









































Abstract
Education for sustainable development (ESD) is increasingly being recognized as a critical element of 

education systems and facilitator of sustainable development. This is because its ultimate goal is to foster 
ideal teaching, learning, policies and practices needed to enhance social, economic, ecological viability and 
well-being for the present and future generations. Embracing ESD could therefore, facilitate realization of 
objectives of the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) that Kenya has rolled out. Particularly, the CBC is 
expected to foster acquisition of core competencies like creativity, problem-solving, and self-efficacy. But, 
limited understanding, inappropriate pedagogical approaches, and weak collaboration among key stakeholders 
are some of the challenges that face application of ESD. This research review focuses on the pertinent ESD 
aspects to successful implementation of the CBC in basic education in Kenya. Specifically illuminated are the 
underpinning pedagogical theories and their implications, relevant legal and policy frameworks, some success 
stories, challenges and proposed solutions.

Keywords: Basic education, Competency-Based Curriculum, Constructivism, Education for sustainable 
development, Pedagogy

Nyatuka, B. O. 
Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v2i1.31212

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Nyatuka, B. O. 2020. Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
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Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya:  
Rhetoric and Reality in Basic Education

Benard O. Nyatuka

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
 Given that the world today is experiencing a great 

level of uncertainty, complexity and rapid change, 
embracing more sustainable intervention measures, 
including appropriate education about sustainable 
development is imperative. According to Sterling 
(2014) and UNESCO (2011), such global issues as 
economic instability, climate change, social inequity, 
loss of biodiversity and migration as well as non-re-
newable energy sources need to be addressed urgently. 
It is important to note, however, that sustainability is a 
highly demanding concept as it calls for changes at the 
political, social, economic, environmental, educational 
and decision-making levels, among others. Kondur, Ri-
dei, Mykhailyshyn and Katsero (2020) argue that since 
education for sustainability is evolving on a geospheric, 
geopolitical and transboundary scale, it can be defined 
economically, socially, environmentally and education-
ally. On their part, Lampa, Greculescu and Todorescu

(2013) consider sustainable development to be a 
continuous search for improving our daily lives, while 
minimizing the negative impact brought about by hu-
mans on the environment. This requires active, creative 
and cooperative citizens who are able to successfully 
prevent and solve problems, and be ready to combine 
theoretical knowledge with innovations and practical 
ideas. 

As a prerequisite for realizing sustainable develop-
ment, education systems should be restructured to fo-
cus on enhancing the development of creative thinking 
among the population, promoting tolerance and dem-
ocratic ideals, making informed decisions and partici-
pating in the implementation of relevant cross-cutting 
plans and issues (Kondur, et al, 2020; UNESCO, 2005a). 
In the European Union, for example, sustainable de-
velopment is regarded to be the basic principle upon 
which all policies are anchored. Particularly, education 
service providers should develop programmes for sus-
tainable education that balance future knowledge with 
traditional lifestyles. However, it should be borne in 
mind that such education is not aimed at changing



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  87

people’s lifestyles, but empowering and encouraging 
them to participate in sustainable development, includ-
ing reflecting on their actions in this field. 

UNESCO (2019) stipulates that by 2030, all learners 
should acquire the knowledge and skills needed to pro-
mote sustainable development. And, this is supposed 
to be achieved through, among others, education for 
sustainable development, sustainable lifestyles, human 
rights and gender equality. Other means are promotion 
of a culture of peace and nonviolence, global citizenship 
and appreciation of cultural diversity. Indeed, Lampa, 
Greculescu and Todorescu (2013) note that education 
for sustainable development is a broad movement 
concerned with identifying and advancing the kinds of 
education, teaching and learning policy and practice 
to ensure social, economic and ecological viability and 
welfare, now and into the long-term future. The authors 
hold that education for sustainable development aims 
at enhancing consciousness, ensure a coherent way of 
life with the principles of sustainable development, that 
is, being more informed, moral and responsible about 
the ability of future generations to meet their needs. 

According to Ganira and Odundo (2018), the over-
riding theme of education for sustainable development 
is integration of values inherent in sustainable develop-
ment into all aspects of curricula to encourage change 
in behaviour that alloys a just society for all. In addition 
to moral and ethical values, education for sustainable 
development has various dimensions, such as peace 
education, medical education, consumer education, 
among others (Fosnot, 2013; Armstrong, 2011). The 
main task of education for sustainable development 
therefore, is formation of a value-oriented personality 
directed towards socially, economically and environ-
mentally significant values. Ganira and Odundo (2018)
observe that integrating sustainable development 
strategies such as problem-based, inquiry-based, and 
reflective learning in teaching and learning should 
motivate learners to become responsible individuals 
who will solve challenges, respect cultural diversity and 
contribute to creating a sustainable society.

Armstrong (2011) contends that skills associated 
with education for sustainable development are expan-
sive and include collaboration and cooperation, conflict 
resolution, creativity, imagination, future mindedness, 
knowledge transfer, meaningful communication and 
civic engagement. Others include interdisciplinary 
research skills, adaptive learning, contextualization of 
issues, personal introspection visioning, systems think-
ing as well as values focused teaching. To achieve these,

all those involved in the delivery of education for sus-
tainable development must practice what they preach 
(Fosnot, 2013). Thus, education for sustainable devel-
opment requires approaches that reflect a paradigm 
shift from manual training of discipline-specific content 
to a focus on enhancing quality of life that is rich with 
intellectual and social capital. Indeed, the education for 
sustainable development pedagogy initiated by UNE-
SCO (2004) highlights a shift towards active participa-
tion and experiential learning that engages the learner 
in thinking and accords them the ability to act respon-
sibly.

 Lampa, Greculescu and Todorescu (2013) note 
that education for sustainable development is central 
to preparing learners for lifelong learning, an adaptive 
quality that makes the learner more malleable in a time 
when most societies are experiencing dramatic social, 
environmental and economic transformation. In Arm-
strong (2011), concepts like deep learning, transfor-
mational learning, active learning, service learning and 
critical emancipatory pedagogy have all been included 
in pedagogical discussions about education for sustain-
able development.

 With respect to Kenya, Opanda (2013) observes 
that four main ideas related to education for sustain-
able development have so far received heightened 
attention. These are improving access to basic quality 
education; restructuring of the present educational sys-
tem; development of public understanding and aware-
ness; and enhancing the quality of the teacher training 
programmes. In particular, teachers are extremely im-
portant drivers of change in the education for sustain-
able development. Ganira and Odundo (2018) assert 
that adoption of education for sustainable development 
pedagogies into the basic education curriculum re-
quires appropriate teaching and learning methods that 
motivate and empower learners to modify behaviour 
and take actions for sustainable development. Given 
that education for sustainable development pedagogies 
facilitate learning of knowledge, skills, perspectives and 
values that sustainable societies entail, the researchers 
emphasize that appropriate pedagogies for sustainable 
development be used.

Through Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 
4), education for sustainable development provides a 
cross-cutting mechanism for the achievement of all the 
SDGs in Kenya (Ministry of Education, 2017). This is in 
line with Agenda 2063 of the African Union which calls 
for action on catalyzing education and skills revolution 
to build knowledge, human capital, capabilities and 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  88 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2

skills to drive innovations on the African continent. Ad-
dressing sustainable development challenges requires 
provision of quality education that offers competencies, 
values, knowledge and skills for sustainable living and 
prosperity. As an integral part of life-long learning, 
education for sustainable development is central to the 
delivery of quality education and necessary for capacity 
building of the Kenyan society for a green economy. 

According to Wandabi (2019a), the Competen-
cy-Based Curriculum (CBC) provides an opportunity 
to nurture every learner’s potential through quality 
education. This happens to be the ultimate goal of 
education for sustainable development. Just like ed-
ucation for sustainable development, the CBC seeks 
to empower learners to take informed decisions and 
responsible actions for environmental integrity, eco-
nomic viability and just society for present and future 
generations, while respecting cultural diversity. Repub-
lic of Kenya (2017) holds that the teaching of values, 
especially at the basic education level, is expected to 
facilitate achievement of the curriculum reforms’ vision, 
particularly with respect to developing ethical citizens. 
Specifically, basic education seeks to build capacities 
in learners that will enable them to be stewards of the 
earth, and minimize negative environmental impacts, 
while learning outcomes are linked to meaningful 
human, safety, educational, and environmental needs. 
The CBC endeavours to make learners work on real 
problems that make academic learning relevant while 
simultaneously enhancing their social skills, analytical 
ability, civic and ethical responsibility, self-efficacy, and 
career development (Wandabi, 2019a)

The CBC incorporates the pertinent and contem-
porary issues in society, including the related support 
materials. Education for sustainable development 
is one of such issues and focuses on environmental 
education, disaster risk reduction, safety and security 
education, financial literacy, poverty education, coun-
tering terrorism, extreme violence and radicalization, 
gender issues and animal welfare (Republic of Kenya, 
2017). Accordingly, education should include values 
that support sustainable development such as care, re-
spect, charity, social and economic justice, commitment, 
cooperation, compassion, self-determination and self- 
reliance. In the College Student Educators International 
(2008), change agents should possess such attributes 
as resilience, optimism, tenacity, commitment, passion, 
patience and emotional intelligence. Others are asser-
tiveness, persuasiveness, empathy, authenticity, ethical 
self-awareness, competence and curiosity. The CBC

emphasizes these attributes as well, as they are known 
to boost students’ self-esteem (Republic of Kenya, 
2017; Lampa, Greculescu & Todorescu, 2013). 

In the spirit of finding solutions to the challenges of 
sustainability of the biosphere and society in the coun-
try, the Ministry of Education has prioritized to focus 
on emerging gaps in the education sector (Ministry of 
Education, 2017). These include developing a relevant 
policy; transforming teaching, learning and training 
environments; building capacities of educators and 
trainers; and accelerating youth empowerment. This is 
in tandem with aspirations of Kenya’s Vision 2030 de-
velopment plan, the Global Action Programme on edu-
cation for sustainable development and SDGs. Through 
the implementation of the education for sustainable 
development policy, the Ministry seeks to integrate 
such education into sustainable development policies 
and strategies of learning environments in training and 
learning institutions. This includes infusion of educa-
tion for sustainable development into basic education, 
teacher training programmes and establishment of 
relevant youth-led initiatives.

Despite the efforts being made by the government, 
there appears to be a vague understanding of the con-
cept of education for sustainable development among 
many citizens , use of inappropriate pedagogical meth-
ods and materials, and low level of collaboration among 
key stakeholders. On this basis, this research review ex-
amines the major aspects of education for sustainable 
development with intent to enhance their application. 
These aspects include the relevant pedagogical theories 
and their implications, legal and policy provisions and 
some success cases. Also, discussed are critical chal-
lenges and possible remedies. 

Theoretical Framework
According to Fosnot (2013) and Armstrong (2011), 

education for sustainable development may be better 
understood by exploring constructivism theories which 
are characterized by high levels of learner engagement, 
including active, applied, service and experiential learn-
ing. Such theories also lay emphasis on social inter-
action that involves problem-based, inquiry-based, as 
well as participatory learning. . Constructivism theories 
hold that human beings construct all knowledge while 
participating in different mental and physical experi-
ences (Kalsoom, 2019; Republic of Kenya, 2017;). Thus, 
constructivism is a supposition about the nature of 
knowledge and how individuals acquire it.

In constructivism, the learner builds a personal



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  89 

interpretation of the world on the basis of experiences 
and interactions. Among the proponents of construc-
tivism are Dewey’s Social Constructivism, Vygotsky’s 
Social-Cultural Development Theory and Gardner’s 
Multiple Intelligence Theory. Others are Piaget’s Cog-
nitive Development Theory, Bruner’s Cognitive Devel-
opment Theory and Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial 
Development (Republic of Kenya, 2017). Tobias (2009) 
observes that other than extending both behavioural 
and cognitive theories about learning, constructivism 
includes contextual issues, like previous knowledge and 
experience, in the construction of knowledge. In this 
light, knowledge does not reside only in the mind but 
is situated in the context of an individual’s past expe-
rience, beliefs and values, their cognitive process, and 
their environment (Schunk, 2008). 

The core assumptions of constructivism are that 
learner activities lead to the creation of their own 
knowledge rather than mere acquisition of the same, 
and that truth is an evolving premise (Schunk, 2008; 
Simpson, 2002). Schwartz, Lindgren and Lewis (2009) 
and Tobias (2009) hold that active engagement leads 
to a higher understanding that may be applied to new 
and different situations. Armstrong (2011) asserts that 
three primary perspectives underpin constructivism, 
that is, endogenous, exogenous, and dialectical. Endog-
enous constructivism emphasizes internal cognitive 
processes, new knowledge being dependent on previ-
ously developed mental structures. This perspective 
connotes a highly active learning environment in which 
learners are able to explore and experiment through 
a variety of activities that motivate them to assimilate 
and accommodate what is learnt. The classroom is 
active with problem-solving engagements, rather than 
direct instruction. Teachers are discouraged from inter-
jecting outcomes for the learners before they are able 
to invent on their own, taking a peripheral role until 
fundamental discoveries are concretized (Fosnot, 2013; 
Armstrong, 2011). Thus, the teacher’s role is to create 
an environment suitable for such discovery. Likewise, 
peer interaction is an important means of discouraging 
egocentrism among the learners (Piaget, 1970; Tuck-
man, 1992; Wadsworth, 1978).

On its part, exogenous constructivism emphasizes 
the influence of the external world on the construction 
of knowledge, such as instruction, experience and use 
of models in the learning environment (Kalsoom, 2019; 
Armstrong, 2011; Shunk, 2008). It seeks to explain 
behaviour and the learning environment, including em-
phasizing the use of impressionistic models. The

learner continuously adapts to, as opposed to copying, 
the structure in the environment and is responsive to 
contextual issues. The assumptions of the exogenous 
perspective are that interactions between the learn-
er’s cognition and other personal factors like biology, 
self-efficacy, and self-regulation, their environment as 
well as behaviour are reciprocal. Also, learning may 
occur by observing models, live or static, rather than as 
a result of feedback or behaviour. Bandura (1989) advo-
cated for highly knowledgeable and effectual teachers 
who are able to motivate while also developing import-
ant cognitive abilities among learners.

Dialectical constructivism is positioned centrally 
between the endogenous and exogenous perspectives, 
emphasizing the contextual nature of the construction 
of knowledge. Armstrong (2011) and Simpson (2002) 
assert that dialectical constructivism is particularly 
useful in informing the pedagogical implementation of 
education for sustainable development. This perspec-
tive is especially responsive to the complex, uncertain 
and values-laden nature of sustainability. Both a dialec-
tical perspective of constructivism and education for 
sustainable development champion for iterative reflec-
tion, supporting Vygotskys’s (1978) contention that so-
cial interaction precedes internal reflective processes, 
thereby reinforcing cognitive development and learning 
that happens post-interaction (Bonnett, 2003).

Armstrong (2011) advises that implementing edu-
cation for sustainable development will remain impos-
sible without the commitment by educators to the new 
paradigm. Wals (2010) notes that learning strategies 
that emphasize dialogue and cooperative experiences 
are quite useful in the delivery of education for sustain-
able development as they promote pluralism and incor-
poration of prior perceptions with new meaning. In the 
provision of education for sustainable development, a 
teacher or educator is a facilitator, collaborator and fel-
low learner on the journey towards sustainability. Such 
a teacher allows the learner to direct their own learning 
and guide course content, although this does not neces-
sarily indicate relinquished control or authority.

Implications of the constructivism theories on ESD 
pedagogy.

Apparently, the pedagogical approaches used in 
education for sustainable development are consider-
ably oriented to a constructivist epistemology. Among 
others, it is important to design experiences that match 
the developmental level of the learner, especially those 
that encourage learning activities that go just beyond

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  90 

their capacities (Fosnot, 2013; Armstrong, 2011). The 
lived experiences, community, active engagement and 
collaboration in education for sustainable development 
strategies assert the belief that there is magic in social 
interaction with peers, teachers and industry partners. 
Accordingly, some of the common strategies for the de-
velopment of relevant skills are collaborative activities, 
systems instruction, multigenerational analysis, prob-
lem-based assignments, inquiry and action research 
(Fosnot, 2013). Others are stakeholder analysis, role 
play, offering multiple perspectives in topics, back-cast-
ing and scenario building. 

The approach to education for sustainable develop-
ment, especially with respect to teaching and learning 
should focus on students, encouraging them to form 
and develop their own ideas and values. Teachers 
should consider pupils as being an important and active 
factor in learning. Lampa, Greculescu and Todorescu 
(2013) assert that active listening, assuming of respon-
sibilities and solidarity are considered prerequisites to 
successful relationships based on social cooperation 
and interaction among pupils and people in general. 
Hence, it is necessary for teachers to develop these 
competencies during their didactic activity. 

Likewise, educational experiences need to be made 
interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary with a view to ex-
posing the learner to different social configurations. It 
should be appreciated that pedagogies like service, par-
ticipatory and experiential learning are characterized 
by collective inquiry and problem-solving that require 
learners to dialogue with others around them, thereby 
facilitating the discovery of new meanings collectively 
(Fosnot, 2013; Armstrong, 2011). Capacity building, 
values development and cooperative relationships are 
fostered in such an educational environment. Learners 
should be encouraged to be interdependent upon one 
another to continuously amend the truth with higher 
degree of precision, inviting emergent outcomes.

Pedagogical competence should be understood as 
a synthesis of cognitive, visual, practical and personal 
experience (Kondur, et al, 2020). It is therefore, import-
ant to involve teachers in the relevant management 
processes in order to constantly improve the organiza-
tion of decentralization of education. Future educators 
need to develop general knowledge of the content of 
sustainable development, ability to combine content of 
different disciplines in terms of social and cultural con-
text and learn to overcome uncertainty. On their part, 
students need to think critically; respond to different 
situations appropriately; resolve conflicts; work as a

team; and, develop responsibility and autonomy. These 
are all considered to be tools of strategic thinking. Since 
education for sustainable development issues are con-
troversial and complex, learners should be able to man-
age them as well as the disagreements among them-
selves and relevant participants. Sustainable education 
encourages both teachers and students to use creative 
thinking, share ideas, cooperate and make decisions. 
Hence such a school is dynamic, no longer dictated by 
traditional hierarchical structures. The educational 
process should be such that even the weakest students 
are educated in a manner that their actions, present or 
future, pose no danger to society or even themselves 
(Lampa, Greculescu & Todorescu, 2013).

 There is need to rethink educational policies for 
sustainable development that aim at developing social, 
economic and environmental knowledge that will ulti-
mately assist students in tackling challenges of modern 
life. Also, there is need for partnerships among institu-
tions to provide teachers with efficient training pro-
grammes; ensure multicultural contexts to help them 
understand diversity and practice tolerance towards 
others, work closely with parents, colleagues and the 
community; reflect and improve upon their didactic 
activity as far as education for sustainable development 
is concerned (Lampa, Greculescu & Todorescu, 2013; 
Armstrong, 2011). 

And, to ensure the quality of didactic activity in 
sustainable development, teachers should acquire and 
develop competences and abilities based on not only 
formal, but also informal and non-formal dimensions, 
and have them officially recognized. This includes iden-
tifying each pupil’s specific needs and working towards 
meeting them by use of a wide range of teaching strat-
egies. It also involves helping pupils to develop profes-
sional and cross competences (Lampa, Greculescu & 
Todorescu, 2013).

Venkataraman (2009) as well as Rode and Mi-
chelsen (2008) note that the development of assess-
ment methods in education for sustainable develop-
ment is a substantial area of opportunity. UNESCO 
(2005b) makes audible the need for assessments that 
not only pay attention to knowledge competency, but 
skills, perceptions, behaviours and values as well. 
Specifically, standardized testing is dissuaded, while 
methods that speak to a holistic view of the overall 
quality of education are encouraged. This is in line with 
the CBC which among others, advocates for assessment 
that determines the capability to apply a set of related 
knowledge, skills, values and abilities required to

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  91 

successfully perform critical work functions or tasks in 
a defined setting (Republic of Kenya, 2017).

In addition to the above theoretical implications on 
ESD pedagogy, the way forward is highlighted later in 
this piece of work.

Legal and Policy Provisions on ESD in Kenya
Key UN conferences, Acts of Parliament and relat-

ed policy documents have played an important part in 
mobilizing both the international and local communi-
ties towards sustainable development (Sterling, 2014; 
Opanda, 2013; UNESCO, 2011; UNESCO, 2010; UNESCO, 
2009a). In particular, the United Nations Conference on 
Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) called 
for all countries to develop education for sustainable 
development strategies and frameworks to reorient 
education systems and programmes. The major thrusts 
to foster such education included improving basic ed-
ucation; and to develop public understanding, aware-
ness and training (Opanda, 2013). In 2002, the United 
Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Develop-
ment (DESD) was mooted to facilitate implementation 
of such education (UNESCO, 2002; UNESCO, 2003). 

 In 2014, UNESCO launched a roadmap for imple-
menting the Global Action Plan (GAP) on education 
for sustainable development. Based on this, Kenya’s 
Ministry of Education has made commitment on this 
initiative through developing an education for sustain-
able development implementation strategy across all 
sectors. The strategy is to be guided by three broad 
objectives, that is, enhance the role of education and 
learning for equitable, efficient and sustainable utiliza-
tion of the country’s resources; promote quality educa-
tion through diverse learning and public awareness for 
improved quality of life and productive livelihood; and 
promote teaching and learning that inculcates appro-
priate values, behaviour and lifestyles for good gover-
nance and sustainability.

The 2013-2018 National Education Sector Plan 
presents a strategy for education and training to 
promote education for sustainable development with 
reference to the UN GAP programme. This led to the 
development of education for sustainable develop-
ment policy for the education sector in 2017 (Wandabi, 
2019b). The policy focuses on providing, promoting 
and coordinating quality lifelong education, training, 
research and innovation for Kenya’s sustainable devel-
opment. Albeit various hurdles, partnerships, collab-
orations and networks have been formed to enhance 
education for sustainable development implementation

(UNESCO, 2009b).
   In tandem with the CBC, the education sector 

policy on education for sustainable development pro-
motes competencies such as critical thinking, creativ-
ity and making decisions in a collaborative way. It is 
indicated that this is to be realized through integrating 
sustainable development into education and vice versa 
(Ministry of Education, 2017). Its implementation is 
particularly to be done in the different education levels 
that include basic education; higher education; teacher 
and technical and vocational training institutions and 
workplace; lifelong learning and non-formal education.

Kenya’s Vision 2030 development blueprint propos-
es policy formulation and curricula reviews to address 
education for sustainable development (Republic of 
Kenya, 2007). The national agencies are expected to 
play a key role in leading as well as supporting learn-
ing opportunities for change towards sustainable 
development across sectors. In Kenya, the education 
for sustainable development national implementation 
strategy uses capacity-building, advocacy, vision-build-
ing, partnerships and co-ordination as key approaches 
to achieve this (UNESCO, 2011). The medium-term plan 
(2008-2012) for Vision 2030 requires that all training 
institutions’ curricula are re-oriented to address sus-
tainable development issues. Already, the development 
of a life skills curricula has been done by the Ministry of 
Education while teachers and education officers have 
been trained and involved in delivering the same sylla-
bus across the country (Wandabi, 2019a).

Among other notable initiatives, the education 
sector has increased financial support for capacity 
development activities and strengthened the Kenya Ed-
ucation Management Institute, the agency for building 
capacities for education managers. Similarly, the Centre 
for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education in 
Africa (CEMASTEA) has been offering pedagogical lead-
ership training to support teachers in implementing 
effective and innovative classroom practices concern-
ing education for sustainable development (Wandabi, 
2019b). Particularly, it has been sensitizing education 
and quality assurance officers and other stakeholders 
on effective management of sustainable and institution-
alized in-service education and training of teachers.

The Environmental Management and Coordination 
Act (1999), Cap 387 provides for effective coordination 
and regulation of all actions that have a direct influence 
on the environment in Kenya (Wandabi, 2019b). Simi-
larly, Section 69 (2) of the Constitution of Kenya stipu-
lates that every person has a duty to cooperate with the

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  92 

relevant national organizations and other stakeholders 
to protect and conserve the environment (Republic of 
Kenya, 2010). This involves ensuring that an ecological-
ly sustainable development and use of natural resourc-
es is promoted. In the National Environment Manage-
ment Authority (NEMA, 2008), the Kenyan strategy 
provides status, communication, facilitative and result 
indicators to monitor the implementation of education 
for sustainable development at all levels. As a result, 
awareness on this venture has steadily increased over 
the years.

On its part, Section 42(4) of the Basic Education Act 
focuses on the promotion of environmental protection, 
especially education for sustainable development (Re-
public of Kenya, 2013). Sessional Paper No.4 of 2012 on 
Reforming Education and Training in Kenya envisaged 
a curriculum that is competence-based to foster quality 
education and enhance the integration of education for 
sustainable development at all levels of education in the 
country (Republic of Kenya, 2017). Indeed, Kenya has 
already rolled out a new competency -based curriculum 
for primary and secondary schools. The curriculum has 
sections that deliberately show how education for sus-
tainable development can be integrated into the curric-
ulum as a pertinent and contemporary issue (Wandabi, 
2019b).

Furthermore, the government has developed a 
Green Economy Strategy and Implementation Plan 
(GESIP, 2016) to address sustainable development 
challenges to achieve its long-term development goals 
as defined in Vision 2030 (Ministry of Education, 
2017). This policy is to enhance the implementation of 
education for sustainable development across sectors 
to enhance the attainment of the SDGs by improving 
quality of education, building capacity at all levels and 
enhancing public understanding and awareness of the 
sustainable development agenda. Accordingly, the 17 
SDGs provide the wider context for further up-scaling 
and mainstreaming education for sustainable develop-
ment in the country.

As a guide to the implementation of the CBC, the 
government developed the Basic Education Curriculum 
Framework (Republic of Kenya, 2017). The framework 
is anchored on values and provides a comprehensive 
conceptualization of reforms in basic education, in-
cluding pre-primary education, primary, secondary 
and inclusive education. This is important since values 
influence how we feel, act and make choices in life. This 
thrust is meant to nurture learners who do the right 
thing at any given time. In spite of the various

documents focusing on education for sustainable 
development, its level of implementation is wanting, 
especially at the basic education level in Kenya. Among 
others, this research review has made a deliberate at-
tempt to consolidate such works for easy reference and 
application. 

Some Success Cases of ESD in Kenya
A number of measures have been undertaken by 

various stakeholders to enhance education for sustain-
able development, especially in the basic education 
institutions in Kenya. One such initiative is the Eco-
schools, an international programme founded in 1994 
and run by the Foundation for Environmental Educa-
tion (Kenya Organization for Environmental Education, 
2020). Among others, it sponsors an environmental ac-
tion-based learning in primary and secondary schools 
as a tool for development. Learning is project-based 
and promotes creativity, critical thinking and prob-
lem-solving. The Eco-Schools and the foundation are 
lead partners in UNESCO’s Global Plan for education 
for sustainable development (Andreou, 2016). Imple-
mented in 60 countries worldwide (Kenya Organization 
for Environmental Education, 2020), its mission is to 
empower students to be the change a sustainable world 
needs through fun and action-oriented activities.

According to Andreou (2016), the programme aims 
at achieving educational goals as well as sustainable de-
velopment through schools as entry points to commu-
nities. This has been implemented in Kenya since 2003, 
growing from a pilot of 12 schools, to over 1,000 prima-
ry and secondary schools across the country as at 2020.
The pilot phase was based on five key components of 
environmental action learning, namely environmen-
tal policy; cross-curriculum teaching and learning; 
micro-projects; school-community partnerships; and 
networks. Funded by the Danish International Develop-
ment Agency and implemented in partnership with the 
Danish Outdoor Council, the main focus themes were 
water, sanitation and hygiene, energy, healthy eating, 
sustainable agriculture, climate change, biodiversity 
and waste management. The cross-cutting themes in-
cluded HIV/AIDS, global citizenship, entrepreneurship, 
and disaster preparedness and management (Wandabi, 
2019b).

The Kenya Organization for Environmental Ed-
ucation (KOEE) has produced relevant theme packs 
for teachers and learners, developed teacher guides, 
a teacher training manual and a handbook (Wandabi, 
2019b) ). In UNESCO (2011), the Eco-Schools

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  93 

programme in Kenya seeks to empower the youth, 
women and the poor; raising public understanding and 
awareness of sustainability; and training in education 
for sustainable development. The relevant projects take 
place through participation of multiple stakeholders, 
including government, civil society and private sector. 
In particular, strategies used by schools to boost sus-
tainable development include advocacy, campaigns 
and vision building, capacity building, teacher training, 
monitoring and evaluation, and creation of school-com-
munity partnerships for purposes of ownership of such 
activities.

Andreou (2016) observes that the Eco-Schools pro-
gramme provides a framework and standards to help 
educators integrate sustainability principles through-
out their schools. These principles are to ensure that 
participants are: engaged in the learning- teaching 
process; empowered to take informed decisions and 
actions on real life sustainability issues; encouraged to 
work together actively and involve their communities 
in collaborative solutions; supported to examine their 
assumptions, knowledge and experiences in order to 
develop critical thinking; and to be open to change. Oth-
er principles are to encourage participants to be aware 
of cultural practices as an integral part of sustainabil-
ity issues; encourage sharing inspirational stories of 
their achievements, failures and values to learn from 
them, and to support each other; continuously explore, 
test and share innovative approaches, methodologies 
and techniques; and ensure continuous improvement 
through monitoring and evaluation of the programmes. 
The programmes offer methodological tools for schools 
and communities to evaluate their own challenges; 
assess risks and develop the solutions. Most important-
ly, the schools are guided to re-orient existing curricula 
around sustainable development themes, and work 
collaboratively with their local communities to develop 
practical projects.

The Indian Ocean Programme is a regional frame-
work to integrate themes of sustainable development, 
climate change and risk reduction into national educa-
tion systems, and strengthen cooperation to address 
the unique vulnerabilities of the region (Andreou, 
2016). It involves 72 Eco-Schools, with a population 
of at least 25,000 students. Activities at school include 
food production, rainwater harvesting, soil stabiliza-
tion, sanitation and waste management. It is reported 
that the most successful schools are those that have 
built strong partnerships between governmental insti-
tutions, NGOs, and the private sector. Among others,

this is particularly important in addressing the dam-
aging day-to-day effects of climate change that include 
rise in sea level, soil erosion, flooding, water shortages 
and high frequency of natural disasters. 

The Eco-schools programme in Kenya particular-
ly responds to the Green Economy Agenda through 
promotion of green enterprise development in schools 
and community (Wandabi, 2019b). Initiated by the 
Kenya Organization for Environmental Education and 
other partners, the project seeks to transform schools 
into models of sustainability for communities. Its main 
objective is to inculcate a greening culture to youth in 
schools by mentoring and engaging them in hands-on 
green growth initiatives for sustainability of commu-
nities. The project has been implemented in a dozen 
primary schools from Kwale, Makueni, Embu, Kirinyaga, 
Bomet and Kisumu Counties. A teacher’s guidebook on 
green enterprise development for schools in Kenya was 
developed in consultation with teachers from schools 
participating in the Schools Green Challenge Project, 
the Ministry of Education and the Royal Danish Embas-
sy in Kenya.

Similarly, the Kenya Organization for Environmen-
tal Education has implemented a sustainable Water, 
Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) project under the 
Eco-Schools programme in Vihiga County. The goal is to 
improve access and reliable safe water in schools and 
community (Kenya Organization for Environmental Ed-
ucation, 2020). The project entails sinking simple wells 
to enhance provision of water to ensure accessible safe 
water in schools; installing water harvesting tanks in 
the schools to have a water harvesting system; build-
ing the capacity of school communities by installing a 
hand wash point in each of the participating schools; 
and building capacity of communities to practice sus-
tainable water management, sanitation and hygiene 
through training.

The Eco-Schools Litter Less Campaign Project aims 
at reducing waste and foster long-term positive be-
haviour change among the youth (Kenya Organization 
for Environmental Education, 2020). Over 45 schools, 
3,000 students and 200 teachers have so far been 
involved in the campaign in Kenya. The main objective 
is to raise awareness of the effect of litter on the local 
environment and wider community, increase student 
knowledge and practical skills in preventing and man-
aging litter. It also seeks to enhance collaboration with 
other schools to promote education for sustainable de-
velopment and influence others by communicating with 
them through multimedia platforms and other

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  94 

channels. The relevant campaign activities include 
waste management within and around the schools in-
volved; community action days for schools to showcase 
their work to the surrounding community; and joint 
communication campaigns by schools through social 
media platforms to create awareness on issues of waste 
management. More recently, the Kenya Organization 
for Environmental Education has teamed up with other 
partners to promote plastic recycling through Eco-
Schools (Wandabi, 2019b).

Also, the Eco-Schools programme introduced a 
value-based approach to promoting education for 
sustainable development, and as a measure to enhance 
sustainability as a whole (Kenya Organization for Envi-
ronmental Education, 2020). Among others, it aims at 
delivering quality education that imparts knowledge, 
skills, attitudes and values from religious teachings. 
These are considered as instruments for entrench-
ing faith-based values into education for sustainable 
development in schools, while promoting action for 
the environment with faith as the motivation. To date, 
a total of 50 schools have been involved in the initia-
tive. The project produced a faith-based education for 
sustainable development teachers’ toolkit for schools 
that illustrated an approach of solving a society’s devel-
opment issues using faith. According to the Republic of 
Kenya (2017), the country has been putting emphasis 
on approaches that promote whole institution devel-
opment of education for sustainable development. The 
Eco-School programme is considered to be an effective 
whole institution approach in mainstreaming sustain-
ability into all aspects of the learning environment.

In conjunction with MASHAV, a Hebrew acronym for 
Israel’s Agency for International Development Cooper-
ation, Kenya’s Ministry of Education and the Kenya Sec-
ondary Schools Heads Association established a joint 
project directed towards the promotion and imple-
mentation of education for sustainable development, 
to become an integral element in curricula of learning 
institutions (MASHAV, 2013). The ultimate goal of the 
joint project is to establish a national network of educa-
tion for sustainable development in the country, includ-
ing setting up demonstration centres which will serve 
as a source of training for the remaining school. One of 
the principles is ‘Think Global, Act Local’, meaning that 
awareness of the global crisis is important but action 
should be taken at the local level. The model provides 
schools and the community with the necessary tools 
for assessing their actual needs and existing resources. 
This model was launched in August 2013 at the Joel

Omino secondary school in Kisumu County. It includes 
teaching as well as learning technology, science, history 
and democracy, among others. This has successfully 
been applied in water purification; organic agriculture; 
economics and entrepreneurship, including estab-
lishment of an organic bakery; knowledge of building 
traditional houses; and utilizing recycled materials for 
art work.

 The WWF-Kenya organization has made effort to 
integrate sustainable development into teaching and 
learning in basic education institutions by inculcat-
ing participatory pedagogical methods (WWF-Kenya, 
2020). In particular, the organization’s marine pro-
gramme works with schools in the country’s coastal 
region to promote education for sustainable develop-
ment. Interactions are through discussions, lectures, 
presentations and mentorship. The successful projects 
implemented by schools include establishment of 
school gardens, tree planting and engagement in com-
munity service, for example, beach clean-up exercise 
on both the World Environment Day and International 
Coastal Clean-up celebrations. In addition, the orga-
nization continues to offer scholarships for girls from 
poor backgrounds within the islands surrounding Lamu 
County and its environs.

Furthermore, the Wildlife Clubs of Kenya have 
published an environmental education resource book 
for teachers and learners of primary and secondary 
schools, while Nature Kenya has produced an education 
for sustainable development resource book for both 
students and teachers called ‘Learning for Sustainable 
Living in Kenya’ (Wandabi, 2019b). Apart from these 
organizations, many NGOs are involved in offering 
skills-focused training for community-based innova-
tions involving marketing, product sales and sustain-
ability. The African Fund for Endangered Wildlife in 
Kenya provides training to school children, teachers 
and community groups on environmental conservation.

But, given that only a few primary and secondary 
schools have made laudable efforts with respect to 
embracing education for sustainable development 
means that much more requires to be done by the 
various stakeholders to bring the rest of the institutions 
on board. Indeed, making such a move is quite crucial 
in order to achieve the objectives of this pedagogical 
paradigm shift as well as the Competency-Based Curric-
ulum, especially at the basic cycle of learning in Kenya. 
In the following section, an elaborate discussion on 
challenges facing education for sustainable implemen-
tation in Kenya, as well as possible solutions is made.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  95 

Challenges Facing ESD and Proposed Solutions.
Although sound education for sustainable develop-

ment serves as a panacea for most of the pedagogical, 
environmental and socio-economic issues we contend 
with today, there are many challenges that require to be 
addressed so as to realize the desired outcomes. Arm-
strong (2011) opines that education for sustainable 
development offers a renewed vision for educational 
policy and practice fully in tune with the needs and 
issues of the 21st Century. Unfortunately, the concept of 
education for sustainable development is yet to be fully 
understood by many stakeholders in Kenya (Wandabi, 
2019a), leave alone the few experts in this area to fa-
cilitate the appropriate processes of teaching, learning, 
creating awareness and understanding education for 
sustainability (UNESCO, 2019). Due to this, the develop-
ment of adequate and relevant materials still remain a 
challenge. This calls for the various networks of experts 
as well as interested groups to enhance and strengthen 
the capacity-building processes. 

According to Sterling (2014), the key role in re-
alizing sustainable development is often ignored, 
downplayed or under-estimated. Often, it is viewed in 
isolation from the other instruments of change. In the 
sustainable development debate therefore, embracing 
appropriate education should always be emphasized. 
Despite the success of the international initiatives in 
this front, there are instances where much sustainable 
development discourse and policy underplay the role 
of education, and vice versa.. Essentially, sustainable 
development should be embedded in basic education 
such that there is both mutual benefit and accelerated 
positive effect, sufficient to win breakthrough towards 
an economically secure, ecologically stable and socially 
just society.

Opanda (2013) asserts that the limited progress 
in the provision of education for sustainable develop-
ment is partly due to lack of vision, awareness, policy 
framework and funding. Notably, there is little effort 
that has been strategically made to mainstream sustain-
able development in teacher education programmes, 
especially at the basic education level. Hence, there is 
a gap in both the body of knowledge and actual prac-
tices of many teacher educators in this area. Yet, the 
contribution of teacher trainers is key in the delivery of 
the same. According to Armstrong (2011), pedagogical 
innovation has been slower to develop. This calls for 
appropriate intervention measures. 

Wandabi (2019b) notes that there is little evidence 
of attention or investment in the capacity-building of 

educators, facilitators or curriculum developers with 
regard to education for sustainable development. Arm-
strong (2011) observes that this scenario is worsened 
by the nature of integration of education for sustainable 
development that is often complex, while the curricula 
is examination-oriented and overloaded with content as 
well as learning outcomes. Thus, the weak integration 
of education for sustainable development, especially in 
basic education needs well designed pre-service and 
in-service teacher training programmes.

 Ganira and Odundo (2018) observe that emphasis 
is often given to the cognitive domain rather than the 
affective and psychomotor ones, thereby undermining 
the purpose of education for sustainable development. 
Additionally, UNESCO (2011) holds that whereas sus-
tainable development has been partially embedded in 
the formal education institutions, there is little atten-
tion being paid to the non-formal and informal curricu-
la. Also, the pedagogical approaches used in the differ-
ent educational settings are often inappropriate. 

The lack of synergy between education for sustain-
able development activities sometimes leads to dupli-
cation of certain initiatives like teacher training and 
inefficient use and development of relevant resources 
(UNESCO, 2011). Again, innovations from the commu-
nity-based organizations and other small groups in 
society do not always get adequate support for their 
projects. Partially, this is a result of government bureau-
cracy and lack of resources in implementing this kind of 
education. Furthermore, UNESCO (2011) reports that 
most community-based organizations have not been 
able to influence policy in the country due to lack of 
education for sustainable development awareness and 
commitment. Other challenges are to do with bridg-
ing the gap between what happens at home and what 
is taught in schools; pressure on teachers within the 
workplace; linking infrastructural change to the mind-
set change and strengthening community engagement 
(Milne, 2019).

In particular, Kenya’s Competency-Based Curricu-
lum, which considers education for sustainable devel-
opment as a critical contemporary issue, has experi-
enced challenges to do with its implementation. These 
range from inadequate teacher training through poor 
infrastructure to huge budgetary implications. Worth 
noting is that some of these challenges revolve around 
poor governance, corporate irresponsibility, lack of 
accountability, inefficient and wasteful production 
systems. Such challenges usually lead to unsustainable 
utilization of the natural resources, resulting into their

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  96 

degradation (Wandabi, 2019b). Milne (2019) argues 
that there is need to have ethos in schools that openly 
and enthusiastically support education for sustainable 
development. Clearly, this partly goes down to the cur-
riculum that schools follow, and the interest and effort 
shown by the senior management in promoting such 
integration.
Milne (2019) concludes that to attain education for 
sustainable development, there should be both the 
physical as well as mindset changes. The physical 
change involves examining how schools, households 
and businesses can reduce, say, their waste, conserve 
water and energy and focus on more sustainable 
responses in general. On the other hand, the mindset 
change involves raising environmental understanding, 
awareness and action programmes through workshops 
and cross-curricular activities meant to give employees 
and learners a voice. Indeed, taking such relevant steps 
will go a long way towards strengthening the provision 
of ESD in basic education. 

The Way Forward
To create a world that is more just, peaceful and 

sustainable, all individuals and societies must be 
equipped and empowered by knowledge, skills and 
values as well as heightened awareness to drive such 
change. This includes learning to respect others and 
appreciating the environment, as well as giving back to 
society. This could be achieved through relevant sem-
inars, workshops, resources and activities, whether at 
home, school or community. To enhance the success 
of such initiatives, preparation of carefully designed 
action plans to facilitate application of ESD, particularly 
in basic education is paramount.

Since teacher education is a critical aspect to be 
considered, there is need to bolster inclusion of sus-
tainable development in the teacher education pro-
grammes. Such training should include appropriate 
content, pedagogy as well as development and acquisi-
tion of the necessary resources. Milne (2019) empha-
sizes that with trained and motivated teachers, it is far 
easier to inspire and motivate learners. 

Critical thinking, imagination, learning to learn, 
communication and collaboration, are among the 
core competencies emphasized in the basic education 
curriculum in Kenya. Although the CBC is designed to 
achieve these, there is need for strong partnerships and 
more participatory evaluation mechanisms to enhance 
the quality of education for sustainable development 
programmes.

Conclusion
Like the rest of the countries in the globe, sustain-

able development issues in Kenya are complex, dynamic 
and interlinked. Embracing sustainable development 
and global citizenship education are considered to 
be the main solutions to these challenges. The latter 
entails peace and human rights education, intercultural 
education and education for international understand-
ing. In particular, these should include the aspects of 
shaping the quality of training of specialists and hu-
mankind, using formal, non-formal, inclusive and demo-
cratically oriented models of education and science 
(Kondur, et al, 2020). Accordingly, countries should 
promote the availability of educational tools, teaching 
aids and textbooks for sustainable development to all 
who need them. But to achieve this, synergy among the 
initiatives taken as well as greater support from the 
various stakeholders is paramount. 

Indeed, Sterling (2014) advises that unless the var-
ious stakeholders, including policy-makers, legislators, 
businesses, the media and civil society are involved in 
learning processes, the SDGs cannot be achieved. Ed-
ucation can enhance the effectiveness of each of these 
instruments through developing informed engagement, 
agency and empowerment among all the affected stake-
holders. It can also build lasting change, because it is 
owned by the learner and touches both the heart and 
mind.

 Although Kenya has made some milestones in 
rolling out a competency-based curriculum in the basic 
education institutions, there are still many challeng-
es that need to be addressed in order to successfully 
implement it. These include producing the relevant 
education for sustainable development pedagogical 
materials, enhancing professional capacities, promotion 
of research, strengthening cooperation, communication 
and partnerships and the establishment of monitoring 
and evaluation processes. Going forward, formulation 
of action plans for implementation and appropriately 
training both present and future professionals in all 
sectors should be based on the basic ideas of education 
for sustainable development.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol. 2



Nyatuka, Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya  97 

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Benard O. Nyatuka (bnyatuka@kisiiuniversity.ac.ke) 
is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational 
Foundations at Kisii University, Kisii, Kenya.  
ORCID: 000-003-4343-1073.

Author

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http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001410/141019e.pdf
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001410/141019e.pdf
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/924unesco7.pdf
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/924unesco7.pdf
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/924unesco7.pdf
https://sdg4education2030.org/the-goal
https://koeeorg.wordpress.com/2019/06/12/kenyas-new-curriculum-mirrors-education-for-sustainable-development/
https://koeeorg.wordpress.com/2019/06/12/kenyas-new-curriculum-mirrors-education-for-sustainable-development/
https://koeeorg.wordpress.com/2019/10/07/education-for-sustainable-development-in-kenya/
https://koeeorg.wordpress.com/2019/10/07/education-for-sustainable-development-in-kenya/
https://www.wwfkenya.org/education_for_sustainable_development.cfm
https://www.wwfkenya.org/education_for_sustainable_development.cfm

