


































 Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 
Volume.16, Number 5; May-2025; 

ISSN: 2837-3707| Impact Factor: 7.80 

https://zapjournals.com/Journals/index.php/gjear 

Published By: Zendo Academic Publishing 

 

 

pg.1 

PRINCIPALS’ DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES AND FECES 

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN CROSS-

RIVER STATE, NIGERIA 
 
1Elijah Eghong Ivi 

 

Article Info  Abstract 

Keywords: Principal’s Age, 

Educational Qualification, Schools, 

Feces Management 

 

DOI 

10.5281/zenodo.15470567 

 Safe management of feces and proper sanitation has become very important 

tissue in public secondary schools in Nigeria as a result of its significant 

implication in the quality of life and health of both staff and students. This 

study therefore investigated, ‘Principals’ demographic variables and feces 

management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State, Nigeria’. 

To achieve this purpose of the study, two specific objectives were raised to 

guide the study, which was converted to two research questions and then 

transformed into two hypotheses. Literature related to the sub-variables of 

the study was reviewed. The design used in this study was survey research 

design. This design was chosen because it provides quantitative information 

on the features of the whole population through a chosen sample. In 

addition, it permits inferences to be made and generalizations to be drawn 

from a representative sample of the population. The research area is Cross 

River State, Nigeria. The target population of the study was 273 principals 

of public secondary schools in the three Education Zones of Cross River 

State (Ministry of Education, Calabar, Cross River State; 2015/2016 

academic year). The instrument used for data collection was the 

questionnaire, which had two sections A and B. Section A dealt with 

demographic information, whereas section B provided information related to 

the variables of the study (principals’ and their feces management 

practices).The Cronbach alpha method was used to determine the reliability 

estimate of the instrument. The reliability coefficient ranged from 0.64 to 

0.85. The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and was 

interpreted accordingly. The findings of the study revealed that principals’ 

age significantly influences their feces management practices in secondary 

schools. Furthermore, this study also showed that principals’ educational 

qualification level does not significantly influence feces management 

practices in secondary schools. It was recommended among others that the 

government should employ principals who are advanced in age and also 

have higher educational qualification in the running of secondary schools in 

Cross River State to ensure proper management of feces and toilet facilities 

in their schools. 
 

 

 

                                                           
1Department of Environmental Health, College of Health Technology, Calabar,Cross River State, Nigeria 

E-mail: elijaheghong@yahoo.com ORCID ID: 0009-0009-2505-7162 

Phone Number: +2347065681419 

PAPER ID GJEAR:  20250506266 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 16 (5) 

pg.2 

Introduction 

Human feces and poor sanitation have been linked to the conveyance of numerous communicable ailments, 

such as cholera, typhoid, ascariasis, hepatitis, polio, and schistosomiasis, in the community. The World Health 

Organization reported that approximately 2.2million mortality occurring yearly, are due to diarrheal diseases 

and that tenth of the population in the third world countries are severely infected with intestinal worms 

associated with indiscriminate feces and waste disposal (Harhay, Horton & Olliaro, 2010). Juveniles are the 

most vulnerable to human feces transmitted diseases. Studies conducted in third world countries show that 

collected fecal waste is released indiscriminately into the ambience causing deleterious health effects on aquatic 

and air pollution (Gelaw, Anagaw, Nigussie, Silesh & Yirga, 2013). It is therefore momentous to study human 

feces especially in secondary schools in Nigeria, to find solutions and to pre-empt related environmental health 

risks in the school environment. 

In Nigerian secondary schools, especially in Cross River State, it is not uncommon to see students urinate and 

defecate in open spaces and bushes around the school environment due to insufficient or sub-standard sanitary 

facilities with impunity. Such actions contribute to environmental degradation and pollution. Insanitary feces 

management, as well as deficiencies in other components of environmental sanitation, contributes significantly 

to the continuing high rate of feces related infections among secondary school students. Principals of secondary 

schools must ensure proper sanitation and enforcement of school regulations to prevent hazards; health risks 

and environmental implications associated with feces related diseases in schools, especially boarding schools. 

Age may serve as a determinant factor in the management of feces in secondary schools in Nigeria. It is 

expected that principals that are older may manage toilet facilities in schools more effectively than younger 

ones based on their level of knowledge and proficiency. It is belief that principals who are older in ages may 

have enough ideas, skills and knowledge in the running of their schools than those younger ones who may have 

occupied such positions for the first time. Okorie (2002) noted that principals’ personal characteristics such as 

age, marital status, teaching experience, academic qualifications, and sex cannot be disclosed from the way and 

manner in which the school is managed. 

In a study conducted to assess the knowledge and practice of secondary school students toward feces 

management practices in Nigeria, it was discovered that educational status, age, and gender were factors 

influencing feces management practices in secondary schools (Adeolu, Enesi & Adeolu, 2014). It was also 

observed that feces quality issues competed with the socioeconomic status of people and that the issues were 

more recognized by better educated and well-off residents. Gender and age were found to be poor predictors of 

feces management (Chanda, 1999). The effectiveness of feces management initiatives could be improved 

through the incorporation of an understanding of age differences and inequalities. 

Demographic features such as age and education level of students had an insignificant impact on the choice of 

alternative feces management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State. Inadequate provision of toilet 

facilities and longer distances to these facilities increased the probability of defecation in open areas and bushes 

(Tadesse, Ruijs &Hagos, 2008). 

Educational qualification of principals of public secondary schools in Nigeria may play a significant role on 

their feces management. This may be because some principals with higher educational qualifications in terms of 

certificates can influence their knowledge of feces management in their schools. Facilities for academic and 

non-academic activities need to be properly put in place to provide an optimal sanitary environment that is safe 

and conducive for physical, mental, and emotional health of the students in order to achieve maximum benefits 

from educational programmes (Joshua, 2004; Vernon, 2003).Human feces which form an important cause of 

environmental pollution, need to be properly disposed of through modern feces management methods that are 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 16 (5) 

pg.3 

socially and culturally acceptable to the people (UNICEF, 2009; Dworsky, 2007). Principals with higher 

educational qualifications may also influence the Ministry of Education to provide most of these sanitary 

facilities in their schools. They may also encourage them to employ more workers who can assist in cleaning 

these facilities, especially toilets. Apart from its availability, the facilities should proportionately meet the 

demands of the population of both students and members of staff in such schools. 

It has been observed that the combination of adequate facilities, correct behavioral practices and education is 

meant to have a positive impact on the health and hygiene conditions of schools. The success of a school feces 

management programme is therefore determined not only by the number of latrines constructed and the number 

of hand pumps installed, but also by the knowledge of better feces management practices adopted in schools by 

school principals (International Water & Sanitation Center, 2004). Ogbalu (2003) emphasized the need for 

health education regarding the proper management of feces in Nigeria. He observed that many health hazards in 

Nigeria, such as dysentery, typhoid, and cholera, have been associated with poor feces management practices.  

Regular education for women and students is a prerequisite for change in sanitation behavior in secondary 

schools. If women are effectively educated on how to manage their feces sanitarily through the creation of 

awareness in their various schools, the feces generated can be successfully used for their own benefits as 

organic fertilizers in their farms (Pacey, 2002). The researcher therefore sought to investigate principals’ 

demographic variables and feces management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State, Nigeria.  

Objectives of the study 

1. To determine the extent to which the age of school principal’s influence their feces management 

practices in secondary schools in Cross River State.  

2. To determine the extent to which principals’ educational qualification level influences feces 

management practices in the study area. 

Research Questions   

1. To what extent does the age of school principals influence feces management practices in secondary schools 

in Cross River State?  

2. To what extent does principals’ level of educational qualification influence   their feces management 

practices in secondary schools in Cross River State?  

Research Hypotheses 

1. The age of school principals did not significantly influence their feces management practices in secondary 

schools in Cross River State.  

2. Principals’ level of educational qualification does not significantly influence       their feces management 

practices in secondary schools in Cross River State. 

Methods 

The design used in this study was survey research design. This design was chosen because it provides 

quantitative information on the features of the whole population through a chosen sample. In addition, it permits 

inferences to be made and generalizations to be drawn from a representative sample of the population. The 

research area is Cross River State, Nigeria. 

The target population of the study was 273 principals of public secondary schools in the three Education Zones 

of Cross River State (Ministry of Education, Calabar, Cross River State; 2015/2016 academic year). The 

instrument used for data collection was the questionnaire, which had two sections: A and B. Section A dealt 

with demographic information while section B provided information on the variables of the study (principals’ 

and their feces management practices).The Cronbach alpha method was used to determine the reliability 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 16 (5) 

pg.4 

estimate of the instrument. The reliability coefficient ranged from 0.64 to 0.85. The data were analyzed using 

one-way analysis of variance and was interpreted accordingly. 

 

Results 

Hypothesis one: The age of school principals does not significantly influence their feces management practices 

in secondary schools in Cross River State. 

TABLE 1 

Summary of one-way analysis of variance of the influence of principals’ age on their feces management 

practices in secondary schools in Cross River State 

Age range                     N                  X                              SD                  

Below 40 years             5                14.40                           1.95 

Between 41 and  45     42                14.26                          2.54 

Between 46-50            141             14.61                            2.30 

Above 51                       82             15.52                           2.64 

Source of variation      SS         df         MS             F             Sig.        

Between groups        60.411     3        20.137         3.371       .019* 

Within groups          1589.089   266                     5.974 

Total: 1649.500 269 

*Significant at P < .05, F = 3.371. 

TABLE 2 

LSD comparison of principals’ age and feces management practices in secondary schools in Cross River 

State  

Principals’ ages (i) Principals’ ages    (j) MD sig.   

Below 40 years         between 41 and 45 years  .138       .905 

                                     between 46-50 years       -.217      .845 

                                     above 51 years               -1.124      .319 

Between 41-45         below 40                        -.138        .905 

                                    between 46-50             -.355         .409 

                                    above 51                     -1.262*        .007 

Between 46 and 50   below  40   .217   .845 

                                   between 41-45          .355            .409 

                                   above 51                  -.907*                 .008 

Above 51        40        1.124     .319                  

                                between 41-45           1.262*               .007 

                                between 46-50           .907*                  .008 

*= mean difference is significant at 0.05 level 

The independent variable was principals’ age categorized into 4 dimensions. The dependent variable was feces 

management practices. One-Way Analysis of Variance was employed to test the hypothesis; the results are 

presented in table 1. The results from the data analysis in table 1 revealed that the age of the school principals 

significantly influence their feces management practices in their schools (F = 3.371, P < .05). Meanwhile, 

comparing the mean ages of the principals for source of significance using the least square difference of the 

post-hoc comparison in table 2, it was revealed that there was a significant difference when principals of ages 

between 41-45 was compared with those of above 51 (mean difference = -1.26; P < .05). There was also a 

significant difference when principals of ages between 46 and 50 years were compared with those ages 51 and 

above (mean difference = -.907, P < .05). For principals aged below 40 years, there was no significant influence 

of the group. Therefore, the findings of the study revealed that the age of principals aged 40 and above 

significantly influence their feces management practices in their schools in Cross River State. With older 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 16 (5) 

pg.5 

principals (above 51) maintaining appropriate feces management practices ( X = 15.52), followed by those of 

ages between 46 and -50 years ( X = 14.61). 

Hypothesis two: Principals’ level of educational qualification does not significantly influence their feces 

management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State.  

TABLE 3 

Summary of one-way analysis of variance of the influence of principals’ level of educational qualification 

on their feces management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State 

Level of educational qualification  N  X       SD                  

B.Ed/B.Sc             194    14.80     2.504 

M.Ed/M.Sc          68,     14.76      2.363     

Ph. D                      8        16.13      2.696 

Total                    270     14.83       2.476 

Source of Variation        SS            df      MS         F          Sig. 

Between groups,         13.833       2       6.917   1.129     .325   

Within groups:              1635         .667          267     6.126  

Total: 1649   .500    269 

Not significant at P > .05, F = 1.129 

The independent variable was principals’ educational qualification levels categorized into three distinct groups 

(B.Ed/B.Sc, M.Ed/M.Sc and Ph. D). The dependent variable was feces management practices. One-Way 

Analysis of Variance was employed to test the hypothesis; the results are presented in table 3.The results from 

the data analysis in table 3 revealed that principals’ educational qualification level does  not significantly 

influence their feces management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State. From table 3, it revealed 

that the higher the qualification in terms of certificate, the lower the number of the principals in their feces 

management practices in secondary schools ((B.Ed/B.Sc-194; M.Ed/M.Sc-68; Ph. D-8). Again, the result 

showed that the higher the qualification, the better the mean of the principals’ feces management practices 

(B.Ed/B.Sc-14.80; M.Ed/M.Sc-14.76; Ph. D-16.13). This implies that principals with higher qualification in 

terms of certificates are better in their feces management practices. However, the mean difference in their 

practices of feces management as examined on their qualifications was not statistically significant (F = 1.129, P 

> .05). This therefore implies that the principals’ level of educational qualification does not significantly 

influence their feces management practices in secondary schools; hence, the stated null hypothesis was 

accepted. 

Discussions 

Age of school principals and feces management practices in secondary schools. 

The findings of this hypothesis revealed that there was a positive significant influenced of age of school 

principals and their feces management practices in secondary schools in Cross River State. The findings 

revealed in this study indicated that the age of secondary school principals significantly influenced their feces 

management practices in their schools (F = 3.371, P < .05). This finding was supported by the study carried out 

by Tedesse, Ruijs and Hagos (2008), who stated that demographic features such as age, education and 

household size had an insignificant impact on the choice of alternative feces management methods, whereas 

poor, provision of toilets in schools significantly affected feces management choice. 

Also, Okorie (2002) notes that principal’s personal characteristics such as age; sex and teaching experience 

have positive influence in feces management practices in schools. Chanda (1999) asserted a contrary opinion. 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 16 (5) 

pg.6 

The study opines that the age of principals did not significantly influence their notions toward feces 

management practices in schools. Some authors expressed the opinion that age may serve as a determinant 

factor in the management of feces in secondary schools in Nigeria. They added that administrators who were 

older to age usually used their experience accumulated over a long period of time to manage feces in their 

schools. This view was supported by Sommer (2009), who stated that principals who are older in age acquired, 

accumulated knowledge and skills that enabled them to select the types of feces management methods to be 

adopted in their schools based on environmental conditions.  

The researcher also agreed with this finding of the study. He opines that the more principals advance in age, the 

more they acquired experiences, ideas, skills, and techniques of doing things. This may be positively transferred 

in the management of feces in their schools. He also stated that those principals who are younger in age may not 

have acquired lot of experiences to run the school system effectively as compared to the older ones. This has a 

significant impact on the management of feces in their schools. 

Principals’ level of educational qualification and feces management practices in secondary schools  

The findings of this hypothesis revealed that principals’ educational qualification level did not significantly 

influence their feces management practices in secondary schools. This assertion is a result of findings 

discovered in this study in that the higher the principals’ qualification in terms of certificate, the lower the 

number of the principals in their feces management practices (B.Ed/B.Sc-194; M.Ed/M.Sc-68; Ph. D-8). Again, 

the result showed that the higher the qualification, the better the principals’ in their feces management practices 

in the study area (B.Ed/B.Sc-14.80; M.Ed/M.Sc-14.76; Ph. D-16.13). However, the mean difference in their 

feces management practices as examined on their qualification was not statistically significant (F = 1.129, P > 

.05). 

Pacey (2002) held a contrary opinion in relation to the finding of the study. She opines that the more principals’ 

education level increases, the higher their awareness of the management of feces in schools. Jatan (2013) opines 

that principals with holders of higher educational qualifications exhibit a positive attitude toward feces 

management through their level of exposure and awareness obtained.  

 Joshua (2004) reiterated that the educational qualifications of principals in public secondary schools in Nigeria 

play a significant role in the management of feces in schools. Principals with higher educational qualifications, 

especially in health-related fields, may be more knowledgeable in feces management. Authors have supported 

the notion that principals with higher educational qualifications are appointed to control schools, and with this, 

they use their knowledge and experience to manage feces in their schools properly (Ogbalu, 2003). Principals 

with knowledge of environmental health and education have been observed to have a greater impact on the 

sustainable management of feces in their schools. This approach has helped principals to make the school 

environment have a good befitting outlook.  

The researcher disagrees with this finding of the study. He thought that the higher the qualification, the better 

the principals’ in their feces management practices in the study area (B.Ed/B.Sc-14.80; M.Ed/M.Sc-14.76; Ph. 

D-16.13). This means that principals with higher academic qualifications perform better in the area of school 

administration and management of feces in their schools. 

Conclusion  

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher observed and discovered that principals’ age significantly 

influences their feces management practices in secondary schools. Furthermore, this study showed that 

principals’ educational qualification level does not significantly influence feces management practices in 

secondary schools. 



Global Journal of Education and Allied Research (GJEAR) 16 (5) 

pg.7 

He thought that the more principals advanced in age, the more they acquired experiences, ideas, skills, and 

administration techniques. This may be positively transferred in the management of feces in their schools. The 

higher the qualification, the better the principals’ in their feces management practices in secondary schools in 

the study area. This means that principals with higher academic qualifications perform better in the area of 

school administration and management of feces in their schools. The findings indicate that there was a 

significant influence of principals’ demographic variables and feces management practices in secondary schools 

in Cross River State. 

Recommendations  

Based on the study findings, the following recommendations were made:  

1. The government should appoint principals who are advanced in age in the running of secondary schools 

in Cross River State to ensure proper management of feces and toilet facilities in their schools. 

2. Staff with higher educational qualifications should be recruited as school principals to ensure better 

feces management practices and proper sanitation in secondary schools. 

3. Principals should ensure that more toilet facilities are provided in schools for both sexes to prevent 

health risks among students and environmental implications arising from unsanitary practices.  

4. Principals should perform regular inspections and supervision of sanitary facilities in their schools for 

proper maintenance and to ensure that they are kept clean always to prevent feces related infections in schools. 

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