to maximize methodologies to enhance the performance of students and those being trained by the same program. the integration of digital tools into physical education programs illustrates the evolution in sports education and the unceasing attempt to reach optimal results in similar skills training. hence, a focus on technological applications is necessary for the discipline to move forward and keep up with the demands of the time, as well as the needs of coaches, students, and athletes alike. using digital technology to deliver physical education to students improves engagement among learners because such tools stimulate curiosity and interest. considering the current application, technology adds another layer to global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 29 learning, which could change the nonphysical lifestyle of students into a fitness-focused one through engaging tools that it can present. hence, students can be more involved in physical activities, even when using technology. however, technology use in education must ensure that students do not overuse these tools and, in turn, opt to stay indoors. the fact must remain that such activities must still be conducted in outdoor and open spaces, and that technologies are to be used to stimulate interest. hence, pedagogies must also evolve along with the development of the respective tools in delivering education; that tech must remain as support and not the main medium of teaching and learning (wyant & baek, 2019). this situation leads to the roles that coaches play in students’ development. this digital trend has completely changed how education, including physical education and sports, is viewed. with this in mind, coaches are now required to familiarize themselves with technology so that they can smoothly deliver lessons to students who can predominantly be regarded as digital natives (mansurovich, 2022; thomas & stratton, 2006). similarly, digital technologies offer significant potential to improve physical education classes. by making learning more engaging and interactive, these tools can positively influence students’ learning experiences (lieberman et al., 2014; tang, 2021). acknowledging the aforementioned, the technology tools have also been extended to facilitate the development of relationships between coaches and students. these devices become a medium of exchange of performance data, analyses, and feedback wherein the involved people can utilize the present information in responding to their current state, leading to their own physical and mental progress as well as the general success of the team. furthermore, technology tools have made the evaluation of skills more clear-cut by providing more accurate data in the least amount of time that results into learned decision-making practices and specified responses to needs for improvement. this allows students to gain a deeper understanding of their physical and mental states while also appreciating the approaches being applied to them with the assistance of technology tools. consequently, by enhancing fan interaction, event administration, and training, the use of digital technology in sports is revolutionizing the sector. to improve relationships between players, spectators, and the sports environment, sports organizations focus on using new tools and technology. adopting digital innovations is crucial for maintaining competitiveness and satisfying the changing demands of the sports industry. 1.2. statement of the problem this research investigated the integration of digital technology and implementation challenges in soccer education at a university in china. specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions: is there a significant difference in the assessment of coaches’ integration of digital technology in campus soccer based on the respondents’ profiles? is there a significant difference in the assessment of the challenges of coaches’ integration of digital technology in campus soccer when considering the respondents’ profiles? is there a significant relationship between student respondents’ assessments of the effectiveness of coaches’ digital technology applications in campus soccer and perceived challenges? 1.3. the significance of the study the study aimed to provide significant insights for students to understand the current state of a football training program and is expected to highlight these training’s strengths and weaknesses, which, in turn, may serve as guides to properly device a program more suitable for those it aims to. hence, this study is beneficial to; physical education coaches. the insights derived from the results of the study can be used by physical education coaches as guides in conducting physical education and sports-related classes. policymakers. the insights from the results of this study can lead policymakers to create a program that is proactive and student-centered that constantly looks at students’ needs rather than being reactive to perceived demands. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 30 administrators. the results of this study can help administrators to better understand students’ perceptions through actual statistical results and not merely based on expert opinion. hence, any decision-involving techassisted training can be more comprehensibly considered, and adjustments that can be implemented once proven essential. future researchers. this study shows that although there are existing studies on this topic, there remains countless more research gaps to be explored. moreover, it proves that there is a need for such a study not only for furthering the arguments but also to apply the results to the development of educational and training processes. 1.4. scope and delimitation this study focused on students’ assessment of their coaches’ efficacy in terms of implementing a tech-assisted sports training program. the study evaluated how these coaches and the technology-assisted activities they implement were optimized to achieve the maximum level of engagement and development for the students. in addition, it looked into potential challenges that may be encountered during the execution of such programs. the study is confined merely to students of its locus—three schools in henan province, china—and the football training program of each, as well as student demographic profiles, namely their age, sex, and year levels. it did not extend to community or professional teams or programs; it highlighted only the technology tools available as resources in the study. 1.5. theoretical framework the technology acceptance model (tam), which was developed in 1989 by fred davis, was used in this study. this implies that obvious worth and accessibility are the foremost aspects that affect the appreciation and actual use of technology. hence, the structure provided by the aforementioned theory can be the most suitable for successfully conducting this study. this theory points to users’ acceptance of technology in their practices, including their appreciation of its respective and relative tools. it uses two considerations that may influence user acceptance of certain tech— perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. perceived usefulness refers to a user’s perspective on how a technology can improve the chances of achieving a specific goal. meanwhile, perceived ease of use refers to how a technology can be understood by its intended user. tam’s framework argues that as perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are directly interrelated; hence, it can be inferred that the higher the level of both points to a similarly positive outlook toward technology that also makes users want more to use it. applying this to the context of this study, the technology tools applied in soccer training must also consider not only students’ interest but also factors that shape their interest. in the same sense, this also applies to student development. using this lens in the topic of this study, it can be seen that comprehending the application of technology in a campus football program can enhance student performance and engagement, although it must also be remembered that tam may offer an overly generalized notion that may overlook other relative facets. 2. methodology this section discusses the methods and processes used in collecting data for this study. the techniques and resources used as techniques and subjects in performing the necessary steps to obtain statistical results that were analyzed and interpreted. 2.1. research locale data were collected using structured questionnaires distributed to students at henan university, henan sport university, and henan normal university. the collected data were analyzed using statistical methods appropriate for descriptive and correlational research. 2.2. sample and sampling technique the study employed total enumeration involving 209 respondents who met the following criteria: (1) were students from any of the three participating universities; (2) were actively engaged in campus football activities; and (3) consistently interacting with their campus football coaches. this selection ensured that the sample was directly relevant to the research objectives, focusing on students with hands-on experience in soccer training under their respective coaches. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 31 2.3. data gathering procedure the researcher followed a rigorous procedure to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the instrument. upon receiving approval for the research project, the instrument was submitted to three experts for feedback. their insights were incorporated into the final version of the questionnaire, which was distributed to the participants. permission to conduct the study was obtained from the henan university administrators. to manage the distribution and collection of responses, an online survey platform, questionnaire star, was used. each respondent received a link and was given a week to complete the survey. after the responses were collected, the data were tallied, coded, and analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) to address the research questions. 2.4. statistical analysis the following statistical tools were employed in this study to process the data collected to evaluate students’ assessments of their coaches’ skills using technology tools for soccer training at henan university. the weighted average was used to assess various aspects of coaches’ integration of digital technology, such as the perceived impact on skill development and enhancement of training effectiveness. the standard deviation provided insight into the variability of students’ responses and helped determine the consistency of their assessments. analysis of variance (anova) was used to highlight respondents’ perceptions based on their demographic profiles. finally, pearson’s product moment correlation gauged the strength and direction of the relationship between coaches’ efficacy in implementing tech-assisted soccer training and perceived challenges that may arise. the significance level was set at 0.05, with null hypotheses being accepted if the deliberated value exceeds 0.05; however, if they do not, they are rejected. 3. results and analysis the following section presents the findings of the study, analyzing the data collected from the respondents. the results are discussed in relation to the research objectives, focusing on the impact of instructional leadership on student outcomes in music education. table 1: summary of the integration of digital technology into campus soccer teaching domain mean sd rank interpretation the perceived impact on skill development 2.74 0.69 2 manifested enhancing training effectiveness 2.61 0.64 3 manifested engagement and motivation during training 2.60 0.65 4 manifested accessibility and ease of use 2.83 0.64 1 manifested overall mean 2.70 0.49 manifested scale: 1.00–1.50: not manifested; 1.51–2.50: slightly manifested; 2.51–3.50: manifested; 3.51–4.00: highly manifested table 1 provides a summary of the integration of digital technology in campus football teaching, encompassing four key domains: perceived impact on skill development, enhancement of training effectiveness, engagement and motivation during training sessions and accessibility and ease of use. the table consolidates the mean scores, standard deviations, and rankings for each domain to provide an overall picture of how digital technology has influenced soccer training. the overall integration of digital technology in campus soccer teaching received a mean score of 2.70, indicating that the integration was successfully manifested. this reflects the view that digital technology is a beneficial tool for soccer training, facilitating skill development, training efficiency, engagement and ease of use. however, further optimization is needed, particularly in enhancing motivation and training effectiveness, which can be achieved by tailoring technology more closely to the specific needs of football training (wang et al., 2021). table 2: difference in the integration of digital technology according to age global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 32 domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision the perceived impact on skill development 18 years old 2.70 0.51 0.67 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.74 22–24 years old 3.19 25 years old and above 2.78 enhancing training effectiveness 18 years old 2.59 0.36 0.78 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.60 22–24 years old 2.86 25 years old and above 2.73 engagement and motivation during training 18 years old 2.69 1.16 0.32 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.54 22–24 years old 2.86 25 years old and above 2.72 accessibility and ease of use 18 years old 2.84 0.90 0.44 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.84 22–24 years old 2.24 25 years old and above 2.87 integration of digital technology 18 years old 2.84 0.22 0.88 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.84 22–24 years old 2.24 25 years old and above 2.87 level of significance = 0.05. table 2 presents the differences in the integration of digital technology into campus soccer teaching based on the respondents’ ages. the table evaluates four domains: perceived impact on skill development, enhancement of training effectiveness, engagement and motivation during training sessions, and accessibility and ease of use. in summary, across all four domains and the overall integration of digital technology, no statistically significant differences were found based on respondents’ ages. thus, the null hypothesis is supported, suggesting that age does not play a significant role in the perceived integration of digital technology in campus soccer teaching. this is noteworthy because younger individuals are often considered digital natives and may be expected to adapt more easily to technology. however, the findings align with research by miah (2017), which suggests that while younger users may be more familiar with digital platforms, the effectiveness and impact of technology use in education depend more on the quality of integration rather than the user’s age. table 3: difference in the integration of digital technology according to sex domain categories mean t-value sig interpretation/ decision the perceived impact on skill development male 2.85 2.17 0.03 significant/rejective h0: female 2.64 enhancing training effectiveness male 2.69 1.81 0.07 not significant/accept h0 female 2.53 engagement and motivation during training male 2.57 -0.63 0.53 not significant/accept h0 female 2.63 accessibility and ease of use male 2.82 -0.54 0.59 not significant/accept h0 female 2.86 integration of digital technology male 2.73 0.97 0.33 not significant/accept h0 female 2.67 level of significance = 0.05. table 3 presents the differences in the integration of digital technology into campus soccer teaching based on the respondents' sex. the table evaluates four key domains: perceived impact on skill development, enhancement of training effectiveness, engagement and motivation during training sessions, and accessibility and ease of use. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 33 in summary, the table shows that a significant difference between male and female respondents is only observed in the perceived impact on skill development, where males report a greater impact. for all other domains, including enhancement of training effectiveness, engagement and motivation, accessibility and ease of use and overall integration of digital technology, there were no statistically significant differences between male and female respondents. this suggests that while digital technology impacts skill development differently between sexes, its role in motivation and ease of use is more universally experienced, as supported by literature emphasizing the broad appeal and usability of digital tools in education (miah, 2017; wyant & baek, 2019). table 4: difference in the integration of digital technology at year level domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision the perceived impact on skill development 1st year 2.73 1.94 0.13 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.85 3rd year 2.72 4th year 2.55 enhancing training effectiveness 1st year 2.60 1.39 0.25 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.68 3rd year 2.62 4th year 2.45 engagement and motivation during training 1st year 2.91 2.53 0.06 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.54 3rd year 2.76 4th year 2.49 accessibility and ease of use 1st year 2.73 0.30 0.83 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.87 3rd year 2.81 4th year 2.79 integration of digital technology 1st year 2.74 1.36 0.26 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.74 3rd year 2.73 4th year 2.57 level of significance = 0.05. table 4 presents the differences in the integration of digital technology into campus soccer teaching based on the respondents’ year levels. the table assesses four domains: perceived impact on skill development, enhancement of training effectiveness, engagement and motivation during training sessions and accessibility and ease of use. in summary, across all four domains and the overall integration of digital technology, no statistically significant differences were found based on the respondents’ year levels. therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted for all domains, indicating that year level does not significantly affect the perceived integration of digital technology in campus soccer teaching. this is consistent with research by wyant and baek (2019), who emphasized that when technology is appropriately integrated into sports education, it can be equally beneficial for all learners, regardless of their year level. this uniformity supports the idea that when well-integrated, digital tools can provide consistent benefits across different learning stages (bunker & thorpe, 2019). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 34 table 5: summary of challenges associated with implementation domain mean sd rank interpretation technological barriers 2.90 0.61 1 evident cost and resource availability 2.75 0.61 4 evident training and technical support 2.82 0.65 2 evident adaptation to new technology 2.76 0.60 3 evident overall mean 2.81 0.60 evident scale: 1.00–1.50: not evident; 1.51–2.50: slightly evident; 2.51–3.50: evident; 3.51–4.00: highly evident table 5 summarizes the challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training. the table evaluates four domains: technological barriers, cost and resource availability, training and technical support, and adaptation to new technology. each domain was assigned a mean score, standard deviation, and rank, with an overall assessment of the challenges. overall, the summary of challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology shows a mean score of 2.81, indicating that these challenges are evident across all domains, with technological barriers being the most significant hurdle in integrating digital tools into football training. the most prominent challenge is "technological barriers" (mean = 2.90), reflecting the widespread technical difficulties encountered by users, consistent with literature discussing the importance of overcoming such barriers for successful integration (hughes & franks, 2018). table 6: differences in challenges associated with implementation based on age domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision technological barriers 18 years old 3.01 1.70 0.17 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.86 22–24 years old 2.38 25 years old and above 2.83 cost and resource availability 18 years old 2.82 0.49 0.69 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.72 22–24 years old 2.52 25 years old and above 2.70 training and technical support 18 years old 2.95 1.17 0.32 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.77 22–24 years old 2.71 25 years old and above 2.71 adaptation to new technology 18 years old 2.82 0.61 0.61 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.75 22–24 years old 2.38 25 years old and above 2.71 challenges associated with implementation 18 years old 2.90 0.90 0.44 not significant/accept h0 18–21 years 2.78 22–24 years old 2.50 25 years old and above 2.74 level of significance = 0.05. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 35 table 6 presents the challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training, based on the respondents’ ages. the table evaluates four domains: technological barriers, cost and resource availability, training and technical support, and adaptation to new technology. in summary, across all four domains and the overall challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology, no statistically significant differences were found based on respondents’ age. therefore, the null hypothesis is supported, indicating that age does not significantly affect the challenges encountered in the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training. this suggests that age does not influence how respondents experience challenges related to technology, which is consistent with miah (2017), who found that the main barriers to digital technology adoption are infrastructural and not age-dependent. table 7: differences in challenges associated with implementation based on sex domain categories mean t-value sig interpretation/ decision technological barriers male 2.85 –1.43 0.15 not significant/accept h0 female 2.97 cost and resource availability male 2.73 –0.65 0.51 not significant/accept h0 female 2.78 training and technical support male 2.77 –1.18 0.24 not significant/accept h0 female 2.88 adaptation to new technology male 2.74 –0.82 0.41 not significant/accept h0 female 2.80 challenges associated with implementation male 2.77 –1.06 0.29 not significant/accept h0 female 2.86 level of significance = 0.05. table 7 presents the challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training, based on the respondents' sex. the table evaluates four key domains: technological barriers, cost and resource availability, training and technical support, and adaptation to new technology. the table provides mean scores for male and female respondents, along with corresponding t-values, significance levels (sig.), and interpretations or decisions regarding the hypothesis. in summary, across all four domains and the overall challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology, no statistically significant differences were found based on the respondents' sex. therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted for all domains, indicating that both male and female respondents perceive similar challenges in the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training. both male and female respondents reported similar challenges regarding technological barriers, cost, training, and adaptation, reflecting the universal nature of these issues, as noted by potrac et al. (2018). table 8: differences in challenges associated with implementation-based year level domain categories mean f-value sig. interpretation/ decision technological barriers 1st year 2.76 0.68 0.56 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.90 3rd year 2.84 4th year 2.99 cost and resource availability 1st year 2.55 0.73 0.54 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.79 3rd year 2.68 4th year 2.78 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 36 training and technical support 1st year 2.70 1.38 0.25 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.83 3rd year 2.70 4th year 2.95 adaptation to new technology 1st year 2.54 1.02 0.39 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.82 3rd year 2.69 4th year 2.78 challenges associated with implementation 1st year 2.64 0.86 0.47 not significant/accept h0 2nd year 2.84 3rd year 2.73 4th year 2.88 level of significance = 0.05. table 8 presents the challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training, based on the respondents’ year-level. the table evaluates four domains: technological barriers, cost and resource availability, training and technical support, and adaptation to new technology. the data are presented by year level—1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, and 4th year—along with their corresponding mean scores, f-values, significance levels (sig.), and interpretations or decisions regarding the hypothesis. in summary, across all four domains and the overall challenges associated with the implementation of digital technology, no statistically significant differences were found based on the respondents’ year level. therefore, the null hypothesis is supported, indicating that year level does not significantly affect the challenges encountered in the implementation of digital technology in campus soccer training. this uniformity suggests that students across all year levels face similar difficulties with technology integration, which is consistent with literature that points to widespread infrastructural challenges rather than student-specific issues (hughes & franks, 2018). table 9: relationship between the integration of digital technology and challenges associated with implementation the perceived impact on skill development enhancing training effectiveness engagement and motivation during training accessibility and ease of use integration of digital technology technological barriers pearson r 0.59 0.59 0.02 0.85 0.68 sig. 0.00 0.00 0.78 0.00 0.00 cost and resource availability pearson r 0.63 0.66 -0.01 0.74 0.68 sig. 0.00 0.00 0.85 0.00 0.00 training and technical support pearson r 0.63 0.63 0.02 0.69 0.66 sig. 0.00 0.00 0.81 0.00 0.00 adaptation to new technology pearson r 0.64 0.64 0.04 0.83 0.69 sig. 0.00 0.00 0.58 0.00 0.00 challenges associated with implementatio n pearson r 0.64 0.64 -0.01 0.80 0.70 sig. 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 0.00 table 9 presents the relationship between the integration of digital technology and the challenges associated with its implementation in campus soccer training. the table uses pearson’s correlation coefficient (pearson r) to assess global journal of education and allied research (gjear) vol. 15 (11) pg. 37 the strength and direction of the relationships across five domains: perceived impact on skill development, enhancement of training effectiveness, engagement and motivation during training sessions, accessibility and ease of use and overall integration of digital technology. the significance levels (sig.) are also provided to indicate the statistical significance of each relationship. in summary, the table highlights those challenges associated with digital technology, particularly technological barriers, cost, resource availability and adaptation to new technology, have a significant impact on accessibility, ease of use and overall integration of digital tools in football training. however, engagement and motivation during training sessions are less influenced by these challenges. this finding aligns with the literature, which emphasizes that overcoming technological barriers is critical for ensuring effective integration of digital tools into sports education (miah, 2017; potrac et al., 2018). acknowledgment this study is part of the research and practice project on undergraduate teaching reform at henan university in china. the project is titled "course design and teaching practice research for the general education course on introduction to electronic sports," with project number hdxjjg2023-076. references atencio, m., clara, t., and miriam, s. 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(2022). research on the integrated development model of higher-education colleges in my country in the new era—and on the innovation of the "nanjing sports model." sports research, 2022(01). global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.15, number 6; june-2024; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 15 shared leadership and academic optimism among university teachers 1zhang yalin article info abstract keywords: shared leadership, academic optimism, distributed responsibilities doi 10.5281/zenodo.11615895 as traditional hierarchies in educational settings are increasingly being supplanted by inclusive frameworks, the concept of shared leadership has come to the forefront as a model capable of cultivating a dynamic and positive academic environment. this study explored the impact of shared leadership practices on academic optimism among educators and administrators, specifically examining the relationship between collaborative decision-making, distributed responsibilities, and an optimistic outlook in academia. employing correlation research methods, this study surveyed 276 faculty members from a university in china. results showed strong agreement across the domains of adaptability and engagement, shared vision and rationality, facilitating context and environment, and empowerment and decentralization, with the highest levels of agreement in the empowerment and decentralization domain. similarly, the domains of academic optimism, including positive outlook, educational drive, hope, and sense of coherence, all scored highly, indicating a prevalent optimistic sentiment. the pearson r coefficient of 0.84 with a p-value of 0.000 signifies a strong, positive, and significant relationship between shared leadership and academic optimism. these findings have informed the development of the "emma: enabling mentorship and mutual advancement leadership program," designed to further these positive trends within academic institutions. 1. introduction the dynamics of leadership have undergone profound transformation in recent decades. traditional hierarchies are giving way to more inclusive frameworks, epitomized by the concept of shared leadership. this model promotes decentralization, with leadership roles and decisions distributed among members. notably, while the implications of this model have been studied extensively in the corporate world, its effects within the realm of education, particularly among university faculty, remain a burgeoning area of research. 1 adamson university https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 16 china’s educational milieu, with its deep roots in confucian traditions, offers a fascinating backdrop against which to study these dynamics. the historically centralized nature of the chinese educational system is evolving, and the hunan province, a region that intriguingly balances traditional and modern educational philosophies, stands as a paradigmatic focal point. within this context, this research delved into the potential relationship between shared leadership and academic optimism—a collective sentiment comprising a commitment to academic excellence, trust in students, and a firm belief in the teaching-learning process's efficacy. in environments that prioritize shared leadership, faculties are likely to be empowered with a greater sense of autonomy and ownership over their roles. this empowerment, coupled with the cultivation of a shared belief in group capabilities, can pave the way for enhanced academic emphasis, trust-building, and an enriched teachinglearning experience. hunan’s universities, while deeply rooted in traditional chinese educational values, are increasingly resonating with global educational trends, offering a unique vantage point from which to discern shared leadership’s potential benefits and challenges. 1.1. background of the study the contemporary educational landscape emphasizes the significance of leadership roles, notably among school heads and teachers, in fostering effective teaching and learning. aquino, afalla, and fabelico (2021) endeavored to understand the correlation between the leadership practices of public-school heads and teacher performance. the study’s results underline the fundamental importance of varied leadership practices among school heads, asserting their significant impact on teacher reactions. wasyhun (2019) examined the challenges surrounding shared leadership practices in public pre-preparatory secondary schools. the research highlights challenges such as principals’ autonomy, communication skills, experience, commitment, and availability of educational resources. the recommendation emphasizes the necessity for leadership capacity building and the shift from a single leadership style to shared leadership. hata, nor, and hamid (2020) investigated the influence of distributed leadership on teachers’ competencies. this leadership style, which encompasses inspiration, vision sharing, and empowerment, showed a positive correlation with teacher competency. sivalingam, kadir, and asimiran (2017) explored the increasing trend of collective leadership among malaysian secondary school teachers. the study revealed that teachers with advanced education and those teaching at lower secondary levels demonstrated higher efficacy in collective leadership. no significant difference was observed between gender and subjects concerning collective leadership. azcoitia, carlson, and purinton (2018) emphasized the importance of community school leaders in developing strong and meaningful partnerships with the broader community. effective leadership fosters holistic growth within schools and the larger community. it accentuates the crucial roles of community leaders in bridging various stakeholders, from educators to parents and community members. the interplay between teacher empowerment and principal effectiveness was explored by mahmood and hussain (2017). their study underscores that teacher empowerment can significantly augment the effectiveness of principals, making it crucial for progressive school environments. rutten, doyle, wolkenhauer, and schussler (2022) introduced the concept of emergent teacher leadership, focusing primarily on early-career teachers and teacher candidates. the study indicates that while these budding educators show potential for leadership, they often grapple with feelings of inadequacy, even as they are gradually integrated into leadership roles. the results advocate for teacher educators to facilitate leadership practices more effectively. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 17 rumeli et al. (2022) highlighted the vital role of distributive leadership in maintaining the efficiency of primary school teachers during the disruptive era of the covid-19 pandemic. their research set in malaysia revealed the pivotal role of school leaders in transitioning teachers and students to online home teaching and learning environments. through a qualitative approach, the study yielded themes such as the sharing of school missions, positive changes to teachers and students, and cooperation among education leaders and teachers. this research underscores the importance of distributive leadership in enhancing teacher knowledge and skills. hernández-ramos and martínez-abad (2023) stressed the significance of professional development among secondary teachers. their analysis of data from the pisa 2018 tests in spain revealed a diverse commitment to professional growth among teachers. they found that intensive professional teacher development is positively correlated with factors like a better school climate, innovation, and leadership distribution. the conclusions highlight that ongoing teacher training directly affects educational quality. vecaldo’s (2019) research focused on the beliefs of filipino pre-service teachers regarding instructional leadership. the participants viewed instructional leadership as shared, learning-focused, conversation-driven, service-oriented, and a pursuit of equity. such insights could catalyze instructional interventions, thereby enhancing the educational framework in the philippines and the broader asean region. in summary, the related literature highlights various facets of leadership in educational institutions and how they impact both teacher performance and overall institutional functionality—topics that were explored in greater depth in this investigation. 1.2. statement of the problem this study aimed to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the assessment of the respondents on the level of shared leadership in their university in terms of 1.1. adaptability and engagement 1.2. shared vision and rationality 1.3. facilitating the context and environment 1.4. empowerment and decentralization 2. is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents on the level of shared leadership in their university compared with their demographic profile? 3. what is the assessment of the respondents on the level of academic optimism in their university in terms of 3.1. positive outlook 3.2. educational drive 3.3. hope 3.4. sense of coherence 4. is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents on the level of academic optimism in their university compared with their demographic profile? 5. is there a significant relationship between the assessed level of shared leadership and academic optimism? 1.3. significance of the study the significance of this study transcends various strata of the educational ecosystem. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 18 for educational leaders and administrators, these insights can serve as a guidepost, enabling them to hone their leadership strategies in ways that not only promote shared responsibility but also foster an environment brimming with academic optimism. teachers stand benefitting immensely as the practice of shared leadership can bolster their sense of agency, potentially augmenting job satisfaction, professional development, and teaching efficacy. parents and the school community can experience the transformative power of shared leadership. engaging with schools that champion these values can cultivate deeper ties of trust, collaboration, and mutual respect. for future researchers, this paves the way for further inquiry, enhancing the existing body of knowledge on shared leadership and its myriad implications. policymakers equipped with data-driven evidence are better positioned to sculpt policies that prioritize effective leadership practices, ultimately driving optimal school performance and student outcomes. 1.4. scope and delimitation this study sought to decipher the relationship between shared leadership and academic optimism within educational settings. with a sample size of 276 respondents, this study provided a statistically robust understanding of the topic. however, certain delimitations need to be underscored. the investigation was strictly confined to the realm of educational institutions and exclusively focused on the shared leadership model, deliberately sidelining other potential leadership paradigms. while demographic details were gathered to enhance the study’s context and depth, they do not constitute the central axis of the research. given that the findings were heavily influenced by the cultural and geographical context of the 276 respondents, extrapolating the results to wider settings necessitates prudence and discernment. 1.5. theoretical framework the theoretical framework that underpins this study draws upon concepts from shared leadership and organizational psychology, with a specific focus on academic optimism as the dependent variable. shared leadership, as established through the works of max freund (2017) and richard bolden et al. (2015), serves as the overarching framework within which the exploration of academic optimism is situated. academic optimism, in this context, represents a psychological construct that captures a positive outlook, confidence, and belief in the potential for success and improvement within educational settings. it encompasses a shared collective optimism among educators, administrators, and stakeholders that their efforts can lead to positive outcomes and enhanced learning experiences for students. the connection between shared leadership and academic optimism lies in their synergistic relationship. shared leadership practices create an atmosphere of collaboration and open communication, where individuals collectively contribute to decision making and problem solving. this participatory approach cultivates a sense of ownership and shared responsibility for the institution’s success. as teachers, administrators, and stakeholders engage in shared leadership, they contribute to the development of academic optimism. the mutual empowerment and collaborative nature of shared leadership foster a positive environment where individuals collectively believe in their ability to overcome challenges and achieve educational goals. this study explored the extent to which shared leadership practices influence academic optimism within educational institutions. by examining the interplay between these two constructs, the research aimed to uncover how the collaborative and inclusive nature of shared leadership contributes to nurturing a sense of optimism among educators and stakeholders. in addition, the study intends to identify the specific dimensions of shared leadership that have the most significant impact on shaping academic optimism. through this exploration, the global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 19 research endeavors to provide insights into the mechanisms through which shared leadership practices can enhance educators’ outlook on their roles and contribute to a more positive overall educational environment. 2. methodology the methodology section delineates the approach used in this study and identifies the research locality, sample and sampling method, and data gathering and analysis procedures. 2.1. research locale the chosen locale for this study was the hunan university of humanities and science, a prestigious academic institution with a rich history that dates back to 1978. initially founded as a school, the institution was elevated to an undergraduate college in 2004. hunan university currently stands out with its 14 secondary colleges, providing education in 53 full-time undergraduate majors and a master’s program that spans a diverse range of disciplines, including economics, law, education, literature, history, science, engineering, agriculture, management, and art. 2.2. sample and sampling technique the participant pool consisted of 966 faculty members from the hunan university of humanities and science. to determine the sample size, a raosoft online calculator was employed. utilizing the following parameters: population size of 966, margin of error set at 5%, confidence level of 95%, and distribution rate of 50%, the recommended sample size was calculated to be 276 respondents. this size ensured that the study’s findings were both statistically significant and reflective of the broader faculty population, given the parameters chosen. the selection of these 276 respondents was performed using the proportionate stratified sampling technique. this technique divides the entire population into smaller, non-overlapping subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics. 2.3. data gathering procedure the data-gathering procedure involved a systematic and comprehensive approach to ensure the collection of accurate and reliable information from the participants. the steps were as follows: 1. preparation phase: the researcher secured the necessary permissions and approvals from the relevant authorities, such as the school administration and ethics committee, to conduct the study within the chosen research locale. the researcher collaborated with school administrators and coordinators to establish a suitable schedule for data collection, ensuring minimal disruption to academic activities. 2. questionnaire development and validation: expert review and validation were sought to ensure the content validity of the questionnaires. feedback from educational experts and faculty members helped refine the clarity, relevance, and appropriateness of the items. 3. questionnaire administration: the questionnaires were administered to the identified sample of teachers across the various colleges using proportionate stratified sampling. participants were briefed about the purpose of the study, the confidentiality of their responses, and their right to decline participation without any repercussions. 4. data collection: participants were given ample time to complete the questionnaires. clear instructions were provided to ensure accurate and consistent responses. completed questionnaires were collected in sealed envelopes to maintain the confidentiality of the responses. 5. data validation and quality assurance: global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 20 data collected were reviewed for completeness and accuracy. any missing or inconsistent responses were flagged for follow-up with the respective participants. data were encoded to facilitate analysis and maintain participant anonymity. 6. data management: a secure digital database was set up to store the collected data. the database was password protected and accessible only to authorized personnel. 2.4. statistical analysis the collected data were subjected to a comprehensive analysis approach, ensuring a thorough exploration of the research objectives. the mean and standard deviation calculations provided a clear picture of the shared leadership and academic optimism scores obtained from the researcher-made likert-scale questionnaires. furthermore, the study employed independent t-tests and anova to discern potential variations in shared leadership and academic optimism across demographic variables like age, sex, teaching experience, and educational attainment. in addition, the relationship between shared leadership and academic optimism was quantified using the pearson correlation coefficient (r). to facilitate the interpretation of the mean scores for shared leadership and academic optimism, the following scale was used: score range verbal descriptor interpretation 3.51 – 4.00 strongly agree highly manifested 2.51 – 3.50 agree moderately manifested 1.51 – 2.50 disagree slightly manifested 1.00 – 1.50 strongly disagree poorly manifested 3. results and analysis this section provides a detailed analysis of the information gathered from those who participated in the research. this section details the findings and their significance in relation to the research questions that were developed. table 1. summary of the level of shared leadership domains mean sd verbal description and interpretation rank adaptability and engagement 3.45 0.31 agree/manifested 4 shared vision and rationality 3.46 0.29 agree/manifested 3 facilitating the context and environment 3.50 0.28 agree/manifested 2 empowerment and decentralization 3.51 0.27 strongly agree/highly manifested 1 shared leadership 3.48 0.25 agree/manifested table 1 examines the overall perception of shared leadership across different domains within an educational institution. each domain is scrutinized through its mean score and standard deviation (sd) and ranked based on the level of agreement or manifestation perceived by the respondents. a verbal description is also offered to interpret these scores. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 21 the highest agreement was observed in the domain of empowerment and decentralization, with a mean score of 3.51 and the smallest sd of 0.27, ranked first. it is described as "strongly agree/highly manifested," indicating that respondents feel that shared leadership greatly empowers them and is decentralized in nature. overall, the general concept of shared leadership across all domains has a mean score of 3.48 and an sd of 0.25. although no specific rank is assigned to this composite score, the "agree/manifested" description signifies a positive and noticeable presence of shared leadership as perceived by the faculty members. the assessment results indicate that "empowerment and decentralization" is the most strongly agreed upon domain, with a mean of 3.51. this is in line with aquino et al. (2021), who found that leadership practices significantly impact teacher reactions, and hata et al. (2020), who noted a positive correlation between distributed leadership and teachers’ competency. these studies suggest that when teachers feel empowered and are part of the decision-making process, their performance and sense of ownership improve. the domain "facilitating context and environment," with a mean of 3.50, echoes the findings of wasyhun (2019), who underscored the importance of leadership capacity building and the shift to shared leadership in addressing challenges such as autonomy and communication. furthermore, freund (2017) underlined the importance of a supportive environment for shared leadership is underlined by freund (2017), who emphasized the need for an environment characterized by trust and a shared mission. the domain "shared vision and rationality," with a mean of 3.46, is supported by the insights of halpern et al. (2020) and yue and feng (2020), who highlighted the importance of vision-driven and collaborative leadership. this is further corroborated by the findings of sivalingam et al. (2017 & 2018), who found that teachers with advanced education and those teaching at lower secondary levels demonstrated higher efficacy in collective leadership. "adaptability and engagement," with a mean of 3.45, resonates with the studies of rutten et al. (2022) and jong et al. (2020), which emphasized the potential for leadership among early-career teachers and the need for collaboration in educational innovation. the results suggest that shared leadership enhances adaptability and engagement, which aligns with the focus of these studies on inclusive and democratic leadership models. finally, the overall "shared leadership" mean of 3.48 reflects the collective findings from the literature, particularly the work of azcoitia et al. (2018) and mahmood and hussain (2017), which underscore the importance of partnerships and teacher empowerment in leadership. research by rumeli et al. (2022) during the covid-19 pandemic also emphasizes the role of distributive leadership in maintaining teacher efficacy during challenging times. table 2. level of academic optimism domains mean sd verbal description and interpretation rank positive outlook 3.50 0.29 agree/manifested 4 educational drive 3.50 0.28 agree/manifested 3 hope 3.50 0.28 agree/manifested 2 sense of coherence 3.53 0.27 strongly agree/highly manifested 1 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 22 academic optimism 3.51 0.25 strongly agree/highly manifested table 2 provides a summary of the levels of academic optimism within an educational institution, broken down into four distinct domains: positive outlook, educational drive, hope, and sense of coherence. each domain is evaluated on the basis of the mean scores, standard deviations (sd), and a ranking that reflects the level of agreement among faculty members. additionally, a verbal description is provided to interpret these statistics. the domain of “positive outlook,” which assesses the general positivity regarding the future and potential of the school, has a mean score of 3.50 and an sd of 0.29, ranked fourth and described as "agree/manifested." this suggests that faculty members generally feel positive about the school’s trajectory. “educational drive” measures the motivation and inspiration faculty members gain from a collaborative environment to improve teaching methods and engage in professional development. it also has a mean score of 3.50 but with a slightly lower sd of 0.28, ranking third. the rank and description indicate a slightly stronger consensus on this domain compared with “positive outlook,” but still within a general agreement. “hope” reflects the optimism of staff members in overcoming challenges and achieving school goals through collective action. it shares the same mean score of 3.50 with an sd of 0.28, but it is ranked second. this indicates a high level of concurrence regarding the presence of hope within the academic environment. the “sense of coherence” domain received the highest mean score of 3.53 and the lowest sd of 0.27, ranked first and verbally interpreted as "strongly agree/highly manifested." this rank signifies the strongest agreement among faculty members that their collective approach provides clarity and understanding, fostering a clear sense of purpose and aligning school goals. the overall concept of “academic optimism,” which encompasses all these domains, has a mean score of 3.51 and an sd of 0.25. although not given a specific rank, it is described as "strongly agree/highly manifested," illustrating a strong, collective sentiment of optimism within the academic setting. this overarching sentiment points to a robust belief in the power of shared efforts and a coherent strategy for fostering an optimistic and forward-looking academic environment. interpreting the results from table 2 considering the extensive literature review presents a holistic understanding of academic optimism within the educational context. the results, which reflect a strong level of agreement across various domains of academic optimism, align with those of scott et al. (2023), who emphasize the role of academic optimism and institutional support in promoting continuous professional development (cpd) in chinese higher education. the high rank for "sense of coherence" resonates with their findings, illustrating that a clear institutional direction and support system can significantly enhance academic optimism and drive cpd. jeong et al. (2019) and azila-gbettor et al. (2022) discuss the relationship between academic optimism and intellectual engagement, with the latter suggesting that optimism mediates this relationship. the high levels of "educational drive" and "hope" within the assessed institution are consistent with this notion, indicating that optimism fosters a sense of engagement and motivation among faculty members. the top-ranked "sense of coherence" in table 2, which is emphasized as essential by vizoso gómez et al. (2019), suggests that a clear understanding of roles and a unified approach are strongly present in the institution, which may contribute to positive academic outcomes. barrett’s (2019) research on the importance of cultural identity and self-esteem in fostering academic optimism also provides context for the "positive outlook" domain. while barrett focuses on culturally based education global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 23 programs, the presence of a positive outlook in the table suggests that a supportive and inclusive school culture may play a similar role in enhancing optimism. ge et al. (2023) link individual hope with academic performance, a finding that could explain why "hope" is ranked highly in table 2. the notion that internal hope correlates with academic success is mirrored in the belief of the faculty members surveyed that their collective efforts and optimism directly contribute to the school’s success. saadat et al. (2019) discussed the positive relationship between psychological capital, which includes hope and optimism, and academic commitment. the results underscore this relationship, with high levels of optimism possibly contributing to a strong commitment to the institution’s vision and goals. shawahneh and al khateeb (2020) found that higher levels of optimism are associated with greater achievement motivation, which may be reflected in the "educational drive" domain's strong ranking. hyun ju and young-mi lee (2020) highlight optimism as a predictor of major satisfaction among nursing students, which is echoed in the overall high level of "academic optimism" in table 2, suggesting that optimism is a crucial trait for academic contentment and performance. lastly, the "sense of coherence" ranking is supported by shankland et al. (2019), who asserted the importance of coherence in combating academic burnout, a significant concern in academic settings. the high ranking of this domain suggests that faculty members at the institution may be better equipped to handle stress and burnout, thus contributing to an optimistic academic environment. in summary, the assessment results indicate a strong sense of academic optimism, characterized by a positive outlook, educational drive, hope, and particularly, a sense of coherence, which may collectively support continuous professional development, increase intellectual engagement, and promote resilience against academic burnout. these findings corroborate the literature, highlighting the multifaceted impact of academic optimism on faculty well-being, motivation, and the broader educational landscape. table 15. relationship between shared leadership and academic optimism variables adaptability and engagement shared vision and rationality facilitating the context and environment empowerment and decentralization shared leadershi p positive outlook pearson r 0.60 0.66 0.73 0.75 0.79 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 educational drive pearson r 0.63 0.65 0.70 0.74 0.78 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 hope pearson r 0.55 0.58 0.67 0.66 0.71 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 sense of coherence pearson r 0.57 0.58 0.67 0.64 0.71 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 academic optimism pearson r 0.66 0.70 0.78 0.79 0.84 p-value 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 *level of significance = 0.05 table 3 presents a detailed analysis of the relationship between various dimensions of shared leadership and academic optimism. each row of the table is dedicated to a specific aspect of academic optimism—positive outlook, educational drive, hope, sense of coherence, and overall academic optimism—correlating these with global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 24 five dimensions of shared leadership: adaptability and engagement, shared vision and rationality, facilitating context and environment, empowerment and decentralization, and overall shared leadership. table 3 uses pearson correlation coefficients to quantify the strength of the relationship between each pair of variables, accompanied by p-values to test the statistical significance of these correlations. each correlation coefficient is accompanied by a p-value of 0.00, indicating that the relationships are statistically significant at conventional levels. this suggests strong evidence against the null hypothesis of no association, affirming that as shared leadership qualities in various dimensions increase, aspects of academic optimism also tend to increase. for example, the correlation coefficient between shared leadership and academic optimism is notably high at 0.84, illustrating a strong, positive linear relationship. similarly, correlations for other pairs like empowerment and decentralization with academic optimism at 0.79 and facilitating context and environment with academic optimism at 0.78, highlight substantial positive relationships. table 3 effectively demonstrates that higher levels of shared leadership are associated with increased levels of academic optimism. this finding underscores the importance of shared leadership practices in fostering an optimistic academic environment, suggesting that efforts to enhance shared leadership within educational institutions may directly contribute to higher academic optimism, thereby potentially improving overall educational outcomes. max freund’s theory on shared leadership emphasizes the collective leadership model within organizations. this model suggests that leadership is a dynamic, interactive, and distributed process among individuals in a group rather than a single leader’s role or responsibility. according to freund, shared leadership can lead to greater empowerment, increased group collaboration, and better decision-making as the diversity of knowledge and expertise is fully used. the findings presented in table 3, which indicate a strong, positive correlation between shared leadership and academic optimism, are consistent with freund’s shared leadership theory. the pearson r coefficient of 0.84, coupled with a p-value of 0.000, strongly suggests that shared leadership practices within an educational institution have a significant impact on academic optimism. this could be interpreted as follows in the context of freund’s theory: 1. empowerment: shared leadership likely empowers faculty members, leading to increased optimism as they feel more control and ownership over their work and the academic environment. 2. collaboration: the strong correlation suggests that the collaborative environment fostered by shared leadership contributes to a positive outlook among faculty, where teamwork and shared responsibilities are correlated with a belief in the school’s successful future. 3. diversity of knowledge: shared leadership enables various perspectives to be brought to the table, improving problem-solving and innovation. this diversity may contribute to academic optimism by creating a sense of efficacy and competence among faculty members. 4. adaptability and engagement: shared leadership is characterized by adaptability and engagement, which can lead to an optimistic view of the school’s ability to navigate challenges and change. 5. distributed decision-making: with shared leadership, decision-making is distributed among various stakeholders, which can enhance the sense of coherence and collective purpose, further fueling academic optimism. 6. cultural shift: implementing shared leadership could signify a cultural shift within the institution toward more inclusive and participatory practices, which aligns with increased optimism about the institution’s direction. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 15 (6) pg. 25 7. professional development: as part of shared leadership, continuous professional development is encouraged, which could explain the increased academic optimism due to opportunities for growth and learning. this study encapsulates the intricate relationship between shared leadership and academic optimism within an educational context. the comprehensive assessment revealed several key findings that contribute to the discourse on leadership dynamics and their impact on academic environments. moreover, the study considered the theoretical underpinnings of shared leadership, particularly referencing max freund’s theory, which posits that shared leadership can lead to increased empowerment, better decision-making, and more effective collaboration. the findings of this study lend empirical support to this theory, suggesting that shared leadership practices within institutions are likely to enhance academic optimism. the evidence from the study suggests that educational institutions could benefit from fostering shared leadership as a strategic approach to improve not only 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(2020). empirical research on leadership capacity of secondary vocational teachers in yunnan province of china. journal of education and https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v7-i14/3697 https://doi.org/10.37001/remat25269062v20id811 https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v9i1.20275 https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1545996 https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710602 global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 19 rethinking diversity and participation through physical education in inclusive learning environments dr. amaka chinyere nwosu department of educational foundations, faculty of education, rivers state university, port harcourt, nigeria keywords: learning; inclusion; special pedagogy, physical activity, educational equity, diversity abstract this paper explores the transformative role of inclusive physical education in fostering equitable learning environments that promote participation, social integration, and personal development for all students. emphasizing the italian educational context, it highlights how inclusive practices in motor activity support a collaborative alliance between schools, families, and communities, valuing diversity as a resource. physical education emerges not just as a subject, but as a pedagogical approach that nurtures holistic growth and combats exclusion. introduction in recent decades, one of the most prominent and evolving themes in the field of education has been the pursuit of inclusiveness within schools. school inclusiveness is achieved when educational environments are structured to ensure the success of all students—none excluded—regardless of their individual differences or specific needs. an inclusive school is not one that simply accommodates diversity, but one that intentionally designs its practices, environments, and teaching strategies with every learner in mind. it focuses on modifying contexts and approaches rather than attempting to change the individual, thus creating educational spaces that are equitable, supportive, and empowering. in the italian educational system, inclusiveness has become a central objective, with current pedagogical and didactic guidelines emphasizing the value of diversity as a vital resource. these guidelines promote the idea that diversity should not be viewed as a limitation, but as an opportunity to enhance the learning experience for all. in such a vision, every student has the right to personalize and individualize their learning journey, with particular attention given to those who face learning or participation barriers. historically, italy has made significant strides in inclusive education, starting with the closure of special schools under law 517/1977, which led to the integration of students with disabilities into mainstream classrooms. initially referred to as "insertion," this process was soon recognized as inadequate to capture the dynamic and interactive nature of inclusive education. the terminology evolved to "integration," emphasizing the active involvement of students with disabilities in classroom learning alongside their peers, facilitated by adapted materials, modified teaching approaches, and the support of specialized educators. true inclusiveness, however, requires the collaborative involvement of all educational stakeholders—teachers, school leaders, families, students, and local authorities. it demands a commitment to leveraging all available resources and educational opportunities to implement interventions that do not isolate or stigmatize, but rather embrace and harmonize the unique differences of each learner. the disabled classmate, in this context, is no longer seen as a passive recipient of support but as an active contributor to the educational community—a resource and even a strength for the class as a whole. thus, the inclusive school becomes a microcosm of a fair and equitable society, one that upholds the dignity of every person and fosters the development of each student’s potential. it is through this inclusive vision that schools can truly fulfill their educational and social mission, preparing students not just for academic achievement but for life in a diverse and interconnected world. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 20 from the mid-1990s, however, people began to question the value of the term "integration", which risked taking on negative, purely compensatory connotations, forgetting unique aspects related to the person, such as originality, authenticity, and freedom. the term "inclusion" was born, with the intention of highlighting a mutual permeability and exchange between pupils with different potentials within the same class. the concept of inclusiveness, as we understand it today, is therefore nothing more than the result of a slow and gradual evolution of the original concept of "tailor-made school", based on the centrality of the child, already typical of rousseau, pestalozzi, fröbel and aporti, and which takes the form of innovative educational proposals and pedagogical theorizations by particularly significant pedagogues of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries attentive to learning environments and development psychocognitive and social, disability and the child's emotionality (stentiford, & koutsouris, 2021). inclusion thus becomes a two-way phenomenon, in which not only the disabled classmate adapts to the behavior of the non-disabled classmates, but also the whole class must strive to adapt and understand the partner's disability, learning and changing through experience with people with disabilities and vice versa. the new term "inclusion", therefore, refers to a process, a philosophy of acceptance, such as the ability to provide a framework within which pupils can be equally valued, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities. it is a comprehensive approach, not only centered on the individual disabled person, but which is aimed at all pupils and all their potential (hansen, carrington, jensen, molbæk, & secher schmidt, 2020). the inclusion of students with disabilities in italian schools has been implemented for forty years in regular schools and normal classes and is achieved through the individualization and personalization of educational activities, starting from the differences and potential of each disabled student, valued in the context of the class group. inclusion processes in schools the theme of inclusion, as argued so far, is certainly an issue that, especially in recent years, is crucial in the school context. italy was among the first countries to choose the path of integration of pupils with disabilities in ordinary classes. we have therefore moved from a situation of complete exclusion to special schools intended exclusively for "different" children, to the integration of the same within the common classes up to the achievement of inclusion processes. diversity cannot be considered an obstacle, but a fundamental resource for the whole class group and essential to promote learning processes. we can talk about inclusion only when everyone feels they are appreciated and their participation is not suffered but is instead welcome. the inclusive classroom is an important point of arrival for the school and the pupil with disabilities can take great advantage of the companion resource, an essential component not only cognitive, but also social and affective (european agency for special needs and inclusive education, 2017). the inclusive school is the one that allows all students not only to feel part of the group to which they belong, but also to reach the highest possible level thanks to those differences that allow everyone's growth, through a process of great personal enrichment. inclusive teaching aims to create an inclusive climate, first respecting and accepting these diversities. the teaching staff will have to try to adapt their teaching style, also modifying their ongoing strategies and, if necessary, find points of connection between the programming. it will also have to always try to develop a cooperative approach (trying, for example, to use innovative methodologies such as cooperative learning and peer tutoring), enhancing the forms of expression and favoring the creation of relational networks between school, family, health specialists and territorial services. at the center of an inclusive educational action there is always the person because we are talking about an education for everyone, which can only lead to personalization. moving from the logic of integration to that of inclusion does not simply global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 21 mean making room for everyone, but it means putting each student at the center of all educational action by rethinking what the concept of curriculum is. among the general principles of inclusion we have, first, the acceptance of diversity, the development of collaborative practices, the active participation of all and a school that becomes different, that is, that learns and promotes change and development. starting from some regulatory references, we can certify that our school system was the first in europe to introduce the generalized school inclusion of pupils with disabilities and was not limited to this. with the subsequent issuance of specific guidelines, it has also clarified the principles relating to the inclusion of pupils with sld (specific learning disorders) to the point of giving organizational indications on the inclusion of those children who are not certifiable neither with disabilities nor with dsa, but who have specific learning difficulties due to personal, family and socio-environmental disadvantage. the synthesis of these choices can be found within the legislative decree of 13 april 2017, n.66, rules for the promotion of school inclusion of students with disabilities, where it is stated that inclusion concerns everyone and responds to different educational needs by realizing itself through specific educational strategies aimed at developing the potential of each, improving their quality of life through the commitment of all those involved, from the school community, to families to local authorities, to achieve the educational success of all. inclusion therefore takes the form of a route to follow, starting from the construction of contexts populated by multiple diversities and therefore by special needs. special pedagogy promotes the appreciation of these diversities that are unique and that concern individuals. in this perspective, motorsports activity can constitute that specific context in which it is possible to really experience inclusive education. the sporting experience, formative from an educational point of view, becomes a precious opportunity for active participation and equality of opportunity for all people. both the playful and the athletic-motor dimension, closely interconnected with each other, give sport a high educational value. within the motor-sports context we can identify a series of strongly educational elements such as: the continuous relationship with a reference adult, ie the coach; order, discipline, respect for the rules and others; teaching / learning of a particular sports discipline; the educational value of victory and defeat; the will to improve and motivation (peacock, 2014). the practical experience of sport becomes of crucial importance for children with sociocultural and linguistic deficits or disadvantages, enriching the subjective processes of metacognition and generalization. special pedagogy must therefore focus strongly on sport because this tool, if supported by educational intentionality, within its planning in the school environment, can become an important context both from the point of view of values, through the acquisition of all those healthy teachings of which sports ethics is rich, and from the educational point of view, a fundamental piece in relation to the planning of life and real practice of inclusion. practicing regular motor-sports activities, for the person with disabilities, involves a series of advantages (moliterni, 2013). on the cognitive level, we improve the knowledge of our body, the space that surrounds us, the management of time and speed, in relation to certain motor acts. on the physical level there are a series of benefits that concern the improvement of muscle strength, balance, motor coordination thanks. on a purely sporting level, technical knowledge in relation to the various sports disciplines and that of the regulations improves. on the psychological level, a sense of personal satisfaction is produced that favors discipline and training, leading to greater self control about emotional states. on the socioeducational level, levels of personal autonomy increase, with subjects who are more stimulated to perform acts aimed at a specific purpose. global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 22 sport and physical activity as tools for inclusion in the pedagogical process the real inclusion of students with disabilities at school, during motor and sports activity, is still a process in development and there are, unfortunately, several critical issues that do not allow it to be fully realized. sport and, therefore, physical education at school, offer each student the opportunity to express themselves and communicate through the body, their way of being and one's own identity understood as a kind of photography of personal experiences and experiences. sport and physical education can unite, to bring people together. especially these benefits concern the so-called sports education, that is, the sporting experience that is deviates from competitive or professional dynamics because, in that case, the risk is to result in the opposite effect of that relating to education (coates & vickerman, 2013). the guidelines for physical, motor and sports education activities in schools, issued by the miur in 2019, state that sport requires the person to get involved in a total way, stimulating him to seek both the tools and the strategies suitable for address and overcoming your difficulties. this definition does not only refer to able-bodied children, but it applies to everyone, even for students with disabilities. and it is precisely in this direction that the school has the duty to develop the sports culture to ensure that students develop healthy values, those values that only sport can convey and promote constantly. through these values it is possible to improve aggregation, integration, and socialization both at school and in society (bergamini et al., 2015). everyone must actively participate in motorsports activity, and it is right that disabled children are also protagonists of the action and not only present in the gym. the practice of sport, as previously stated, brings countless benefits. it allows, for example, to satisfy a series of typical human needs concerning the playful experience, the one linked to movement and being in a group, all achievable through sport. an extremely important factor is the improvement of residual potential in all degrees of disability, achievable through physical activity (qi, 2012; qi, 2018). obviously, in relation to the severity of disability, there are improvements of different kinds but, in general, there are important effects on the quality of life of these subjects. there are also several studies that show that the constant practice of motor-sports activity has important benefits both on learning and on academic performance. the model of sport that, over the years, has matured thanks to the history of italian integration, is that of "integrated sport for inclusion". the peculiarity of this model is certainly to link the concepts of sport and inclusive education in an indissoluble way. the maturation of this model took place within the world of special school pedagogy. special pedagogy has allowed sport to be enriched from many points of view, with the aim of building an enhancing context that would allow a fair comparison between disabled people. precisely in this context, a series of sports are inserted that can be traced back to a different model called "integrated sport". these particular sports are practiced by people with and without disabilities through some differentiations that allow everyone to play together (green, 2019). the source of inspiration that allowed the birth of these sports is attributable precisely to those principles of the school integration system, of an all-italian matrix, a system that has allowed people with disabilities to access and actively participate in the learning process within the classroom (miola et al., 2021). integrated sport, characterized by a fusion of sporting principles with principles related to special pedagogy, can be defined through a series of key elements: a) centrality of the person; (b) participation of persons with different health conditions; c) educational peculiarities; (d) roles defined on the basis of abilities and not disability; (e) flexible rules; f) recognizable and codified spaces and times; g) competitive spirit and healthy competition; (h) active participation and equal opportunities for all. the evaluation, through motor tests of what the subject can actually do at the motor level, is the basis of the attribution of global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 23 roles that takes place by differentiation not changing the structure of the game, but managing to meet the needs of the individual with activities that are at their level and that push him to try to improve himself (koh, 2021). also in this case, we can find a parallel with special pedagogy. inclusion is achieved when the pupil with disabilities is not removed from the classroom, but when he willingly accepts a task specially created for him and can also make his contribution by working in groups, within a serene atmosphere where he is respected and considered. in integrated sport everyone trains following personal schemes but does so to give life, during the game, to a team game that will allow everyone to achieve success through the contribution of all. in summary, therefore, integrated sport is a set of organized motor activities, strongly educational and playful, which are based on a type of activity that is first of all cooperative and that aims to be also competitive to keep alive the original idea and the essence of sport. everyone can participate actively and competently in this type of activity: people with severe disabilities, able-bodied people, men and women who, through the appropriate spaces, materials appropriate to the abilities and potential of each one, can see their abilities enhanced, actively participating and on the basis of equal opportunities through regulations that are always flexible. there are therefore three key elements: accessibility, active participation and equal opportunities, i.e. the guiding principles of an inclusive society. an example of an integrated sport is baskin (inclusive basketball). 1. the inclusive didactic approach inclusive teaching is the teaching of all, which is based on personalization and individualization through active, participatory, constructive, and affective methodologies. the quality of inclusive teaching is determined by educational reflexivity and intentionality, by the search for alternative motivations and hypotheses, by the ability to change perspectives of meaning and to produce transformative learning (dematthews, serafini, & watson, 2021). as pennac (2010) argues, "each student plays his own instrument, there is nothing to be done. the difficult thing is to get to know our musicians well and find harmony. a good class is not a regiment marching in step, it is an orchestra playing the same symphony." inclusive teaching is, therefore, a teaching conceived, designed and planned, from the beginning, based on individual variability, capable of being accessible for all students and not only for some with special educational needs. designing in an inclusive way means thinking, whatever the content to be conveyed, of personalized, multi-modal, and multilevel forms of teaching, because each student faces learning at different levels and ways, thus avoiding "path emergencies" that force, a posteriori, to modify what has been designed for an "ideal class", thus avoiding loss of effectiveness of the teaching action itself. poorly designed and poorly conducted teaching can run the risk of creating barriers to learning itself (graham, 2020). inclusive teaching is therefore an innovative and flexible teaching "style" that facilitates the participation, enhancement, and educational success of all students. inclusive teaching challenges teachers to develop a wide repertoire of teaching strategies that are considered effective, not only for pupils with special needs, but for everyone. this means that every teacher can improve their effectiveness, first of all by knowing and then using, monitoring and evaluating the best strategy, so as to help students become more effective learners themselves. there is a lot of research that shows how meta-cognitive, cooperative strategies, the strengthening of social and emotional skills, as well as the creation of a positive classroom climate, are essential for inclusive teaching. developing a broad repertoire of effective strategies is essential as long as they reflect knowledge of the characteristics, needs of students and environmental circumstances, as well as teachers' professional and personal knowledge and skills (garg, & sharma, 2020; sleeter, & zavala, 2020). global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 24 in addition to the dimension of effectiveness with respect to methodological-didactic choices and actions to be made, an inclusive teacher cannot forget the importance of relational and emotional skills. numerous studies show that teachers' appropriate mental attitude, emotional closeness, and ability to give appropriate and positive feedback to students are decisive elements for their academic success and the creation of a good classroom climate. the training of teachers with respect to their social and emotional skills, in an inclusive school context, certainly cannot be underestimated. the quality of the classroom climate (made up of relationships and emotional experiences) is crucial for the success of students, who learn best when they are in an emotionally safe and predictable environment, which motivates them and stimulates them towards positive and inclusive goals (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). the concept of inclusivity in contemporary schools goes beyond disability, learning disorders, explicit difficulties in integration and behavior and concerns all pupils with respect to whom it is necessary to give different answers for their educational needs. the goal of inclusive teaching is, in fact, to make all students reach the highest possible degree of learning and social participation, enhancing the differences present in the class. unesco's guidelines for integration policies in education (2009) emphasize that: "inclusive schooling is a process of strengthening the capacities of the education system to reach all students. [...]. an inclusive school system can only be created if mainstream schools become more inclusive." in other words, if they become better at educating all the children in their community. for pupils with certified disabilities, on the other hand, legislative decree no. 66 of 13 april 2017 lays down specific rules for the promotion of their full school integration. in particular, it refers to the so-called plan for inclusion that each school must prepare to overcome all those factors that may hinder its implementation, for the coordinated use of resources and to design specific improvement interventions. the inclusion plan must include an analysis of strengths and weaknesses, objectives to increase inclusiveness for the following school year, resources (support teachers, assistants, contact persons), methodologies, methods of involving families, relations with local social and health services that are intended to be activated, actions for the acquisition and distribution of additional resources for the implementation of inclusion projects, the preparation of interventions for entry into the school system, continuity between the different levels of school and future integration into the world of work (ciyer, 2010). the inclusive school, therefore, equips itself in a synergistic way to propose multiple educational and didactic strategies, according to a holistic approach, which considers the student as a complex and multidimensional person with his or her own sociocultural and biological characteristics, and aims at the overall development of the potential and skills of each one for the achievement of the highest possible level of learning and socialization. to achieve this, however, schools must have the courage to renounce the standardization of teaching (kinsella, 2020). it must allow all its members to feel part of a community in which the same educational ideals are shared, the individuality of all its members is respected, each with his or her own interests, needs and talents, and offers multiple possibilities and formative opportunities, so that each one can realize his or her aspirations. fundamental to this new vision of the school is respect for the right to selfdetermination and to the construction of future life projects adapted to the potential of each and every one, to the aspirations of families and to the new demands of society and culture. the school intends to achieve these important educational objectives with the collaboration of families with whom it is necessary to share, in respect of roles and specific responsibilities, objectives, goals and strategies for the healthy growth of young people. an inclusive systemic vision must also consider the contributions that can come from collaboration with other public and private entities, and from associations operating in the area and that are able to contribute to ensuring the educational success of students (kim, yi, & hong, global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 25 2021; miller et al., 2022; stinken-rösner et al., 2020). in the process of individualization of teaching, activities are provided for disabled pupils so that it is possible to achieve knowledge and skills common to the rest of the class. common objectives, therefore, to the class group, but different, individualized methodologies, which consider the potential, skills, and personal abilities of the disabled student, which become a resource, trying to eliminate the factors that originate or maintain the difficulty. personalized teaching, on the other hand, provides for the achievement of objectives that are different from those of the class, because they are built ad hoc on the disability of the individual student, enhancing his or her strengths. in this way, by specifically considering the different ability of the pupil as a peculiarity of his own, the pupil will be given the opportunity to develop his full potential and give him the opportunity to transmit his different ability to others (väyrynen, & akunyili, 2020). to interpret inclusion as a "day-to-day" way of managing classrooms, training must be aimed at both support teachers and all curriculum teachers. indications and guidelines remind us that diversity poses a great challenge to didactic and educational action, such as being able to face it, having adequate skills in inclusive teaching strategies, in order to respond adequately not only to the needs of disabled pupils or with specific learning disorders, with other difficulties or developmental disorders and with social and cultural disadvantage, but also emphasizing the quality of learning of all pupils (sturm, 2019). a key aspect is also that of "taking charge" of the student, which must be carried out by the entire "educating community", avoiding processes of delegation to the support teacher alone. hence, therefore, the need for targeted, specific, modular training interventions that consider the different starting levels of those who access training and, above all, based on a participatory vision of inclusion and oriented towards cooperation and cooperative teaching (mihajlovic, 2020). nevertheless, the school, which for over forty years has been trying to be a welcoming and inclusive context, today feels it must oppose the adverse pressures that come from the outside with a decisive and constructive commitment to inclusion. these educational ideals are expressed through pedagogical challenges from which the school cannot move away. learning and teaching practices can guide inclusive actions in the classrooms, through participation, cooperation, interdependence, and laboratory methodology. 2. physical education as a means of inclusion the stimulating encounter between physical activity and the world of disability takes place starting from the origins of school inclusion. physical education, in fact, is one of the school disciplines that contributes decisively to the formation of one's bodily identity, personality and the acquisition of communicativerelational skills (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). it is considered fundamental for the harmonious development of the personality and for the formation of citizens capable of expressing themselves and relating in today's world, so much so that it has been defined as a "hinge discipline between the scientific, communicative and expressive, relational and citizenship fields" (miur, 2018). physical education promotes self-knowledge and one's potential in a constant relationship with the environment, others, and objects. it also contributes to the formation of the student's personality through the knowledge and awareness of one's own bodily identity, as well as the continuous need for movement as a constant care of one's person and well-being. motor activities provide students with opportunities to reflect on the changes in their bodies, to accept them and live them serenely as an expression of each person's growth and maturation process (sánchez, de haro-rodríguez, & martínez, 2019). they also offer opportunities to reflect on the significance of selfimage in comparison with peers. the primary objective of physical education is, in fact, to promote the growth of physically educated people through the acquisition of skills, such as motor skills, knowledge, socio-affective behaviors and motivations such that global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 26 they are urged to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles based on awareness of the bodily (haegele, 2019). this orientation frames the discipline in a holistic approach, which identifies among its main purposes the physical, cognitive, and social development of children, together with the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, assigning it the role of a privileged tool for the structuring of personality, social relationships and for the acquisition of the necessary life skills throughout life. it is for this reason that physical education is proposed as an essential element for integrated growth. it follows that, through a conscious pedagogical orientation aimed at proposing significant motor experiences and the acquisition of new skills, it is necessary to promote an adequate motor planning that correlates with a coherent pedagogical intentionality, in order to adequately define motor action and to attribute a fair value to it. therefore, education through the body and movement cannot be linked to didactic strategies linked only to doing but must also and above all be realized in a condition linked to the deepest meaning of being a person acting in the environment (hutzler, meier, reuker, & zitomer, 2019). starting from these assumptions, the school must, therefore, become the ideal setting in which to build a didactic of motor and sports activities that looks at the educational conception of the body and movement understood as a factor of promotion not only of the aspects of self-construction but also as an educational exercise for the acquisition of healthy lifestyles that allow to improve the well-being and health of the individual. in this sense, it becomes necessary to integrate in the teaching practice both the purely physical and the socio-relational aspects, in order to allow a global taking charge of the psychophysical health of the subject. physical education must, therefore, necessarily become essential to the formation of young people. in fact, it contributes to their growth both in structural terms and to the formation of the self that concerns the body, its potential and its limits, its position in physical space, its perception in relation to others, its image. it also plays a crucial role in directing motivation to improve one's individual skills and selfdetermination in achieving psycho-physical wellbeing. therefore, it not only has the educational value that contributes to the development of motor skills, abilities, and competences, but also and above all the value of all those activities that, through movement, contribute to the structuring of identity and awareness of the potential of one's own body (rekaa, hanisch, & ytterhus, 2019). physical education conceived and experimented in this way puts into practice a didactic that becomes a tool for the metacognitive development of the body and mind, in a framework in which the subjects can recognize themselves in body and movement. the education of the body and movement is therefore aimed at a training process capable of allowing learners to achieve an ever-greater awareness of their body in movement in order to obtain that intrinsic pleasure and the achievement of cultural, social and expressive factors that identify the value aspect of motor activities (vilchez, kruse, puffer, & dudovitz, 2021). it follows that the educational process represents the tool through which the individual gives shape to his or her personal identity, integrating all those knowledge, skills and competencies that allow him or her to live and mature an increasingly complete self-awareness. the body and movement are, therefore, two fundamental elements of the individual and social dimension in the personal development of the individual, it follows that physical activities provide a special contribution to the creation and strengthening of skills that can be used in other contexts of life. within the didactic path of motor and sports education, due to the specific experiential characteristics of the discipline, the curriculum helps to develop transversal skills capable of making students capable of transforming the knowledge, attitudes and values acquired into real skills, such as "what to do" and "how to do it" in every circumstance of life (nilholm, 2021). this type of offer characterized by a multiplicity of accessible, interdisciplinary, situated, and immersive learning opportunities, based on plural and differentiated didactic mediations in their complementarity, represents the methodological framework within which the knowledge and skills global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 27 acquired through physical, and sports education can contribute to the development of educational and social equity. 3. physical education as a perspective for the development of individual potential physical education unquestionably assumes an educational value for everyone, able bodied and disabled; for the latter, play, movement, and sport take on an added value by giving visibility to their physical and cognitive abilities. every form of educational intervention stems from the teacher's ability to remove "obstacles", focusing on functional abilities and hypothesizing suitable, not adapted, educational proposals (kirk, 2019). the presence of a person with disabilities within a group changes relationships, relationships, balances, emotions on an intra and interpersonal level: there begins to be more collaboration, sharing and there is a tendency to face any obstacle in order to resolve the various conflicts. disability also produces advantages for able-bodied people to the extent that they are in an inclusive dimension that is not limited only to welcoming diversity. various didactic and educational strategies must be put in place in order to create a learning community, a community that manifests solidarity and sensitivity. everyone should perceive difference as a value or resource and not as a threat precisely because, when an individual meet someone "different" from yourself, you create a greater awareness of your identity. it is necessary to create a new educational paradigm, it is necessary to educate to the difference, to the other and to the different to create those effective conditions in which the subject can express his potential and the most hidden reactions (sulasmi, & akrim, 2019). it becomes necessary to identify the skills of the most "fragile" in order to enhance their abilities within the class group. the resulting didactic proposal will have to respond to the needs of the students, taking into account the conditions of extreme heterogeneity of the classes, aiming at the discovery of their own body and their motor and communication skills to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. starting from the assumption that every student needs, indifferently, appropriate educational proposals and that whatever the "difficulty", the educator will have to create the conditions of welcome and collaboration such as to allow adequate participation in the activity, motor and sports education could intervene as a facilitator of school learning in subjects with special educational needs. the person, the goal, and the context (rules and people) are the factors that unite the world of play and sport and the world of disability: everyone indiscriminately uses their skills and determination to achieve the same goal, that is, to reach the limit of their limits by overcoming obstacles. from this point of view, it is important to be able to train the teachers themselves in order to make them understand the real and personal needs of the students in order to create inclusive actions that can make the disabled person feel the protagonist of their own life project and no longer a simple spectator in which others play their game (opstoel et al., 2020). physical education, in fact, becomes effective when the focus is on the student and not on sport, when the teacher is able to motivate the student and create a positive teacher learner relationship, making him more and more autonomous in his activity and personal choices. the educational process and the related training project require an educational space in which motor and sports paths are flexible and personalized in relation to the characteristics and peculiarities of each subject, which allow not only to "overcome" the deficit but also to increase in each subject the awareness of his possibilities, thus contributing to the formation of his identity. it happens, in fact, that every student has special needs to be transformed into special desires and life prospects, as each subject is unique and unrepeatable, with his or her own experience and his or her own life project. the line to be taken is, therefore, that of "valuing differences in the awareness of diversity as an indispensable value" in order to confront the diversity of each student in a new learning environment that ensures convergence and balance between different global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 28 characteristics and needs and above all is able to change flexibly with changing attitudes, aspirations, environments, fragility and potential of the person (white et al., 2021). looking at the disabled person beyond their deficit means considering their life history by providing different possibilities for personalized and integrated growth. physical education is well suited to this training approach as motor activities allow you to "abandon the pressures of everyday life, have more bodily contact, be cooperative, resolve conflicts, get to know the other and, consequently, socialize with all people beyond disability" (juvonen, lessard, rastogi, schacter, & smith, 2019). physical education, as a training process, therefore, represents a real breaking down of social barriers, a tool capable of giving life to an innovative and mature paradigm based on the promotion of social inclusion. for the disabled person sharing the same experience, the same spaces and the same moments with others represents an opportunity for growth and social integration. physical education should be considered as a method of intervention in the difficult educational path and integration of the disabled person. the motor and sports field, in fact, is a favorable context for the development and consolidation of fundamental cognitive skills and, at the same time, the body, motor activity, games and recreational activities aimed at integration, become concrete and coherent educational tools for the affirmation of this paradigm. through motor activities, exploiting a psychoeducational intervention model that integrates the educational aspect with the psychological and relational one, it is possible to create the conditions for the subject with disabilities to benefit from a learning context, understood as growth and structuring of the personality (search for autonomy). this means, first of all, valuing the diversity of the student: difference is to be considered a resource and a richness and, in this sense, collaboration and teamwork are essential for everyone's growth (pangrazi, & beighle, 2019). sport and play, in addition to spreading the values of solidarity, loyalty, respect for the person and the rules, which are the founding principles of any healthy society, are extraordinary tools for building skills that can be transferred to other contexts of life. the organization of a competition, the definition of roles, the determination of timing, game strategies, are real intellectual skills that can be transferred to any context of life and represent skills that everyone should be able to put into practice when they must make decisions or prepare a program of action. movement activities are opportunities to privilege creativity and emotional investment because the educational perspective is to support the processes that lead to autonomy, the growth of self-esteem, the ability to initiative and selfawareness at various levels, physical and emotional. conclusions educating the person to become himself, also by concentrating on his bodily realization, means helping him to become aware of his being a whole person, which is expressed and fulfilled through movement, action. this means accompanying the subject to read the body not only as a set of muscle bundles to be controlled as such and therefore a mere expression of coordinative and conditional capacities, but to ensure that it grasps itself integrally in its total corporeality, which also involves relating to others. the body, as a co-builder of knowledge and self-knowledge, in its being "in situation", is correlated with motivation, with the intentionality that each global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number 8; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 29 subject puts into his action and not only with his mechanical action of a merely reproductive model. physical education, conducted in formal, nonformal and informal educational systems, calls for the acquisition of the person's awareness of his transformation as a bodily identity, in his existence, acting and perfecting himself. in this sense, pedagogical intentionality has as its peculiarity the feeling and becoming of bodies, embodied and embodied actions that give meaning and significance to the person's experience, including those who may show deficits and disabilities. physical education has, in essence, the purpose of allowing each and every one to develop their own personal life project according to an eco-systemic approach, using a multi-perspective vision in relation to the contribution that the different motor activities can offer in order to achieve a "formative" design. references brennan, a., king, f., & travers, j. 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(2021). teachers and school health leaders' perspectives on distance learning physical education during the covid‐19 pandemic. journal of school health, 91(7), 541–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13047 white, r. l., bennie, a., vasconcellos, d., cinelli, r., hilland, t., owen, k. b., & lonsdale, c. (2021). self-determination theory in physical education: a systematic review of qualitative studies. teaching and teacher education, 99, 103247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.1032 47 world health organization. (2020). physical activity. https://www.who.int/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13047 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103247 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103247 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 5; may-2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg.1 principals’ demographic variables and feces management practices in secondary schools in crossriver state, nigeria 1elijah eghong ivi article info abstract keywords: principal’s age, educational qualification, schools, feces management doi 10.5281/zenodo.15470567 safe management of feces and proper sanitation has become very important tissue in public secondary schools in nigeria as a result of its significant implication in the quality of life and health of both staff and students. this study therefore investigated, ‘principals’ demographic variables and feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state, nigeria’. to achieve this purpose of the study, two specific objectives were raised to guide the study, which was converted to two research questions and then transformed into two hypotheses. literature related to the sub-variables of the study was reviewed. the design used in this study was survey research design. this design was chosen because it provides quantitative information on the features of the whole population through a chosen sample. in addition, it permits inferences to be made and generalizations to be drawn from a representative sample of the population. the research area is cross river state, nigeria. the target population of the study was 273 principals of public secondary schools in the three education zones of cross river state (ministry of education, calabar, cross river state; 2015/2016 academic year). the instrument used for data collection was the questionnaire, which had two sections a and b. section a dealt with demographic information, whereas section b provided information related to the variables of the study (principals’ and their feces management practices).the cronbach alpha method was used to determine the reliability estimate of the instrument. the reliability coefficient ranged from 0.64 to 0.85. the data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and was interpreted accordingly. the findings of the study revealed that principals’ age significantly influences their feces management practices in secondary schools. furthermore, this study also showed that principals’ educational qualification level does not significantly influence feces management practices in secondary schools. it was recommended among others that the government should employ principals who are advanced in age and also have higher educational qualification in the running of secondary schools in cross river state to ensure proper management of feces and toilet facilities in their schools. 1department of environmental health, college of health technology, calabar,cross river state, nigeria e-mail: elijaheghong@yahoo.com orcid id: 0009-0009-2505-7162 phone number: +2347065681419 paper id gjear: 20250506266 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.2 introduction human feces and poor sanitation have been linked to the conveyance of numerous communicable ailments, such as cholera, typhoid, ascariasis, hepatitis, polio, and schistosomiasis, in the community. the world health organization reported that approximately 2.2million mortality occurring yearly, are due to diarrheal diseases and that tenth of the population in the third world countries are severely infected with intestinal worms associated with indiscriminate feces and waste disposal (harhay, horton & olliaro, 2010). juveniles are the most vulnerable to human feces transmitted diseases. studies conducted in third world countries show that collected fecal waste is released indiscriminately into the ambience causing deleterious health effects on aquatic and air pollution (gelaw, anagaw, nigussie, silesh & yirga, 2013). it is therefore momentous to study human feces especially in secondary schools in nigeria, to find solutions and to pre-empt related environmental health risks in the school environment. in nigerian secondary schools, especially in cross river state, it is not uncommon to see students urinate and defecate in open spaces and bushes around the school environment due to insufficient or sub-standard sanitary facilities with impunity. such actions contribute to environmental degradation and pollution. insanitary feces management, as well as deficiencies in other components of environmental sanitation, contributes significantly to the continuing high rate of feces related infections among secondary school students. principals of secondary schools must ensure proper sanitation and enforcement of school regulations to prevent hazards; health risks and environmental implications associated with feces related diseases in schools, especially boarding schools. age may serve as a determinant factor in the management of feces in secondary schools in nigeria. it is expected that principals that are older may manage toilet facilities in schools more effectively than younger ones based on their level of knowledge and proficiency. it is belief that principals who are older in ages may have enough ideas, skills and knowledge in the running of their schools than those younger ones who may have occupied such positions for the first time. okorie (2002) noted that principals’ personal characteristics such as age, marital status, teaching experience, academic qualifications, and sex cannot be disclosed from the way and manner in which the school is managed. in a study conducted to assess the knowledge and practice of secondary school students toward feces management practices in nigeria, it was discovered that educational status, age, and gender were factors influencing feces management practices in secondary schools (adeolu, enesi & adeolu, 2014). it was also observed that feces quality issues competed with the socioeconomic status of people and that the issues were more recognized by better educated and well-off residents. gender and age were found to be poor predictors of feces management (chanda, 1999). the effectiveness of feces management initiatives could be improved through the incorporation of an understanding of age differences and inequalities. demographic features such as age and education level of students had an insignificant impact on the choice of alternative feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. inadequate provision of toilet facilities and longer distances to these facilities increased the probability of defecation in open areas and bushes (tadesse, ruijs &hagos, 2008). educational qualification of principals of public secondary schools in nigeria may play a significant role on their feces management. this may be because some principals with higher educational qualifications in terms of certificates can influence their knowledge of feces management in their schools. facilities for academic and non-academic activities need to be properly put in place to provide an optimal sanitary environment that is safe and conducive for physical, mental, and emotional health of the students in order to achieve maximum benefits from educational programmes (joshua, 2004; vernon, 2003).human feces which form an important cause of environmental pollution, need to be properly disposed of through modern feces management methods that are global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.3 socially and culturally acceptable to the people (unicef, 2009; dworsky, 2007). principals with higher educational qualifications may also influence the ministry of education to provide most of these sanitary facilities in their schools. they may also encourage them to employ more workers who can assist in cleaning these facilities, especially toilets. apart from its availability, the facilities should proportionately meet the demands of the population of both students and members of staff in such schools. it has been observed that the combination of adequate facilities, correct behavioral practices and education is meant to have a positive impact on the health and hygiene conditions of schools. the success of a school feces management programme is therefore determined not only by the number of latrines constructed and the number of hand pumps installed, but also by the knowledge of better feces management practices adopted in schools by school principals (international water & sanitation center, 2004). ogbalu (2003) emphasized the need for health education regarding the proper management of feces in nigeria. he observed that many health hazards in nigeria, such as dysentery, typhoid, and cholera, have been associated with poor feces management practices. regular education for women and students is a prerequisite for change in sanitation behavior in secondary schools. if women are effectively educated on how to manage their feces sanitarily through the creation of awareness in their various schools, the feces generated can be successfully used for their own benefits as organic fertilizers in their farms (pacey, 2002). the researcher therefore sought to investigate principals’ demographic variables and feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state, nigeria. objectives of the study 1. to determine the extent to which the age of school principal’s influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. 2. to determine the extent to which principals’ educational qualification level influences feces management practices in the study area. research questions 1. to what extent does the age of school principals influence feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state? 2. to what extent does principals’ level of educational qualification influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state? research hypotheses 1. the age of school principals did not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. 2. principals’ level of educational qualification does not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. methods the design used in this study was survey research design. this design was chosen because it provides quantitative information on the features of the whole population through a chosen sample. in addition, it permits inferences to be made and generalizations to be drawn from a representative sample of the population. the research area is cross river state, nigeria. the target population of the study was 273 principals of public secondary schools in the three education zones of cross river state (ministry of education, calabar, cross river state; 2015/2016 academic year). the instrument used for data collection was the questionnaire, which had two sections: a and b. section a dealt with demographic information while section b provided information on the variables of the study (principals’ and their feces management practices).the cronbach alpha method was used to determine the reliability global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.4 estimate of the instrument. the reliability coefficient ranged from 0.64 to 0.85. the data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and was interpreted accordingly. results hypothesis one: the age of school principals does not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. table 1 summary of one-way analysis of variance of the influence of principals’ age on their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state age range n x sd below 40 years 5 14.40 1.95 between 41 and 45 42 14.26 2.54 between 46-50 141 14.61 2.30 above 51 82 15.52 2.64 source of variation ss df ms f sig. between groups 60.411 3 20.137 3.371 .019* within groups 1589.089 266 5.974 total: 1649.500 269 *significant at p < .05, f = 3.371. table 2 lsd comparison of principals’ age and feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state principals’ ages (i) principals’ ages (j) md sig. below 40 years between 41 and 45 years .138 .905 between 46-50 years -.217 .845 above 51 years -1.124 .319 between 41-45 below 40 -.138 .905 between 46-50 -.355 .409 above 51 -1.262* .007 between 46 and 50 below 40 .217 .845 between 41-45 .355 .409 above 51 -.907* .008 above 51 40 1.124 .319 between 41-45 1.262* .007 between 46-50 .907* .008 *= mean difference is significant at 0.05 level the independent variable was principals’ age categorized into 4 dimensions. the dependent variable was feces management practices. one-way analysis of variance was employed to test the hypothesis; the results are presented in table 1. the results from the data analysis in table 1 revealed that the age of the school principals significantly influence their feces management practices in their schools (f = 3.371, p < .05). meanwhile, comparing the mean ages of the principals for source of significance using the least square difference of the post-hoc comparison in table 2, it was revealed that there was a significant difference when principals of ages between 41-45 was compared with those of above 51 (mean difference = -1.26; p < .05). there was also a significant difference when principals of ages between 46 and 50 years were compared with those ages 51 and above (mean difference = -.907, p < .05). for principals aged below 40 years, there was no significant influence of the group. therefore, the findings of the study revealed that the age of principals aged 40 and above significantly influence their feces management practices in their schools in cross river state. with older global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.5 principals (above 51) maintaining appropriate feces management practices ( x = 15.52), followed by those of ages between 46 and -50 years ( x = 14.61). hypothesis two: principals’ level of educational qualification does not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. table 3 summary of one-way analysis of variance of the influence of principals’ level of educational qualification on their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state level of educational qualification n x sd b.ed/b.sc 194 14.80 2.504 m.ed/m.sc 68, 14.76 2.363 ph. d 8 16.13 2.696 total 270 14.83 2.476 source of variation ss df ms f sig. between groups, 13.833 2 6.917 1.129 .325 within groups: 1635 .667 267 6.126 total: 1649 .500 269 not significant at p > .05, f = 1.129 the independent variable was principals’ educational qualification levels categorized into three distinct groups (b.ed/b.sc, m.ed/m.sc and ph. d). the dependent variable was feces management practices. one-way analysis of variance was employed to test the hypothesis; the results are presented in table 3.the results from the data analysis in table 3 revealed that principals’ educational qualification level does not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. from table 3, it revealed that the higher the qualification in terms of certificate, the lower the number of the principals in their feces management practices in secondary schools ((b.ed/b.sc-194; m.ed/m.sc-68; ph. d-8). again, the result showed that the higher the qualification, the better the mean of the principals’ feces management practices (b.ed/b.sc-14.80; m.ed/m.sc-14.76; ph. d-16.13). this implies that principals with higher qualification in terms of certificates are better in their feces management practices. however, the mean difference in their practices of feces management as examined on their qualifications was not statistically significant (f = 1.129, p > .05). this therefore implies that the principals’ level of educational qualification does not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools; hence, the stated null hypothesis was accepted. discussions age of school principals and feces management practices in secondary schools. the findings of this hypothesis revealed that there was a positive significant influenced of age of school principals and their feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. the findings revealed in this study indicated that the age of secondary school principals significantly influenced their feces management practices in their schools (f = 3.371, p < .05). this finding was supported by the study carried out by tedesse, ruijs and hagos (2008), who stated that demographic features such as age, education and household size had an insignificant impact on the choice of alternative feces management methods, whereas poor, provision of toilets in schools significantly affected feces management choice. also, okorie (2002) notes that principal’s personal characteristics such as age; sex and teaching experience have positive influence in feces management practices in schools. chanda (1999) asserted a contrary opinion. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.6 the study opines that the age of principals did not significantly influence their notions toward feces management practices in schools. some authors expressed the opinion that age may serve as a determinant factor in the management of feces in secondary schools in nigeria. they added that administrators who were older to age usually used their experience accumulated over a long period of time to manage feces in their schools. this view was supported by sommer (2009), who stated that principals who are older in age acquired, accumulated knowledge and skills that enabled them to select the types of feces management methods to be adopted in their schools based on environmental conditions. the researcher also agreed with this finding of the study. he opines that the more principals advance in age, the more they acquired experiences, ideas, skills, and techniques of doing things. this may be positively transferred in the management of feces in their schools. he also stated that those principals who are younger in age may not have acquired lot of experiences to run the school system effectively as compared to the older ones. this has a significant impact on the management of feces in their schools. principals’ level of educational qualification and feces management practices in secondary schools the findings of this hypothesis revealed that principals’ educational qualification level did not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary schools. this assertion is a result of findings discovered in this study in that the higher the principals’ qualification in terms of certificate, the lower the number of the principals in their feces management practices (b.ed/b.sc-194; m.ed/m.sc-68; ph. d-8). again, the result showed that the higher the qualification, the better the principals’ in their feces management practices in the study area (b.ed/b.sc-14.80; m.ed/m.sc-14.76; ph. d-16.13). however, the mean difference in their feces management practices as examined on their qualification was not statistically significant (f = 1.129, p > .05). pacey (2002) held a contrary opinion in relation to the finding of the study. she opines that the more principals’ education level increases, the higher their awareness of the management of feces in schools. jatan (2013) opines that principals with holders of higher educational qualifications exhibit a positive attitude toward feces management through their level of exposure and awareness obtained. joshua (2004) reiterated that the educational qualifications of principals in public secondary schools in nigeria play a significant role in the management of feces in schools. principals with higher educational qualifications, especially in health-related fields, may be more knowledgeable in feces management. authors have supported the notion that principals with higher educational qualifications are appointed to control schools, and with this, they use their knowledge and experience to manage feces in their schools properly (ogbalu, 2003). principals with knowledge of environmental health and education have been observed to have a greater impact on the sustainable management of feces in their schools. this approach has helped principals to make the school environment have a good befitting outlook. the researcher disagrees with this finding of the study. he thought that the higher the qualification, the better the principals’ in their feces management practices in the study area (b.ed/b.sc-14.80; m.ed/m.sc-14.76; ph. d-16.13). this means that principals with higher academic qualifications perform better in the area of school administration and management of feces in their schools. conclusion based on the findings of the study, the researcher observed and discovered that principals’ age significantly influences their feces management practices in secondary schools. furthermore, this study showed that principals’ educational qualification level does not significantly influence feces management practices in secondary schools. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.7 he thought that the more principals advanced in age, the more they acquired experiences, ideas, skills, and administration techniques. this may be positively transferred in the management of feces in their schools. the higher the qualification, the better the principals’ in their feces management practices in secondary schools in the study area. this means that principals with higher academic qualifications perform better in the area of school administration and management of feces in their schools. the findings indicate that there was a significant influence of principals’ demographic variables and feces management practices in secondary schools in cross river state. recommendations based on the study findings, the following recommendations were made: 1. the government should appoint principals who are advanced in age in the running of secondary schools in cross river state to ensure proper management of feces and toilet facilities in their schools. 2. staff with higher educational qualifications should be recruited as school principals to ensure better feces management practices and proper sanitation in secondary schools. 3. principals should ensure that more toilet facilities are provided in schools for both sexes to prevent health risks among students and environmental implications arising from unsanitary practices. 4. principals should perform regular inspections and supervision of sanitary facilities in their schools for proper maintenance and to ensure that they are kept clean always to prevent feces related infections in schools. references adeolu, a. t.; enesi, d. o. & adeolu, m. o. (2014). assessment of secondary school students’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward waste management in ibadan, oyo state, nigeria. journal of research in environmental science and toxicology, 3 (5), 66-73. chanda, r. (1999). correlate and dimension of environmental quality concern among residence of an african subtropical city: gaborone, botswana. journal of environmental education, 2 (1), 30-45. dworsky, l. b. (2007). the nation and its water resources. united states public health service. usa: public health services publications. gelaw, a., anagaw, b., nigusse, b., silesh b. & yirga, a. (2013). prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections and risk factors among school children at the university of gondar community school, northwest ethiopia: across-sectional study. bmc public health, 13. m. o. harhay and j. horton. & olliaro, p. l. (2010). epidemiology and control of human gastrointestinal parasites in children. expert revelation anti-infection theory, 8:219-234. international water and sanitation center (isc), (2004). sustainability of hygiene behavior and the effectiveness of change interventions: lessons learned from research methodologies and research implementation from a multi-country study. joshua, m. t. (2004). secondary school: an assessment and evaluation resource paper presented at the national workshop on developing education: issues of standards and sustainability in secondary schools in nigeria. available at www.accs.org.uk. ministry of education (moe), (2016). cross river state ministry of education, 2015/2016 academic year. http://www.accs.org.uk/ global journal of education and allied research (gjear) 16 (5) pg.8 ogbalu, a. i. (2003). refuse management: the role of health education. environmental studies and research journal, 4 (2), 41-53. okorie, a.n. (2002). the comparison of the perceptions of school-based and centralized management administrators and teachers toward leadership practices. unpublished doctoral dissertation. baylor university, waco, texas. pacey, a. (2002). hygiene and literacy. in c. kerr (ed.). community health and sanitation. nigeria: intermediate technology publications. sommer, m. (2009). integrating menstrual hygiene management into school water, sanitation, and hygiene agenda: innovation, adaptation, and engagement in a changing world. briefing paper, water engineering and development center. lough borough, uk. tadesse, t., ruijs a., & hagos, f. (2008). household waste disposal in mekelle city, northern ethiopia. waste management journal, 28 (10), 2003-2012. unicef (2009). equity in school water and sanitation: overcoming exclusion and discrimination in south asia. from: www.washresources.wordpress.com. vernon, b. a. s. (2003). toilet facilities in schools. nursing times, 99 (19), 50-55. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 6; june-2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 9 overcoming the challenges of poverty to democracy through continuing education 1 emmanuel idowu ojobanikan email: emmanuel.ojobanikan@funai.edu.ng article info abstract keywords: continuing education; democracy; poverty, sustainable, good governance doi 10.5281/zenodo.15754723 the last two decades have witnessed increase in poverty level in nigeria with aftermath of insurgency, banditry, kidnapping and several calls for secession. the military is also under pressure to topple democratically elected government as a result of political abysmal and executive recklessness. in view of this situation, this paper highlights the pivotal roles of continuing education to re-orient leaders and the citizen for true democratic participation, political stability and sustainable democracy. it also underlines its strength in equipping every adult with relevant knowledge and skills for gainful employment, employment creation and self-reliance. adequately propagating appropriate continuing education could significantly contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable democracy. therefore, it is recommended that, continuing education should be integrated and deeply entrenched into all approaches and methodologies employed for adult and youth education for it to equip every adult with the needed skills and knowledge for self-employment, self-reliance, good citizen and leadership. furthermore, as good governance is critical to sustainable democracy, continuing education should cater for every administrator to refresh and update their knowledge and learn from other countries good governance that would maintain and sustain democracy. introduction poverty is a social phenomenon that affects people in terms of inability to meet the basic needs of life such as food, shelter and clothing. it is a concept that measures various dimensions of deprivation which ranges from social, economic and environmental to political deprivation (sharlamanov & petrusheva. 2022; guio, 2018). according to deveaux (2018), it is denial of rights and privileges through in-access to socioeconomic resources, political involvement and negotiations. this phenomenon is one of the major human social catastrophes of our time, coupled with environmental challenges, weighs deeply on our planet; ‘earth’ and the future of human race. 1 department of educational management and foundational studies, alex ekwueme federal university, ndufu-alike, ebonyi state, nigeria https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 10 in the last two decades, it has reached unmatched and impermissible height in nigeria, glaringly evident in abysmal decrease in economic index and trends, suffering and hardship among nigerians. the chronicity of poverty in nigeria remains misery. nigeria as a nation is endowed with many natural resources like crude oil and gold among others. aside being oil-producing nation, she is equally blessed with other natural and human resources that are enough to put her on the path of economic development and advancement (musibau, shittu, & yanotti, 2022). however, nigeria is submerged in extreme poverty in spite of her stupendous wealth. this has generated deep concerns and fears about the continued sustainable democratic process in nigeria, as poverty induced agitation and violent conflicts frequently sprout and spread across the country thus threatening the country’s sovereignty and oneness in the face of various secession agitations by various groups and tribes (awotokun, nwozor & olanrewaju, 2020). political stakeholders in nigerian democratic business seemed to be at crossroad on the means and ways to alleviate poverty, being generally regarded as monumental threat to a budding democratic process. majority of the population are craving for dividends of democracy as poverty index continually grows in the nation. there are regional outcry against impoverishment and marginalization. endless ethno-cultural associations and groups are being continuously formed to annex interest and demands for better share of the national resources, even when such demands are inimical to the basis of the country's democracy. it is no longer ambiguous that the rising cases of poverty in nigeria constitute serious danger to the democratization process. this paper therefore concerns itself with the highlights of the challenges posed by poverty to democracy in nigeria and how continuing education could play a paramount role. conceptual discourse are presented, the consequences of poverty on democracy is x-rayed, and suggestions for combating and reducing poverty across the length and breadth of country are also made with the major potential lying in continuing education to eradicate poverty and sustain democratic rule poverty globally, poverty is a phenomenon that spares no continent, nation and people but affects them differently. it impacts on people in different ways, dimensions and degrees. there is no nation without a taste of poverty, meaning that freedom from poverty in any given nation is rare. the difference is the intensity and prevalence among the people within time and place (bossert, chakravarty & ambrosio, 2019). poverty could be conceptualised as an acute state of deprivation in both social and economic sense. its extreme is seen in an individual or families who could not afford the minimum acceptable level of standard of living in their society. to this end, okolie, onyema & baseey (2019) described poverty inability of a person or group to acquire material resources for subsistence and protection of human dignities. the inability to provide physical needs leads to inability to take part in normal activities and possession of materials that could bring improvements in living conditions. similarly, olamejeye in oluwatusin and abolarin-egbebi (2015) put poverty as extent of difficulty experienced in making ends meet, especially daily basic needs. also, fabrizi & mussida (2020), revealed that poverty is marked by either total lack of or inadequate access to basic amenities that make life easy and livable. this brings dichotomy between the poor in the rural and urban areas through the types of food they eat and the environment they live in. gweshengwe & hassan (2020) posited that it is a way of life distinguishable by consumption of poor and imbalanced diets, low calories, lack of access to health care, poor educational, decrease in life expectancy, high infant and maternal mortality, poor income generation, youth unemployment and under-employment and lack of access to housing and other societal facilities. many studies have x-rayed the causes of poverty and revealed that the causes of poverty are many and varied. xie (2018) submitted that bad governance, mismanagement of public resources and laziness on the part of the citizens to hold leaders accountable could lead to poverty. rural-urban migration of various categories of people global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 11 (both unskilled, semiskilled, educated uneducated) in search of opportunities with unascertained assurance of better living in the city is one of the factors responsible for poverty. on many occasions, the migrants get to discover that they were only living in assumption and myths as unemployment, underpayment, retrenchment, high cost of living stare at them. many at times, the migrants end up squatting or living in the slums. porter (2019) also argued that socioeconomic status of parent at early life determines poverty status of children in most cases. that is, if the parents are poor, the children would suffer deprivation in many areas within the ages between toddler and teenage. in most cases, many children might not be able to get themselves out of the poverty status until they start working. therefore, some individuals inherited poverty from their parents. the consequences of poverty are numerous and enormous. it ranges from acute lack of material resources, recreational means, economic and political power, lack of self esteem, to isolation and social degradation. poverty gives rise to the rate of hunger, imbalanced diets and low-life expectancy, abuse of human sociopolitical rights, sicknesses and diseases, illiteracy and poor education, ignorance and hopelessness, uncertainty and all that creates a blinking human future (brooks-gunn, klebanov, liaw & duncan, 2021; duncan, magnuson & votruba-drzal, 2017; mood & jonsson, 2016). democracy democracy as a concept has no generally accepted definition. different people and scholars have discussed and interpreted it differently due to differences in ideology, culture and historical contextualization of the concept of democracy. the diverse adherents of different political philosophies and ideologies always enjoy the term ‘democratic’ because democracy comes with good and better life for the people. democracy as a form of government started in ancient greek -city states where adult males enjoyed same rights in direct participation in decision-making on matters affecting governance and their societies. the ‘direct’ democracy attained in greek citystates was attainable due to small population and geographical territories (kumar, 2017). in today's large societies and modern nation state with large population and geographical territories, institutionalization of democracy becomes imperative, hence, indirect and representative government. therefore, democracy has given opportunity for election of few who represent others on the principle of equal and universal franchise. o'donnell, cullell & iazzetta, (2016) described democracy as ‘set of rules, political ideologies and practices with responsibilities that allows participation in public and private affairs’. also, parvin (2018) perceived democracy ‘as the political and economic empowerment of the majority of the ordinary people for effective participation in the decisions that affect their lives, their individual and collective rights and the way in which their society is governed’. thus, effectiveness of democracy lies in the people’s actually involvement in decision-making on how they are being governed. the current situation in some quarters where majority of the people are only recognized during election to formalize democratic rituals is an aberration and inimical to acceptable and meaningful democracy. participation of the generality of the people in decision-making is based on availability of qualitative information cannot be undermined in any democratic process that would be regarded as a real democracy. accordingly, lyayi (2002), opined that democracy only exists, when rural populations participate fully in decision-making and the leadership do not ascribe all wisdom to itself for manipulation or hoard information but rather provide quality information for group power and debate before decision is made. finally, true democracy engenders an appreciable level of socioeconomic development that could facilitate people's basic potential and means to be involved and participate in social and political activities in their societies (dahl, 2023). democracy must include the right of people to fulfill their social, economic and political aspirations (dewey, 2024). the question therefore is, “does the environment exist in nigeria for the above democratic practices to thrive". global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 12 continuing education continuing education is such an important concept in education that all fields of education, medicine, agriculture and beyond are allying with it on daily basis in other to push forward frontier of knowledge and encourage progression in learning, research and science for sustainable development (blossfeld & von maurice, 2019). it is a process of ongoing learning and professional development that an individual engaged in irrespective of the initial contact with education (formal) (mlambo, silén, & mcgrath, 2021; hussain, alhassan & kamba, 2013). it involves acquisition of new knowledge, skills, and competencies to be up-to-date and relevant with the work place developments especially in technology and technical know-how continuing education is a form of adult education that means to carry forward and progress earlier gained. it is similar to lifelong learning a mindset of continuous learning and self-improvement and usually within and outside the formal school system (rubenson, 2019; laal, laal & aliramaei, 2014). osuji in hussain, alhassan, & kamba (2013), submitted that continuing education is educating and re-educating, training and re-training chances for out-of-school individuals irrespective of class and status for them to cope with new demands of life. continuing education programmes are likely not to be on full time basis but rather part time such as evening classes, night classes, weekend programmes, summer programme, vacation classes, or even self studies in their homes through correspondence study or through blended learning of synchronous and asynchronous (billett, 2020). to laal, laal & aliramaei (2014), it is summarily a post secondary school learning for all and sundry. continuing education programmes specifically meant to address recognized and pinpointed needs thus the possibility of associating continuing education with vocational, occupational skills development. thus, the benefits of continuing education are numerous and overwhelming. it cut across aspects of human endeavours. it benefits the individuals, organizations and the society at large. through continuing education, individuals could achieve personal and professional growth, stay competitive, and enhance their overall well-being. these benefits are limitless and include; career advancement and competitiveness, enhanced job satisfaction and performance, increased earning potential, apt ability to changing work environments, networking opportunities, personal growth and fulfillment, industrial relevance with industry developments, trends, and best practices and job security (blossfeld & von maurice, 2019; knowles, holton iii, & swanson, 2014; laal, laal, & aliramaei, 2014; hobbs, 2010) continuing education, poverty and democracy in nigeria the issue and challenges of poverty in nigeria is endemic and overwhelming that the people could not examine their culture to see if there are elements that prevent fairness, equitable and true democracy. 2023-2024 human development report (hdr), revealed a grim picture of poverty in nigeria. the highlights of the human development index were that life expectancy was 56.05 years, infant mortality stood at 53.67 deaths per 1000 live births, 50 % of children less than 5 years of age were stunted due to imbalanced diets and only 53% of the adult population was literate. other highlights were that 70% and 53% of the population had no access to portable water and healthcare respectively. the summary was that over 60% of the population lived below the absolute poverty level of $ 1 per person in a day and 39.9% living below the international extreme poverty line of $2.15 per person per day (world bank group, 2024). several administrations in the past and present (both military and democratic) have made frantic moves to eradicate poverty in nigeria with each administration implementing programmes and establishing agencies to address the ugly situation but little has been achieved. some of these initiatives are; operation feed the nation (ofn) of 1976, green revolution (gr) of 1980s), directorate for food, roads and rural infrastructures (dfrri) and poverty alleviation programme. worthy of note is the late yar'adua's 7 point agenda which had wealth creation and poverty alleviation as parts of its features. in spite of all these interventions, abundant global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 13 resources and oil wealth of the nation, 70% of the population live below the poverty line and 35% live in abject poverty (ojobanikan, 2019). ever increasing and unabated poverty propelled by massive unemployment, is a clog to the wheel of nigeria nation pursuit of true and sustainable democracy (oluwatusin, &abolarin-egbebi, 2015). individual or group denied of basic material needs would find it impossible to participate fully in any democratic political process. as poverty renders people poor and incapable of being a full-fledged social being, denied of freedom to fulfill his/her aspirations, one could therefore conclude that poverty hinders true and sustainable democracy. consequently, many people bury their heads in struggle for daily economic survival rather than engaging in abstract term democracy, which brings no food to their table at the moment. nigeria’s reward system, perhaps the global poorest, contributes to poverty of majority (manjo, 2023). workers ‘pay per month of n70, 000.00 is one of the poorest in the world over which could not feed a family of 4 successfully for two weeks in the present economic realities in nigeria (international social alternative (isa), 2024). the retired are dying while waiting for their retirement benefits, consequently incapacitating an important segment of the society. to get daily living thus becomes a difficult task, resulting in disillusionment and apathy among the citizens. for the sustainability of a democracy like ours, a vibrant civil society is a sine qua non. a situation whereby workers wages do not sustain them, do not help the cause of democratization in nigeria, as it could lead to poverty, inequality, and weak civic participation. omar & hasanujzaman, (2021) reported strong multi-faceted linkages between poverty, education and democratization. therefore, illiteracy and its consequents; ignorance and inferiority complex adversely affect effective participation of nigerians, mostly the poor persons, in political process. in view of limited access to sources of information about political process, the poor illiterates that constitute majority in nigerian societies cannot contribute effectively to the decision making process, that thereafter affects their lives through the outputs (policies) of the political process. hence, depriving the people of effective decision making power is the bane of democracy in the country (nwinya, 2024). liberal democracy thus becomes the business of the state while the people are pushed aside. the few privileged ruling elites dictate the pace of things in society and control individuals who participate in the government processes, all to the access to economic power they have, which the poor nigerians absolutely lack. this situation has continually subdued the poor to the manipulation of the rich. this further underscores why the unemployed youths are recruited as political thugs and militias during electioneering campaigns and elections to serve the political interest of the rich for stipends. and upon elected into positions of power, the rich quickly and completely forgot the poor youths, only to be remembered in another elections period. it has been observed and confirmed that when a politician buys his way into office, he becomes irresponsible and unacceptable to the electorate; after all, he has paid and fed them for their services once and for all during the election (szwarcberg, 2015). in addition, corruption contributed immensely to impoverishment of the people. nigeria is a nation where political leaders that have access to the national treasury convert public funds for private use, a nation with parliamentarians that works to undermine anti-corruption campaign, and it is a society with a highly corrupt judiciary. political corruption is a pandemic in nigeria conspicuously visible in bureaucratic and electoral malpractices, bribery, fraud, embezzlement, extortion, favoritism and nepotism within the political scene. public officials thrown away service to humanity (caiden, 2019). this is the more reason why various poverty alleviation initiatives which were highly politicized and used to throw money to party loyalists failed, furthering ordinary nigerians distrusting the democratic process. as the country battles various social vices, insurgency and secession threat occasioned by poverty among other factors, global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 14 it would be of great advantage to embrace continuing education to address firstly the menace of ignorance and poverty and thereby manage secession threats of the most populous and largest africa nation. globally, continuing education is vital to democracy survival because it informed citizenship. continuing education helps citizens stay informed about political issues, fostering informed decision-making, critical thinking, information analysis and informed choices. it also helps civic engagement and participation in the democratic process, adaption to changing social, economic, and political landscapes. it empowers citizens to advocate for their rights, hold elected officials accountable, and participate in public discourse. it instills democratic values like tolerance, pluralism, and respect for diversity. it gives opportunities to the marginalized groups, fostering political literacy, encourages active citizenship essential for a healthy democracy and ensuring democratic renewal (baça, 2023). in nigeria particularly, continuing education could be of immense benefit to the democratic process if embraced and appropriately propagated. by prioritizing continuing education, nigeria can strengthen its democratic institutions, promote active citizenship, and ensure a more informed and engaged citizenry. it would build capacity, skills and knowledge for effective governance and leadership. it would encourage active citizenship fostering a sense of responsibility and engagement among citizens. it would support democratic reforms by educating citizens on democratic reforms and their role in implementing change (kahne, hodgin & eidmanaadahl, 2016). in the fight against poverty for democratic survival, continuing education plays important roles. it brings about poverty reduction by enhancing employability through acquisition of new skills and knowledge to secure better paying jobs, become employers of labour by developing entrepreneurial skills to start and manage businesses in individuals. improved education and skills increases earning potentials and income. it also brings about improved health status. it gives opportunities to access health education and information for better health participation and outcomes. financial literacy through continuing education brings informed decisions. by prioritizing continuing education, individuals and communities can break the cycle of poverty and achieve sustainable economic growth and development as it helps individuals and communities in acquiring skills and knowledge to improve livelihoods, adapt to changing economic environments and improve overall well-being (woessmann, 2016)) conclusion it is not deniable that poverty and democracy have a high level of correlation and they influence each other in great dimensions. indeed, high rate of poverty creates public indifference and apathy in democratic process, as democracy that is expected to improve quality of life for the citizens through its dividends has turned out to be a profound failure in nigeria nation. however, the situation can be changed through appropriate strategy continuing education. it is therefore recommended that; the educational policies should be reviewed to place importance on continuing education for all and sundry irrespective of class and status to address the hyper inflation rates, unemployment, food insecurity and poverty in the country. also policies must provide more than capacity building for the people by creating capabilities that match access to opportunities. in this connection, government should establish adult and continuing education centres in the rural communities for the rural community dwellers to update their knowledge and upgrade their skills for self employment, self-reliance and sustainable development in agriculture, technologies and social investment. it would foster linkages between self-reliance, assertiveness, civility and sustainable democracy. furthermore, the out of school children and youths from both primary and secondary should be catered for in the propagation of the continuing education to forestall illiteracy and aftermath effect of thuggery and touting that is dangerous to democracy. also, there should be increase in public funding of continuing education in the global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 15 area of vocational education for women and youths to enhance empowerment. the vocational training centers should enhance and equip youths specifically, for self-employment and reliance. more also, good governance is critical to sustainable democracy, continuing education would allow every administration to refresh and update their knowledge and learn from others, the principles of good governance that would maintain and sustain democracy. references awotokun, k., nwozor, a., & olanrewaju, j. 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(2024). poverty and equity brief – nigeria. retrieved september 16, 2024, from https://datacatalogfiles.worldbank.org/ddh-published/0064942/dr0092448/global_poveq_nga.pdf http://repository.pgcollegeui.com:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/735 https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.7419 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112579 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-017-9382-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-019-09776-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-019-09776-2 https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2015.1059801 https://datacatalogfiles.worldbank.org/ddh-published/0064942/dr0092448/global_poveq_nga.pdf global journal of education and allied research vol. 16 (6) pg. 18 xie, j. (2018). research on the performance and governance of the “lazy government” by the unit leader. open journal of social sciences, 6, 106–118. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2018.61008 https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2018.61008 global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 1 fostering educational equity and social participation through inclusive pedagogy dr. alessandra maria conti and prof. giovanni luca ferraro department of education and human sciences, niccolò cusano university, rome, italy keywords: learning; inclusion; special pedagogy. abstract today more than ever, the activation of inclusive projects through the contribution offered by physical education is essential to implement a strong alliance between school and extra-school, between school and family in order to activate a positive contamination of universal and timeless values of motor activities. this becomes essential since the structuring of society requires a cultural and social pact that guarantees in all formal and non-formal environments the learning of skills that could transform children's lives. it is for this reason that physical activity cannot be for the benefit of a few because the aggregative moments that it can express often become a real lifeline for many young people. in this context, acting through inclusive teaching makes it possible to value and capitalize on the individual differences present in all pupils, with particular attention to situations in which these differences create significant barriers to learning and participation in social life. in fact, for some time now it has ceased to be considered as an access lane only for students with disabilities or special educational needs, qualifying as a quality teaching for all. we can increasingly consider it as a style of teaching, a daily educational and didactic orientation. introduction one of the main themes of contemporary educational discussion is the concept of school inclusiveness, which is achieved when the school becomes a learning environment that ensures the educational success of all students, no one excluded. an inclusive school is a school that thinks and designs with everyone in mind, starting from the modification of the context and not acting only on the subject, but finding specific strategies, suitable for the disability and, at the same time, useful to the community. in inclusive schools, all students as persons have the right and dignity to personalize and individualize. the italian school today is called upon to respond to the different and specific needs of each individual student. the current guidelines in the pedagogical and didactic field, in fact, affirm the dignity of diversity, enhancing it as a resource for the entire class group, capable, through the enhancement of the potential of each one, to become an inclusive class. in this sense, the disabled partner becomes an asset, a resource and even a strength because it allows you to measure yourself against your limits and potential (brennan, king, & travers, 2021; óskarsdóttir, donnelly, turnercmuchal, & florian, 2020). global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 2 to achieve this goal, the school must necessarily involve all those who play a decisive role in the learning processes (teachers, school managers, students and families, local authorities) and take advantage of all the resources and educational opportunities useful for carrying out interventions that aim not to separate, distinguish, and highlight the diversity of each student, but to include, valuing and harmonizing differences (pozoarmentia, reyero, & gil cantero, 2020). in the 1970s in italy, the closure of special schools (law 517/1977) led to the inclusion of disabled pupils in mainstream classes. over the years and the advancement of pedagogical research, the term "insertion" was considered too static and incapable of expressing the work of coeducation existing among the pupils. for this reason, we moved on to talk about "integration", a term that better expressed the idea that the disabled classmate was not only physically present in the classroom, but shared the teaching activity of his classmates, integrating, precisely, into the work of the class with the necessary modifications, reductions, adaptations, and the support of the support teacher (kefallinou, symeonidou, & meijer, 2020). from the mid-1990s, however, people began to question the value of the term "integration", which risked taking on negative, purely compensatory connotations, forgetting unique aspects related to the person, such as originality, authenticity, and freedom. the term "inclusion" was born, with the intention of highlighting a mutual permeability and exchange between pupils with different potentials within the same class. the concept of inclusiveness, as we understand it today, is therefore nothing more than the result of a slow and gradual evolution of the original concept of "tailor-made school", based on the centrality of the child, already typical of rousseau, pestalozzi, fröbel and aporti, and which takes the form of innovative educational proposals and pedagogical theorizations by particularly significant pedagogues of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries attentive to learning environments and development psychocognitive and social, disability and the child's emotionality (stentiford, & koutsouris, 2021). inclusion thus becomes a two-way phenomenon, in which not only the disabled classmate adapts to the behavior of the non-disabled classmates, but also the whole class must strive to adapt and understand the partner's disability, learning and changing through experience with people with disabilities and vice versa. the new term "inclusion", therefore, refers to a process, a philosophy of acceptance, such as the ability to provide a framework within which pupils can be equally valued, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities. it is a comprehensive approach, not only centered on the individual disabled person, but which is aimed at all pupils and all their potential (hansen, carrington, jensen, molbæk, & secher schmidt, 2020). the inclusion of students with disabilities in italian schools has been implemented for forty years in regular schools and normal classes and is achieved through the individualization and personalization of educational activities, starting from the differences and potential of each disabled student, valued in the context of the class group. 1. the inclusive didactic approach inclusive teaching is the teaching of all, which is based on personalization and individualization through active, participatory, constructive, and affective methodologies. the quality of inclusive global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 3 teaching is determined by educational reflexivity and intentionality, by the search for alternative motivations and hypotheses, by the ability to change perspectives of meaning and to produce transformative learning (dematthews, serafini, & watson, 2021). as pennac (2010) argues, "each student plays his own instrument, there is nothing to be done. the difficult thing is to get to know our musicians well and find harmony. a good class is not a regiment marching in step, it is an orchestra playing the same symphony." inclusive teaching is, therefore, a teaching conceived, designed and planned, from the beginning, based on individual variability, capable of being accessible for all students and not only for some with special educational needs. designing in an inclusive way means thinking, whatever the content to be conveyed, of personalized, multi-modal, and multilevel forms of teaching, because each student faces learning at different levels and ways, thus avoiding "path emergencies" that force, a posteriori, to modify what has been designed for an "ideal class", thus avoiding loss of effectiveness of the teaching action itself. poorly designed and poorly conducted teaching can run the risk of creating barriers to learning itself (graham, 2020). inclusive teaching is therefore an innovative and flexible teaching "style" that facilitates the participation, enhancement, and educational success of all students. inclusive teaching challenges teachers to develop a wide repertoire of teaching strategies that are considered effective, not only for pupils with special needs, but for everyone. this means that every teacher can improve their effectiveness, first of all by knowing and then using, monitoring and evaluating the best strategy, so as to help students become more effective learners themselves. there is a lot of research that shows how meta-cognitive, cooperative strategies, the strengthening of social and emotional skills, as well as the creation of a positive classroom climate, are essential for inclusive teaching. developing a broad repertoire of effective strategies is essential as long as they reflect knowledge of the characteristics, needs of students and environmental circumstances, as well as teachers' professional and personal knowledge and skills (garg, & sharma, 2020; sleeter, & zavala, 2020). in addition to the dimension of effectiveness with respect to methodological-didactic choices and actions to be made, an inclusive teacher cannot forget the importance of relational and emotional skills. numerous studies show that teachers' appropriate mental attitude, emotional closeness, and ability to give appropriate and positive feedback to students are decisive elements for their academic success and the creation of a good classroom climate. the training of teachers with respect to their social and emotional skills, in an inclusive school context, certainly cannot be underestimated. the quality of the classroom climate (made up of relationships and emotional experiences) is crucial for the success of students, who learn best when they are in an emotionally safe and predictable environment, which motivates them and stimulates them towards positive and inclusive goals (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). the concept of inclusivity in contemporary schools goes beyond disability, learning disorders, explicit difficulties in integration and behavior and concerns all pupils with respect to whom it is necessary to give different answers for their educational needs. the goal of inclusive teaching is, in fact, to make all students reach the global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 4 highest possible degree of learning and social participation, enhancing the differences present in the class. unesco's guidelines for integration policies in education (2009) emphasize that: "inclusive schooling is a process of strengthening the capacities of the education system to reach all students. [...]. an inclusive school system can only be created if mainstream schools become more inclusive." in other words, if they become better at educating all the children in their community. for pupils with certified disabilities, on the other hand, legislative decree no. 66 of 13 april 2017 lays down specific rules for the promotion of their full school integration. in particular, it refers to the so-called plan for inclusion that each school must prepare to overcome all those factors that may hinder its implementation, for the coordinated use of resources and to design specific improvement interventions. the inclusion plan must include an analysis of strengths and weaknesses, objectives to increase inclusiveness for the following school year, resources (support teachers, assistants, contact persons), methodologies, methods of involving families, relations with local social and health services that are intended to be activated, actions for the acquisition and distribution of additional resources for the implementation of inclusion projects, the preparation of interventions for entry into the school system, continuity between the different levels of school and future integration into the world of work (ciyer, 2010). the inclusive school, therefore, equips itself in a synergistic way to propose multiple educational and didactic strategies, according to a holistic approach, which considers the student as a complex and multidimensional person with his or her own socio-cultural and biological characteristics, and aims at the overall development of the potential and skills of each one for the achievement of the highest possible level of learning and socialization. to achieve this, however, schools must have the courage to renounce the standardization of teaching (kinsella, 2020). it must allow all its members to feel part of a community in which the same educational ideals are shared, the individuality of all its members is respected, each with his or her own interests, needs and talents, and offers multiple possibilities and formative opportunities, so that each one can realize his or her aspirations. fundamental to this new vision of the school is respect for the right to selfdetermination and to the construction of future life projects adapted to the potential of each and everyone, to the aspirations of families and to the new demands of society and culture. the school intends to achieve these important educational objectives with the collaboration of families with whom it is necessary to share, in respect of roles and specific responsibilities, objectives, goals and strategies for the healthy growth of young people. an inclusive systemic vision must also consider the contributions that can come from collaboration with other public and private entities, and from associations operating in the area and that are able to contribute to ensuring the educational success of students (kim, yi, & hong, 2021; miller et al., 2022; stinken-rösner et al., 2020). in the process of individualization of teaching, activities are provided for disabled pupils so that it is possible to achieve knowledge and skills common to the rest of the class. common objectives, therefore, to the class group, but different, individualized methodologies, which consider the potential, skills, and personal abilities of the disabled student, which become a global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 5 resource, trying to eliminate the factors that originate or maintain the difficulty. personalized teaching, on the other hand, provides for the achievement of objectives that are different from those of the class, because they are built ad hoc on the disability of the individual student, enhancing his or her strengths. in this way, by specifically considering the different ability of the pupil as a peculiarity of his own, the pupil will be given the opportunity to develop his full potential and give him the opportunity to transmit his different ability to others (väyrynen, & paksuniemi, 2020). to interpret inclusion as a "day-to-day" way of managing classrooms, training must be aimed at both support teachers and all curriculum teachers. indications and guidelines remind us that diversity poses a great challenge to didactic and educational action, such as being able to face it, having adequate skills in inclusive teaching strategies, in order to respond adequately not only to the needs of disabled pupils or with specific learning disorders, with other difficulties or developmental disorders and with social and cultural disadvantage, but also emphasizing the quality of learning of all pupils (sturm, 2019). a key aspect is also that of "taking charge" of the student, which must be carried out by the entire "educating community", avoiding processes of delegation to the support teacher alone. hence, therefore, the need for targeted, specific, modular training interventions that consider the different starting levels of those who access training and, above all, based on a participatory vision of inclusion and oriented towards cooperation and cooperative teaching (mihajlovic, 2020). nevertheless, the school, which for over forty years has been trying to be a welcoming and inclusive context, today feels it must oppose the adverse pressures that come from the outside with a decisive and constructive commitment to inclusion. these educational ideals are expressed through pedagogical challenges from which the school cannot move away. learning and teaching practices can guide inclusive actions in the classrooms, through participation, cooperation, interdependence, and laboratory methodology. 2. physical education as a means of inclusion the stimulating encounter between physical activity and the world of disability takes place starting from the origins of school inclusion. physical education, in fact, is one of the school disciplines that contributes decisively to the formation of one's bodily identity, personality and the acquisition of communicative-relational skills (demchenko, maksymchuk, bilan, maksymchuk, & kalynovska, 2021). it is considered fundamental for the harmonious development of the personality and for the formation of citizens capable of expressing themselves and relating in today's world, so much so that it has been defined as a "hinge discipline between the scientific, communicative and expressive, relational and citizenship fields" (miur, 2018). physical education promotes selfknowledge and one's potential in a constant relationship with the environment, others, and objects. it also contributes to the formation of the student's personality through the knowledge and awareness of one's own bodily identity, as well as the continuous need for movement as a constant care of one's person and well-being. motor activities provide students with opportunities to reflect on the changes in their bodies, to accept them and live them serenely as an expression of each person's growth and maturation process (sánchez, de haro-rodríguez, & martínez, global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 6 2019). they also offer opportunities to reflect on the significance of self-image in comparison with peers. the primary objective of physical education is, in fact, to promote the growth of physically educated people through the acquisition of skills, such as motor skills, knowledge, socio-affective behaviors and motivations such that they are urged to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles based on awareness of the bodily (haegele, 2019). this orientation frames the discipline in a holistic approach, which identifies among its main purposes the physical, cognitive, and social development of children, together with the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, assigning it the role of a privileged tool for the structuring of personality, social relationships and for the acquisition of the necessary life skills throughout life. it is for this reason that physical education is proposed as an essential element for integrated growth. it follows that, through a conscious pedagogical orientation aimed at proposing significant motor experiences and the acquisition of new skills, it is necessary to promote an adequate motor planning that correlates with a coherent pedagogical intentionality, in order to adequately define motor action and to attribute a fair value to it. therefore, education through the body and movement cannot be linked to didactic strategies linked only to doing but must also and above all be realized in a condition linked to the deepest meaning of being a person acting in the environment (hutzler, meier, reuker, & zitomer, 2019). starting from these assumptions, the school must, therefore, become the ideal setting in which to build a didactic of motor and sports activities that looks at the educational conception of the body and movement understood as a factor of promotion not only of the aspects of self-construction but also as an educational exercise for the acquisition of healthy lifestyles that allow to improve the wellbeing and health of the individual. in this sense, it becomes necessary to integrate in the teaching practice both the purely physical and the sociorelational aspects, in order to allow a global taking charge of the psychophysical health of the subject. physical education must, therefore, necessarily become essential to the formation of young people. in fact, it contributes to their growth both in structural terms and to the formation of the self that concerns the body, its potential and its limits, its position in physical space, its perception in relation to others, its image. it also plays a crucial role in directing motivation to improve one's individual skills and selfdetermination in achieving psycho-physical wellbeing. therefore, it not only has the educational value that contributes to the development of motor skills, abilities, and competences, but also and above all the value of all those activities that, through movement, contribute to the structuring of identity and awareness of the potential of one's own body (rekaa, hanisch, & ytterhus, 2019). physical education conceived and experimented in this way puts into practice a didactic that becomes a tool for the metacognitive development of the body and mind, in a framework in which the subjects can recognize themselves in body and movement. the education of the body and movement is therefore aimed at a training process capable of allowing learners to achieve an ever-greater awareness of their body in movement in order to obtain that intrinsic pleasure and the achievement of cultural, social and expressive factors that identify the value aspect of motor activities global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 7 (vilchez, kruse, puffer, & dudovitz, 2021). it follows that the educational process represents the tool through which the individual gives shape to his or her personal identity, integrating all those knowledge, skills and competencies that allow him or her to live and mature an increasingly complete self-awareness. the body and movement are, therefore, two fundamental elements of the individual and social dimension in the personal development of the individual, it follows that physical activities provide a special contribution to the creation and strengthening of skills that can be used in other contexts of life. within the didactic path of motor and sports education, due to the specific experiential characteristics of the discipline, the curriculum helps to develop transversal skills capable of making students capable of transforming the knowledge, attitudes and values acquired into real skills, such as "what to do" and "how to do it" in every circumstance of life (nilholm, 2021). this type of offer characterized by a multiplicity of accessible, interdisciplinary, situated, and immersive learning opportunities, based on plural and differentiated didactic mediations in their complementarity, represents the methodological framework within which the knowledge and skills acquired through physical, and sports education can contribute to the development of educational and social equity. 3. physical education as a perspective for the development of individual potential physical education unquestionably assumes an educational value for everyone, able bodied and disabled; for the latter, play, movement, and sport take on an added value by giving visibility to their physical and cognitive abilities. every form of educational intervention stems from the teacher's ability to remove "obstacles", focusing on functional abilities and hypothesizing suitable, not adapted, educational proposals (kirk, 2019). the presence of a person with disabilities within a group changes relationships, relationships, balances, emotions on an intra and interpersonal level: there begins to be more collaboration, sharing and there is a tendency to face any obstacle in order to resolve the various conflicts. disability also produces advantages for ablebodied people to the extent that they are in an inclusive dimension that is not limited only to welcoming diversity. various didactic and educational strategies must be put in place in order to create a learning community, a community that manifests solidarity and sensitivity. everyone should perceive difference as a value or resource and not as a threat precisely because, when an individual meet someone "different" from yourself, you create a greater awareness of your identity. it is necessary to create a new educational paradigm, it is necessary to educate to the difference, to the other and to the different to create those effective conditions in which the subject can express his potential and the most hidden reactions (sulasmi, & akrim, 2019). it becomes necessary to identify the skills of the most "fragile" in order to enhance their abilities within the class group. the resulting didactic proposal will have to respond to the needs of the students, taking into account the conditions of extreme heterogeneity of the classes, aiming at the discovery of their own body and their motor and communication skills to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. starting from the assumption that every student needs, indifferently, appropriate educational proposals and that whatever the "difficulty", the educator will have to create the conditions of welcome and global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 8 collaboration such as to allow adequate participation in the activity, motor and sports education could intervene as a facilitator of school learning in subjects with special educational needs. the person, the goal, and the context (rules and people) are the factors that unite the world of play and sport and the world of disability: everyone indiscriminately uses their skills and determination to achieve the same goal, that is, to reach the limit of their limits by overcoming obstacles. from this point of view, it is important to be able to train the teachers themselves in order to make them understand the real and personal needs of the students in order to create inclusive actions that can make the disabled person feel the protagonist of their own life project and no longer a simple spectator in which others play their game (opstoel et al., 2020). physical education, in fact, becomes effective when the focus is on the student and not on sport, when the teacher is able to motivate the student and create a positive teacher learner relationship, making him more and more autonomous in his activity and personal choices. the educational process and the related training project require an educational space in which motor and sports paths are flexible and personalized in relation to the characteristics and peculiarities of each subject, which allow not only to "overcome" the deficit but also to increase in each subject the awareness of his possibilities, thus contributing to the formation of his identity. it happens, in fact, that every student has special needs to be transformed into special desires and life prospects, as each subject is unique and unrepeatable, with his or her own experience and his or her own life project. the line to be taken is, therefore, that of "valuing differences in the awareness of diversity as an indispensable value" in order to confront the diversity of each student in a new learning environment that ensures convergence and balance between different characteristics and needs and above all is able to change flexibly with changing attitudes, aspirations, environments, fragility and potential of the person (white et al., 2021). looking at the disabled person beyond their deficit means considering their life history by providing different possibilities for personalized and integrated growth. physical education is well suited to this training approach as motor activities allow you to "abandon the pressures of everyday life, have more bodily contact, be cooperative, resolve conflicts, get to know the other and, consequently, socialize with all people beyond disability" (juvonen, lessard, rastogi, schacter, & smith, 2019). physical education, as a training process, therefore, represents a real breaking down of social barriers, a tool capable of giving life to an innovative and mature paradigm based on the promotion of social inclusion. for the disabled person sharing the same experience, the same spaces and the same moments with others represents an opportunity for growth and social integration. physical education should be considered as a method of intervention in the difficult educational path and integration of the disabled person. the motor and sports field, in fact, is a favorable context for the development and consolidation of fundamental cognitive skills and, at the same time, the body, motor activity, games and recreational activities aimed at integration, become concrete and coherent educational tools for the affirmation of this paradigm. through motor activities, exploiting a psychoeducational intervention model that integrates the educational aspect with the global journal of education and allied research| issn: 2837-3707 volume. 6, number11; november-2021 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear pg | 9 psychological and relational one, it is possible to create the conditions for the subject with disabilities to benefit from a learning context, understood as growth and structuring of the personality (search for autonomy). this means, first of all, valuing the diversity of the student: difference is to be considered a resource and a richness and, in this sense, collaboration and teamwork are essential for everyone's growth (pangrazi, & beighle, 2019). sport and play, in addition to spreading the values of solidarity, loyalty, respect for the person and the rules, which are the founding principles of any healthy society, are extraordinary tools for building skills that can be transferred to other contexts of life. the organization of a competition, the definition of roles, the determination of timing, game strategies, are real intellectual skills that can be transferred to any context of life and represent skills that everyone should be able to put into practice when they must make decisions or prepare a program of action. movement activities are opportunities to privilege creativity and emotional investment because the educational perspective is to support the processes that lead to autonomy, the growth of self-esteem, the ability to initiative and selfawareness at various levels, physical and emotional. conclusions educating the person to become himself, also by concentrating on his bodily realization, means helping him to become aware of his being a whole person, which is expressed and fulfilled through movement, action. this means accompanying the subject to read the body not only as a set of muscle bundles to be controlled as such and therefore a mere expression of coordinative and conditional capacities, but to ensure that it grasps itself integrally in its total corporeality, which also involves relating to others. the body, as a co-builder of knowledge and self-knowledge, in its being "in situation", is correlated with motivation, with the intentionality that each subject puts into his action and not only with his mechanical action of a merely reproductive model. physical education, conducted in formal, nonformal and informal educational systems, calls for the acquisition of the person's awareness of his transformation as a bodily identity, in his existence, acting and perfecting himself. in this sense, pedagogical intentionality has as its peculiarity the feeling and becoming of bodies, embodied and embodied actions that give meaning and significance to the person's experience, including those who may show deficits and disabilities. physical education has, in essence, the purpose of allowing each and every one to develop their own personal life project according to an eco-systemic approach, using a multi-perspective vision in relation to the contribution that the different motor activities can offer in order to achieve a "formative" design. references brennan, a., king, f., & travers, j. 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https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1717630 https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912x.2018.1439156 https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912x.2018.1439156 global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 8; august-2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 ai: impact on curriculum implementation in higher education in nigeria 1ojo, michael gbemiga and 2lawal abduljaleel kola article info abstract keywords: artificial intelligence, curriculum implementation, higher education. doi 10.5281/zenodo.16779576 the role of ai in the act of working out the plans and suggestions that have been made by curriculum experts in the classroom or school setting cannot be ignored. this study investigates the impact of artificial intelligence (ai) on curriculum implementation in nigerian higher education. an overview of ai was examined with a description of the types of current al technology. the role of ai in curriculum implementation in nigerian higher education was also unfolded. conclusions and recommendations were made. governments should recognize the transformative potential of al and entrust established agencies such as the national agency for research in robotics and artificial intelligence (narrai) with the coordination and oversight of ai and robotics research endeavors. introduction as the blue print for educational systems, the curriculum plays a pivotal role in fostering innovation. however, there is a growing recognition that curriculum innovation is imperative for bridging the gap between outdated educational practices and the evolving needs of contemporary learners. recognizing the need for education to transcend spatial constraints, the integration of al into curriculum development has emerged as a vital imperative. artificial intelligence (ai), characterized by machine learning algorithms, neural networks, and national language processing, represents an advanced technological paradigm that stimulates human intelligence. in the context of education, ai holds the promise of revolutionizing learning experiences. although the application of ai is still in its nascent stages in developing countries, such as nigeria, its potential has already manifested in personalized learning experiences, real-time feedback mechanisms, and early detection of learning obstacles. in this regard, the critical role of ai in aligning educational practices with the demands of a rapidly evolving digital era is emphasized. as the dialogue on the intersection between ai and department of educational foundation and curriculum studies emmanuel alayande university of education, oyo. e-mail: ojogbenga51@gmail.com phone number: 08062279552, 08037529343 global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (8) pg. 2 education gains momentum, acknowledging the dual nature of al’s impact—presenting both threats and opportunities—is crucial. however, the pandemic catalyzed a paradigm shift, with a remarkable percentage of educators advocating for the integral role of technology in education (madhurijya, 2022). this shift underscores the need to reconsider traditional approaches to education and embrace the transformative potential of ai. overview of ai artificial intelligence is a field of computer science that focuses on developing systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human skills, such as visual perception, speech recognition, and decision-making (russell & norvig, 2016). according to odunaya (2023), artificial intelligence (ai) stands as an advanced technological frontier, simulating human intelligence through machine learning algorithms, neural networks, and nlp. ai has emerged as a potent force in educational management, revolutionizing the learning landscape. it enhances the learning process, improves student outcomes, and streamlines administrative tasks. al represents a key driver of technological progress, reshaping societies and economies globally. ai focuses on designing an intelligent system that emulates human behavior associated with reasoning, language processing, perception, vision recognition, and spatial processing (ocana et al., 2019). the integration of al into education signifies a paradigm shift, presenting opportunities for unprecedented advancements in the learning process and administrative efficiency. as ai becomes integral to educational systems, the implications for student engagement, personalized learning, and resource organization are substantial, promoting a future where technology plays a central role in shaping a more adaptive and effective educational landscape. similarly, ai empowers teachers and enhances effective and efficient teaching. its purposes in education may be best served when it augments, rather than attempting to replace the teacher. as ai becomes more advanced and prevalent, the role of teachers will change, but the exact mechanism remains unclear. ai manifests in education in many ways, such as in discussion forum monitoring, human dual-teaching model where the two share responsibilities, including but not limited to providing instruction and empowerment of the teaching assistant to handle the more mundane tasks of teaching, such as taking attendance, grading, or answering general questions (smith, 2023). key ai technologies in education scholars have extensively explored the applications of ai in education, highlighting its multifaceted impact. machine vision, expert system, machine learning, natural language processing, deep learning, and robotics are among the major al technologies instrumental in reshaping educational practices. machine vision (mv): mv, which is synonymous with computer vision, stands as a pivotal technology in the realm of artificial intelligence. smith (2022) describes machine vision as a capability that empowers software to recognize patterns, make predictions, and adapt to unforeseen situations. this technology finds applications in video surveillance, facial recognition, biometric face scanning, automation driving, medical image analysts, and archeology automated facial recognition (fr): streamlines the attendance process, thereby optimizing class time for both teachers and students while eliminating the need for manual cross-checking. the use of automated facial recognition coupled with machine vision not only streamlines administrative tasks but also contributes to a more efficient use of instructional time, fostering an environment conducive to focused and productive learning. expert system (es): this represents a pivotal facet of artificial intelligence (ai), embodying the capacity of computer software to replicate human expertise within a specific domain facilitating problem solving through a global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (8) pg. 3 meticulously organized knowledge-based. odunaya (2023) emphasized that this system functions as adept tutors, delivering personalized learning experiences by considering students’ prior knowledge and abilities. nlp: this stands at the intersection of ai and linguistic communication, focusing on emulating human natural language patterns. this technology facilitates interaction with intelligent systems using both written and spoken natural languages (smith, 2022). machine learning (aml): this technology stands at the forefront of ai, encompassing the design, training, and deployment of models to applications, processes, and other machines. odunaya (2023) delineated the core components of ml, including algorithms, application programming interfaces, development and training toolkits, data, and computing power. ml transforms information retrieval by automating suggestions and recommendations based on geographical location, search history, and user preferences, providing students and lecturers’ access to a wealth of internet knowledge. deep learning (dl): this technology is synonymous with deep neural networks and represents a sophisticated facet of machine learning primarily utilized in pattern recognition and classification applications with substantial datasets. singh and singh (2021) assert that the incorporation of deep learning into online learning platforms presents a transformative potential, offering personalized learning experiences and reinforcing the role of technology in addressing individual learning needs. robotics: robotics, which encompasses the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, represents a multifaceted science and technology domain. in the educational context, robots offer synchronous lessons to absent students, as exemplified by the technology of avalarion connected to microsoft azure iot hubs. this facilitates full video and audio connections for students in hospitals or homes, allowing them to actively participate in the learning process through a table-controlled robot (odunaya, 2023). ai’s role in curriculum implementation in nigerian higher education the deployment of ai in nigerian higher education holds significant potential for enhancing various aspects of curriculum implementation. lecture planning and preparation, which are crucial steps in curriculum delivery, are streamlined through ai’s ability to automate routine tasks, such as lesson planning, scheduling attendance marking, grading, and record keeping (ogunode & adamu 2021). this automation not only reduces the administrative burden on academic staff but also allows educators to focus on improving educational quality. additionally, ai tools can generate automated alerts, report cards, and communication with parents, fostering efficient communication channels (odunaya, 2023). similarly, the preparation of instructional resources for effective lecture implementation is a responsibility often shouldered by academic staff. the role of ai in this sphere involves the creation of smart content, ranging from digital textbooks to instructional snippets and videos. ai tools can be used to create customized learning environments based on educational strategies and goals, including suggested reality/virtual reality, lessons, and web-based content. monitoring and evaluation tools powered by artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms help identify areas for curriculum improvement, ensuring that content aligns with diverse learning styles and effectively addresses areas of weakness. lecture presentation, a crucial aspect of curriculum implementation, is enhanced by artificial intelligence in tertiary institutions. the quality of teaching contents and methods has improved, adapting to the needs and capabilities of colleges and universities (ohiare et al., 2021). al contributes to the establishment of an ai literacy framework within the general education system, fostering general interest, sustainable development, and global governance among students. the assessment of students, a responsibility often shouldered by lecturers, sees advancements via ai, particularly in the administration of online tests. ai automates the assessment and grading process, saving time global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (8) pg. 4 and ensuring objective evaluation (oztok & zingaro, 2019). large datasets of student information, including assessment scores and behavioral patterns, can be analyzed by artificial intelligence (ai) to identify areas where students may be struggling, enabling targeted interventions. (singh & singh, 2021) lecturers can leverage ai to assign assignments to students’ online, fostering student involvement in the curriculum. smith (2022) underscored al’s capability to assist lecturers with the assignment process, facilitating the issuance and admission of online assignments by students. moreover, in monitoring student progress, ai has enabled lecturers to remotely monitor their students’ learning trajectories, deliver personalized learning resources, and provide real-time guidance through intelligent teaching platforms. these platforms facilitate instinctive sessions between teachers and students, allowing personalized learning guidance based on data analysis of students’ classroom learning (zawack-richard & anderson, 2014). the logical consequence of ai for curriculum development the integration of ai in curriculum development presents profound logical consequences for the education landscape. ai technologies, such as machine learning and natural language processing, enable personalized learning experiences, automate assessment, and enhance learner engagement (hussain 2018, singh and singh, 2021). the ability of ai to analyze student data contributes to the optimization of curriculum design and delivery, ensuring that educational content aligns with individual learning styles and needs. moreover, the study highlights the role of ai in addressing scalability challenges and fostering dynamic curriculum development, emphasizing the need for an approach that considers learners’ needs, relevant knowledge areas, and highquality educational content (ladeinde, 2019). these implications underscore the transformative potential of ai in shaping more adoptive, personalized, and data-driven curricula. conclusion curriculum changes are prompted by evolving societal needs, cultural shifts, and economic, social, and political dynamics. technological advancement, such as the integration of ai, plays a vital role in reshaping curriculum implementation within tertiary education. this study explored the multifaceted contributions of al in nigerian tertiary institutions, emphasizing its impact on lecture planning, instructional resource preparation, presentation, student assessment script marking, assignment allocation, student preparation, and teaching method selection. the paper also highlights the transformative potential of ai in streamlining administrative tasks, optimizing learning experiences, and fostering personalized education. recognizing the indispensable role of ai in curriculum implementation, it is believed that it will continue to integrate advanced technologies, thereby contributing to the evolution and improvement of the educational landscape. recommendations based on the discussion so far, the following recommendations were made: 1. the government should recognize the transformative potential of ai and entrust established agencies, such as the national agency for research in robotics and artificial intelligence (narrai), with the coordination and oversight of all ai and robotics research endeavors. 2. the government should also take various substantial steps, as illustrated by the formation of narrai, in developing a functional ai robot to further exemplify the country’s individual initiative. 3. stakeholders in education, management bodies, and the government should collectively demonstrate a comprehensive approach to integrate ai into the fabric of higher education in nigeria, with far-reaching implications for curriculum development. 4. employers of educators and school leaders should foster collaborative learning experiences among lecturers’ by using mentorship programs and group activities to promote and enhance relatedness and sense of belonging among educators in curriculum planning. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (8) pg. 5 references hussain, k. (2018). artificial intelligence and its applications. international research journal of engineering technology, 05(01), 838-841. retrieved from http://www.irjetinety ladeinde, f. (2019). nigeria for robotics and artificial intelligence: a few points daily trust. accessed december 10, 2019 from https://nigerianagaraja foupondensdailytust.html/ madhurjiya, c. (2022). you are being redirected. retrieved from https://www.analytics insight.net https://www.analyticismsigicat.net/what-is-the-role-of-artificialinteligence-is-the-ducakin-sector/. ocana f. y. fernandes, l. garro-aburto, l. (2019). artificial intelligence and its implications in higher education prepositioning representations, 7(2), 536568, doj: 10.20511/pyr 2019: v 7η 2.274. odunaya, m.o. (2023). impact of artificial intelligence in curriculum development in tertiary education in nigeriainternational journal of research (12)2, 192-211. ogunode, n. j. & adamu, d. g. (2021). "implementation sociology program in nigerian public universities” problems and solutions, central asian journal of innovations on tourism management and finances, 24, 33-40 u. m. ohiare, n. j. ogunode& sarafadeen, r. o. (2021). "implementation & curriculum program in nigeria higher institution; problems and the way forward.” academic globe: index science research, (2)6, 185185-95. oztoku, m. zingaro, d. (2019). artificial intelligence in education, springer russel, s. narvig, p. (2016). artificial intelligence: a modem approach, pearson, 3rd ed. singh, v., & singh, a. (2021). artificial intelligence in educational management journal of education and practices 12(12), 78-85. smith, j. (2022). application of artificial intelligence in educational management technology research and development, 70(2), 451-47206 zawacki-richter, o., & anderson, t. (2014). "open educational resources and the use of technology in higher education: a strategic approach," open praxis, (6)1, 29-43, 2014. doi: 10.5944/apimpraxis. 6.1.31. global journal of education and allied research (gjear) volume.16, number 7; july-2025; issn: 2837-3707 | impact factor: 8.97 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg.1 assessment of the post-licensing status of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area of lagos state, nigeria 1animola odunayo victor (ph.d) and 2awosusi kehinde blessing phone number: +2347032303535/ +2348066868614 email: animolaov@fceiwo.edu.ng article info abstract keywords: license, enrollment, infrastructure, nursery, primary, school doi 10.5281/zenodo.16309963 this study examined the post-licensing stature of nursery and primary schools in lagos state. the study adopted a descriptive survey research design. the study population comprised nursery and primary schools in the agege local government area of lagos state. two research instruments were used for data collection: nursery school postlicensing status questionnaire (npsq) and the nursery school quality of infrastructure assessment scale (npsias). the results showed that 9.6% of the schools were licensed between 1980 and 1999; 51.8% were licensed from year 2000 and above, and 38.6% are yet to be licensed. the results also showed that 6.0% of the schools had high level of enrollment; 42.2% had moderate level of enrollment, while 51.8% had low level of enrollment. a total of 36.1% of the schools are of high quality in terms of physical infrastructure; 62.7% of the schools are of medium quality; and 1.2% of the schools are of low quality. the results also showed that 77.1% of the schools were owned by private individual when compare with 17(20.5%) of the schools owned by religious organizations, while 2.4% of the schools were owned by tertiary institutions. the study concluded that there were variations in post-licensing timeline, level of enrollment, quality infrastructure, and school owners of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area of lagos state. introduction nursery and primary education make the child ready for life beyond the four walls of the classroom. it enhances the skill sets of the child most especially regarding numeracy and literacy. nursery and primary education exist as 1 integrated science department, federal college of education, iwo 2 institute of education, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.2 the bedrock of formal education. the evolution of nursery and primary schools in nigeria is traceable to the primitive societies, where the onus was on families and communities to train a child, with the mother as the first teacher (uduigwomen, 2019). the institutionalization of this stage of a child’s development was far from the imagination, as communities had responsibilities and arrangements for educating their young ones as conscientious members of the societies. it has evolved to exist as a fundamental piece of the instructive framework across the globe (kabay, wolf & yoshikawa, 2017). advancement into other stages of education can only be guaranteed when an entity has successfully passed through the nursery and primary schools. thus, nursery and primary school education is a premise upon which other educational stages are built. again, the national policy on education (2013) declared education at this primary level as the apparatus for national development needed to enhance individual development for advanced learning as well as the holistic development of the society and fair access to education among the children. the role of nursery and primary education is to provide a basis for advanced education at higher levels to ensure that there is no problem at the subsequent level (shofoyeke, 2015). primary and nursery establishment must be approved by the government (ogunyemi, 2019). licensing refers to the permission given to a particular body or organization to run or function (hamilton & saunderson, 2017). in the case of nursery and primary schools, licensing refers to the permission given to schools to operate after meeting the required standards and measures (omotehinse & de tomi, 2020; yusuf, 2022). hence, the process of establishing a nursery and primary schools runs the stages of ensuring that intending school owner submits a proposal form to start the school to the government through the local inspector office of education in the host local government. after the proposal is received, the location of the intending school would be cited with the aim of advertising to parents to bring their wards. in the process, other forms of registration such as taxation, water and public health, nursery school registration, primary school registration and many more will occur. this process can take a period of not less than 6 months. the national policy on education (2013) stipulated that for nursery and primary schools to operate, there must be professionals on the ground, such as teacher and, nonteaching staff, and many more. teaching and learning resources like chairs, tables and more must be made available (abah, 2020). based on the registration criteria, the initial registration and the annual renewal may also be a form of documentation and registration of premises for the running of the school. therefore, this documentation and registration give legitimacy to running the school. the process or act of documentation and registration makes the school a licensed school, which is what this study has regarded as a license. by and large, the take-off of schools is not made at the same time, so also could their years of existence vary. this also showed that schools in the range may be older than one another. from the date of registration to the date of the present operation, the schools are expected to have attained some levels of strength that could be compared to those other schools that started at the same time with and could also outperform others relying on their experiences and other variables such as infrastructure, retention of staff, enrollment size, learning output and many more (sukavejworakit, aeknarajindawat, raksakaeo & pulphon, (2023). certain factors and requirements should be put in place for nursery and primary schools to operate (stewart, gambaro & reader, 2024). in that context, all learners must be regarded as important, and there should be enough school resources to aid and encourage their learning processes. similarly, all children must participate in active learning with the guide of the teachers and other structures that have been made available in the school. this would assist in the smooth transfer of the child from home to school. learners must be made to participate in activities that are carried out in their school while they are supported by the school as a whole; giving children the support not to see their challenges as the final take of their life; making it possible for all children to know their rights and global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.3 civil responsibilities. employing quality trained teachers and staff members is a necessity for learning; schools should provide the necessary school resources needed for learning; and, encouraging relationship between the school and community (hooker & denker, 2014). in the same accord, these features imply that licensed nursery and primary schools are expected to be able to deliver quality education to learners. henceforth, centers (2019) noted that nursery and primary education are settings where learners’ interests are developed through appropriate play-based curriculum. therefore, nursery education is the process of grooming and developing children via the use of learner-centered teaching methods alongside friendly environment mechanisms. in the words of morgan (2014), the aim of nursery and primary education that must be carried out by the educator must aim to build on this and facilitate learning in physical education. this suggests that teaching and educating learners should be holistic, using a thematic approach to education; using teaching methods developmentally appropriate for each child, taking account of social, physical, cognitive, and affective domains; allowing for spontaneity and child-centered activity; and discouraging overly depending on teacher intervention. this assertion agreed with the opinion of sulyman (2022), that where nursery and primary schools are of good quality, the school will attract more enrollment and this could provide more revenue. some consequences for running an unlicensed school is that the government can close at any time. observations have shown that this largely occurs in headquarter states that are closer to the ministry of education. in most cases, pupils in these schools might not be exposed to quality education as expected from a standard school. this reason, however why parents enroll their children in such school is due to affordable schools. aina and olanipekun, (2015) added that when schools are not properly licensed, educational quality and standards in such settings are questionable. in nigeria, like every other country in the world, every business must be legitimate, and the school business is not an exception to this reality. especially nursery and primary school business, which serves as the provider of foundation to every form of learning. sukavejworakit, aeknarajindawat, raksakaeo and pulphon, (2023) observed high proliferation of nursery and primary schools in nigeria; observations have further shown that lagos state is not an exception from this list. primary schools in lagos, especially where there are large number of prospective children enrollment and prospective entrepreneurs. the prospect of a good business and provision of education as an essential social service by private individual from the scratch (nursery and primary schools) suggests that the school business could provide substantial amounts of revenue to the state government through taxation in the form of licensing of schools with some forms of payment of the outset and also through an annual revenue. after some periods of government approval, a nursery/primary school should have attained some high standards, such as high compliance with government-approved curriculum, quality infrastructure, and high enrollment. however, such schools may suffer low patronage or shut down. therefore, the licensing stature of nursery/primary schools in the agege area of lagos state requires investigation, hence this study. objective of the study this study was designed to assess the post-licensing status of nursery and primary schools in lagos state. therefore, the specific objectives of the study are as follows: i. examine the variation in the post-licensing timeline (age of existence) of nursery/primary schools clustered around the agege area of lagos state; ii. determine the post-licensing status of the nursery/primary schools in terms of level of enrollment; and iii. compare the post-licensing status of the schools by different categories of proprietorship (private individuals, religious organizations owned and tertiary institution owned) in the area. research questions the following research questions were raised to guide the study. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.4 1a what is the level of variation in the post-licensing time (age of existence) of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area? 1b what is the proportion of schools that got licenses in the same period in each category of age of existence? 2 how strong is the enrollment level of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area? b. how good are the nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area in terms of physical infrastructure? 3. what is the post-licensing status of the schools according to different categories of proprietorship (private individuals, religious organizations owned and tertiary institution owned) in the area? methodology the study adopted a descriptive survey research design. the study population comprised all nursery and primary schools in the agege area of lagos state. the study sample was composed of 83 nursery and primary schools in lagos state which were selected using a multistage sampling procedure. lagos state has three senatorial districts. one senatorial district was selected from the state using simple random sampling technique. from the selected senatorial district, one local government area (lga) was selected using a simple random sampling technique. nursery/primary schools clustered around the 11 divisions (wards) of the agege local government area (lga) of lagos state were used. one-third (4) of the 11 wards in the lga were selected through a simple random sampling technique to form the sample frame for the study. the total study sample comprised 21 nursery/primary schools (nps) in each ward using the quota sampling technique. the first 21 schools found in each ward were selected using the accidental sampling technique. two research instruments were employed to collect data for this study. the instrument is a self-designed structured questionnaire titled; “nursery school post-licensing status questionnaire (npsq)” and “nursery school quality of infrastructure assessment scale (npsias)”. the npsq was used to gather information on the licensing timeline, level of enrollment, ranking status, and rate of learners’ transition to recognized secondary schools. this questionnaire had closed-ended questions, which allowed the respondents to choose from the options with the view to answer the research questions. the npsq was divided into five sections. section a contained items on the socio-demographic status of the school. sections b, c, d, and e comprised items with a four-point likert scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “agree” to “disagree” and “strongly disagree”. as well as “always” to “often” to “sometimes” and “never”. the npsias was used to measure the quality of the infrastructures of the licensed schools used in the study. to determine the face and content validity of the instruments, the drafted copy of the questionnaires was given to the expert to read and after necessary corrections; before the researcher went to the field to administer the instruments. the validity study was conducted using lawshe’s content validity criterion. this was done to ascertain the strength of the validity of the instruments. therefore, after assessment and scoring by the researcher, the instruments were subjected to lawshe’s content validity criterion computation. the validity values were 0.89 and 0.86, respectively. the collected data were analyzed using appropriate descriptive statistics of frequency counts, simple percentages, and necessary charts to add credence to the analysis. 4.1 results research question 1: a. what is the level of variation in the post-licensing time (age of existence) of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area? to answer this research question, item between 1-5years was scored 1; 6-10years was scored 2; 11-15years was scored 3; 16-20years was scored 4 and 21years above was scored 5. a histogram was used to present the level of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.5 variation in the post-licensing time (age of existence) of nursery/primary schools, and the results are presented below. table 1: frequency and percentage of variation in the post-licensing time in terms of the age of existence age of existence frequency percentage 1–5 years 21 25.3 6–10 years 18 21.7 11–15 years 16–20 years 21 years above 21 9 14 25.3 10.8 16.9 n = 83 figure 1: histogram of the level of variation in post-licensing time in terms of age of existence of nursery/primary schools table 1 presents the students’ level of variation in post-licensing time in terms of the age of the existence of nursery/primary schools. the results showed that 21(25.3%) had licenses between 1-5years; 18(21.7%) had licenses between 6-10years; 21(25.3%) had licenses between 11-15years; 9(10.8%) had licenses between 1620years and about 14(16.9%) had licenses from 21years above. this can be inferred that the majority of the schools had been licensed with majority of the schools were licensed between 1 to 10years with 39(47.0%), follow by schools licensed between 11 to 20years with 30(36.1%). b. what is the proportion of schools that got licenses in the same period in each category of age of existence? global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.6 table 2: frequency and percentage of schools licensed within the timeline category timeline in years frequency percentage 1980–1999 8 9.6 2000 above 43 51.8 not yet 32 38.6 n = 83 table 2 shows the proportion of schools that got licenses in the same period in the category of age of existence. the results showed that 8(9.6%) of the schools got licensed between year 1980 to 1999; 43(51.8%) of the schools got licensed from the year 2000 above while 32(38.6%) of the schools were yet to be licensed. research question two: how strong is the enrollment level of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area? items three of the questionnaire gathered information on enrollment in different classes. 1-10 pupils on the scale were scored 1, 11-20 pupils were scored 2, 21-30 pupils were scored 3, and 31 above were scored 4. items not responded to were scored 0. the maximum score obtainable by each respondent was 36. the respondents’ scores were categorized into “high level of enrollment”, moderate level of enrollment” and “low level of enrollment”. this was done such that scores below 12.0 were categorized as “low level of enrollment”, those that the scored is within 12 and 24 were categorized as “moderate level of enrollment” while those that scored above 24 were categorized as “high level of enrollment”. table 3: frequency and percentage of students’ enrollment level of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government level of enrollment frequency percentage high enrollment level 5 6.0 moderate enrollment level 35 42.2 low enrollment level 43 51.8 n = 83 table 3 shows how strong the level of enrollment of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area. from the table 5(6.0%) of the schools had a high level of enrollment; 35(42.2%) of the schools had moderate level of enrollment and 43(51.8%) of the schools had low level of enrollment. figure 2: bar chart of enrollment level global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.7 figure 2 shows the enrollment level of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area. from the figure above, 5(6.0%) of the schools had a high level of enrollment; 35(42.2%) of the schools had moderate level of enrollment and 43(51.8%) of the schools had low level of enrollment. b. how good are the nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area in terms of physical infrastructure? part b of the questionnaire gathered information on the physical infrastructure of the schools. the maximum score obtainable by each respondent was 54. the respondents’ scores categorized into “high”, ‘’medium” and “low”. this was done such that those that scored below 18.0 were categorized as “low quality”, those that the scored is within 18 and 36 were categorized as “medium quality” while those that scored above 36 were categorized as “high quality”. the results are presented in the table below. table 4 frequency and percentage of infrastructure quality in nursery/primary schools in the agege local government quality of the infrastructure frequency percentage high quality 30 36.1 medium quality 52 62.7 low quality 1 1.2 n = 83 table 4 shows the quality of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area in terms of physical infrastructure. from the table, 30(36.1%) of the schools are of high quality in terms of physical infrastructure, 52(62.7%) of the schools are of medium quality in terms of physical infrastructure while 1(1.2%) of the schools are of low quality in terms of physical infrastructure. 3. what is the post-licensing status of the schools according to different categories of proprietorship (private individuals, religious organizations owned and tertiary institution owned) in the area? item six of the questionnaire gathered information on the post-licensing status of schools by different proprietorship categories in the agege local government area. the results are presented in the table 5. table 5: frequency and percentage of post-licensing status of the schools by different categories of proprietorship categories of proprietorship frequency percentage private individual 64 77.1 religious organizations 17 20.5 tertiary institutions 2 2.4 n = 83 table 5 shows the post-licensing status of the schools by different categories of proprietorship (private individuals, religious organizations owned and tertiary institution owned) in the agege local government area. from the table, 64(77.1%) of the schools were owned by private individual when compare with 17(20.5%) were owned by religious organizations. also, 2(2.4%) of the schools owned by tertiary institutions. discussion of the findings the results showed that most schools had been licensed within different timelines in terms of the age of existence of nursery/primary schools clustered around the agege area of lagos state. the findings did not corroborate those of tooley, dixon, and olaniyan (2005), who conducted a census and survey of schools in selected poor areas of global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.8 lagos state and, explored the nature and extent of private education and, compared inputs to public and private schooling. the findings showed that, about (71%) of schools were private, with more unregistered private schools than government and registered private schools. the findings is not consistent with abdul-hamid, baum, luskstover, and wesley (2016), who reported that the majority of private schools in the ajeromi ifelodun area in lagos state are not approved by the government. among the 726 schools surveyed in the local government area, only 11 percent were officially registered/approved. this was attributed to the arduous registration criteria that many small providers find difficult to meet. additionally, the results showed that the level of enrollment of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area is relatively moderate. the findings did not agree with those of tooley, dixon, and olaniyan (2005), who estimated that 33% of school children were enrolled in private unregistered schools and, 75% in private schools in general. the findings are in variance with nasuna (2022), who reported that in mbarara city that in one school in 2021 the expected enrollment was 3,000, the enrollment was much higher at 4011. on the other hand, while the expected number of pupils in another school was 800, the school had only 268 pupils. in another school, while the expected number was 480 pupils, the school had 224 pupils. the findings substantiated national bureau of statistics (nbs) that the number of children who enrolled in public early childhood education dropped from 4,672,908 in 2015 to 2,694,787 in 2016. enrollment in private early childhood education also decreased from 2,076,420 in 2015 to 1,457,461 in 2016. lagos state recorded 134,578 children in public preschools in 2014 but only 90,640 in 2015 and 69,240 in 2016 up till date. the result is consistent with the world bank’s collection of development indicators (2023), which reported that school enrollment, primary (% gross) in nigeria was reported at 85.73 % in 2019. moreover, the results showed that the quality of physical infrastructure in nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area is at medium level. the findings are in line with those of shuaibu (2016), who stated that the infrastructural facilities were available but not adequate, resulting in overcrowded classrooms in some schools, while most of the infrastructural facilities were dilapidated in other schools. this finding concurs with those of previous scholars. for instance, guardino and antia (2012) established that classroom ambient conditions, spatial layout, and functionality significantly enhanced cognitive and affective evaluations with the course affecting enrollment. similarly, khan et al. (2017) reported that proper physical and educational facilities and a favorable school environment are related to school enrollment. limaye (2016) concurred that quality infrastructure and facilities led to children’s stay in school. moreover, mugizi (2021) reported that physical infrastructure, including lecture rooms, was a significant positive predictor of students’ engagement. in same the vein, elie and andala (2021) revealed that school physical infrastructures, such as classrooms, were significantly positively related to pupils’ enrollment. finally, the results showed that most schools in the agege local government area were owned by private individuals. the findings are not consistent with the report from statista (2023), which reported that in the school year 2018/2019, there were approximately 117 thousand elementary schools in nigeria. in terms of ownership, 62 thousand were public and 55 thousand were private. conclusion the study concluded that the majority of the schools had been licensed within a different timeline in terms of age of existence, and the level of enrollment of nursery/primary schools in the agege local government area is relatively moderate. furthermore, the results revealed that the quality of physical infrastructure in nursery/primary schools is at a medium level, and the ranking strength of nursery/primary schools is at a medium level. finally, the results showed that most schools in the agege local government area were owned by private individuals. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.9 recommendations based on the conclusion of findings of this study, it is hereby recommended that; 1. physical and service infrastructures should be improved in order to enable the schools attract the required number of pupils. 2. the government should increase the information on school quality provided to parents. 3. government inspections should outline improvement priorities, which should be closely linked to school improvement plans. strengthening the role of inspectors would help ensure that school action and improvement plans are submitted and enacted to facilitate change at the school level. references abah, a. a. (2020). availability of learning resources and students' academic performance in senior secondary schools in kaduna state. information technologist, 17(1), 57-76. abdul-hamid, h., baum, d., lusk-stover, o., & wesley, h. (2017). the role of the private sector in lagos, nigeria. aina, j. k., & olanipekun, s. (2015). a review of teachers’ qualifications and its implication on students’ academic achievement in nigerian schools. international journal of educational research and information science, 2(2), 10-15. centers, i. m. f. d. c. (2019). expanding the network of ignite minds family day care centers (doctoral dissertation, worcester polytechnic institute). elie, n., & andala, h. o. (2021). school physical infrastructures and pupils’ enrollment rates in nursery schools in rwanda. journal of education, 4(1), 127142. federal republic of nigeria. (2013). national policy on education. yaba: nerdc. guardino, c., & antia, s. d. (2012). modifying the classroom environment to increase engagement and decrease disruption with pupils who are deaf or hard of hearing. journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 17(4), 518-533. hamilton, g., & saunderson, f. (2017). open licensing for cultural heritage. facet publishing. hooker j. & denker k. (2014). the learning loss scale assessment tool; an empirical examination of educational goals. handbook ii; affective domain. new york; david mckay company. kabay, s., wolf s. & yoshikawa, h. (2017). so that his mind will open: parental perceptions of early childhood education in urbanizing ghana. an international journal of educational development, 57(5), 44-53. khan, a., hussain, i., suleman, q., mehmood, a., & nawab, b. (2017). causes of pupils’ dropout at elementary level in southern districts of khyber pakhtunkhwa. research on humanities and social sciences, 7(23), 20-25. limaye, s. (2016). factors influencing the accessibility of education for children with disabilities in india. global education review, 3(3), 43-56. global research journal of management and social sciences (grjmss) vol. 16 (7) pg.10 morgan a. (2014). the vital importance of a strong foundation: why early learning matters. not just cute. https://notjustcute.com/2014/11/05/the-vital-importance-of-a-strong-foundation-why-earlylearning-matters/ mugizi, w. (2021). university infrastructure quality and students engagement at a private university in uganda. interdisciplinary journal of education research, 3(2), 98-107. nasuna, g., arinaitwe, j., barigye, e., & kyayemagye, f. (2021). effect of school infrastructure on pupil enrolment in universal primary education schools: a case of mbarara city, uganda. journal of educational research, 4(6), 15-20. ogunyemi, f. t. (2019). health and safety standards of nigerian nursery/primary schools: an assessment from teachers' perspective. international journal of psychology and education, 3(03). omotehinse, a. o., & de tomi, g. (2020). managing the challenges of obtaining a social license to operate in the pre-mining phase: a focus on the oil sands communities in ondo state, nigeria. world development perspectives, 18, 100200. shofoyeke, a. d. (2015). the impact of teaching methods on pre-primary school pupils’ learning achievement in protection issues in selected nursery and primary schools in ondo west local government. journal of elementary education, 25(2), 45-60. shuaibu, m. r. (2016). the impact of infrastructure on the quality of primary education in katsina zone katsina state, nigeria. international journal of research development, 10(1), 1-10. stewart, k., gambaro, l., & reader, m. (2024). levelling down? understanding the decline of the maintained nursery sector in england. british educational research journal. sukavejworakit, n., aeknarajindawat, n., raksakaeo, p., & pulphon, s. (2023). exploring the importance of literature-based activities for early childhood education: a comprehensive review. journal of namibian studies: history politics culture, 33, 5752-5769. sulyman, h. t. (2022). characteristics of pre-primary education settings in relation to the national minimum standard for early childhood education in north central, nigeria. doctoral dissertation, kwara state university (nigeria). tooley, j., dixon, p., & olaniyan, o. (2005). private and public schooling in low-income areas of lagos state, nigeria: a census and comparative survey. international journal of educational research, 43(3), 125146. uduigwomen, g. a. (2019). history and impact of child streetism in calabar, 1943–2015. unpublished ma thesis. department of history and international studies, university of calabar. yusuf, h. o. (2022). refocusing teacher education in nigeria for global best practices: issues, challenges & way forward. european journal of education studies, 9(8). https://notjustcute.com/2014/11/05/the-vital-importance-of-a-strong-foundation-why-early-learning-matters/ https://notjustcute.com/2014/11/05/the-vital-importance-of-a-strong-foundation-why-early-learning-matters/ global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) volume.16, number 9; september, 2025; issn: 2837-3707| impact factor: 7.80 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/gjear published by: zendo academic publishing pg. 1 class size as correlate with the learning outcomes of students in anambra state dr s.o okafor article info abstract keywords: class, students learning outcomes, large class size, small class size, anambra state. doi 10.5281/zenodo.17122397 this study examined class size as correlate with student learning outcomes in anambra state. two research objectives guided the study, and two hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance. a descriptive research design was adopted for this study. the study area was public junior secondary schools in anambra state. the population of the study comprised 6,365, while the sample of this study comprised 509 respondents. the instrument for data collection was three questionnaires structured by the researcher after an extensive literature review. the questionnaire was distributed to the respondents, and 509 copies were completed and returned for analysis. the mean, standard deviation, paired sample, and independent t-test were used for data analysis. the following findings were revealed: large class size has no correlation with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state; small class size has a correlation with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. the study concluded that class size is a significant correlate of the learning outcomes of students in anambra state. based on the findings, it was recommended that the government should regularly recruit and train teachers to reduce student-teacher ratios, especially in high-enrollment subjects like mathematics and sciences. more classrooms need to be built, particularly in urban areas where schools are overpopulated. the use of modular classrooms can be explored as a shortterm solution. enforcement of a policy that sets a maximum class size per level can help maintain quality. the head teachers should be held accountable for adhering to this policy. teachers should be trained in differentiated instruction and classroom management strategies for both large and small classes. 1 introduction 1.1 background of the study education remains the keystone of nationwide development, particularly in emerging economies such as nigeria. among the various variables that control the quality of education, class size continues to receive significant consideration from researchers, educators, and policymakers (okafor obumse& okudo, 2025). class size refers to the number of students assigned to a teacher or classroom. in recent years, there has been department of educational foundation, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam. e-mail: so.okafor@coou.edu.ng orcid number: 0009-0001-4027-0799 https://zapjournals.com/journals/index.php/ijpsir mailto:so.okafor@coou.edu.ng global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 2 growing concern over increasing class sizes in nigeria’s public schools, including those in anambra state , and their effect on the learning outcomes of students, anambra state, known for its relatively high literacy rates and strong emphasis on education, provides an ideal setting for evaluating how class size correlates with academic performance and other learning outcomes okafor, (2024). the relationship between class size and academic performance has been perplexing for educators. studies have found that the physical environment, ethnicity, socioeconomics, overcrowding, and teaching methods affect student achievement (molnar, 2010). other factors affecting student achievement are school population and class size (gentry, 2016; swift, 2012; krueger and white moore, 2017). the issue of students’ poor academic performance in nigeria has been of great concern to all and sundry. the problem is so great that it adds to the widely acclaimed, fallen standard of education in the state of anambra and nigeria at large. to better understand the skill levels of students, evaluating factors affecting their performance might be necessary (driscoll, halcoussis and svomy, 2018). class size is an important factor with respect to students’ academic performance. there is a consensus among researchers and educational scholars that student achievement decreases as class size increases. the effect of class size on cognitive achievement has been debated and researched for many years, but the results have been inconclusive (adeyemi, 2018). earthman (2012) revealed that comfortable classroom temperature and smaller classes enhance teachers’ effectiveness and provide opportunities for students to receive individual attention, ask more questions, participate fully in discussion, reduce discipline problems, and perform better than students in schools with larger classes(okafor, 2024). a gap exists in the quality of students in crowded classrooms, using inadequate and absolute equipment, and disillusioned teachers. these combined deficiencies may have affected the student’s academic performance (fafunwa, 2010). large class sizes are not conducive for serious academic work (adeyela, 2000). similarly, an alarming class size of 100 or more students in secondary schools leaves teachers overworked and unable to exercise patience and a positive attitude (egede, 2015). they are also reluctant to offer extra time to build and help students with intellectual disabilities. 1.2 statement of problems according to doyle (2014), the focus in modern-day education is on the needs, interests, and comfort of students. thus, class size management allows students to learn effectively without disturbing one another (garret, 2018). however, in nigeria, class size is becoming increasingly unmanageable, putting teachers in an impossible position of giving individual students the required attention. in most of nigeria’s secondary schools today, the teacher–student ratio has gone far beyond the stipulation of the national education policy. students stay more than 50 in each class, and the seating arrangement is altered, thereby making teaching and learning difficult. one of the biggest issues facing schools and teachers today is overcrowding, as a large crowd size makes teaching frustrating, overwhelming, and stressful. large class sizes present several challenges for teachers and students, affecting academic performance, classroom management, and the overall learning environment. these issues include reduced individual attention for students, difficulty in providing effective feedback, increased disciplinary problems, and potential negative effects on engagement and motivation 1.3 study objectives this study aims to examine class size as a correlate of students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. the specific objectives include the following: global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 3 1. to examine the effect of large class size on the learning outcomes of students in anambra state. 2. to measure the degree of small class size as a correlate of students’ learning outcomes in the state of anambra. review of the litrature 2.1 conceptual review 2.1.1class size class size refers to the number of students faced by a teacher during a given course or teaching–learning situation. class size is the average enrollment at the beginning and end of the course or learning process. according to murphy (1998), a small class size contains 13-17 students while large class size contains 22-25 students. class size refers to educational tools that can be used to describe a school’s average number of students per class. in emphasizing the importance of class size to the learning teaching process, the all nigerian conference of principals of secondary schools (ancopss) recommended a maximum of forty students per class for efficient and effective teaching (oguntoye, 2011). class size, as defined by adeyemi (2018), is an educational tool that can be described as the average number of students per class ina school, while hoffman (2010) described it as the number of students per teacher in a class. ogbu (2019) described it as a tool that can be used to measure education system performance. 2.1.2 learning outcomes learning outcomes are statements that describe significant and essential learning that learners have achieved and can reliably demonstrate at the end of a course or program. in other words, learning outcomes identify what the learner will know and be able to do by the end of a course or program (okafor, 2025).learning outcomes are specific and clear statements of what students are expected to learn and demonstrate upon completion of their course of study (okafor 2020).they are typically expressed in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be acquired to satisfy the educational need for which the course has been developed. learning outcomes describe what learners should know, be able to do, and value as a result of integrating knowledge, skills, and attitudes learned throughout the course. they are stated in measurable terms (fink, 2013). 2.2 the theoretical framework the theoretical framework of this study is anchored on nat. david mcclelland propounded this theory in 1961. the theory posits that individual specific needs are acquired over time and shaped by one’s life experiences. this is a theory of human motivation that is based on the classification of human needs. he stressed that certain social needs are learned and acquired as the individual interacts with his environment. in other words, david mcclelland believed that many needs are acquired from culture, and some may be learned through training. he identified three aspects of need: the need for achievement (nach), affiliation (naff), and power (npow). he reasoned that a person’s motivation and effectiveness in certain areas are influenced by these needs. mcclelland (1961) pointed out that people with high need for achievement have the following characteristics: i. they want to take personal responsibility for solving problems. they prefer to work on a problem rather than leave the outcome to chance or others. ii. they tend to take moderate risk rather than high or low risk, set moderate, realistic, and attainable achievement goals, and are inclined to take calculated risk. iii. they desire regular and concrete feedback on their performance. achievers need regular feedback to monitor the progress of their achievements. they prefer to work alone or with other achievers. global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 4 mcclelland’s need for achievement also postulated that the tendency to approach an achievement goal is a product of the need for achievement or the motive for success, i.e., the probability of success and the incentive accorded to success. the implication of this theory is that teachers can encourage students to meet their growth needs by enhancing the learning situation’s attractiveness. in the light of these, when the environment where the child is learning (in this study, classroom, laboratory, and school location) is made attractive, effective learning is likely to occur. 2.3 empirical review obunge (2025) investigated the influence of large class size on the academic performance of science students in public senior secondary schools in the rivers state, obio/akpor local government area. a descriptive survey design was adopted. the multistage sampling technique was employed in this study. the study was guided by two research questions. the study’s target population was all science students and all science teachers in obio/akpor public senior secondary schools. one hundred and eight (108) ss2 science students and twelve (12) science teachers from 4 schools in the study area formed the sample size of the study. the instrument usedin the study was a questionnaire titled “influence of large class size in learning of science” (ilcsls). the instrument was content and face validated by science education and research methods experts. the reliability of the instrument was obtained using the pearson product moment correlation formula, which gave a coefficient of 0.82. the mean was the statistical tool used to analyze the data. the study found that (i) large class size adversely influences the academic performance of science students in public senior secondary schools, (ii) free education, few schools serving big communities, urbanization, lack of infrastructure, inadequate number of teachers, and inadequate implementation of government policies are the main causes of large class size in public senior secondary schools in the obio-akpor local government area. okokon et al. (2025) determined the influence of classroom structure and class size on the academic achievement of secondary school students in the calabar education zone of cross river state, nigeria. two research questions were raised from which two null hypotheses were developed. the study adopted an ex-postfacto design. the study population consisted of 3,559 ss 2 physics students in the calabar education zone of cross river state. the sample consisted of 500 physics students drawn from seven secondary schools using a multipurpose sampling technique. the classroom structure and class size questionnaire (cssq) and physics achievement test (pat) were used for data collection. data analysis was performed using the independent t-test and one-way analysis of variance. all hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance. there was a significant difference in academic achievement in physics between students in small class size and large class size (p = 0.000, p<.05), hence class size significantly influenced students’ academic achievement in physics. there was a significant difference in academic achievement in physics between students in terms of classroom seating arrangements (columnrow, u-shape, and amphitheater) (p = 0.000, p<.05), therefore classroom structure (seating arrangements) significantly influenced students’ academic achievement in physics. the major implication of this study is that students’ physics achievement can be improved by improving the physical classroom structure and class size. based on the findings, it was recommended that the government should inject more funds into the school system for the construction of more school buildings. dauda and msheliza (2025) examined the impact of class size on the effective teaching and learning of english in upper-basic schools in the jalingo education zone. taraba, nigeria the study was guided by two objectives, two research questions, and two hypotheses developed and tested at the 0.05 level of significance. the study adopted a descriptive survey design. the study was conducted in the jalingo education zone of taraba state. global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 5 the study population consisted of 151 english teachers in public secondary schools injalingo education zone, taraba state. the sample consists of 108 teachers determined by krejcie and morgan’s (1970) table for sample determination. sampling was performed using simple random sampling. the instrument for data collection titled “teaching and learning of english language questionnaire (tlelq)” consists of 20 items on a fourpoint scale of sa = 4, a = 3, d = 4, and d = 1.cronbach’s alpha was used to test internal consistency to test for reliability, yielding a coefficient of 0.87. data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. the research questions were answered using the mean and standard deviation, and the hypotheses were tested using the chi-square test. the study found that there is significant impact of class size on teacherstudents ‘interaction during english language lessons. it was concluded that class size influences effective english language teaching and learning. the study recommended that workshops and seminars should be regularly organized for teachers to enable them to share their experiences and strategies in teaching large classes and adopt effective teaching and classroom management techniques, especially for large classes. umar et al. (2023) investigated the effects of class size on students’ academic performance in an introduction to computer science (cmp111) course at the kebbi state polytechnic in dakin-gari, nigeria. this study employed a quasi-experimental research approach to answer the research question (rq) using experimental and control groups. the experimental group (small class size)and control group (large class size) students of national diploma i (nd i) enrolled in an introduction to computer science course in the department of computer science and science laboratory technology at kebbi-state polytechnic dakin-gari, school of applied sciences. the study population comprised 50 students who participated as the experimental group (small class size) and 150 as the control group (larger class size). therefore, 200 students participated in the study. data were collected using 20-item essay test questions with a reliability coefficient of 0.76 and analyzed with spss-v21 using an independent sample t-test. the investigation was guided by one (1) research question and one (1) null research hypotheses (ho) at the significance alpha level of 0.05. the study revealed that class size had an effect on the students’ academic performance, with students in small class sizes exhibiting higher performance than their peers in large class sizes. therefore, this study concluded that classroom size significantly influences the academic performance of students in the course. the relationship between classroom size and academic performance was inversely related. students in large classrooms performed poorly, whereas students in small classrooms performed better academically. small class sizes are needed to improve the interaction between lecturers and students to ensure a more meaningful academic performance among the students. based on this finding, the study recommendedthat the management of the colleges studied pay attention to the class sizes to ensure good academic performance. ashiru (2021) investigated the effect of a large class size on the teaching/learning of summary writing in senor secondary schools, especially in the ijebu ode local government area of the state of nigeria. the large class size places a major barrier to the effective teaching and learning of summary writing as a core subject in senior secondary schools. the study also determined the effect of school location and gender on the student’s summary writing performance. three research questions and three hypotheses were used to guide the studies. the instrument used for data collection was a set of comprehension and summary passages, and face validation of the instrument was done by three experts in language education and measurement and evaluation from the selected secondary school in ijebu ode local government area ogun state. a split-half method for single administration of instruments was used, and the test result was analyzed using crombach alpha to measure the test’s consistency and reliability. the sample for the test consisted of 400 senior secondary school students global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 6 drawn from the selected schools in ijebu ode, the study’s focus area. a total of 120 students were drawn from urban school locations and 200 students from rural school locations. the major findings of this study were that the students who were taught summary writing in a small class setting performed better than those who were taught in a large class setting. location was also significant factor. the findings revealed that students taught summary writing in urban school locations had a better performance than those taught in rural school locations. gender also played a major role, in that the female students scored higher in summary writing than their male counterparts. research method 3.1 research design the study adopted a descriptive research design. according to nworgu (2015), descriptive research is a method used to determine the characteristics of a population or a particular phenomenon. the rationale for adopting this design is to examine class size as a correlate of students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. descriptive research can identify patterns in the characteristics of a group to establish a relationship. 3.2 study population the study population consisted of 6195 teachers in 267 public secondary schools in anambra state. sources: ppssc, awka, 2025. 3.3 sample preparation and sampling technique the sample of this study comprised 509 teachers as respondents. 3.4 method of data collection the instrument was administered through the direct delivery method. using this method, 509 copies of the questionnaire were administered by the researcher with the help of three research assistants who were briefed on the modalities for administering and retrieving copies of the questionnaire. the on-the-spot delivery method was adopted. a period of 3 weeks was used for instrument administration and retrieval. 3.5 data analysis methods to ensure the accuracy of the results, all computations were performed using statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 26. the data collected were analyzed using mean scores and standard deviation to answer the two research questions. paired-samples t-test was used to test hypotheses 1 and 2 at the 0.05 level of significance. results and discussion introduction research question 1: to what extent does large class size correlate with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state? table 1: mean rating on the extent to which large class size correlates with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. the analysis in table 1 shows that the mean ratings on the large class size correlate with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. with 509 respondents, the mean score was 20.5, and the grand mean was 2.4. n mean grand mean sd decision large class509 20.5 2.4 0.8 low extent size global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 7 furthermore, the standard deviation of 0.80 implies that responses were relatively consistent, indicating that most teachers share similar views. the decision of "low extent" confirms that a significant portion of the teachers’ attitude toward the large class size in secondary schools in anambra state is to a low extent research question two: to what extent does small class size correlate with student learning outcomes in anambra state? table 2: mean rating on the extent to which small class size correlates with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state? n mean grand mean ()sd decision small class509 20.3 7.1 0.5 low extent size table 2 shows the mean ratings on the extent to which small class size correlates with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. the mean score of 20.3 and a grand mean of 7.1 indicated that the teacher’s attitude generally showed a high level of correlation with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. furthermore, the standard deviation of 0.50 implies that responses were relatively consistent, indicating that most teachers share similar views. the decision of "high extent" confirms that a significant portion of small class size correlates with students’ learning outcomes in anambra stateto a high extent. test of the hypotheses hypothesis 1: large class size has no correlation with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. table 5: paired sample correlation on the large class size has no correlation on students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. variables n mean std. dev. df sig. (2tailed) lcs–slo 509 20.5 0.8 508 0.80 table 5 shows the results of the paired sample t-test on the significant correlation between large class size and student’s learning outcomes in anambra state. the result showed that a p-value of 0.80 is greater than the 0.05 level of significance, which resulted in the decision to reject the alternative hypothesis that large class size correlates with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. therefore, the study concluded that large class size has no correlation with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. hypothesis two: small class size is not correlated with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state. table 6: paired samples t-test on the significant correlation between small class size and student’s learning outcomes in anambra state. variables n mean std. dev. df sig. (2tailed) scs–slo 509 20.3 0.5 508 0.00 table 6 shows the results of the paired sample t-test on the significant correlation betweens mall class size and student’s learning outcomes in anambra state. the result showed that a p-value of 0.00 is less than the 0.05 level of significance, which resulted in the decision to reject the null hypothesis that small class size has no global journal of education and alliedresearch (gjear) vol. 16 (9) pg. 8 correlation with student learning outcomes in anambra state. therefore, the study concluded that small class size correlates with students’ learning outcomes in anambra state conclusion and recommendations 5.1 conclusion class size is a critical factor in shaping the learning experiences and outcomes of students in anambra state. although smaller class sizes tend to correlate with better academic achievement, especially in foundational subjects, it is not a standalone solution. holistic educational reform covering teacher training, resource provision, infrastructure development, and policy implementation is essential for the sustainable improvement of learning outcomes. as anambra state continues to position itself as a leader in education in nigeria, addressing the challenge of class size should remain a top priority for stakeholders at all levels. class size has long been recognized as a fundamental factor in determining educational delivery quality and effectiveness, particularly in developing regions such as anambra state, nigeria. as this study has explored, class size significantly influences various teaching and learning process dimensions. the final analysis confirms that class size is indeed a critical correlate of students’ learning outcomes in the state, affecting no t only academic performance but also engagement, cognitive development, and overall educational experience. in anambra state, as in many other parts of nigeria, the challenge of large class sizes remains a persistent problem. overpopulated classrooms are prevalent, particularly in urban and peri-urban public schools. population growth, rural-to-urban migration, and insufficient expansion of educational infrastructure to accommodate growing enrollment often result in these conditions. this strain places immense pressure on the educational system, with teachers often overwhelmed by the sheer number of students they must teach and manage daily. in such scenarios, the teaching quality and individual student attention are significantly compromised. 5.2 recommendations the following recommendations are made: 1. recruitment of more qualified teachers: the government should regularly recruit and train teachers to reduce student-teacher ratios, especially in high-enrollment subjects like mathematics and sciences. 2. infrastructure expansion: more classrooms need to be built, particularly in overpopulated urban areas. the use of modular classrooms as a short-term solution can be explored. 3. policy on maximum class size: enforcement of a policy that sets a maximum class size per level can help maintain quality. the head teachers should be held accountable for adhering to this policy. 4. teacher training and support: teachers should be trained in differentiated instruction and classroom management strategies for both large and small classes. 5. monitoring and evaluation: regular evaluation of teaching and learning processes through school inspections, student assessments, and teacher performance reviews will ensure that learning outcomes improve regardless of class size. references adeyela, j. 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