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Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2  
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v2i1.31198

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Ayaga, G. N., & Okaya, E. K. 2020. Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 
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Implications of Outdoor Environment on Children’s Learning 
Experiences in Public Preschools in Borabu Sub-County, Kenya 

Godfrey Nyaoga Ayaga1 & Edward Khasakhala Okaya2

Abstract

This paper presents results from a study conducted in Borabu Sub-county in Kenya to determine the 
implications of outdoor environment on children’s learning experiences in public preschools. The major 
findings suggest that the general state of outdoor environment component was unsatisfactory. It found a 
positive relationship between the outdoor environment and pre-schoolers learning experiences and ability 
to perform loco-motor activities and rhythmic movement activities and general academic achievement. The 
results further indicated that all the four states of outdoor environments (the site, availability, adequacy and 
effectiveness) combined to explain 35.2% of the variance in the preschool overall learning experiences. The 
results indicated that a rich outdoor environment has a positive influence on preschool children‘s development 
of various social, emotional and cognitive skills. The study recommends that teachers and pupils should 
participate in outdoor play, and governments should enact policy guidelines to increase the availability, 
adequacy and effectiveness of outdoor activities.

Keywords: Competency-Based Curriculum; Outdoor environment; Learning experiences 

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
The government of Kenya recognizes early child-

hood development and education as an important 
pillar for accelerating the attainment of Education for 
All (EFA, UNESCO, 2010) and the Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals (Republic of Kenya, 2006). To ensure quality 
education and learning environment during a child’s 
formative years, EFA’s first goal stipulates that it is the 
responsibility of every government to expand and en-
hance comprehensive early childhood education where 
young boys and girls fully develop their competencies 
which facilitate smooth learning in other advanced 
levels. According to a 2002 report by The World Fit for 
Children Conference, it is important for every child to 
have a good start to life whereby a child receives quality 
nurturing, care and safe environment (Githinji & Kanga, 
2011). 

In this regard, many developing and developed  
nations have been developing and implementing pol-
icies that are perceived to improve the state of early 
childhood education in various countries (Kang’ethe, 

Wakahiu & Karanja, 2015), this has galvanized many 
countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), 
into confronting their historically low access to qual-
ity early childhood education (Murunga, 2015). This 
has brought a remarkable success in attracting many 
children into schools (UNESCO, 2010). However, filling 
the classrooms is not enough in the process of ensuring 
access to basic education and Education for all. The goal 
is geared towards having positive social and economic 
returns in which improving the quality of Education is 
the key emphasis. Unfortunately, the 2010 UNESCO re-
port indicate that the quality in terms of pre-schoolers’ 
acquisition of early year competencies is not satisfac-
tory in many countries and many preschool learning 
centres have poorly established learning environment 
in most sub-Saharan Africa countries Kenya inclusive.

Ideas of Early Childhood Development and Edu-
cation (ECDE) can be traced back to 400BC in Plato’s 
book, “The Republic”. Plato advocated that early child-
hood education should be made interesting, and attrac-
tive through music, plays, number work and geometri-
cal exercises which are implemented better in a rich



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  5 

a rich outdoor environment (Njoroge, 2011). Similarly, 
Githinji, & Kanga (2011) notes that philosophers like 
Jean Jacques, Rousseau and Jean Heinrich Pestalozzi 
emphasizes on the significance rich outdoor environ-
ment to help children acquire the necessary skills, 
knowledge and attitudes necessary for holistic develop-
ment. 

In particular, a child’s psycho-social development is 
a long process that requires a critical mass of organized 
individuals involved in a variety of participatory educa-
tional processes and actions to produce cumulative re-
sults (Lyabwene, 2010). Therefore, the children’s inter-
actions with a rich outdoor environment is necessary 
for the children’s holistic development and acquisition 
of early year’s competencies.  It has consistently been 
observed by many scholars that for effective learning to 
take place, children need mental stimulation and plenty 
of opportunities to exercise and develop their talents 
through the use of both fixed and movable equipment 
(Lyabwene, 2010). Thus, for preschool centres to foster 
social competencies, prepare children for future inter-
actions and acquiring of early literacy and numeracy 
skills, the use of adequate, safe and effective outdoor 
environment is usually regarded.

In the last three decades, the use of rich outdoor 
environments has held a prominent place in the field 
of early childhood education since its beginning with 
German educator Friedrich Froebel’s kindergarten and 
nursery school movement in the early 1800s (Gray 
& MacBlain, 2015). The founders of early childhood 
education emphasized the importance of learning 
within a well-established outdoor environment. This 
was in stark contrast to the predominant theory of the 
day which held that learning was done within class-
room (Gray & MacBlain, 2015). These early educators 
were viewed as radicals as they promoted the theory 
that children learn through their interaction with the 
environment.

In the USA, children’s playtime has steadily de-
creased due to limited access to play spaces, changes 
in the way children are expected to spend their time, 
parent concerns for safety, and digital media use among 
young children (Bishop, 2013). Social changes and new 
technologies in the country have also impacted nega-
tively on the way children play and the amount of free 
time they are given because children between the ages 
3-11 use most of their free time at school completing 
homework and shopping with parents (Ginsburg, Lee, 
& Boyd, 2008). In addition, Lovell (2009) observes that 
children’s playtime continues to decrease in th USA as

a result of an emphasis on academic preparation at an 
early age, 30% of American kindergarteners no longer 
have recess, 71% of children and teenagers have a TV in 
their bedroom, and parental perceived risk of play envi-
ronments and limited access to outdoor play spaces.

A study done by Nairn and Mori (2011), evaluat-
ing the lives of children in United Kingdom, Spain and 
Sweden, pointed out that children in the United King-
dom had less chances for pleasurable outdoor activities 
compared with Spain and Sweden and that this was a 
contributor towards reduced well-being and learning 
in United Kingdom. The study further found that the de-
cisions to reduce funding for outdooor play and spaces 
was disadvantageous for children, particularly those 
from poor groups of children whose families struggle to 
find reasonable play provisions. 

In Singapore, early childhood education remains a 
self-regulated programme as preschools in the country 
vary in terms of their programme content and overall 
teaching and learning approaches, catering to differ-
ent social strata and cultural groups (WenTzuo, 2010). 
Despite of the fact that play should be an integral part 
of the preschool teaching in the country, it remains un-
clear whether preschool centres incorporate play-based 
methods of teaching into their practice as recommend-
ed under the Kindergarten Curriculum Framework 
(Peng, 2011). In some instances, preschool supervisors 
in Singapore are not advocating or adopting play-based 
teaching into their curriculum because of parental 
expectations and the demands of a meritocratic and 
economically-driven society that perceives education 
as a commodity to be obtained for financial success and 
social mobility (WenTzuo, 2010). 

Despite the relevance of early childhood education, 
Tanzania is among African countries that has given 
Early Childhood Development (ECD) program minimal 
attention in the past three decades (Tarimo, 2013). 
However, in 2001, the government of Tanzania adopted 
an inter-sectoral ECD service delivery initiative result-
ing in the inclusion of ECD in the National Strategy for 
Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP). Since then, 
emphasis has been put on use of Child-Centered Teach-
ing Methods (CCTMs) like the use of play as a teaching 
approach in both indoor and outdoor teaching (United 
Republic of Tanzania, 2008). Despite the government’s 
effort, a report by UNICEF (2007) indicates that more 
than 95% of young children in the country lack access 
to early childhood stimulation characterized by rich 
outdoor environment.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  6 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

Despite the challenges facing Early Childhood 
Education in many parts of the world, the early years 
of a child’s life are globally accepted as the most critical 
years for the lifelong development of a child (Kang’ethe, 
Wakahiu & Michael, 2015). In this regard, there is evi-
dence of a positive correlation between the child’s qual-
ity of early childhood nurturing, health, environment, 
learning and future holistic development and academic 
achievement in subsequent grades in primary, second-
ary schools and colleges (Bradbury, 2007). This fact has 
been emphasized by most founders of Early Childhood 
Development and Education (ECDE), especially Johann 
Froebel, Heinrich Pestalozzi and John Dewey, among 
others who consistently indicated that early childhood 
is a crucial stage of life in terms of a child’s physical, in-
tellectual, emotional and social development. Growth of 
mental and physical abilities progress at an astounding 
rate and a very high proportion of learning take place 
from birth to age six (Murunga, 2015).

To address the problems inherent in early child-
hood education in Kenya, the Constitution of Kenya 
(Republic of Kenya, 2010) establishes government at 
two levels, national and county governments. There-
fore, Kenya transited from a centralized government 
to devolved system of government. With the advent of 
the implementation of the Constitution of Kenya (ROK, 
2010), the devolution process heralded the devolution 
of pre-school among other devolved functions of the 
county governments. In this regard, Article 43 of the 
Constitution says that every person has a right to edu-
cation including preschool children. Further, the edu-
cation sector is governed by the Basic Education Act, 
2013 and the Sessional Paper No.14 of 2012 on Reform-
ing Education and Training Sectors in Kenya. The Basic 
Education Act, 2013, aims at giving effect to Article 53 
of the Constitution, and to promote and regulate free 
and compulsory basic education. However, this has not 
been the case because there is no county government in 
Kenya which provides free preschool education.

A major landmark in education in early years learn-
ing has been a shift from 8-4-4 system of education to 
Competency Based Curriculum. The 8-4-4 system of 
education was introduced in 1985 following the rec-
ommendations of the 1981 Presidential Working Party 
on the Establishment of the Second University in Kenya 
(Republic of Kenya, 1981). The guiding philosophy of 
the system was education for self-reliance. Several Task 
Force reports as well as summative and formative eval-
uation reports led to curriculum reviews in 1992, 1995 
and 2002. However, these reviews only addressed

issues of curriculum content, unnecessary overlaps 
and emerging issues. The reviews have not adequately 
addressed fundamental issues that would transform 
society by enhancing the productivity of every Kenyan 
citizen and accelerate economic growth.

The summative evaluation of the curriculum (ROK, 
2006) indicated that the curriculum content and its im-
plementation was academic and examination-oriented. 
In addition to curriculum overload, most schools were 
not adequately provided with equipped workshops to 
facilitate the learning of practical skills and teachers 
were not sufficiently trained. Furthermore the 8-4-4 
system of education did not provide flexible education 
pathways for identifying and nurturing the talents and 
interests of learners early enough to prepare them for 
the world of work, career progression and sustainable 
development.

In the same vein, the 2010 Report of the Task Force 
on the Re-alignment of the Education Sector to the Kenya 
Vision 2030 and Constitution of Kenya 2010 was formed 
which led to the sessional paper No. 2 of 2015 on “Re-
forming Education and Training in Kenya” (ROK, 2015). 
The Sessional Paper states that the education sector is 
guided by the national philosophy, which places edu-
cation at the centre stage of the country’s human and 
economic development. The Sessional Paper recom-
mends reforming the education and training sector to 
provide for the development of the individual learner’s 
potential in a holistic and integrated manner, while 
producing intellectually, emotionally and physically 
balanced citizens. It recommended a competency-based 
curriculum; establishment of a national learning as-
sessment system; early identification and nurturing of 
talents; the introduction of national values and national 
cohesion and their integration into the curriculum; and 
the introduction of three learning pathways at senior 
secondary school level among others. The Competency 
Based Curriculum Framework vision and mission (ROK, 
2006) are supported by three important pillars: values, 
theoretical approaches and guiding principles.

Currently, in many counties, early childhood edu-
cation programs operate on the basis of partnership, 
collaboration and networking. However, in 2003, free 
primary education was introduction in Kenyan primary 
schools. ECDE was not included in this setup despite 
the fact that most components that make a rich outdoor 
environment are expensive. With the current poverty 
index in most rural Kenyan setting, most preschool cen-
tres operate under poor conditions which are perceived 
to hinder their full participation and full development



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  7 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

(Ngaruiya, 2006). Worse still, parents do not under-
stand why primary education should be free and not 
Early Childhood Education [ECE]; they have therefore 
begun resisting paying ECE fees, choking off a vital 
source of funding.

Many county governments have devolved Early 
Childhood Education to bring efficiency in the manage-
ment of these units of education. There is, however, a 
small but convincing body of research knowledge which 
indicates that there are still many challenges in imple-
mentation of Early Years Education in most counties 
(Mahindu, 2011) Currently there are disparities in the 
47 counties on their priorities in the implementation of 
early childhood education where some counties have 
set some reasonable funds to support preschool edu-
cation, while to other counties, ECDE is not a priority 
in their budgetary allocations. This has resulted in 
diversity of practices by various county government 
and stakeholders, compromising the quality of service 
offered at preschool centres. 

In Kenya, Mahindu (2011) conducted a study in 
Nairobi and found that many pre-schools had many 
children learning indoors without outdoor play expe-
riences because some of the pre-schools were located 
in residential plots with rooms turned into classrooms. 
Hence children stay indoors most hours of school day. 
Mahindu (2011) also found that many pre-schools did 
not have play items for their pupils and in most cases 
where pupils were found playing or learning outside, 
they were left to play and learn on their own without 
teachers’ supervision and guidance.

The researchers are of the opinion that if the issue 
of outdoor environment and play is not addressed well 
with the seriousness it deserves, the quality of pre-
school education will be hampered leading to negative 
implications in schooling. There was therefore a ne-
cessity to undertake a study to assess the implication 
of outdoor environment on pre-schoolers’ learning 
experience. 

Statement of the Problem
The government of Kenya initiated Competen-

cy-Based Curriculum in the view to enhance skills of 
learners. A competency-based approach focuses on the 
skills and talents needed to be able to perform a partic-
ular task to a certain standard. Early childhood care and 
education offers a holistic development of a child’s so-
cial, emotional, cognitive and physical needs in order to 
build a solid and broad foundation for lifelong learning 
and well-being. This eventually shapes young learners’ 

minds, attitudes and often behaviours. If it is not well 
managed its likely to compromise holistic development 
of these pre-schoolers, leading to maladjustment. This 
calls for proper structuring of pre-school learning envi-
ronment to foster creativity of learners through play. It 
is however becoming clear from emerging research that 
children spend limited time doing outdoor activities. 
This is against the findings of current literature and 
theories of child development that advocate for pro-
viding appropriate outdoor learning environment that 
offers a sense of freedom for children to play freely with 
peers, expand their imagination beyond the restraints 
of indoor activities, release energy, and explore their 
senses of touch, smell, taste and motion. 

An attempt has been made by the government of 
Kenya, to cater to the well-being of young children, by 
developing service standard guidelines to ensure that 
quality services are delivered efficiently and effective-
ly at all times in ECDE centres. This was envisaged to 
ensure the provision of adequate, safe and effective 
outdoor learning environments. Despite the Kenyan 
government’s effort to ensure quality and rich outdoor 
environments, the strategies and efforts have not been 
effective due to the current condition of the outdoor 
environment and equipment in most pre-school learn-
ing centres, characterized by inadequacy and unsafe 
fixed and movable equipment. It is against this setting 
that the proposed study sought to investigate into the 
influence of outdoor environment on pre-schoolers’ 
learning experience.

Research Questions 
The following specific questions guided the study: 

i. What is the state of outdoor environment in 
ECDE centres in Borabu Sub-County? 

ii. How does the outdoor environment affect 
children’s learning experiences and physical 
development in Borabu Sub-County?



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  8 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

Theoretical Framework
This study was guided by socio-cultural theory. 

The theory arises from the works of Vygotsky (1978) 
who emphases on the role socio-cultural factors on 
children’s development and learning. Vygotsky (1978) 
believed that planned learning should be learner-cen-
tred and oriented towards activities through which they 
can construct their knowledge as a result of recognition 
of one’s experience. Vygotsky’s theory supports that 
learning must not just based on classroom theories of 
teaching, but with learning to learn, developing skills 
and utilization of indoor and outdoor learning strat-
egies which make learning experiences relevant and 
meaningful for the benefit of holistic development. 
Vygotsky argues that enhanced environment, social in-
teractions, and shared outdoor activities assist children 
attain skills and master various activities, moreover 
to reason in a meaningful manner. Vygotsky proposes 
that the nature of development and learning in young 
children takes place in a social environment. Vygotsky 
(1978) believed that young children don’t develop in 
isolation, but in a social matrix.

Vygotsky´s socio-cultural theory (1978) has an 
imperative contribution for studying the environments 
essential for physical activity and learning. Vygotsky´s 
advancement advocates for modification of varied chil-
dren’s contexts. In this case, the outdoor environment 
should offer children with opportunities to experience 
phenomena that contribute to their meaning making 
and skill development. The child’s experiences in the 
outdoor environment give rise to describing things 
that cannot be experienced indoors (Norling & Sand-
berg, 2015). During outdoor activities children use 
their experiences to perform meaning making in social 
relationships with peers, grown-ups and their immedi-
ate environment. Constantly changing outdoor envi-
ronment expands children’s range of experiences and 
stimulates their activity level and learning. 

Proponents of the constructivist theory have 
pointed out that human beings construct all knowledge 
while participating in different mental and physical 
experiences. In constructivism, the learner builds a per-
sonal interpretation of the world based on experiences 
and interactions (Pierucci, O’Brien, McInnis, Gilpin, & 
Barber, 2014). On the other hand , social constructivism 
suggests that the curriculum should ultimately produce 
learners who would be able to deal effectively with the 
modern world. Therefore, curricula should not be pre-
sented as finished abstractions, but should include the 
child’s preconceptions and should incorporate how the

child views his or her own world (Pellis & Pellis, 2007).
The other learning theory that has shaped and 

influenced the provision of Competency Based Curricu-
lum (CBC) is the visible learning theory as advanced by 
John Hattie (2012). This theory postulates that funda-
mental changes in education systems have important 
implications for curriculum reform. Learners need to be 
able to think about and solve problems, work in teams, 
communicate through discussions, take initiatives and 
bring diverse perspectives to their learning. Learners 
also need to demonstrate the impact of the achieve-
ment of national goals of education. Visible learning 
means an enhanced role for teachers as they become 
evaluators of their own teaching. Hattie asserts that 
visible learning and teaching occurs when teachers see 
learning through the eyes of students and help them 
become their own teachers (Wilson & Myers, 2000).

Literature Review
Historical Dimensions of Child Play

There is a considerable body of research which is 
indicative, relating children’s play and aspects of their 
learning and development. This evidence includes work 
in evolutionary and developmental psychology, anthro-
pology, neuroscience and educational studies. However, 
while researchers in these fields have hypothesized 
about how play might enhance child outcomes, much 
of this evidence merely establishes associations rather 
than firm, causal relationships. In fact, there is little or 
no conclusive evidence regarding possible explanatory 
mechanisms. From evolutionary psychology, Bruner 
(1978) argued that as more and more complex animals 
evolved, the length of immaturity increased facilitating 
an increased level in learning. (Whitebread, 2017). In 
the same vain, Pellegrini & Bohn, (2005) in a review of 
evolutionary play concluded that play contexts allow 
human beings to engage in exploratory activities.

Much of research on play in developmental psychol-
ogy has been advanced by Vygotsky (1978). He states 
that during spontaneous play, learners exercise control 
over their own activity and set for themselves challeng-
es which lead to their holistic development. A close fol-
lower of Vygotsky, Karpov (2005) carried out an analy-
sis of Neo-Vygotskian practices and concluded that play 
allows children to regulate their own behaviour making 
it a significant factor in their self-regulation.



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  9 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

Importance of play to children
Much of a child’s early years are spent playing, ex-

ploring and testing their environment and own person-
al boundaries. All of this play has significant and proven 
benefits for a child’s early development (Whitebread, 
2017). Research has shown that children who regular-
ly engage in play-based learning have better cognitive 
flexibility, working memory and self-regulation ability 
(Karpov, 2005). School administrators need to build 
playgrounds, train teachers in how to guide play-based 
learning and make their own play materials using natu-
ral materials. He recommends the involvement parents 
in the production of play materials

There is a steadily growing body of research knowl-
edge on the importance of play (Karpov, 2005; Pelligri-
ni & Bohn, 2005; Whitebread, 2017). Children behave 
better in the classroom when they have had the chance 
to blow off steam and release energy on the playground 
during the day. Playing is a known method of stress 
release that can help with a child’s emotional welfare. 
Play can help young children become more aware of 
other people’s feelings and develop empathy. During 
play, whether it is inside or outside, children must 
interact and cooperate with each other, as well as share 
play equipment which requires good communication 
skills. Children can build relationships, learn to resolve 
conflicts, negotiate and regulate their emotions. Play 
can nurture qualities like self-discipline and attention 
control, which can be just as vital for school readiness 
as content knowledge. Children with longer attention 
spans and self-control can focus more on tasks in the 
classroom (Wilson &  Myers, 2000). This is because 
when children engage in make-believe play that in-
volves role playing, there are generally rules that they 
must follow which involves regulating their natural self 
and behavior (Vygotsky, 1978). By practicing this in a 
safe, fun environment, their self-control is enhanced, 
which can then be transferred to a classroom setting.

There is a growing body of research that shows a 
link between play and the development of cognitive 
and social skills that are prerequisites for learning 
more complex concepts as children get older (Oren, 
2008). For example, play is linked to growth in memory, 
self-regulation, oral language, and recognizing symbols 
(Wilson & Myers, 2000). It has been linked to higher 
levels of school adjustment and increased social devel-
opment. Play has also been linked to increased literacy 
skills and other areas of academic learning (a view held 
by Piagetian and Vygotskian theories of child develop-
ment). Children create a pretend scenario by

negotiating and talking to peers and usinge props in a 
symbolic way. Children create specific roles and rules 
for pretend behaviour and adopt multiple themes and 
multiple roles. When children engage in this kind of 
play for most of their early years, they learn to delay 
gratification and to prioritize their goals and actions. 
They also learn to consider the perspectives and needs 
of other people. They learn to represent things sym-
bolically and to regulate their behaviours and act in a 
deliberate, intentional way.

Today, many children do not have enough play 
opportunities at home because of TV, videos, and the 
computer (Bodrova & Leong, 2015). They interact with 
toys that are not conducive to building imagination and 
interesting dramatic play themes. In many instances, 
pretend play with siblings and neighbourhood chil-
dren is not available. There are more adult-organized 
and directed activities than in the past. They tend to 
be in groups of children of the same age rather than in 
mixed-age groups, which would include older children 
who could act as “play mentors.”

Early childhood classrooms provide a unique set-
ting to foster the kind of dramatic play that will lead to 
cognitive and social maturity. There are other children 
to play with, a setting that can be organized to accom-
modate imaginative play, and adults who can encourage 
the play, guiding children to play effectively with each 
other. 

Location of the Study
The study was carried out in Borabu Sub-County 

of Nyamira County. Borabu Sub-County is the largest 
Sub-County in Nyamira with an area of 248.3 kilo-
metres square.   The Population Density of Borabu 
Sub-County is 296 people per square kilometre.  Ac-
cording to Monda (2012), Borabu Sub-County has a 
poverty index of 48.6. This is an indication that many 
people are poor. In fact, Borabu region is a former 
white settlement region and even though it is said to 
be economically stable, pockets of poverty are evident 
especially among the causal labourers providing labour 
in the tea plantations and well-to-do homes. Although 
Early Years of Education is devolved, financing is still 
low, therefore most financing of ECDE has been has 
been left in the hands of communities or parents. 
Studies also indicate that dropout and repetition rates, 
especially in lower primary, are high in Nyamira County 
which influenced the selection of the location. Since the 
majority of young children spend a significant part of 
their day at early childhood development and education



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  10 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

centres, it is therefore imperative to find out whether 
outdoor experiences provided are positive and support-
ive enough to enhance physical activity and learning.

Methods
The study employed a mixed method approach 

(Creswell, 2009). This involved the collection, analysis 
and integration of both quantitative and qualitative 
research methods within a single research study in 
order to answer research questions (Creswell & Plano, 
2011). The combination of qualitative and quantitative 
methods occurred at different phases of the research 
process, such as formulation of research hypothesis 
and questions, data collection and analysis (Bryman, 
2006). Mixed methods approach was suitable because 
it allowed the researcher to validate or corroborate the 
results obtained from various sources (questionnaires, 
interview schedules and document analysis) (Creswell, 
2009). This allowed for a wider understanding of a re-
search problem from different angles, therefore clarify-
ing and comparing quantitative and qualitative data so 
as to uncover and understand the unexpected findings 
and potential contradictions from various sources. The 
approach further fostered scholarly interaction and 
provided methodological flexibility that were adaptable 
to a variety of data collection, analysis, and interpre-
tation strategies and procedures that elucidated more 
information than was not possible to obtain through 
quantitative or quantitative approach alone, therefore 
offsetting the weaknesses of quantitative and qualita-
tive approaches when used alone (Creswell, 2009).

Within the mixed method approach, the embedded 
research design was employed. The purpose of the 
design was to collect both quantitative and qualitative 
data concurrently, but to have one form of data play a 
supportive role to the other form of data. The reason for 
collecting the second form of data was to support the 
primary form of data. In regard to this study, the qual-
itative data were collected to support the quantitative 
data (Creswell, 2009). This approach was appropriate 
because it enabled the study to gather adequate data 
that provides a better understanding of the research 
problem and adequately answers the entire research 
questions (Creswell & Plano, 2011). This increases the 
overall strength of a study by enhancing the validity 
and trustworthiness of data collected (Denscombe, 
2010).

The design also had the capacity of collecting data 
concerning the existing position of the problem in 
which the researcher had no direct control of the

independent variables because the manifestation had 
already taken place during the time of data collection 
(Denscombe, 2008). The design was also more appro-
priate because it allowed the researcher to gather infor-
mation from a large number of cases through question-
naires, interviews and document analyses. 

The study was carried out in Borabu Sub-County of 
Nyamira County. Borabu. The study targeted 50 public 
pre-schools, 50 primary head teachers, and 50 pre-
school lead teachers and 1603 final pre-school class pu-
pils. To obtain the required sample the study employed 
cluster, purposive and simple random sampling design 
were used to recruit participants. The final sample for 
the study included 44 primary head teachers, and 44 
preschool lead teachers and 309 final pre-school class 
pupils. The research instruments that were used to col-
lect data consisted of questionnaire, interview sched-
ules and document analysis. 

Validity for various research instruments was also 
determined. Validity is the extent to which the research 
instrument measures what it purports or intends to 
measure (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). The main 
purpose of ensuring the validity of various research 
instruments in the current study was to enhance the 
accuracy and usefulness of the findings by controlling 
the confounding or intervening variables (Creswell 
& Miller, 2000). To ensure validity of research instru-
ments in the present study, face, construct and content 
validities of the questionnaires, interview schedules 
and document analysis was determined by presenting 
and discussing the various items in research instru-
ments with two experts in the area of early childhood 
education. The experts’ suggestions, together with the 
findings from the pilot study were used to modify the 
items in the research instruments. This ensured that 
the test items were clear, relevant and well organized. 
The study further adopted the triangulation approach 
so as to ensure the validity of the research instruments. 
In other words, the study used multiple methods of 
data collection: interviews, questionnaires as well as 
document analysis. By so doing, an area that was over-
looked by one method was strengthened and checked 
by the other method of data collection. 

The study gathered both quantitative and quali-
tative data. Quantitative data were gathered through 
questionnaires and document analysis while qualita-
tive data were obtained through the use of interview 
schedule and document analysis. Both descriptive and 
inferential statistics were used in analysing quantitative 
data. Descriptive statistics such as measures of central



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  11

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

tendency and percentages were used to describe data. 
The descriptive statistics allowed the researcher to 
meaningfully explain the distribution of scores or 
measurements using a few indices (Mugenda & Mugen-
da, 2003). This involved the researcher transforming 
large groups of data into a more manageable form that 
was easy to understand and interpret (Mbwesa, 2006). 
Inferential statistics, including the Pearson’s product 
moment correlation coefficient, simple and multiple 
regression analysis were used to test hypotheses. All 
hypothesis testing was done at α=.05. All these analyses 
were done with qualitative data, the principles of the-
matic analysis as proposed by Braun & Clarke (2006).

Results and Discussion
The results were obtained from 42 primary head 

teacher, 42 preschool lead teachers and 381 final pre-
school class pupils. 

Availability of Components of Outdoor Environment
The results on the availability of various outdoor 

components in ECDE centres are represented in Table 
1. The results show that several outdoor environmen-
tal components were of interest to the current study. 
The study establishes in general that in almost half 
(46.44%) of the ECDE centres, the components of a rich 
outdoor environment were not available at all while 
less than a quarter (22.61%) of the ECDE centres had 
few elements in existence. With a lot of concern, the

results further indicated that only 4.19% of the ECDE 
centres in which all the elements required for a rich 
outdoor environment were available. Although the chil-
dren’s outdoor environment should be equipped with 
standardized structured such as swings, slides, and 
climbing structures often installed over asphalt.

Outdoor environments should be equipped with 
standardized structured such as swings, slides, and 
climbing structures often installed over asphalt (Frost, 
Wortham, & Reifel, 2001). The current findings indicat-
ed that the school outdoor environment was typically a 
part of schools’ playground which had few structures. 
Contemporary playgrounds lacked structures that 
provided various means for children to explore and 
develop various skills. This seems not to be in line with 
the recommendations of the Competency Based Curric-
ulum which aims at nurturing every learner’s potential 
so that they are fully engaged and empowered in order 
to develop as ethical citizens. This calls for a paradigm 
shift in schools to provide play materials that would 
lead to holistic development of learners. 

During the interview with the primary school head 
teachers and pre-school lead teachers on the availabil-
ity of various outdoor components, majority (76%) 
of preschool lead teachers in general expressed their 
concern about the acute shortage of various outdoor 
components that makes an ideal outdoor environment 
that facilitate the children’s physical development and



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  12

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

physical skills. For example, one teacher stated,
“In my school, there are no equipment needed for 
preschool children’s physical development like 
climbers, slides and swings. This makes it difficult 
for me to conduct outdoor activities, however 
there is a large playground with space where kids 
can run and develop their own ideas (T-12).”
 

Effectiveness of Outdoor Components 
The study established that on average, 64.97% of 

preschool centres had effective components that made 
the outdoor environment. This implies that the remain-
ing 35.03% of centres did not provide effective enabling 
outdoor environment for preschool children to partic-
ipate in various outdoor activities. On the other hand, 
69.1% of centres had effective physically developed 
equipment that were adaptable to users’ needs and 
catered for children’s interests, 66.7% of centres had 
school gardens that provided an enabling environment 
for a wide range of stimulating activities, 61.9% had 
construction areas that were large enough and allowed 
for a wide variety of activities, and 69.0% had sand pits 
that enabled children to engage in a variety of stimu-
lating and imaginative activities. This positive finding 
needs to be emphasized in our Kenyan schools because 
psychomotor and creative activities at pre-primary lev-
el enable learners to develop both fine and gross motor 
skills which are necessary for the control and co-ordi-
nation of different parts of the body. These activities 
also allow children to explore and develop social skills 
and personal talents and skills as well as appreciate 
their cultural heritage.

The results further revealed that 61.9% of the cen-
tres did have loose materials (tyres, bean bags, ropes, 
balls) that were appropriate for the different age level 
learners, but 73.8% of the centres did not have water 
play areas that accommodated a variety of learning 
styles among learners, and 86.2% did not have a play 
house that provided opportunities for social interac-
tions among children. This finding is not consistent 
with the literature reviewed that called upon schools 
to develop play areas to lead to holistic development of 
learners (Pelligrini & Bohn, 2005; Whitebread, 2017). 
This calls for transformative education whereby schools 
should take initiative and involve all the stakeholders 
in education to provide basic materials to be used by 
learners in early years. Teachers need to transform 
their approaches in engagement with parents and com-
munity members so that they are actively involved in 
sourcing materials for learners in pre-school centres.

Assessing the State of Outdoor Environment
The results affect the state of outdoor environment 

in terms of the condition, adequacy, utilisation, adapt-
ability, design and appropriateness of various outdoor 
components in various ECDE centres. In this regard, 
the study established that the conditions of the outdoor 
components that make a rich outdoor environment 
were unsatisfactory in 40.48% of the ECDE centres. The 
data establish that the condition, adequacy, utilisation, 
adaptability, design and appropriateness of various 
outdoor components in various ECDE centres is below 
average. On considering whether the outdoor facilities 
in various ECDE centres were in good condition, it was 
found that in majority (47.8%) of the ECDE centres the 
condition of the outdoor facilities were unsatisfactory. 
It was further established that in 40.1% of the cen-
tre the storage facilities for outdoor equipment were 
insufficient, 47.8 % of the ECDE centres the equipment 
in the outdoor environment were not logically well-de-
signed in a manner that accommodated for integrated 
activity based systems of learning. In more than half 
(52.5%) of the schools, the appropriate equipment for 
various age level activities were inadequate. In almost 
half (48.2%) of the preschool centres the science 
activities were not provided with sufficient space and 
equipment with science materials, and in almost half 
(47.9%) of the preschool centres the overall design of 
the outdoor environment was not aesthetically pleasing 
and appropriate for the different age level pupils. In 
about two thirds (67.0%) of the ECDE centres the out-
door working environment was not sheltered from sun 
and inclement weather. 54.9% of the ECDE centres the 
outdoor equipment did not provide an attractive colour 
and texture, 43.1% of the ECDE centre the location of 
outdoor facilities did not enhance the learning climate 
of the pre-school and in 55.2% of the ECDE centre the 
exterior noise and surrounding environment frequently 
disrupt outdoor learning. It will be important for teach-
ers and other community members to change their 
approaches in order to transform the outdoor environ-
ment. 

This may require paradigm shift in contextualising 
the value of outdoor environment as a precursor to 
classroom learning. The findings of the study indicates 
positive correlation (p=0.00) between the overall out-
door environment (availability, adequacy, effectiveness 
and state outdoor components)and all the three aspects 
of pre-schoolers’ learning experience (children’s ability 
to performing various rhythmic movement activities, 
children’s ability to perform various locomotor



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  13 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

activities, children’s general performance in various 
learned activity areas) and the overall learning expe-
rience. Table 2 further indicates that although a posi-
tive correlation was established, the magnitude of the 
correlation was different between various aspects of 
pre-schoolers’ learning experiences and the outdoor 
environment. For example, preschool children’s general 
performance in various learned activity areas had the 
highest correlation (r=.687), while children’s ability to 
performing various loco-motor activities had the least 
correlations (r=.357) to the outdoor environment. It is 
also evident that there was a strong positive correlation 
between pre-schoolers’ general performance in various 
learned activity areas and general outdoor environ-
ment. The correlation was moderate between children’s 
ability to perform various rhythmic movement activ-
ities and general outdoor environment while there 
was a weak relationship between preschool children’s 
ability to perform various loco-motor activities and the 
general outdoor environment in which the children 
learned. 
 
Regression of Overall Outdoor Environment and 
Pre-schoolers’ Learning 

In order to estimate the level of influence of the 
overall outdoor environment (availability, adequacy, 
effectivenwss and outdoor components) and pre-

schoolers’ learning experience, a coefficient of determi-
nation was computed using a regression analysis whose 
results were as shown in Table 3.

The model shows that pre-schoolers’ outdoor 
environment accounted for 35.2% of the variation in 
the overall pre-schoolers’ positive learning experience, 
as signified by coefficient R2 of .352. In addition, a 
linear regression was generated to estimate the actu-
al influence of the overall outdoor environment and 
pre-schooler’s learning experiences, as shown in Table 
4.

It is evident from Table 4 that if the overall out-
door environment (availability, adequacy, effectiveness 
and stateoutdoor components) was improved by one 
standard deviation, then perceived scores in the level 
of preschoolers’ overall learning experience (preschool 
children’s ability to performing various rhythmic move-
ment activities, preschool children’s ability to perform-
ing various loco-motor activities, pre-school children’s 
general performance in various learned activity areas is 
likely to improve standard deviation units. On the same 
note, if the overall children’s ability to performing vari-
ous rhythmic movement activities, preschool children’s 
ability to performing various loco-motor activities, 
pre-schoolchildren’s general performance in various 
learned activity areas is likely to improve standard de-
viation units. On the same note, if the overall outdoor



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  14 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

environment increases by one unit, then the level of 
the pre-schoolers’ overall learning experience would 
improve by 3.034 units; this is a substantial effect from 
one independent variable. In addition, the P-value was 
0.000, confirming a statistically significant influence of 
the overall outdoor environment on the overall pre-
schoolers’ learning experience. 

During the interview schedules with the primary 
school head teachers, the study further established that 
outdoor environment usually facilitated pre-school chil-
dren‘s physical, social, emotional, and mental develop-
ment in their various ECDE centres. On this note, some 
of the respondents had this to say:

     “Play gives the child with the opportunities 
to explore with his/her own world where he or 
she was free of adult values and external reali-
ties.’”(HT-03) 
     “As the preschool children were interacting 
through play, they developed the feelings of be-
longing in peer groups, positive feelings for chil-
dren like enjoyment, happiness, freedom, relax-
ation, excitement, and entertainment.” (HT-13)

On the development of various skills, 39 (92.86%) of 
the preschool lead teachers noted that rich outdoor 
environments enabled children to learn about coopera-
tion and collaboration. It was also observed that chil-
dren from pre-school centres which had adequate and 
rich outdoor environment generally worked together 
sharing space and materials amicably, worked toward 
the same goal and talked with one another as they 
played, unlike those centres which did not have ade-
quate rich outdoor environment. Like in SCH19, the pre-
school children were observed sharing experience that 
required them to listen to others in order to understand 
how to work together to achieve mutual goals.

As children interacted in the school, 
they communicated their needs, ideas, 
feelings, desires, and knowledge to 
each other, and to their preschool 
teacher. 

In SCH15, a girl was observed 
assigning tasks and roles to others, 
or assumed roles and volunteered for 
certain tasks which involved inviting 
other children into their play. In school 
SCH11 children were observed engag-
ing in collaborative problem-solving 
and at various times, assuming leader 

and follower roles. As they shared space, materials and 
plans, they learned to take turns, negotiate, and com-
promise. When there was conflict, they had the oppor-
tunity to practice conflict resolution skills. 

During the interviews, it was established that a 
rich outdoor environment facilitated pre-schoolers’ 
development of early mathematics and problem-solving 
skills. For instance, in SCH06, some boys were ob-
served exploring patterns, the attributes of objects, and 
shapes. In SCH01, some girls were counting as a way to 
identify and describe their play using a song. Children 
also used counting to convey information to others 
and to solve problems when there was a disagreement 
among four girls in SCH07. 

On the development of science skills, children in 
SCH24 were observed exploring nature by trying to dis-
cover various parts of the flowers and chancing butter-
flies. This often involved telling others what they knew 
about flowers and butterflies. 

During the researcher’s visit to various preschool 
centres, it was reported by HT18 that the space and na-
ture of the materials in a rich outdoor environment pro-
vided many opportunities for children to purposefully 
move and use their bodies. It was also observed that 
preschool who were in school that had rich outdoor en-
vironment had better balance and confidence abilities 
as they manipulated various outdoor equipment than 
those schools which did not have rich outdoor compo-
nents. 

During the observation schedules, it was observed 
that the space and materials within the outdoor envi-
ronment were provided multiple opportunities for chil-
dren to develop construction skills as they engaged in a 
variety building experiences (evident in more than half 
69.05% of the preschool centres). Some of the specific 
skills that were identified during the observations



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  15 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

included: learning the concept of construction through 
experimentation; creating enclosures, walls and bridg-
es; emptying and filling, balancing and bracing objects 
as they experimented with weight and stability.

During the interview schedules, a statement was 
put to the preschool lead teacher with a view to solicit 
their views regarding the importance of play in learn-
ers’ cognitive development. The majority of preschool 
teachers observed that a rich outdoor environment 
with adequate and safe playground was important for 
learners’ cognitive development. In elaborating their 
answers, the teachers had the following to say:

“Play develops the children’s sense of 
reasoning and imagination which also stimulates 
creativity.”(T-02)

“Learners enhance their cognitive skills by 
thinking while enjoying themselves within the 
outdoor environment.” (T-7)

“Play develops the child’s brain to think for 
themselves and find solutions to the challenges 
they face as they play.” (T-13)

“The ability to think critically and solve-
problems help in their growth.” (T-22)

“Play allows children to think critical and 
coherent.” (T-37)

 “Play develops children’s fine motor skills, 
reasoning and thinking.” (T-40)

Implications
The findings of the present study are important for 

the Kenyan education system because improving the 
outdoor environment and pre-school learning experi-
ences will have a positive impact on the long-persisting 
challenges facing the pre-school education sector in 
Kenya. In addition, the results could serve as a basis for 
developing a hypothetical model for studying the direct 
and indirect effects of the fore-mentioned factors on 
improving the education standards in Kenya. In general, 
these findings could serve as a guideline for teachers, 
educational practitioners and curriculum developers 
in developing and utilizing educational policies, meth-
odologies and activities that could help in improving 
ECDE programmes. The study findings finally fill the 
existing gap in other research carried out to identify the 
factors contributing to the existing low enrollment and 
high rates of grade retention in pre-primary schools in 
Kenya. This paves way for more comprehensive nation-
al and international research.

Conclusion
The study sought to establish the links between 

utilization of the outdoor environment and pre-school 
children’s learning experiences. It has shown that there 
is general agreement about a positive relationship
between use of rich outdoor environment and pre-
school children’s positive learning experiences associ-
ated with development of various skills and competen-
cies. From the study it can be concluded that the ability 
of pre-school children to perform various loco-motor 
and rhythmic movement activities is associated to the 
adequacy, availability, site and effectiveness outdoor 
components. Based on the results of this study, it can 
be concluded that, despite the many challenges that 
constrain having a rich outdoor environment, children 
continue to use the playgrounds as a major component 
of the outdoor environment. This study undoubtedly 
exemplifies the significance of children spending time 
in a well-designed, nature-filled outdoor environment 
under the support of peers and preschool lead teach-
ers. This outdoor environment is crucial in supporting 
children’s success and skill development. 

As educators take charge of outdoor activities, they 
need to be flexible in their expectations of children in 
nature-based outdoor classrooms. It is through this 
expanded freedom that children more fully experience 
the space, materials and environment, adding to their 
skill development and to the depth of their understand-
ing of the world around them. Lastly, the overarching 
philosophy of outdoor environments should embrace 
the value of unstructured play for children, the role of 
child-initiated activities in learning, and the importance 
of children spending time outdoors, connecting with 
nature. All children deserve the rich learning that can 
occur through opportunities to experience the beauty 
of nature that spending time in an intentionally de-
signed outdoor classroom can provide.

Recommendations
It is the aim of all educational systems and, indeed, 

all parents, teachers and all stakeholders in education 
at all levels, to improve the foundation of their chil-
dren’s education. Based on the findings of this study, 
the following recommendations are made with the view 
of improving the state of outdoor environments and 
pre-school children’s learning experiences while within 
the pre-schools’ outdoor environment.



Ayaga & Okaya, Outdoor Environment & Children’s Learning  16 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2

Recommendations for Policy Makers - For the head 
teachers in the field, regular in-service may be nec-
essary so that they are updated with current trends 
relevant to pre-school education. This will make them 
aware of the children’s rapidly changing world from 
which their learning experiences emanate. The govern-
ment of Kenya should have in place policy guidelines to 
all pre-schools with regard to the availability, adequacy 
site and effectiveness of outdoor environment. 

Recommendations for Head Teachers - The head 
teachers should have schools’ policies for monitoring 
outdoor activities. They should regularly assess and 
monitor children’s learning and development. 

Recommendations for the ECDE Teachers - The ECDE 
teachers should participate in outdoor play as well as 
involving all children in outdoor play. They should also 
enrich the ECDE learning environment with locally 
available teaching and learning support materials,

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1 Godfrey Nyaoga Ayaga (gayaga@mmust.ac.ke) is a 
Lecturer in the Department of Educational Psychology 
at Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, 
Kakamega, Kenya.
2 Edward Khasakhala Okaya (eokaya@mmust.ac.ke) is a 
Lecturer in the Department of Educational Psychology 
at Masinde Muliro University of Science & Technology, 
Kakamega, Kenya.

Authors

http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/6684/Monda%20Thomas%20M_Influence%20of%20Teaching%20and%20Learning%20Materials%20on%20Children%20Performance%20in%20Pre-schools%20in%20Borabu%20District,%20Nyamira%20County,%20Kenya.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/6684/Monda%20Thomas%20M_Influence%20of%20Teaching%20and%20Learning%20Materials%20on%20Children%20Performance%20in%20Pre-schools%20in%20Borabu%20District,%20Nyamira%20County,%20Kenya.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/6684/Monda%20Thomas%20M_Influence%20of%20Teaching%20and%20Learning%20Materials%20on%20Children%20Performance%20in%20Pre-schools%20in%20Borabu%20District,%20Nyamira%20County,%20Kenya.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
http://www.ijern.com/journal/2015/February-2015/49.pdf
http://www.ijern.com/journal/2015/February-2015/49.pdf
http://www.ijern.com/journal/2015/February-2015/49.pdf
https://journals.hioa.no/index.php/nbf/article/download/749/1164/
https://journals.hioa.no/index.php/nbf/article/download/749/1164/
https://journals.hioa.no/index.php/nbf/article/download/749/1164/
http://www.winnicottisrael.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/The-use-of-board-games-in-child-psychotherapy-A.-Oren.pdf
http://www.winnicottisrael.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/The-use-of-board-games-in-child-psychotherapy-A.-Oren.pdf
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.3102/0013189X034001013?casa_token=qIx8CHy7wEIAAAAA%3AxYQq8RVR4zpTmYKIxyubVvAkAbPB9Qkr9Xkje2CJWdjYKeR30YoU2Jwo3mHeRnuy3tvQ8kQ5AaY&
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.3102/0013189X034001013?casa_token=qIx8CHy7wEIAAAAA%3AxYQq8RVR4zpTmYKIxyubVvAkAbPB9Qkr9Xkje2CJWdjYKeR30YoU2Jwo3mHeRnuy3tvQ8kQ5AaY&
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.3102/0013189X034001013?casa_token=qIx8CHy7wEIAAAAA%3AxYQq8RVR4zpTmYKIxyubVvAkAbPB9Qkr9Xkje2CJWdjYKeR30YoU2Jwo3mHeRnuy3tvQ8kQ5AaY&
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00483.x?casa_token=VovI7x_S-tcAAAAA:zyK8uTqm6kPEso_G5JUiMZt7eDHVprvKk-yRfMOp5Z4jVnw698nuuxfhSq67qlpXA5WrP3gS4YQ
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00483.x?casa_token=VovI7x_S-tcAAAAA:zyK8uTqm6kPEso_G5JUiMZt7eDHVprvKk-yRfMOp5Z4jVnw698nuuxfhSq67qlpXA5WrP3gS4YQ
https://www.academia.edu/8450552/i_Title_CHILDREN_LEARNING_THROUGH_PLAY_PERSPECTIVES_AND_PRACTICES
https://www.academia.edu/8450552/i_Title_CHILDREN_LEARNING_THROUGH_PLAY_PERSPECTIVES_AND_PRACTICES
https://www.academia.edu/8450552/i_Title_CHILDREN_LEARNING_THROUGH_PLAY_PERSPECTIVES_AND_PRACTICES
https://www.academia.edu/8450552/i_Title_CHILDREN_LEARNING_THROUGH_PLAY_PERSPECTIVES_AND_PRACTICES
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jillian_Pierucci/publication/274868645_Fantasy_orientation_constructs_and_related_executive_function_development_in_preschool_Developmental_benefits_to_executive_functions_by_being_a_fantasy-oriented_child/links/57053fdd08aef745f7173909/Fantasy-orientation-constructs-and-related-executive-function-development-in-preschool-Developmental-benefits-to-executive-functions-by-being-a-fantasy-oriented-child.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jillian_Pierucci/publication/274868645_Fantasy_orientation_constructs_and_related_executive_function_development_in_preschool_Developmental_benefits_to_executive_functions_by_being_a_fantasy-oriented_child/links/57053fdd08aef745f7173909/Fantasy-orientation-constructs-and-related-executive-function-development-in-preschool-Developmental-benefits-to-executive-functions-by-being-a-fantasy-oriented-child.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jillian_Pierucci/publication/274868645_Fantasy_orientation_constructs_and_related_executive_function_development_in_preschool_Developmental_benefits_to_executive_functions_by_being_a_fantasy-oriented_child/links/57053fdd08aef745f7173909/Fantasy-orientation-constructs-and-related-executive-function-development-in-preschool-Developmental-benefits-to-executive-functions-by-being-a-fantasy-oriented-child.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jillian_Pierucci/publication/274868645_Fantasy_orientation_constructs_and_related_executive_function_development_in_preschool_Developmental_benefits_to_executive_functions_by_being_a_fantasy-oriented_child/links/57053fdd08aef745f7173909/Fantasy-orientation-constructs-and-related-executive-function-development-in-preschool-Developmental-benefits-to-executive-functions-by-being-a-fantasy-oriented-child.pdf
http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/7792a855016f6be13bfac564acf338efc6088d10.pdf
http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/7792a855016f6be13bfac564acf338efc6088d10.pdf
https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Annual_Report_2007.pdf
https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Annual_Report_2007.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239062816
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239062816

