








































Open Educational Resources for Online Language Teacher Training: Conceptual Framework and Practical Implementation


 

  

Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 
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DESIGNING EFFECTIVE OERS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHER 

TRAINING IN ONLINE ENVIRONMENTS: INTEGRATING 

THRESHOLD CONCEPTS AND COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY 

 

 

Francesca Nicora, Oriana Bologna, and Laura McLoughlin 
Italian Studies, School of Languages, Literatures and Cultures, 

University of Galway, Ireland 

Abstract: Open Educational Resources (OERs) are increasingly being used to support language teacher 

training in online learning environments. To create effective OERs, there is a need to consider principles of 

micro- and macro-learning, cognitive load theory, and Threshold Concepts (TCs). This paper presents the 

Lilac Project, which aims to support language teachers in managing online learning environments through 

the design and implementation of OERs. The Lilac OERs are available as web-based training modules that 

offer personalized learning paths with a blend of micro and macro learning content. The design and structure 

of these OERs are based on a conceptual framework that takes into account learning and cognitive theories 

as well as the TCs related to online language teaching and learning. To identify the TCs, the Lilac team used 

survey questionnaires and two rounds of focus-group sessions involving language trainees, teachers, 

teaching assistants, and students from secondary and higher education. The results were used to create 

modules that address areas such as managing technology effectively, designing activities to develop 

language skills, and fostering a sense of community in online environments. The Lilac OERs provide an 

effective approach to language teacher training that can lead to positive changes in teaching and learning 

outcomes. This paper offers insights into the benefits of online learning and supports an efficient and 

sustainable approach to language teacher training. 

Keywords: Open Educational Resources, Threshold Concepts, cognitive load theory, micro-learning, 

macro-learning, online language teaching and learning, personalized learning paths, language teacher 

training, online learning environments, sustainable approach. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Online teaching and learning have been a feature of education for nearly four decades now, ever since the 

University of Toronto offered its first online course in 1984. It wasn’t however until the arrival of the World 

Wide Web in the mid Nineties that online offerings really took off in both academic and professional 

contexts.   

Platforms, tools, apps and technology in general to facilitate delivery of online content have multiplied over 

the years and training exists for course designers, creators, e-tutors and emoderators. Yet, the specific 

professionality involved in online teaching is not widely acknowledged as recent events have shown: the 

emergency situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic forced governments to move most teaching online 

and recurrent lockdowns often meant on/off reliance on online classes. Anecdotal evidence however 

suggests that by and large this has not worked well in all schools, as face-to-face courses were hastily 



 

  

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adapted to the online modality without the meticulous planning and the specialist training needed for 

creation and delivery of successful distance education. Many research studies carried out across the world 

reported that teachers were forced to teach online even without undergoing specific training. As a result of 

this, teachers have been constantly feeling under pressure and have been struggling to manage online 

contexts effectively as well as creating a pleasing and engaging learning environment [1,2]. At the same 

time, students have been experiencing psychiatric disorders and  

DOI :10.5121/ijite.2022.11301 

adverse mental health effects, such as feeling of isolation, depression, anxiety and stress over home 

schooling [3, 4, 5]. In order to lead a more sustainable and efficient employment life and build a healthier 

teachers-students, students-teachers as well as teachers-parents relationship, many contributions have 

highlighted the importance of purposeful strategy building which aims to address current issues such as the 

conflict between personal and working life balance which is presumptuously making room in the historical 

era we are currently living in [6, 7]. However, online and distance education continues to be perceived as a 

controversial topic.  

In order to shed light on the benefits and advantages of online learning, the UNESCO Forum has recently 

coined the concept of Open Educational Resource (OER) which refers to the openness and provision of 

reusable digitalised resources for educational purposes which are released under an open license and 

completely free of charge. This has led to the development of an enormous number of public resources 

which can potentially be extremely relevant to both teachers and learners in managing online learning 

environments. Nevertheless, finding appropriate OERs to be used for a specific purpose still remains a 

challenging task. In fact, although OERs have proved to be paramount and useful learning assets - especially 

in emergency situations like the COVID19 pandemic- there seems still to be a lack of adequate OERs for 

online language education.  

The Lilac Project was not borne out of the extraordinary circumstances of 2020: it started towards the end of 

2019, following extensive needs analysis of learners and teachers involved in or considering online courses. 

We feel however that it has become particularly topical in the light of these developments. Lilac is 

specifically concerned with the peculiarities of teaching and learning languages online and the skills and 

competences that both teachers and learners need in order to make the most of their experience. In 

particular, Lilac OERs are conceived as web-based training modules for independent study for both groups 

of stakeholders to help them reflect on, acquire or enhance the necessary skills and appropriate online 

behaviour. Lilac modules (freely accessible online https://www.lilac-project.com/) support personalised 

learning paths, with users free to either select individual activities or follow an entire module sequentially. 

Learning personalisation is in turn facilitated by a mixture of micro learning elements, which contribute to 

the updating or enhancement of a given skill, and macro learning content, aimed at deepening knowledge 

and providing new competences and skills on the basis of a number of identifiable threshold concepts. The 

uniqueness of this project lies in devising and providing pioneering Open Educational Resources (OERs), 

not yet available in the field of online language education, and within a conceptual framework based on the 

principles of macro- and micro- learning, cognitive load theory and Threshold Concepts. One feature that 

makes the two training modules original is also the bilingual version of the interactive OERs which were 

first created in English, then translated into Gaelic. The two Lilac modules have been recently launched as 

an open course entitled “LILAC: Online Language Learning and Teaching” promoted by the National 

Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education and whose aim is to provide 

https://doi.org/10.5121/ijite.2022.11301


 

  

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teachers and learners with a digital badge for professional development supporting their lifelong learning 

and career mobility (https://opencourses.ie/opencourse/lilac-online-language-learningand-teaching/). 

Furthermore, Lilac OERs have represented the conceptual and didactic framework for a new teaching 

module, “Learning and Teaching Languages Online”, which was designed and tailored for undergraduate 

students of the Bachelor of Arts in Global Languages and ran online for the first time in Fall 2020 at the 

National University of Ireland, Galway[8].  

In the paragraphs that follow we discuss the theoretical framework underpinning the design, the structure 

and implementation of Lilac OERs with a focus on language teacher training module.  

2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 

Open Educational Resources (OERs) are gaining support and recognition especially in higher education. 

Numerous universities are now developing and providing their own. The term first appeared in 2002 at a 

conference hosted by UNESCO during which the participants defined OERs as: “The open provision of 

educational resources, enabled by information and communication technologies, for consultation, use and 

adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial purposes” [9]. Currently, the most widely-used 

definition of OERs explains that they are “digitised materials offered freely and openly for educators, 

students and self-learners to use and re-use for teaching, learning and research” [10]. An OER is commonly 

said to consist of 1. learning content - such as full courses, courseware, content modules, learning objects, 

etc.; 2. tools, including software to enable users to develop, re-use and deliver learning content; 3. 

implementation resources, which comprise intellectual property licenses to promote open publishing of 

materials. Arguments in favour of promoting research in the field of online learning and the development of 

OERs include the importance of sharing knowledge in line with academic traditions, the reuse of resources, 

the reduction of costs, the potential of attracting new students by providing more flexible materials and the 

need to look towards new and profitable business models [11,12]. However, whilst OERs show great 

potential for future educational practice, they are still in their infancy [13]. There are still critical and not 

entirely resolved issues surrounding access, quality assurance and even cost that hinder the usage of OERs 

[12]. At the same time, the complex relationship between design and pedagogical impact of an OER requires 

further investigation, as it can affect motivation and, ultimately, the achievement of learners’ goals. 

Presentation, interactivity, collaborative value, time required for completion of the task are all key issues 

that need to be addressed. Koohang& Harman [14] argued that   

the educational value of an open digital content can contribute to its sustainability. The value of OERs can 

be measured by how well they are designed and presented. Instructional design (linked to learning theories) 

and presentation (associated with user interface) are vital to sustainability of OERs.  

Whilst online learning may have since moved on from a purely instructional design approach, Koohang and 

Harman’s statement still ring true today. This paper analyses the pedagogical principles, learning and 

cognitive theories that underpin the design of an OER at both microlearning and macrolearning level, and 

discusses how the potential of technology can be exploited to enhance and bring positive and substantial 

changes to teaching and learning. On the basis of our experience with the Lilac Project, we argue that OERs 

can be designed in accordance with the principles of microlearning and ubiquitous and adult learning 

theories (§2.1), can be aligned with cognitive theories and module design practice (§2.2) and incorporate 

threshold concepts (§2.3). The study therefore aims to position the complex and multi-faceted OER design 

process within a solid theoretical and conceptual framework. The structure of Lilac OERs will then be 



 

  

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presented as a practical example of how the potential of technologies to support learning can be embedded 

in online contexts (§5).   

2.1. Microlearning, Ubiquitous and Adult Learning Contexts  

The terms micro and macrolearning are often used in relation to online environments and OERs, even 

though they also exist in other contexts. Microlearning refers to small chunks of content, requiring limited 

time commitment and is based on the idea that short forms of learning, including fine-grained, inter-

connected and loosely-coupled learning activities with microcontent [15, 16], can enable learners to access 

online resources quickly and construct knowledge in specific moments and conditions of the every-day life. 

The term “macrolearning”, instead, refers to larger formats of e-learning in terms of time and scope. In 

general, this concept refers to entire multimedia learning modules or sizeable learning materials, such as 

text-based scripts or power point slides, and the process of learning demands that several hours be spent on 

didactic materials. The content is usually created by subject matter experts with authoring tools and includes 

a wide range of topics presented through combined learning objects. Both micro and macrolearning be 

conceptualised in many ways referring to different aspects, which in turn include different areas, as shown in 

Table 1 [17].  

Table 1. Microlearning and Macrolearning (adapted from Hug, 2005:3)  

 Linguistics  Language 

Learning 

Learning 

Contents 

Course 

Structure 

Competency 

Classification 

Sociology  

Micro 

level  

Single letters  Vocables, 

phrases, 

sentences  

Learning 

objects, 

micro 

content  

Learning 

objects  

Competencies 

of learners and 

teachers  

Individualized 

learning  

Macro  

level  

Texts, 
conversation, 

linguistic  

communication  

Sociocultural 
specifics, 

complex  

semantics  

 

Topics, 

subjects  

Courses, 

curricular 

structures  

Designing a 

curriculum  

Learning of 

generations, 

learning of 

societies  

Recently, an interesting study which examines the design of microlearning showed that adult learners have 

contrasting opinions about the content areas perceived to be relevant for macrolearning, conceived as longer 

timeframe, and microlearning [18]. Adult learners who need to keep acquiring new information in order to 

keep up with fast societal changes, rely on microlearning as an effective approach for obtaining that 

information, whereas macrolearning was seen as more appropriate for deepening knowledge. In a nutshell, 

adults perceived that domain-specific information can be delivered via macrolearning, while microlearning 

can be more significant for domain-neutral areas. The authors suggest that institutions that intend to develop 

microlearning should consider the dual structure of content delivery, so that learners who want to keep up 

with topical content can study microcontents while those who prefer to deepen their knowledge on more 

stabilised areas can attend e-learning courses. However, it should be noted that whether microlearning 

content delivers merely information rather than knowledge is a matter of debate and further research is 

needed on the best ways to help learners to progress from the information consumption stage to the 

knowledge building stage [18].  

The Lilac project is a web-based training programme accessible from different devices, with OERs in the 

form of both larger modules and individual activities designed to assist online language teachers/learners in 



 

  

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their transition from face-to-face to online learning environments. Lilac OERs therefore constitute a 

miscellaneous product made up of diverse forms of e-learning: the online modules provide a richer macro-

media format built around microcontent consisting of self-contained small chunks of information and short 

interactive learning activities.   

Microlearning offers a way of organising learning in small steps and with small units of content. Whilst not 

designed to deliver complex concepts and foster deep knowledge, it does the advantage of making learning 

seem less intimidating, faster and adaptable to one’s schedule. As the most typical form of anytime-

anywhere learning, it can be adapted to support individual learning needs and is commonly defined as 

ubiquitous informal learning. At the time of writing, the percentage of students who learn outside formal 

classroom settings is increasing and it is interesting to note that it has now been known for some time that 

informal learning spaces contribute to boost learners’ motivation [19], especially when learners perceive the 

learning goals as achievable. Microlearning is therefore aimed at mobile modern users who need to update 

their knowledge, skills or competences and identifies appropriate technologies and learning environments to 

satisfy that need. Ubiquitous technologies and in particular mobile learning environments are well 

positioned to support microlearning. For this reason, the Lilac project makes its online modules accessible to 

a variety of devices and helps users to transfer knowledge across different surroundings, as microlearning 

requires.  

In modern societies characterised by new modes of technology-assisted learning, adults tend to connect their 

educational experiences with their life tasks, and microlearning allows them to do just that: the accessibility 

and flexibility of microcontent facilitates autonomous learning whenever is required. The Adult Learning 

Theory focuses on the role of the adult learners and how their own characteristics influence the process of 

learning in an informal context. [20] identified four principles that characterise adult learners: 1. they are 

self-directed and wish to be responsible for their own actions; 2. they have an extensive personal and 

professional experience, and this is an essential component in the development of their identity; 3. they are 

ready to learn and show a very high intrinsic motivation; 4. They have a specific goal and expect achievable 

outcomes. In addition, adults need to be part of the development, implementation and evaluation of the 

learning process [21] and need to see the value of their education and the information provided [22]. In a 

nutshell, adult learners look to education to fill a gap in their lives and microlearning, as an effective 

strategy, allows them to meet their immediate needs. However, despite the growing interests in 

microlearning, research that can inform the design of microlearning content still seems to be rather scarce, 

especially in the context of informal learning for adult learners [18].  

2.2. Microlearning, Cognitive Theories and Module Design  

Course designers need to create e-learning materials that meet the specific needs of adult learners, attract 

them and motivate them to learn. Successfully designed curses are those that identify specific and attainable 

goals, and provide adult learners with opportunities to perform tasks, including self-reflection tasks, that 

inspire them to attach the new information to personal relevance, goal achievement, and problem-solving 

[22]. To this purpose, it seems advisable to combine adult learning theory with a cognitive framework, in 

order to help adult learners to retain and use the information provided.  

Microcontent design is based on concepts derived from cognitive science. In particular, the concept of 

cognitive load and how quickly the working memory may become overloaded is extremely relevant for 

learning and teaching in online learning environments where the students’ attention span is greatly reduced. 

In these settings, if the limitations of the working memory are overlooked, the learning process is very likely 



 

  

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to slow down or even be completely jeopardised, with negative consequences for learners’ affective filter. 

However, when information is channelled via microcontent, cognitive load is decreased considerably, and 

information may be retained and successfully exploited. Cognitive load theory applied to microlearning 

therefore leads to the design of courses/tasks and activities where unnecessary information is removed and 

only core information is presented, so that adult learners can more easily store the newly acquired 

knowledge and utilise the long-term working memory efficiently [23] This ‘lighter’ approach is especially 

appropriate when information is presented for the first time or complex knowledge and skills need to be 

broken down to aid acquisition [24]. Delivering this content through lengthy lectures or workshops tends to 

overwhelm the working memory, thus not guaranteeing the learner’s retention of knowledge [22]. However, 

additional information and more in-depth content can still be included in e-learning courses and made 

available to those who have more time, or different motivation and goals. We suggest that a combination of 

micro and macrocontent is ideally suited to the design of online courses, especially those courses that 

support personalised learning paths. The mixture of the two elements allows designers to reach different 

learner types and satisfy different needs.   

The short chunks of learning do not imply simplified pedagogical strategies. On the contrary, designing 

effective microlearning scenarios is a complex and challenging task, as it integrates various didactical 

approaches [25]. Guidelines for the design of microcontent and microlearning activities, therefore, should 

take into account both technical and pedagogical principles. From a more technical point of view, the 

microlearning designer should consider:   

(a) format: microcontent information needs to be easily scanned at a glance;   

(b) focus: microcontent information needs to sum up in a sentence and offer the main message in a text 

or in a stretch of discourse;   

(c) autonomy: microcontents should be self-contained;   

(d) structure: microcontents usually present the title, topic, author, date, tag and URL;  

(e) addressability: microcontent should include a permalink to quickly access [26]  

From a didactic perspective, the pedagogical strategies that facilitate microlearning include selfdirected 

learning, learner-driven learning, knowledge sharing, layered learning, and what we might call cumulative 

and scalable learning, whereby the combination of several microlearning sessions leads to the acquisition of 

more complex knowledge.   

The Lilac project adheres to the technical guidelines and pedagogical strategies described above. The 

implementation of the theoretical framework in an academic context however soon revealed the complexity 

of the challenge. We see microlearning as a series of “light bulb moments” which illuminate the learning 

path and personalise it by means of relevant, engaging contents and activities that, while belonging to the 

field of informal learning, are nonetheless structured, pedagogically sound and ready to be imported into 

more formal macrocontexts. This way, microlearning sessions can represent short but meaningful moments 

of transition. According to Hug, “when the focus is on learning tasks and processes, products or outcomes, it 

is important to avoid definitions of microlearning that lack discriminating or differentiating power. If 

microlearning is simply equated with informal learning, lifelong learning […], we end up in a night in which 

all cows are black” [27].  

The complex, albeit perhaps obvious challenge when designing online modules and developing online OERs 

for adult learners is the need to marry their requirements, goals and expectations with technical guidelines 

and the core principles of pertinent learning and cognitive theories. To this purpose, we propose, possibly 



 

  

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for the first time in the field on online language learning and teaching, the application of a Threshold 

Concepts (TCs) framework (§2.3) to the design of informal learning sessions for adult learners.  

2.3. Threshold Concepts  

There are times, during the learning process when learners seem ‘to get stuck’, and moving on to the next 

level of knowledge feels like a mammoth task. This happens when learners reach a point in their disciplinary 

developmental path where new and complex knowledge is needed in order to continue along that path. They 

are on the threshold of a new level of understanding, but need to be able to cross it in order to enter that new 

level. Threshold concepts (TCs) represent key knowledge that, when integrated in the process of learning, 

has the potential to change a learner’s world view and way of thinking irreversibly. So much so that  

 [a] threshold concept can be considered akin to a portal, opening up a new and previously inaccessible way 

of thinking about something. It represents a transformed way of understanding or interpreting or viewing 

something without which the learner cannot progress [28]  

TCs facilitate learners’ engagement in the discourse and practice of a given discipline and therefore present 

specific features: they are   

(a) transformative, because they involve a conceptual shift for learners;   

(b) irreversible, once acquired, they will not be forgotten;   

(c) integrative, because they enable learners to make a connection between new and previous 

knowledge;   

(d) bounded, and their boundaries are defined from a disciplinary point of view [28].  

The TC paradigm has the potential to change teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and even identity through a new 

model of knowledge. Since TCs focus on learners’ experience during a course, their engagement and depth 

of learning, they are emerging as a useful tool for identifying key components of student-centred curriculum 

design [29] and for pinpointing significant learning thresholds for teachers in professional development 

contexts [30]. For that reason, the study of TCs has become an interesting area of research that can lead to 

better curricular structure.  As [31] points out:    

If we want to develop an understanding of the pedagogy of the subject we teach, we have to start somewhere 

and making sense of what seems central and often difficult to grasp by most learners, is a good place to 

begin our inquiry.   

Online language teachers who work in secondary or higher education need to be aware not only of the TCs 

with which their students are struggling but also of their own set of TCs, related to the practice of online 

teaching. In addition, it would be advisable to flag TCs to learners, including those encountered by teachers 

in order to facilitate learning and at the same time encourage a critical self-reflection on the most 

challenging aspects of online teaching/learning languages. In 2017 Northcote and her team [30] analysed the 

challenges that a novice online teacher may face and identified a set of TCs that can prove extremely useful 

for designers of professional programmes. The list of TCs is presented on the project website in Table 2.  

The researchers focused on TCs related to the teaching/learning of foreign languages in an online setting and 

then showed how the articulation of these concepts can inform the development of OERs. The LILAC 

project hinges upon language teachers’ and learners’ responses on how they perceive online learning 

contexts, what concepts appear particularly challenging to them and what areas of knowledge seem to be 

more troublesome than others. We suggest that making all the hurdles explicit within the TCs framework 

facilitates a direct approach to them and their resolution. These disturbances can be resolved using inquiry-

based approaches [32] and critical self-reflection [33].  



 

  

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Table 2. Threshold concepts about online learning at http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/ 

 
The project on which this paper is based used a survey questionnaire to gather data from academic staff as 

well as two rounds of focus-groups with the participation of Lilac team members, language teachers, 

teaching assistants and students (from secondary and higher education). The objective of both survey and 

focus groups was to identify a set of TCs related to online language teaching and learning and then embed 

them in the design of the Lilac modules.  TCs identified following data analysis as well as more informal 

consultations with experts using technologies applied to language learning are presented in the paragraph 

below (§4). The set of possible TCs connected to online language teaching and learning lay the foundation 

of the design of the OERs in the context of the Lilac project.  

3. METHODOLOGY 

3.1. Aim and Participants  

In this article we discuss the Lilac Team’s replicable approach to OERs based on a solid theoretical 

conceptualisation that takes into account learning and cognitive theories on one hand and the threshold 

concepts framework on the other. In order to identify the set of threshold concepts connected with online 

language teaching and learning, a survey questionnaire was administered to the stakeholders and analysed. 

Additional data were collected during two rounds of focus-group sessions, in which the Lilac research team 

discusses issues encountered in online learning contexts with 10 language trainees, teachers and teaching 

assistants working in secondary and tertiary education and 3 students enrolled in the Professional Master of 

Education (PME) programme at the National University of Ireland, Galway (NUI, Galway).  

3.2. Data Collection  

An informative questionnaire made on Google Forms was purposefully designed for both experienced 

language teachers and trainee teachers who have just embarked on their very first teaching experience, and 

for language learners who are in transition towards the online learning environment. A total of 38 

questionnaires were collected and then scrutinised. As far as the structure of the questionnaire is concerned, 

in a first background section (Section A) teachers were asked to give information about the foreign 

language(s) they teach, the educational level (primary, secondary or third) they are teaching in and whether 

http://tcs4nots.avondale.edu.au/tcs/


 

  

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they knew the difference between blended and online learning. A second section (Section B) focused on 

estimating how many teachers had already experienced teaching in online and/or blended learning 

environments; what they thought the advantages and drawbacks of these two teaching contexts were and 

which language skills among listening, speaking, writing and reading they found or considered most 

difficult to teach. They also had to indicate which aspects of online teaching most appeal to them but also 

rate, on a scale from least to most challenging, the following aspects: evaluation, fostering interaction, time 

management, delivering live online classes, creating a community of learners, devising online activities 

and/or other aspects they considered problematic. In addition, they were requested to share their opinion on 

which skills   language learners should develop in order to transition smoothly from face-to-face to online 

learning. In the third and last section (Section C), teachers were asked to self-assess their digital skills in 

terms of language teaching. They first had to rate their ability to use different search methods to identify 

accurate and reliable online information and/or educational resources in relation to the language(s) they 

teach. Secondly, they were asked to indicate and rate their ability to produce digital learning content through 

the use of multimedia presentations, audio & video recordings and online learning tools. Finally, they had to 

indicate which social media they were using or would be willing to use for language teaching and rate their 

ability to provide and coordinate clear and respectful online interaction. All rating scales varied from a "1-

basic” to a “5- excellent” ability. Data was also gathered from language student in a similar manner, through 

questionnaires and focus group. Student responses are not analysed here, but are occasionally referred to 

when a comparison with teacher responses is deemed relevant.  

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The responses we received involved mainly experienced teachers (81.8%) with some previous but limited 

experience in online and blended learning, and mostly working in second (27.3%) and third (72.7%) level 

education, so dealing with teenagers and mainly young adults.  On the other hand, learner responses came 

mostly from university students (93.3%) with just a small percentage from secondary school students 

(6.7%).   

Answers to the questionnaires showed a general consensus on the advantages of online teaching and 

learning environments, mainly because of their wider flexibility and accessibility in terms of space, time and 

audience, but also in relation to creativity and autonomy for both teachers and students. However, results of 

the teachers’ questionnaire are in part consistent with those described in [22] dealing with online teaching 

issues in general, and highlight numerous concerns about online language teaching. Teachers, both novice 

and experienced, lamented the lack of training specifically tailored to online language teaching, especially at 

a time when there is an urgent need to move more and more classes online and explore new ways of building 

knowledge. In particular, teachers identified the following aspects as the most challenging:   

(a) managing online learning contexts efficiently;   

(b) managing technology effectively: this includes understanding and resolving limitations imposed by 

the technological tool to the teacher’s creativity (having a nice activity in mind only to find that the 

technology at hand does not allow for its implementation) as well as acquiring relevant research, 

organisational and time management skills to avoid spending a disproportionate amount of time preparing 

online classes and activities.  

(c) designing activities and modules that can help students to develop all four language skills, with 

47,6% of teachers reporting that they perceive speaking skills as the most difficult to teach online;   



 

  

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(d) creating a real sense of community, understanding group dynamics and connecting with the students 

(i.e.empathising with students’ feelings and perceptions); fostering interaction among participants both 

synchronously and asynchronously; preventing isolation, thus ensuring social presence and student 

engagement;   

(e) assessing language learning online, giving feedback and monitoring students’ learning process. It 

seems that teachers struggle to align online learning activities and assessments.   

Regarding self-assessment of digital skills, answers by teachers show that they rank themselves high (4 on a 

5-point Likert scale) in relation to their ability to use different search methods to identify accurate and 

reliable online information and/or educational resources. However, when it comes to the ability to produce 

digital learning content, there are big gaps among respondent: only 4.8% positioned themselves at very basic 

level, some at intermediate level (19%), a good percentage (42.9%) at very good level and 33.3% at 

proficiency level. Answers also reveal that most teachers make a very basic use of social media in teaching, 

with most responses indicating “discussion boards” as their option. The final question referred to the ability 

to provide and coordinate clear and respectful online interaction: just over a third of respondents (31.8%) 

positioned themselves between 3 and 4 on a 5-point Likert scale. In line with these results, discussions with 

the focus group highlighted the same issues encountered by examining the teachers’ questionnaire, and 

concentrated particularly on the lack of adequate online resources that could facilitate online language 

teaching and learning. Language teachers denounce a paucity of easily readaptable or reusable online 

materials, something which makes lesson and course planning even more of a time-consuming task. Table 3 

summarises the issues identified by language teachers and learners as possible elements of disturbance in 

online language learning contexts.  

Table 3. Language teachers’ and learners’ issues in an online learning environment.  

LANGUAGE TEACHERS LANGUAGE LEARNERS 

Manage online teaching and learning  

contexts. 

Manage online language learning.  

Enforce netiquette. Comply with the netiquette.  

Get lost in timing and organisation. Keep themselves highly motivated, engaged, 

and organised. Lack of discipline.  

Basic ability to produce digital learning 

content and basic use of social media. 

Basic abilities to search and identify 

accurate and reliable online resources; basic 

abilities to work online in an autonomous 

way or in a team.  

Design and plan online lessons and courses. Develop the four language competences, 

especially concerning speaking skills.  

Feel frustrated for time demanding  

concerning online materials preparation. 

Feel frustrated due to the poor 

connection/sounds that is particularly  

annoying during synchronous classes.  

Manage students’ groups dynamics. Manage groups dynamics between  

classmates, and classmates and 

teachers/instructors  



 

  

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Help students to develop the four basic 

language competences, especially regarding 

speaking skills. 

Less focus on speaking skills, little attention 

to the phonetic and prosodic aspect of 

language learning.  

Help students to interact with each other and 

overcome the feeling of isolation. 

Feel isolated and not enough supported. 
Recognise a new role of the learner who has 
more responsibilities.  

 

Build a sense of a community online. Build a sense of community and interact  

with each other’s. Lack of social interaction  

among students.  

Assess online: provide an immediate  

feedback, monitor students’ learning  

progress, prepare rubrics and tests. 

Accept new forms of assessments such as  
self-assessment and peer reviewing.  

 

Reward students online. Monitor language learning progress.  

 

Manage plagiarism issues. Electronically marked assessments have 

little or no tolerance for almost correct 

answers.  

The elements of disturbance listed in Table 3 were then analysed and grouped into five macro areas (moving 

to e-learning; digital and organisational skills; language component; online communities; assessment), 

which constitute the five categories on which TCs are based (table 4) as well as the five units of each 

module and are graphically represented as a virtual tree (§5).  

The TCs included in the Lilac modules are generally consistent with those proposed by [22] that refer to 

online teaching, however some are new and are indicated in bold in Table 4 below. Content was then 

designed to incorporate and deal with the TCs identified.   

Table 4. Threshold concepts about online language teaching and learning. 

Threshold Concepts  

 Online Language  Teachers Online Language Learners  

1.Transition towards eteaching 

(including  

course design, lesson  

planning, teacher and  

course preparation) and e-learning  

(including relationship between the 
teacher  

and students, teaching presence, 

social  

presence and cognitive  

presence)  

1.1T An online course must be designed 

to have specific mechanisms to 
communicate, monitor and give feedback 
to groups of students as well as 
individual students.  

 

1.2T Online course design is critical to 
the success of online teaching and 

learning.  

 

1.3T Online presence, while elusive, 
must be pursued.  

 

 

1.4T Students need to be encouraged to 

be more regulated in an online course 
than in an on-campus course.  

1.1L Online language learning is not 

engaging and not effective.  

 

1.2L Students cannot learn without the 

teacher being present.  

 

 

 



 

  

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1.5T Online language teaching 

requires specific approaches and 

methods, not only presenting content.  

2.Technology (including teacher-
digital content,  

learner-digital content interaction) 
and  

organisation (including the 

difference from on  

campus teaching and learning)  

2.1T Preparation for designing and 
planning online teaching may take longer 

than preparation for on-campus teaching.  

 

2.2T Using technologies requires a lot 

of time to be exploited properly.  

 

2.3T Using technologies restricts 

creativity in developing digital  

2.1L Online learning environment 

requires more rules than on campus 

learning.  

 

2.2L Online learning environment 

require a new role for learners who have 

more responsibilities.  

 contents   

 3. Language  

components (including the  

strategies and method in developing 

the four basic language  

competences). 

3.1T Online courses neglect the 

development of speaking skills.  

 

3.1L Online courses neglect the 

development of speaking skills.  

 

 

4.Online communities  

(including teacher-learner, learner-

learner, and learner-content 

interaction)  

4.1T Online learning contexts require a 

new mode of interaction between 

language teachers, learners and 

resources.  

 

4.2T Online teaching requires facilitating 

interaction, not only presenting content.  

 

 

4.1L Online learning contexts require a 

new mode of interaction between 

language teachers, learners and 

resources.  

 

4.2L Online learning environment 

fosters a feeling of isolation.  

 

4.3L Online learning environment 

neglect interaction among learners.  

 5. Assessment  5.1T Online course design needs 

alignment between learning activities, 
assessment tasks and feedback 

mechanisms to ensure students 

engagement.  

 

5.2T Online assessment increases 

plagiarism.  

5.1L Electronically marked assessment 

are not reliable.  

The Lilac modules, albeit leaving scope for repurposing most OERs, are specifically designed to assist 

online language teaching and learning. In line with the parameters of our project and in order to aid the 

interpretation of the threshold concepts listed in Table 4, the features of threshold concepts were redefined in 

terms of online language teaching and learning, as follows.   

(a) Transformative: they change the way we view online teaching and learning.  

(b) Troublesome: The idea of online language teaching can be counter-intuitive to the way we have 

always taught. Online language teaching and learning may seem too difficult or too complex.  

(c) Irreversible: Concepts learned about online language teaching and learning are difficult to unlearn.  



 

  

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(d) Integrative: Threshold concepts about online language teaching and learning are likely to incorporate 

concepts about other teaching/learning-related issues (e.g., curriculum design, assessment).  

(e) Bounded: A threshold concept about online language teaching/learning is related to an academic's 

scholarly practice of teaching.  

(f) Discursive: Evidence of threshold concepts about online language teaching/learning will be 

demonstrated incidentally in an academic's use of language.  

(g) Reconstitutive: The academic's grasp of a concept may go back and forth across stages of being sure 

and not sure, as they develop, undevelop, construct, and reconstruct the concept for themselves.  

(h) Liminality: As the online language teacher crosses the liminal space between not teaching online and 

teaching online effectively, s/he may experience some level of stuckness. As the online language learner 

crosses the liminal space between not learning online and learning online effectively, s/he may experience 

some level of stuckness.  

5. THE LILAC TREE AND THE ONLINE LANGUAGE TEACHER 

Analysis of respondents’ answers, identification of TCs and reference to online learning and cognitive 

theories determined the design structure of the Lilac modules, which progress from basic, essential skills to 

more advanced competences. We used the metaphor of the tree to give a graphic representation of the 

development of skills and competences related to online teaching, as shown in Figure 1. We metaphorically 

conceived our online teacher as a virtual tree whose roots are represented by the essential digital skills that 

teachers need to develop and constantly update in order to transition successfully from a classroom-based to 

an online teaching environment.  

Teachers’ digital skills are directly linked to their organisational skills, and together they make up the 

nourishment needed to nurture the three branches of our tree, enhancing a teacher’s pedagogical, social and 

assessor role.   

As Fig.1 shows, and following the tree structure outlined above, the Lilac Teachers’ Module was therefore 

devised as a five-unit module. Each unit is then divided into a number of lessons with specific objectives, 

reflections and tips to help teachers overcome difficulties and challenge what they perceive as e-teaching 

limits. This structure has been graphically designed as an interactive image, our so-called Lilac Tree Map, 

which can be found in the module introduction and acts as an interactive table of contents. The user can 

click on the single units and immediately access its content. Below an overview of each unit.  

Unit 1: Moving to e-learning addresses TCs from 1.1T. to 1.5T. It aims at laying or reinforcing the 

foundations for the transition from face-to-face to online teaching environment. It comprises of five lessons, 

which respectively explore: the characteristics and therefore the differences between the two teaching & 

learning environments (Lesson 1); theories and methodologies applied to the online educational context 

(Lesson 2) and the most effective approaches and methods when teaching online (Lesson 3); preparing 

students for online learning (Lesson 4) and basic netiquette (Lesson 5).   

Unit 2: Digital and Organisational Skills addresses TCs from 2.1T to 2.3T. It comprises of three lessons and 

has been purposefully designed to respond to what has been identified in the teachers’ questionnaire as a 

widespread need for strong and solid organisational and timemanagement skills. Lesson 1 is a brief 

introduction to the topic. In Lesson 2 the teachers are given the tools to identify their current level of 

digitalisation in terms of digital resources and technologies and are walked through the development of their 

digital competences. Lesson 3 explores more in detail the organisational and managerial skills that teachers 

should have when teaching online and gives tips on how to organise the working time and space effectively.   



 

  

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Unit 3: Pedagogical role addresses TCs 1.2T, 1.5T, from 2.1T to 2.3T, and 3.1T. It aims at enhancing 

teachers’ pedagogical skills by providing them with tools and tips to plan and implement effective online 

learning activities that promote the development of the four basic linguistic competences. The unit has 

therefore been designed to help teachers to overcome the perceived limits of educational platforms and 

technology. Lesson 1 offers an innovative lesson planning system, the Lilac “ping-pong planning”, which 

provides a structure for teachers’ synchronous and asynchronous delivery of both content and feedback and 

for their interaction with online learners, while Lesson 2 and 3 focus on the four language competences, 

giving practical tips to enhance Reading & Writing and Listening & Speaking skills respectively.  Lesson 4 

provides an overview of the educational tools to be employed online.  

Unit 4: Social role addresses TCs 4.1T and 4.2T. It examines the strategies that a teacher should follow to 

create a strong sense of community among the learners, establish a solid teacher-student relationship and 

manage the community of learners by fostering students’ interaction and engagement both synchronously 

and asynchronously. It comprises 3 lessons: Lesson 1 explores how teachers can create and also help their 

students to create and maintain a relaxing and healthy learning environment; Lesson 2 focuses on the 

creation of online communities and on the tools to be used; finally Lesson 3 focuses on how to support 

students’ learning engagement and interaction with both content and peers.   

Unit 5: Assessor role addresses TCs 1.1T, 1.5T, 3.1T, 4.1T, 4.2T, 5.1T and 5.2T, comprising again of three 

lessons, explores the world of online assessment and evaluation. Lesson 1 provides the teachers with ideas 

and advice on how to create new effective and appropriate online assessments (e-portfolio, peer-

assessment), while Lesson 2 gives an overview of strategies and ways to monitor and assess students’ 

learning; Lesson 3 focuses on the creation of feedback aimed at enhancing students’ performance.   

Each Unit includes an end-of-unit final quiz where teachers can put themselves to the task and assess what 

they have learnt so far. All the Units and Lessons have also been conceived as totally independent and self-

containing. Learners are totally free to take the course in sequential order or jump around the units/lessons 

according to the topic(s) that interest(s) them more.    



 

  

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Figure 1. Lilac tree map  

6. CONCLUSION 

This paper outlined the creation of training modules for online language teachers as part of the Lilac Project 

OERs, and the conceptual framework underpinning their design. It argued that effective OERs need to take 

into account the impact of cognitive load on learners’ acquisition and retention of knowledge, the principles 

of micro and macro learning for appropriate distribution of the cognitive load, the identification of 

Threshold Concepts for the selection and sequencing of content, as well as online and multimedia learning 

theories, in our case specifically directed to adults.  

The Lilac team identified TCs through questionnaires and focus groups and built the OERs around them, 

organising content in self-contained microlearning units that nevertheless form part of a larger macro 

structure and are supported by and supplemented with macrolearning content.  

Acknowledging adults’ need for information that is relevant, motivating, purposeful and quickly retrievable, 

we designed a learning path that can be easily personalised, while at the same time offering the option of 

sequential progression. The micro level allowed us to introduce learning objects and single skills while at 

the macro level we dealt with topics and more complex, integrated skills and competences. This combined 

structure also allowed us to spread the  

cognitive load so as to avoid load “peaks” within the module.  

Whilst Lilac OERs are specifically designed for training online language teachers and learners, we believe 

that they provide a template for the development of further OERs with different objectives and stakeholders. 

As reliance on online content grows and its inclusion in both formal and informal learning environments 

becomes nearly unavoidable, solid conceptual frameworks for their design need to be investigated, updated 

and implemented so that learners are exposed to significant and motivating learning paths that can 



 

  

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encompass both single items of knowledge as well as more complex information, skills and competences. It 

is hoped that future research will focus also on statistical data on the impact of online OERs on retention, 

which in turn will further inform design and implementation.  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The Lilac Project is funded by the National Forum for Enhancement for Teaching and Learning in Higher 

Education. We would like to thank all the participants, teachers and students, who helped this research 

project.  

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