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Transformative Education (2019) 1:1, 11-17. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.26140

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
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Examining Child Development from an 
African Cultural Context

Winnie Mucherah1 and Teresia Mbogori2

Abstract

Human development is multifaceted and characterized by physical, cognitive, social and emotional aspects. 
This development is strongly shaped by one’s socio-cultural context. It is impossible to separate one’s culture 
when explaining their development fully. The purpose of this paper is to critically examine key issues in child 
development through the lens of an African context. These key issues include language development, child 
birth practices, self-esteem, self-concept and identity development. Language is a powerful tool of communica-
tion that consists of words used by a community. It enables us to pass down information from one generation to 
the next and creates a rich cultural heritage. For this reason, this paper examines the languages that are used in 
African schools and how they impact the development of an African child. Another important issue that needs 
to be examined within the African context is the birth process. Even though childbirth is considered a natural 
event, it takes place in different contexts and parents make important choices about conditions surrounding 
birth. The people who help a mother during birth vary across cultures and these childbirth settings and atten-
dants impact the mother’s experience, particularly with regards to how she will interact with her child after 
birth, which consequently influences child development. Finally, self-esteem, self-concept and identity develop-
ment are strongly embedded in one’s cultural context. A healthy self-esteem and positive self-concept impacts 
a strong identity development. To gain a better understanding of these key concepts within the African cultural 
context, the framework of Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory will be utilized. 

Keywords: Child development, African Culture, Self-esteem, Self-concept, Identity 

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
The development of a child is multifaceted and 

characterized by several dimensions including the 
physical, cognitive, social and emotional aspects. This 
development is strongly shaped by one’s socio-cultur-
al context. It is impossible to separate one’s culture 
and context in fully explaining their development. 
For example, constructs like motivation for academic 
achievement, self-concept, self-esteem, and identity 
development can only be adequately understood within 
one’s social-cultural contexts and values (Mahn & 
John-Steiner, 2013). What motivates a student in Kenya 
to achieve academically may be totally different from 
what motivates a student in the United States to achieve 
(Mucherah, 2008; Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). 

 Unfortunately, most frames of reference in explaining 
“optimal” development seem to be based on the West-
ern and European standards (Schwartz et al, 2013). 
Almost all examples given in textbooks are Western and 
or European based, hardly any from an African perspec-
tive, unless it’s explaining “inadequate” development. In 
addition, research given in support of discussions used 
to explain development in Africa or other developing 
countries tend to be conducted by Westerners, with few 
African first authors. Furthermore, majority of African 
scholars tend to interpret their research findings within 
the Western and or European framework. Clearly, there 
is a need to increase research productivity from Africa 
and by African scholars. It is paramount that the Afri-
can scholars interpret their research findings through 
the African lens. The world is becoming a global village 
and Africa has to participate in this endeavor by



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 12 

actively participating in empirical-based research and 
share with the world the unique aspects its culture 
contribute to understanding children’s development. 
Clearly, there is a need for transformation in the ed-
ucation system on the continent of Africa. The ideal 
place to start cultivating this transformation is through 
schools, starting from early childhood education. This 
paper will address five key aspects of child develop-
ment that needs to be critically examined within the 
African context. They include language development, 
child birth approaches, self-esteem, self-concepts, and 
identity development. In addition, these conecpts will 
be examined within the framework of Vygotsky’s so-
cio-cultural theory.

Social Cultural Theory
 The sociocultural theory, developed by Lev Vy-

gotsky, posits that social interaction and culture 
plays an important role in children’s construction of 
knowledge. According to this theory, culture and social 
interactions are indispensable to children’s interpre-
tations and understanding of cultural expectations 
(Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Vygotsky, 1962). In Vygotsky’s 
view, knowledge is distributed among people and the 
environments in which they live. These environments 
are embedded in the cultural contexts of family, school, 
media, legal and religious institutions, and community 
organizations. According to Vygotsky, children’s social 
interaction with more skilled adults and peers is insep-
arable from their knowledge development. Through 
this interaction, they learn to use the tools that will 
help them adapt and be successful in their culture. For 
example, if you regularly interact with children in their 
native language, you not only advance their language 
skills but also communicate to them that their native 
language is an important aspect of their culture. There-
fore, this theoretical approach suggests that the knowl-
edge, perceptions, attitudes and beliefs about language, 
childbirth practices, beauty, self-concept and identity 
development among African children is advanced 
through interaction with others within the sociocultur-
al contexts.

Early Childhood and Language Development
There is a need to engage teachers, scholars and 

policy makers in discussions on the cultural contexts 
influencing children’s development. For example, an 
intentional examination of the early childhood cur-
riculum is warranted. How are children introduced to 
formal education? What aspects in the curriculum

promote the African culture? When teaching the alpha-
bet, what examples are given to support each letter of 
the alphabet? For example, A is for… The colonial edu-
cation used Western and/or European based examples 
such as A for Apple. Most children, particularly those in 
the rural areas have never seen an apple! Unfortunately, 
this is still being used in early childhood education in 
Kenya despite gaining independence in the early 60s. 
What languages are used for instruction in schools?  
An examination of the school systems in most African 
countries, particularly in Kenya, reveal foreign languag-
es are the main languages of instruction. How many Af-
rican languages are encouraged or simultaneously used 
with the foreign languages such as English or French? 

In some countries, children are punished for using 
their native language at school, and this can have a 
negative effect on children if they become ashamed of 
their native language (Mucherah, 2008). Furthermore, 
punishing children for using their native language 
sends the message that their language is not important. 
This is unfortunate because children should be encour-
aged to maintain their native language while learning 
a second language as research shows children can pick 
up many languages simultaneously (Thomas & John-
son, 2008). Furthermore, compared to adolescents and 
adults, children have the ability to pronounce words 
with a native-like accent in a second language if it is 
introduced early (Neville, 2006). Therefore, instead of 
punishing children for speaking their heritage language 
at school, teachers should be trained so that they can 
effectively use both/all languages for instruction. There 
is a need for more resources to be invested in training 
teachers to be culturally responsive in their instruc-
tional practices, and also to abolish practices such as 
humiliating or beating students who speak their native 
language in school. This is a problem because in some 
cases, parents tend to be happy when these children 
can not speak their native language. According to Ngugi 
Wa Thiong’o (1986) these parents may not realize it 
but they have been programed by the colonial mental-
ity. Africans have to decolonize their mind in order to 
embrace their native languages (Thiong’o, 1986). Ngugi 
goes on to say that historically, English came to be 
seen automatically as the language of intelligence and 
African languages as peripheral. This was a conscious 
program enacted by all colonial powers. However, the 
colonial period is long gone and it is time for African 
education systems to re-examine their educational 
mission and practices. African have access to many lan-
guages and this is a signifcant resource because

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1:1



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 13 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2018) 1:1

children who are fluent in two or more languages per-
form better than their single-language counterparts on 
tests of control of attention, concept formation, analyti-
cal reasoning , inhibition, cognitive flexibility, cognitive 
complexity, and cognitive monitoring (Bialystok, 2001, 
2007, 2011; Bialystok & Craik, 2010). 

Ironically, in most cases children who speak more 
than one native language in Africa feel inferior to those 
who speak only one foreign language such as English or 
French. It would be in the interest of the children and 
the African culture in general, to promote and combine 
both the native and foreign languages for instruction 
at school. There is some hope in Kenya because the 
current curriculum is emphasizing the use of Kiswahili, 
which is the national language. In addition, the Min-
istry of Education in Kenya has reintroduced African 
languages which has promoted a publishing house like 
East African Educational Publishers to issue numer-
ous books on how to learn different mother tongues in 
Kenya such as Dholuo, Ekegusii and Kiluhya (Ministry 
of Education, 2015). Despite this glimpse of hope, most 
Kenyans prefer their children to be fluent in English, 
even if it is at the expense of the national and heritage 
language (Mucherah, 2008). Kenji Hakuta (2001, 2005) 
support the combined heritage and foreign language 
approach because children have difficulty learning 
a subject when it is taught in a language they do not 
understand. Furthermore, when both languages are 
integrated in the classroom, children learn the foreign 
language more readily and participate more actively. Of 
great significance, children recognize the value of their 
heritage language and embrace it with pride. 

Childbirth within the African Context
Childbirth commences the process of child de-

velopment. For centuries, the process of childbirth 
occurred in the homes. In the Kenyan culture, partic-
ularly the Luhya culture, there are women who help a 
mother during childbirth, they are referred to as birth 
attendants. These women are experts in customary 
midwifery and are known and respected in the commu-
nity. This practice minimizes the stress of a pregnant 
woman since the midwife is usually familiar with the 
women whom she assists in the childbirth. Less stress 
during child birth promotes relaxation in the mother 
and enhances the childbirth experience. This positive 
experience enhances the parent-infant interaction after 
birth, which increases positive social and emotional de-
velopment of both mother and infant (Kennell, 2006). 
However, this trend is gradually changing and children

are being delivered at the hospital by nurses and doc-
tors. This is all good, if this is done for the sole purpose 
of hygiene, minimizing infections, and for the purpose 
of safety of the infant and the mother. Unfortunately, 
home deliveries are now frowned upon while hospital 
births are viewed as progressive because in the West-
ern world like the United States, 99% of births take 
place in the hospital (Martin et al, 2005). The problem 
is, not every family in Africa can afford the hospital bill 
nor the means to get to the hospital in time for a safe 
delivery. It would therefore be helpful for the tradi-
tional mid-wives to work alongside a trained nurse 
and doctor so that emergences are taken care of if they 
happen, and the traditional mid-wifery expertise is 
preserved.

Not surprisingly, and fortunately, in most African 
cultures, midwives or women who help with child 
birth are very common and research shows for low-
risk women, midwife-led delivery is characterized by 
a reduction in procedures during labor and increased 
satisfaction with care (Sutcliffe et al, 2012). This is not 
unique to Africa because midwifery is practiced in most 
countries throughout the world (Jesse & Kilpatrick, 
2013). This is important because mid-wives are usually 
community members who can eaily be sort for advice 
after the baby is born, unlike the hospital birth where 
the nurses and/or doctors are not easily accessable. 
In addition, the mid-wives speak the same language as 
the new mother, therefore, communication is easy and 
cultural expertise on how to care for the newborn is 
shared. This is important because this communication 
of what to do after the baby is born helps the mother to 
relax and bond with her baby. In some cases, hospital 
deliveries can be cold and distant especially for moth-
ers from rural and low income families. Sometimes, 
the language used by doctors is not understood by the 
mother, which can make the mother feel inept as a par-
ent. Feelings of incompetence can affect parent-infant 
interacrion after birth. Physicians believe that during 
the period shortly after birth, the parents and newborn 
need to form an emotional attachment as a foundation 
for optimal development in the years to come (Kennell, 
2006). In some mother-infant-pairs, including preterm 
infants and mothers from disadvantaged circumstanc-
es, early bonding may establish a climate for improved 
interaction which promotes optimal child development 
(Kennell, 2006). It would therefore be beneficial for the 
medical profession to tap into this expertise by work-
ing together with the midwives to reduce the stigma 
attached to home births and promote safe births for



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 14

low-income mothers. This will also preserve the natural 
and African cultural funds of knowledge. This expertise 
has been passed on from generation to generation and 
if the current hospital deliveries continue, Africa will 
lose this valuable skill. According to the socio-cultural 
theory, knowledge is learned and shared through social 
interaction and engagement in culturally valued activi-
ties. Therefore, trained medical professionals working 
alongside traditional mid-wives sends the message that 
this is a valued expertise in the African culture.

Self-esteem and Self-concept
Another key concept in children’s development 

is self-understanding which includes self-esteem, 
self-concept and identity. Children’s conceptions and 
understanding of self is their cognitive representa-
tion and is the central aspect of their personality and 
psychological well-being (Harter, 2012; Rochat, 2013). 
A child’s self-understanding is based, in part, on the 
various roles and membership categories that define 
who children are, and more importantly, it is deeply 
embedded in their social-cultural contexts (Harter, 
2006; 2012). The large question here is, how do African 
children define themselves? What attributes are central 
to their self-understanding? A healthy understanding 
of Self promotes one’s self-esteem, which is associated 
with positive life outcomes (Harter, 2012). Self-esteem 
refers to a person’s self-worth or self-image, while 
self- concept refers to a domain-specific evaluations 
of self (Harter, 2012). Having a high self-esteem and a 
positive self-concept are important aspects of children’s 
well-being (Baumeister, 2013; Campbell, 2012). For 
years, beauty has been defined based on the Western 
and/or European standards. For example, long, straight 
hair and fair skin for women have been the criteria for 
judging women’s beauty (Mucherah & Frazier, 2013). 
Rarely are African attributes embraced in the defini-
tion of beauty. In the 60’s there was a movement in the 
United States of America, championed by prominent 
African Americans like James Brown, to promote Black 
Beauty. This movement promoted wearing natural hair, 
Afro, and encouraged Black people to embrace darker 
skin tones. Unfortunately, this movement faded in the 
80’s and the 90’s, but emerged again in the Twenty-first 
century. There is also hope because in the United States 
prominent people and celebrities in Hollywood are now 
wearing natural hair and embracing African names.
If self-esteem refers to a person’s self-worth or self-im-
age, and if Western or European standards are used to 
determine one’s perceptions of beauty, this is bound

to be problematic for African children. Since the era of 
Clark and Clark’s Doll study which found that African 
American children preferred lighter skin tone dolls, 
scholars have grappled with the issue of beauty and 
skin tone (Mucherah & Frazier, 2013). Mucherah and 
Frazier’s study (2013) found that majority of women of 
African descent preferred lighter skin tone and this was 
significantly correlated with their self-esteem. Findings 
like this present a challenge to Africans who are try-
ing to instill a sense of pride in African children with 
darker skin tones. Research indicates that variations in 
self-esteem have been linked with many children’s de-
velopment. For example, children with high self-esteem 
show greater initiative. They are also prone to prosocial 
behavior and exhibit more happiness (Baumeister & 
others, 2003. On the contrary, studies show that indi-
viduals with low self-esteem report more feelings of 
depression and have lower levels of life satisfaction 
(Birkeland et al, 2012). 

Possible Ways to Raise Children’s Self-esteem with-
in the African Context

The findings from reviewed studies affirm the impor-
tance of increasing children’s self-esteem within the 
African cultural context (Baumeister, 2013; Campbell, 
2012; Harter, 2012; Mucherah & Frazier, 2013; Ro-
chat, 2013). This process starts with the educators, 
guardians and any adult who serves as a role model, 
that they need to embrace and promote African attri-
butes, values and norms with conviction. One way to 
raise children’s self-esteem is by providing emotional 
support and social approval (Harter, 1999). Emotional 
support and social approval can be powerful influences 
on children’s self-esteem. The support and approval can 
be from teachers, parents and peers through encour-
agement and praise when children embrace culturally 
relevant behaviors and activities. For example, wearing 
cultural dresses/outfits, natural hair/braids, eating and 
enjoying traditional African foods, and speaking their 
heritage languages. Some of the current trends on the 
content are promising. For instance, it’s encouraging to 
see young women and men embrace African attributes 
such as natural hair/braids and dark skin tone, use of 
African names only, and use of native languages with 
pride. This is important because our efforts to under-
stand ourselves and to develop an identity that reflects 
our cultural heritage is long overdue. However, there 
is more that can be done to promote children’s self-es-
teem in schools. For example, there is a need to re-ex-
amine the textbooks that are used in schools. Who are

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1:1



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 15 

the authors? Having many books with African authors 
is a place to start. Even better, having books that are 
written in African languages would greatly promote Af-
rican languages and pride in the African culture. Finally, 
having books with main characters who are African 
helps children to see “themselves” in these books and 
sends a message that African characters are important.

Identity Development
Children start to grapple with identity in middle 

childhood. They start to have questions such as “Who 
am I?” “What do I want to be when I grow up?” As they 
look for answers to these questions, they are paying 
close attention to their social contexts such as home, 
neighborhood, school, and community at large. The 
process of identity development helps children to navi-
gate some of the challenging and awkward social issues 
as they interact with their peers. This is critical because 
identity is who a person is and represents a synthesis 
and integration of self-understanding (Erikson, 1968). 
Vygotsky would argue that a child’s identity develop-
ment is significantly influenced by the social cultural 
contexts including the interactions with more knowl-
edgeable members of society (Vygotsky, 1962). Ac-
cording to Erikson, identity is a self-portrait composed 
of many pieces including the career a person wants to 
pursue, country of origin and how intensely the per-
son identifies with his or her cultural heritage, and the 
kind of things a person likes to do which include sports, 
music, hobbies and interests (Erikson, 1968; Moshman, 
2011). Africa is known for its immense wealth in music, 
folk songs and dances. These folk songs should not only 
be performed during special occasions like school and 
college competitions. Rather, they should be woven 
into the daily lives of Africans so that children grow-up 
embracing these African gems. The challenge is, how 
strongly do African children embrace their African 
identity with its attributes? The world is becoming 
small and Africa needs to be represented in this “small” 
world. As Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory posits, the 
social contexts play significant roles in identity. For 
example, family, culture, and ethnicity are linked to 
identity development. Unfortunately, most research on 
identity development has been based on data collect-
ed from adolescents and young adults in the United 
States and Canada (Schwartz et al, 2013). Many of these 
individuals have grown up with a cultural identity that 
emphasizes the individual. However, in many countries 
around the world, adolescents and young adults have 
grown up influenced by a collectivist emphasis on

fitting in with the group and connecting with others. 
The collectivist emphasis is especially prevalent in 
African countries such as Kenya. Research has found 
that African adolescents and young adults develop their 
identity through identification with and imitation of 
others in the cultural group (Bosma & Kunnen, 2001). 
This emphasis on interdependence in African cultures 
includes an expectation that adolescents and young 
adults will accept and embrace social and family roles 
(Berman et al, 2011). Ethnic identity is an enduring 
aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership 
in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings 
related to that membership (Phinney, 2006). 

Identity development becomes a central feature 
during adolescence. Most young people start to grap-
ple with issues such as “What is my purpose in life?” 
(Erikson, 1968). Helping African youth navigate the 
challenges of their ethnic identity by providing oppor-
tunities for them to experience strong African values 
and attributes with pride, is critical. This is because 
research shows that a positive ethnic identity is related 
to positive outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents 
(Umana Taylor et al, 2012). Furthermore, adolescents’ 
positive ethnic identity is linked to higher self-esteem, 
school connectedness, and a healthy social functioning 
(Jones & Galliher, 2007). It is therefore safe to state that 
it’s imperative to ensure that African adolescents devel-
op a positive ethnic identity as Africans.

Conclusion
A comprehensive understanding of factors that 

impact the major aspects of child development requires 
an awareness of the relevant cultural contexts. This 
understanding begins with institutions of education 
that promote the values and practices embedded in the 
African cultural heritage. Educators and policy mak-
ers need to start re-examining their curriculum and 
teacher practices. In addition, scholars need to develop 
research instruments that are culturally relevant and 
to intentionally assess the construct validity of the 
research instruments in order to adapt the current 
Western and European measures to the African context. 
One of the challenges facing transformative educa-
tion is that there are not many writers in African 
languages on the continent. The continent appears 
to be captive to European languages and hostile 
towards African languages. According to Ngugi, 
Africa has to make an intentional effort to change 
because losing a language is losing one’s soul

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1:1



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 16

(Thiong’o, 1986). There is clearly a need in Africa 
to adopt a three-language policy where, in the case 
of Kenya for example, every child will be grounded 
in their mother tongue, Kiswahili and then English. 
The environments in which children in Africa de-
velop should exposure them to strengths and val-
ues of the continent. For example, schools should 
teach the Egyptian civilization, before Western and 
Greek history. Egyptian civilization is the missing 
link in most of the African education system, yet 
the 3,000 years of  Egyptian civilization showed 
that they did incredible things (Thiong’o, 1986). 
These Egyptian inventors were Black Africans who 
were leaders in art, sculpture, and astronomy. They 
also invented writing (Hieroglyphs)! As children in 
Africa develop, they need to have this knowledge. 
This goes back to the African native languages, au-
thors, writers, and books because the lack of con-
fidence in ourselves begins with hating our native 
languages. The history carried by those languages 
is erased, there is no memory of Africa inventing 
things when we abandon our native languages 
(Mucherah, 2008). 

This is supported by Vygotsky’s theory of so-
cio-cultural development. Culture and social inter-
actions guide children’s development. Child de-
velopment is inseparable from cultural and social 
activities. The education system in Africa needs to 
provide relevant competencies for their children, 
embedded within the cultural contexts, so that 
they emerge from these institutions and stand on 
the world stage with pride for their African culture 
and without an excuse!

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1 Winnie Mucherah (wmucherah@bsu.edu) is Professor in 
the Department of Educational Psychology at Ball State 
University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.

2 Teresia Mbogori (tnmbogori@bsu.edu) is an Assistant 
Professor in the Department of Nutrition and Health 
Physiology at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.

Authors


