











































Editors-in-Chief

Michael T. Ndemanu
Ball State University

Serafin M. Coronel-Molina
Indiana University

Managing Editor

Tom J. McConnell
Ball State University

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) Vol 1
ISSN 2640-1533s

Open Access

Editorial Team

Kennedy N. Bota
Masinde Muliro University of Science & Technology 

Kakamega, Kenya

Judah M. Ndiku
Masinde Muliro University of Science & Technology 

Kakamega, Kenya

Wilfridah M. Mucherah
Ball State University 
Muncie, Indiana, USA

Daniel Baron
The Bloomington Project School 

Bloomington, Indiana, USA

Bryce S. Smedley
USAID 

Washington D.C., USA

Teresia Mbogori
Ball State University 

Muncie, IN, USA

James Kigamwa
Literacy International 

Tulsa, OK, USA

Editorial Review Board

GJTE invites you to apply to be a member of the Editorial Board.  
Potential reviewers can register for an account on the GJTE website:

Register for GJTE Account

 i

Global Journal of Transformative Education
Volume 1, 2019

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© GJTE. 2019. GJTE is a peer-reviewed Open Access journal produced as part of the  
IU ScholarWorks system, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA.

https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/gjte/login


Global Journal of Transformative Education (2020) Vol 1
ISSN 2640-1533s

Open Access

 i

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© GJTE. 2019. GJTE is a peer-reviewed Open Access journal produced as part of the  
IU ScholarWorks system, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA.

Introduction      ....................................................................................................................................................        1
          Michael T. Ndemanu & Serafín Coronel-Molina, Editors-in-Chief

Nutrition Tranition in Africa: Consequences and Opportunities     ..............................................         5
          Teresia Mbogori & Winnie Mucherah

Examining Child Development from an African Cultural Context  ...............................................      11
          Winnie Mucherah & Teresia Mbogori

Problem-Based Learning for Responsive and Transformative 
Teacher Professional Development     .......................................................................................................      18     
          Tom J. McConnell, Joyce M. Parker, & Jan Eberhardt

Constructing a Dule-Subjectivity     ............................................................................................................      26
          Brian David Lozenski

Anthropological Methods oof Curriculum Instruction for Learners 
in Informal Education for Abagusii of South Western Kenya     .......................................................      38
          Gilbert Nyakundi Okebiro

Adult Education and Dialogue    ..................................................................................................................      46
          Antonette Lorraine McCaster

Inclusive Practice and Transformative Leadership Are Entwined     ...........................................      52
          Rose Atieno Opiyo

Open Call for Papers     .....................................................................................................................................      68
          GJTE Editors

Contents

Global Journal of  
Transformative Education

Volume 1, 2019



Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.26970

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Ndemanu & Coronel-Molina. 2019 Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 
Attribution NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), 
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in any non-commercial medium, provided you 
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Introduction: Volume 1 of the Global Journal of Transformative Education

Michael T. Ndemanu & Serafín M. Coronel-Molina, Editors in Chief

The Global Journal of Transformative Education 
(GJTE) is a newly founded open-source, peer-
reviewed journal created to share research and 
practical applications related to transformative 
education in the entire spectrum of educational 
settings around the world. GJTE publishes 
scholarly research manuscripts, articles on 
teaching strategies, transformative teaching 
strategies, curriculum frameworks, and reviews of 
educational resources that support transformative 
teaching and learning in PK-20 institutions as well 
as in adult education programs.

The articles published in this inaugural issue of 
GJTE were presented at the World Conference on 
Transformative Education (WCTE) in Kakamega, 
Kenya in July 2018 under the theme, “Rethinking 
Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Research in Africa.” 
All the papers underwent a blind review process 
prior to be considered for publication. WCTE 
was organized against the backdrop of outmoded 
education systems in Africa; that the systems are 
far removed from its socioeconomic and political 
realities; that they are the legacies of European 
colonial rules, thus they are antiquated and are not 
designed to solve African contemporary problems. 
Thus, there was a need for scholars, P-12 teachers 
and policymakers to meet and discuss ways 
to move away from educating children just for 
basic literacy and numeracy skills to providing 
them world-class education for competitive 
interconnected global economies. Such a bold 
move required a quasi-volte-face shift in how 
educators rethink the content of the curriculum, 

school, teaching, learning, leadership, and research 
across Africa. 

For readers to have an insightful grasp of 
the articles’ contents in this inaugural issue, the 
editors of GJTE have chosen to provide succinct 
definitions and explanations of transformative ed-
ucation concept. Transformative education within 
the framework of this conference is defined as the 
act of re-conceptualizing the knowledge gained in 
school and through lived experiences and apply-
ing it in both academic and non-academic real-life 
multifaceted contexts. It entails instilling critical 
and autonomous thinking in learners in ways that 
help them to interpret new information inde-
pendently and collaboratively rather than being 
mere recipients of knowledge and worldviews of 
others. According to National Science Foundation, 
“transformative research involves ideas, discover-
ies, or tools that radically change our understand-
ing of an important existing scientific or engineer-
ing concept or educational practice or leads to 
the creation of a new paradigm or field of science, 
engineering, or education. Such research challeng-
es current understanding or provides pathways 
to new frontiers” (2007, p. v). To transform Africa 
into a place of great political stability, economic op-
portunities, harmonious social order, rich in inno-
vative technology and enviable inventions, policy 
makers and educators must be ready to shun a 
Victorian-Age education system which is already 
antiquated, and instead embrace creative, critical, 
problem-solving, and project-based instructional 
strategies which are catalysts to groundbreaking



Ndemanu & Coronel-Molina, Introduction  2

tested model of Professional Development (PD) 
that uses the analytic framework of Problem-Based 
Learning (PBL) to support professional learning. 
Evidence suggests that PBL is effective in changing 
content knowledge and pedagogical practice. 
To teach content, facilitators engage teachers in 
learning activities designed using common PBL 
structures.”

Still in line with pedagogy, Brian David 
Lozenski in “Constructing a dual-subjectivity: 
Understanding the intersection of Ethnic Studies 
and YPAR” examines “the outcomes of using 
participatory action research with youth (YPAR) 
as an entry point into Africana Studies. The author 
draws from empirical research and anecdotal 
narratives to document a program where youth of 
African descent in the US engage in Ethnic Studies 
through the lens of action research.”

In the article, “Anthropological methods in 
curriculum instruction for learners in informal 
education for Abagusii of South Western Kenya,” 
Gilbert Nyakundi Okebiro proposes indigenous 
instructional strategies for impacting knowledge to 
children in ways that lead to more transformative 
and effective education. 

Antonette Lorraine McCaster’s article, “Adult 
Education and Dialogue: Utilizing Project-Based 
Education as a Method to Provide Transformative 
Change in Both Students and Teachers” argues that 
both communication and motivation are primary 
drivers of transformational learning in adult 
education. She asserts that “combining project-
based education with adult dialogue education 
provides a transformative method of education 
that encourages student-driven, collaborative 
project-based learning as well as opportunities for 
teachers to reflect upon their epistemology and 
pedagogy.”

In “Inclusive Practice and Transformative 
Leadership Are Entwined: Lessons for Professional 
Development of School Leaders in Kenya,” Rose 
Opiyo discusses the concept of transformative 
leadership in inclusive education for Learners with 
Special Needs as a broad approach to education 
that seeks to interrogate the inclusive leadership

inventions, sound economic growth, and globally 
competitive workforce.

To this end, we introduce readers to a variety 
of articles whose contents are designed to disrupt 
and upend readers’ thinking about education 
and share its potential for radical transformation 
of minds if the curriculum and pedagogy are 
methodically and effectively designed. The first 
article of this issue addresses the fundamental 
curriculum question, “What knowledge is worth 
knowing?” The rest addresses an overarching 
question dealing with the most effective 
instructional methods like, “What instructional 
methods of delivering the content to the content 
to learners is most effective in achieving 
transformative outcomes in learners?

Teresia Mbogori and Winnie Mucherah in 
“Nutrition Transition in Africa: Consequences 
and Opportunities” discuss the ramifications of 
nutrition transition in Africa that is stemming from 
the Westernization of their African diets. In this 
article, they offer educational solutions through 
which the phenomenon of nutrition transition 
can be disrupted and a return to the consumption 
of whole grain diets and traditional vegetables 
embraced. In a nutshell, their article offers readers 
to rethink a food and nutrition curriculum in 
Africa.

In their second article, “Examining Child 
Development from an African Cultural Context,” 
Winnie Mucherah and Teresia Mbogori, delve in to 
the importance of considering child development 
and his/her culture in an effective learning 
environment. In their article, they explore issues 
like indigenous language development, childbirth 
practices, self-esteem, and self-concept and how 
they impact African child’s self-worth and identity 
development. All these factors are important 
in designing a curriculum and pedagogy that 
optimize learning outcomes.

In connection with optimizing learning 
outcomes, Tom McConnell, Joyce Parker, and 
Jan Eberhardt in “Problem-Based Learning 
for Responsive and Transformative Teacher 
Professional Development,” discuss “a research-

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 3 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1:1

skills of school leaders as they seek to address 
human diversity issues in their schools.

Invitation to Prospective Authors
We invite authors keen on transformative 
education from all walks of life to consider GJTE 
as an avenue for dissemination of their ideas 
germane to curriculum and teaching. GJTE accepts 
submissions for its Open Call, with no deadlines for 
submissions, and no publishing fees for authors. 
The journal’s website includes Author Guidelines 
to help prospective authors with formatting 
specifications, and an online Submissions system 
to help with the submission, review and editing 
process. New authors are invited to register in 
the system. GJTE also invites readers to join our 
Editorial Board of Reviewers by selecting the 
“reviewer” role and indicating content expertise.

Acknowledgements
The Global Journal for Transformative 

Education (GJTE) is a singular publication 
venue. Despite the great amount of time and 
effort we have invested for its conceptualization, 
development, implementation, production, and 
publication of this inaugural volume, we could 
not have done all this by ourselves. Both the 
conference and this volume are the results of the 
hard work and dedication of many people. First 
of all, our profound gratitude goes to the Global 
Institute for Transformative Education (GITE) 
and its Founding Members for their sustained 
sponsorship to make this volume happen. We are 
deeply thankful to Tom J. McConnell who provided 
us invaluable assistance in his role as Managing 
Editor taking care of the daily operation of GJTE. 
We are also grateful to our colleagues who serve on 
the Board of Reviewers for their time and diligence 
in the review process. We also owe a debt of 
gratitude to Professor Eng. Frederick Otieno, Vice 
Chancellor of Masinde Muliro University of Science 
and Technology (MMUST) not only for his early 
buy-in to this concept of transformative education 
but also for funding and hosting the conference. 
We also thank Fred Bay of The Bay & Paul 

Foundation and Ball State University for 
sponsoring our three keynote speakers and for 
sponsoring some schools to attend and showcase 
their transformative activities at the conference. 

Our profound gratitude goes to all the 
participants in the World Conference on 
Transformative Education (WCTE), especially 
to the following: Dr. Kofi Marfo, Professor 
and Foundation Director, Institute for Human 
Development, Aga Khan University (South-Central 
Asia, East Africa, and United Kingdom); Nkem 
Khumbah, lecturer and member of the STEM-
Africa Initiative at theUniversity of Michigan; 
Justo Méndez Arámburu, co-founder and former 
President of Nuestra Escuela in Puerto Rico; and 
the Hon. Wilson Sossion, Secretary General Kenya 
National Union of Teachers.

We also owe a special debt of gratitude to 
Rev. Professor Achoka JSK, PhD, MKNAS Director 
of Research and Postgraduate Support, MMUST, 
Kenya and to Dr. Judah Ndiku, Executive Dean 
School of Education at MMUST for his leadership 
and commitment to the conference from day one 
of the conference initiative till the conclusion of 
the event. Without him and his closed collaborator, 
Prof. Achoka, the conference would not have 
recorded a major success. 

The successful outcome of the conference was 
due, in great part, to the careful organization and 
planning that took place beforehand. Therefore, 
we are also deeply grateful to the following 
WCTE conveners: Drs. Michael Takafor Ndemanu, 
Serafín M. Coronel-Molina, Daniel Baron, Winnie 
Mucherah, Kennedy Bota, Bryce Smedley, and 
Teresia Mbogori for playing key roles in the 
organization of the conference. Our special thanks 
to all the MMUST faculty, K-12 pupils and their 
teachers, drivers, custodians, MMUST students, 
caterers,  dance groups, Golf Hotel staff, etc who 
all served in different capacities as well as played 
considerable roles that went a long way to enhance 
the experiences of the conference participants.

Ndemanu & Coronel-Molina, Introduction



Page 4 

Michael T. Ndemanu & Serafín M. Coronel-Molina

Editors in Chief
Global Journal of Transformative Education

Ndemanu & Coronel-Molina, Introduction

Last but not least, we are profoundly grateful 
to all the contributors to this inaugural volume 
for choosing GJTE to publish their work. Many 
thanks to the Indiana University Library System 
and its IUScholarsWorks system for hosting the 
GJTE’s website and to Sarah Hare for helping us 
with all the details related to the online platform 
where GJTE is located. Without the generous 
assistance and contribution of all these fine people 
and institutions, GJTE would never have become 
a reality, and this inaugural volume would never 
have seen the light of day.

1 Michael T. Ndemanu  (mtndemanu@bsu.edu) is an 
Assistant Professor of Education in the Department of 
Educatioanl Studies  at Ball State University, Muncie, 
Indiana, USA.

2 Serafín M. Coronel-Molina (scoronelmolina@gmail. 
com) is an Associate Professor in the Dept. of Literacy, 
Culture, and Language Education at Indiana University, 
Bloomington, Indiana, USA.

Authors

GJTE is published by the 
Global Insitutute of Transformative Education  

Articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 
Attribution NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits 
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in 

any non-commercial medium, provided you give appropriate credit 
to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative 

Commons license,

http://www.gite.education


Mbogori & Mucherah. Global Journal of  
Transformative Education (2019) 1, 5-10. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.26141

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Mbogori & Mucherah. 2019 Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which 
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in any non-commercial medium, provided you 
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Nutrition Transition in Africa:  
Consequences and Opportunities

Teresia Mbogori1 and Winnie Mucherah2

Abstract
Nutrition transition, defined as a shift in dietary patterns and energy expenditure, is a major concern world-

wide and especially in low- and middle-income countries. Nutrition transition is linked to an increased preva-
lence of metabolic disorders and non-communicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular dis-
eases. In regions such as the sub-Saharan Africa, prevalence of overweight and obesity has steadily increased 
in the recent years despite the high prevalence of hunger and malnutrition. Factors that have contributed to 
nutrition transition include urbanization, socio-economic developments and technological advancements. 
Food consumption in some households has shifted to diets rich in fats and oils, calorie-based sweeteners, and 
animal-based products high in saturated fats (diets commonly referred to as “western diets”), from traditional 
African diets based on legumes, whole grain products and traditional vegetables.  Opportunities to slow down 
the effects of nutrition transition in Africa may exist through education and policy changes that are culturally 
sensitive.

Keywords: Nutrition transition, Health and development, Malnutrition, Traditional African diet

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
Malnutrition, a condition that refers to deficiencies, 
excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy 
and/or nutrients, remains a major hindrance to the 
social and economic development of a country espe-
cially in Sub-Saharan Africa (Bain et al., 2013). Mac-
ronutrient and micronutrient malnutrition in women 
and children increases their vulnerability to infections 
which increases the levels of childhood and maternal 
mortality (Stein, 2010). Stunting due to chronic hunger 
is associated with inadequate cognitive development 
which reduces the learning abilities and productivity 
of the child later in life and leads to the vicious cycle 
of poverty and malnutrition (Vorster, 2010). Similarly, 
overweight and obesity causes an economic and social 
burden to the country due to high costs of its manage-
ment (Allender & Rayner, 2007). Many Sub-Saharan 
African countries are struggling with both undernutri-
tion and overweight, also known as the double burden 
of malnutrition. This has been attributed to the rapid

nutrition transition being witnessed all over the world 
and especially in developing countries.

Nutrition transition, defined as a shift in dietary 
patterns and energy expenditure, is a major concern 
worldwide and especially in low and middle-income 
countries (Popkin, 1994; Popkin, Adair, & Ng, 2012). 
Nutrition transition in the Africa is linked to increased 
prevalence of metabolic disorders and non-commu-
nicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes and cardio-
vascular diseases (Bosu, 2015). In sub-Saharan Africa, 
prevalence of overweight and obesity has steadily in-
creased in the recent years despite the high prevalence 
of hunger and malnutrition (Tzioumis, Kay, Bentley, & 
Adair, 2016). Consumption of high energy dense foods 
such as soft drinks and deep fried foods has replaced 
the traditionally consumed foods that were high in 
whole grain cereals and vegetables in most African 
homes. In addition, improvement in infrastructure and 
economic status has reduced the duration and intensity 
of physical activity among children and adults (Steyn & 
McHiza, 2014). 



 6 

“Receding famine” is the third pattern and it is one 
where many countries made great progress in reducing 
chronic hunger and famine and the consumption of 
fruits, vegetables and animal products increased. How-
ever, at this stage, physical activity levels started to de-
crease which could have been attributed to technolog-
ical development.  The fourth pattern “overeating and 
obesity related diseases” is characterized by diets that 
are high in fat, cholesterol, refined sugars, accompanied 
by sedentary lifestyles. This pattern is currently being 
observed all over the world especially in developing 
countries. Finally, is the behavior change pattern which 
describes behaviors similar to the first stage where 
there is increase in intake of fruits and vegetables and 
reduction in the consumption of refined carbohydrates. 
These changes are currently being observed mainly in 
developed countries as a response to increase in chron-
ic diseases. Most of the work in nutrition transition 
mainly focuses on the fourth and fifth patterns. 

For the African population, nutrition transition 
could be described following patterns three through 
five with most of the population quickly moving to-
wards stage four (Popkin, 2004). As undernutrition 
and micronutrient deficiencies persist, overweight and 
obesity rates in African countries have shown a steady 
increase that has exceeded the prevalence of under-
weight since 1980 (Black et al., 2013). Shifts in dietary 
patterns have been mostly observed within the adult 
population, however, there are concerns that changes in 
infant and children feeding practices might soon shift to 
the young population as has been observed in devel-
oped countries.

Traditionally, the main types of food introduced to 
infants across Africa were plant based cereals made 
from mainly maize, sorghum, wheat or millet (Gibson, 
Ferguson, & Lehrfeld, 1998).  Although intake of cereal 
based complementary foods is usually associated with 
insufficient intakes of iron, calcium and zinc (Gibson et 
al., 1998), in some communities, amaranths, milk, soy, 
fish and edible termites are used to enrich cereal based 
foods (Konyole et al., 2012). With changing diets and 
improvement of social economic status among African 
families, infants are now introduced to foods high in 
fats and sugars as part of complementary foods (Popkin 
et al., 2012). These foods are energy dense instead of 
nutrient dense and research has shown that such foods 
may lead to adulthood diseases such as type 2 diabetes 
during childhood and later in adult life (Steyn & McHi-
za, 2014).

Mbogori & Mucherah, Nutrition Transition in Africa

Several studies have reported on the extent and 
consequences of nutrition transition and the double 
burden of malnutrition in Africa (Abrahams, McHiza, & 
Steyn, 2011; Steyn & McHiza, 2014; Steyn, Nel, Parker, 
Ayah, & Mbithe, 2012). Some of the main consequences 
include development of chronic diseases such as dia-
betes, high cholesterol levels and high blood pressure 
and cardiovascular diseases (Albala, Vio, Kain, & Uauy, 
2002). These consequences are of great impact espe-
cially on the health care systems in African countries as 
these countries are still struggling with maternal and 
childhood undernutrition and micronutrient deficien-
cies.

Childhood is a very critical period in the develop-
ment of an individual. While nutrition transition affects 
all stages of development, infancy and childhood stages 
are more likely to experience a greater impact. For-
tunately, it is easier to change or modify behaviors at 
young ages than it is to change behavior of adults. Most 
studies done on nutrition status in children in African 
countries mainly focus on increasing food intake to 
prevent undernutrition and very few studies investi-
gate the changes in dietary patterns of the children that 
could lead to overweight and obesity later in life. There-
fore, the purpose of this paper is to describe nutrition 
transition and highlight some of its consequences in 
children as well as to suggest some opportunities to 
mitigate the effects of nutrition transition within the 
African context.

Nutrition Transition 
Nutrition transition was first described by Popkin 
(1994) as shifts in dietary patterns that are reflected 
through changes in body size and composition. Popkin 
proposed five patterns of nutrition transition which 
represent the different stages of dietary changes in a 
population. First pattern is referred to as “hunter gath-
erer” and it describes the diets consumed in the hunter 
gatherer period if human evolution. These diets were 
high in carbohydrate, fiber and low in saturated fat. 
Also, activity levels were high and obesity rates were 
very low. The second pattern is referred to as “famine” 
and it describes a period in time where there was food 
shortage that led to a decrease in dietary diversity and 
adequacy. Also, towards the end of this period agricul-
tural revolution occurred and societies that were more 
civilized were able to feed their population. Although 
this stage mainly occurred in the 18th century in the 
developed countries, many places in sub-Saharan Africa 
are still dealing with famine today.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



7 Mbogori & Mucherah, Nutrition Transition in Africa

Consequences of nutrition transition
In general, nutrition transition affects everyone in 

the population regardless of age. The most common 
outcomes are chronic diseases such as diabetes and car-
diovascular diseases (Delisle, Agueh, & Fayomi, 2011). 
While the developed countries have the resources to 
deal with the rise in these conditions, African countries 
are still dealing with undernutrition especially in chil-
dren which in itself exerts a lot of strain to the health 
care system in Africa (Salam et al., 2015).

Maternal malnutrition during pregnancy, inade-
quate breastfeeding and poor complementary feeding 
practices are associated with malnutrition in children. 
During pregnancy and lactation, nutrient needs in-
crease making these periods nutritionally-vulnerable 
stages for women of child-bearing age (Khayat, Fanaei, 
& Ghanbarzehi, 2017). Undernutrition in mothers is a 
cause for concern due to the impact adequate maternal 
nutrition has during the critical 1,000-day period from 
pregnancy to the first two years of the child’s life (Woo 
Baidal et al., 2016). Similarly, obesity during pregnancy 
has been associated with poor health outcomes of the 
pregnancy such as increased risk of caesarian delivery, 
childhood overweight and obesity, diabetes in later life 
for mothers and obesity in adolescence for the children 
(Poston, Harthoorn, & van der Beek, 2011; Valsamakis, 
Kyriazi, Mouslech, Siristatidis, & Mastorakos, 2015). 

The immediate effect of poor nutrition during the 
early years of a child is morbidity and mortality and, 
delayed cognitive, social-emotional and motor devel-
opment (da Cunha, Leite, & de Almeida, 2015),  While 
the long-term effects include impairment in, intellec-
tual ability, work capacity, reproductive outcomes and 
overall health during adolescence and adulthood (da 
Cunha et al., 2015). Infants born to undernourished 
mothers are likely to be undernourished as well at birth 
and if they experience rapid weight gain in childhood, 
they are much more likely to suffer from diabetes and 
cardiovascular diseases later in life than children who 
were not undernourished at birth (Victora et al., 2008). 
This means that in developing countries such as sub-Sa-
haran Africa, greater efforts should be directed towards 
minimizing rapid dietary shifts towards consumption of 
high energy dense foods by children to mitigate possi-
ble development of chronic diseases in future life.

Opportunities to slow nutrition transition in Africa
Nutrition transition is inevitable as countries 

continue to expand their infrastructure and economic 
development. However, there are ways that the society

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

can be more vigilant in order to slow down the pro-
gression. Many countries globally are working towards 
behavior change so that people can move from con-
sumption of highly processed energy dense foods to 
increased intake of fruits and vegetables. However, in 
Africa there are communities, still experiencing famine, 
consuming diets high in fruits, vegetables and whole 
grains, and those that have adapted more westernized 
diets. This means that when planning interventions 
to slow down nutrition transition, these three levels 
should be considered. Interventions are needed to 
improve food production for those experiencing famine, 
nutrition education on the importance of maintain-
ing traditional African diets are needed for those who 
are still consuming diets high in fruits, vegetables and 
whole grains and behavior modification interventions 
are needed for those who have adopted a more west-
ernized diet. 

Education
One avenue that nutrition and health related informa-
tion is shared is through the formal schooling system. 
Nutrition and health related programs that are offered 
through school platforms have been shown to improve 
the health and nutrition status of the poor and vulner-
able children in low and middle income countries (Sarr 
et al., 2016).  For example, school meal programs com-
mon among many African countries encourage children 
to go to school because of the promise of a meal (Al-
derman, Hoddinott, & Kinsey, 2006). For the most part, 
foods served in schools are sourced from local farmers 
and local markets and are therefore more likely than 
not to include traditional African diets rich in vegeta-
bles and whole grains. However, as nutrition transition 
progresses, there is a possibility that foods offered in 
schools might change into a more westernized diet that 
is more convenient and cheaper for the schools.

In a school setting, nutrition education can 
benefit the children, teachers as well as staff by 
providing them with the tools for healthy eating. 
Including nutrition education in the school curric-
ulum is could help slow down the effects of nutri-
tion transition, however, it has to be sensitive to the 
African context. Nutrition education curricula need to 
be linked to locally grown foods, cultures and diversity 
as well as environmental sustainability.  This means 
that examples used in instruction should be based on 
healthy foods that are locally available and accessible to 
the children instead of using examples of foods that are



8 Mbogori & Mucherah, Nutrition Transition in Africa

foreign to the community. 
Some studies that have evaluated the impact of nu-

trition education in schools especially and have shown 
positive outcomes in the nutrition and health status 
of the students. However, these studies focus more on 
undernutrition and not overweight and obesity (Walsh, 
Dannhauser, & Joubert, 2002).  It is noteworthy that 
prevalence of overweight and obesity in children is 
still low in sub Saharan Africa and therefore could be 
the reason behind lack of obesity-based interventions. 
However, this makes it the ideal time to introduce 
nutrition education in the school curricula to minimize 
adoption of unhealthy dietary patterns among school 
going children. 

Research and policy 
Researchers and policymakers have an opportunity 
to work with individuals and communities in African 
countries to try and slow down the negative effects of 
nutrition transition especially on children. From the 
documented literature, it is evident that there are a 
number of intervention activities that focus on miti-
gating the effects of acute food shortage. These inter-
ventions are mainly funded by international donor 
agencies. The main challenge with donor agency funded 
interventions is that they tend to focus on the agency’s 
key interests that might not entirely reflect the needs 
of the society. For instance, many UN agencies work in 
the dry areas to provide food aid in form of ready to 
eat formulas for severely malnourished children and 
food rations for the moderately malnourished children. 
While this is a noble cause that has been done over the 
years, the real cause of severe malnutrition, which is 
poverty and low productivity has not been adequately 
addressed.  Therefore, a cycle develops whereby mal-
nourished children are rehabilitated but when they are 
out of danger, they fall back into the malnourished state 
due to the conditions that initially made them mal-
nourished. In addition, most of the international donor 
agencies are very unlikely to engage in behavior change 
interventions that are needed for slowing down the 
effects of nutrition transition. 

To effectively address nutrition transition, stake-
holders need to work with communities to ensure 
that the magnitude and severity of adopting a western 
lifestyle are understood by the community members. To 
that end, there are a number of questions about peo-
ple’s perception of the changing nutrition status and 
dietary intake that need to be evaluated. For example, 
1) How do individuals in African settings perceive

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

consumption of westernized diets high in refined sugar 
and fat as compared to consumption of traditional diets 
high in fruits and vegetables and whole grains? 2) How 
does the community view overweight and obesity ei-
ther in a child or an adult?  3) Are community members 
educated on the dangers of overweight and obesity that 
result from high calorie intake with sedentary behav-
ior? 4) What are African governments doing to ensure 
that overweight and obesity do not reach alarming lev-
els as those being witnessed in some of the developed 
countries? Some of these questions have been explored 
to some extent. For example in South Africa, a qualita-
tive study among children found that some teenagers 
perceived being overweight and obese to be desirable 
especially by parents because it was an indication of 
happiness (Puoane, Tsolekile, & Steyn, 2010). Another 
study found that being underweight might be perceived 
as suffering from HIV or AIDS hence undesirable (Okop, 
Mukumbang, Mathole, Levitt, & Puoane, 2016). Such 
feedback indicates that before beginning a behavior 
modification intervention, education is needed to dis-
count some of those beliefs and come up with mutually 
acceptable interventions. Also, some countries have 
developed policy documents that are geared towards 
curbing the increase in overweight and obesity. Howev-
er, evaluation of such policies needs to be done.

Conclusion
There is sufficient documentation on nutrition tran-
sition in African countries. Consequences of nutrition 
transition are more severe in African countries than in 
developed countries as they pose a double burden of 
undernutrition and obesity to the community, house-
holds and individuals. Children in such households end 
up with developmental challenges and are more likely 
to develop adult diseases such as type 2 diabetes in 
childhood. Very few studies investigate the understand-
ing and perception of individuals and communities 
towards the components of nutrition transition such 
as increase in energy intakeor increase in adiposity. 
Such studies are important because it is sometimes 
perceived that consumption of western diets and being 
overweight or obese are a sign of improved social eco-
nomic status. This, therefore, may hinder government 
and other stakeholders’ efforts towards slowing down 
the effects of nutrition transition. There are opportu-
nities to slow down the effects of nutrition transition 
through education, policy and research. Food and nutri-
tion topics that emphasize on consumption of tradition-
al African diets and discourage the consumption of 



Mbogori & Mucherah, Nutrition Transition in Africa 9 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

western diets could be introduced into the schools’ 
curriculum. At policy level, national programs aimed at 
reducing hunger and malnutrition could focus more on 
ensuring intake of nutritious foods that are culturally 
appropriate and locally grown where possible.

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1 Teresia Mbogori (tnmbogori@bsu.edu) is an Assistant 
Professor in the Department of Nutrition and Health 
Sciences at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.

2 Winnie Mucherah (wmucherah@bsu.edu) is a Professor 
in the Department of Educational Psychology at Ball 
State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.

Authors



Mucherah & Mbogori. Global Journal of  
Transformative Education (2019) 1, 11-17. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.26140

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Examining Child Development from an 
African Cultural Context

Winnie Mucherah1 and Teresia Mbogori2

Abstract

Human development is multifaceted and characterized by physical, cognitive, social and emotional aspects. 
This development is strongly shaped by one’s socio-cultural context. It is impossible to separate one’s culture 
when explaining their development fully. The purpose of this paper is to critically examine key issues in child 
development through the lens of an African context. These key issues include language development, child 
birth practices, self-esteem, self-concept and identity development. Language is a powerful tool of communica-
tion that consists of words used by a community. It enables us to pass down information from one generation to 
the next and creates a rich cultural heritage. For this reason, this paper examines the languages that are used in 
African schools and how they impact the development of an African child. Another important issue that needs 
to be examined within the African context is the birth process. Even though childbirth is considered a natural 
event, it takes place in different contexts and parents make important choices about conditions surrounding 
birth. The people who help a mother during birth vary across cultures and these childbirth settings and atten-
dants impact the mother’s experience, particularly with regards to how she will interact with her child after 
birth, which consequently influences child development. Finally, self-esteem, self-concept and identity develop-
ment are strongly embedded in one’s cultural context. A healthy self-esteem and positive self-concept impacts 
a strong identity development. To gain a better understanding of these key concepts within the African cultural 
context, the framework of Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory will be utilized. 

Keywords: Child development, African Culture, Self-esteem, Self-concept, Identity 

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
The development of a child is multifaceted and 

characterized by several dimensions including the 
physical, cognitive, social and emotional aspects. This 
development is strongly shaped by one’s socio-cultur-
al context. It is impossible to separate one’s culture 
and context in fully explaining their development. 
For example, constructs like motivation for academic 
achievement, self-concept, self-esteem, and identity 
development can only be adequately understood within 
one’s social-cultural contexts and values (Mahn & 
John-Steiner, 2013). What motivates a student in Kenya 
to achieve academically may be totally different from 
what motivates a student in the United States to achieve 
(Mucherah, 2008; Mucherah & Yoder, 2008). 

 Unfortunately, most frames of reference in explaining 
“optimal” development seem to be based on the West-
ern and European standards (Schwartz et al, 2013). 
Almost all examples given in textbooks are Western and 
or European based, hardly any from an African perspec-
tive, unless it’s explaining “inadequate” development. In 
addition, research given in support of discussions used 
to explain development in Africa or other developing 
countries tend to be conducted by Westerners, with few 
African first authors. Furthermore, majority of African 
scholars tend to interpret their research findings within 
the Western and or European framework. Clearly, there 
is a need to increase research productivity from Africa 
and by African scholars. It is paramount that the Afri-
can scholars interpret their research findings through 
the African lens. The world is becoming a global village 
and Africa has to participate in this endeavor by



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 12 

promote the African culture? When teaching the alpha-
bet, what examples are given to support each letter of 
the alphabet? For example, A is for… The colonial edu-
cation used Western and/or European based examples 
such as A for Apple. Most children, particularly those in 
the rural areas have never seen an apple! Unfortunately, 
this is still being used in early childhood education in 
Kenya despite gaining independence in the early 60s. 
What languages are used for instruction in schools?  
An examination of the school systems in most African 
countries, particularly in Kenya, reveal foreign languag-
es are the main languages of instruction. How many Af-
rican languages are encouraged or simultaneously used 
with the foreign languages such as English or French? 

In some countries, children are punished for using 
their native language at school, and this can have a 
negative effect on children if they become ashamed of 
their native language (Mucherah, 2008). Furthermore, 
punishing children for using their native language 
sends the message that their language is not important. 
This is unfortunate because children should be encour-
aged to maintain their native language while learning 
a second language as research shows children can pick 
up many languages simultaneously (Thomas & John-
son, 2008). Furthermore, compared to adolescents and 
adults, children have the ability to pronounce words 
with a native-like accent in a second language if it is 
introduced early (Neville, 2006). Therefore, instead of 
punishing children for speaking their heritage language 
at school, teachers should be trained so that they can 
effectively use both/all languages for instruction. There 
is a need for more resources to be invested in training 
teachers to be culturally responsive in their instruc-
tional practices, and also to abolish practices such as 
humiliating or beating students who speak their native 
language in school. This is a problem because in some 
cases, parents tend to be happy when these children 
can not speak their native language. According to Ngugi 
Wa Thiong’o (1986) these parents may not realize it 
but they have been programed by the colonial mental-
ity. Africans have to decolonize their mind in order to 
embrace their native languages (Thiong’o, 1986). Ngugi 
goes on to say that historically, English came to be 
seen automatically as the language of intelligence and 
African languages as peripheral. This was a conscious 
program enacted by all colonial powers. However, the 
colonial period is long gone and it is time for African 
education systems to re-examine their educational 
mission and practices. African have access to many lan-
guages and this is a signifcant resource because

actively participating in empirical-based research and 
share with the world the unique aspects its culture 
contribute to understanding children’s development. 
Clearly, there is a need for transformation in the ed-
ucation system on the continent of Africa. The ideal 
place to start cultivating this transformation is through 
schools, starting from early childhood education. This 
paper will address five key aspects of child develop-
ment that needs to be critically examined within the 
African context. They include language development, 
child birth approaches, self-esteem, self-concepts, and 
identity development. In addition, these conecpts will 
be examined within the framework of Vygotsky’s so-
cio-cultural theory.

Social Cultural Theory
 The sociocultural theory, developed by Lev Vy-

gotsky, posits that social interaction and culture 
plays an important role in children’s construction of 
knowledge. According to this theory, culture and social 
interactions are indispensable to children’s interpre-
tations and understanding of cultural expectations 
(Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Vygotsky, 1962). In Vygotsky’s 
view, knowledge is distributed among people and the 
environments in which they live. These environments 
are embedded in the cultural contexts of family, school, 
media, legal and religious institutions, and community 
organizations. According to Vygotsky, children’s social 
interaction with more skilled adults and peers is insep-
arable from their knowledge development. Through 
this interaction, they learn to use the tools that will 
help them adapt and be successful in their culture. For 
example, if you regularly interact with children in their 
native language, you not only advance their language 
skills but also communicate to them that their native 
language is an important aspect of their culture. There-
fore, this theoretical approach suggests that the knowl-
edge, perceptions, attitudes and beliefs about language, 
childbirth practices, beauty, self-concept and identity 
development among African children is advanced 
through interaction with others within the sociocultur-
al contexts.

Early Childhood and Language Development
There is a need to engage teachers, scholars and 

policy makers in discussions on the cultural contexts 
influencing children’s development. For example, an 
intentional examination of the early childhood cur-
riculum is warranted. How are children introduced to 
formal education? What aspects in the curriculum

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 13 

children who are fluent in two or more languages per-
form better than their single-language counterparts on 
tests of control of attention, concept formation, analyti-
cal reasoning , inhibition, cognitive flexibility, cognitive 
complexity, and cognitive monitoring (Bialystok, 2001, 
2007, 2011; Bialystok & Craik, 2010). 

Ironically, in most cases children who speak more 
than one native language in Africa feel inferior to those 
who speak only one foreign language such as English or 
French. It would be in the interest of the children and 
the African culture in general, to promote and combine 
both the native and foreign languages for instruction 
at school. There is some hope in Kenya because the 
current curriculum is emphasizing the use of Kiswahili, 
which is the national language. In addition, the Min-
istry of Education in Kenya has reintroduced African 
languages which has promoted a publishing house like 
East African Educational Publishers to issue numer-
ous books on how to learn different mother tongues in 
Kenya such as Dholuo, Ekegusii and Kiluhya (Ministry 
of Education, 2015). Despite this glimpse of hope, most 
Kenyans prefer their children to be fluent in English, 
even if it is at the expense of the national and heritage 
language (Mucherah, 2008). Kenji Hakuta (2001, 2005) 
support the combined heritage and foreign language 
approach because children have difficulty learning 
a subject when it is taught in a language they do not 
understand. Furthermore, when both languages are 
integrated in the classroom, children learn the foreign 
language more readily and participate more actively. Of 
great significance, children recognize the value of their 
heritage language and embrace it with pride. 

Childbirth within the African Context
Childbirth commences the process of child de-

velopment. For centuries, the process of childbirth 
occurred in the homes. In the Kenyan culture, partic-
ularly the Luhya culture, there are women who help a 
mother during childbirth, they are referred to as birth 
attendants. These women are experts in customary 
midwifery and are known and respected in the commu-
nity. This practice minimizes the stress of a pregnant 
woman since the midwife is usually familiar with the 
women whom she assists in the childbirth. Less stress 
during child birth promotes relaxation in the mother 
and enhances the childbirth experience. This positive 
experience enhances the parent-infant interaction after 
birth, which increases positive social and emotional de-
velopment of both mother and infant (Kennell, 2006). 
However, this trend is gradually changing and children

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2018) 1

are being delivered at the hospital by nurses and doc-
tors. This is all good, if this is done for the sole purpose 
of hygiene, minimizing infections, and for the purpose 
of safety of the infant and the mother. Unfortunately, 
home deliveries are now frowned upon while hospital 
births are viewed as progressive because in the West-
ern world like the United States, 99% of births take 
place in the hospital (Martin et al, 2005). The problem 
is, not every family in Africa can afford the hospital bill 
nor the means to get to the hospital in time for a safe 
delivery. It would therefore be helpful for the tradi-
tional mid-wives to work alongside a trained nurse 
and doctor so that emergences are taken care of if they 
happen, and the traditional mid-wifery expertise is 
preserved.

Not surprisingly, and fortunately, in most African 
cultures, midwives or women who help with child 
birth are very common and research shows for low-
risk women, midwife-led delivery is characterized by 
a reduction in procedures during labor and increased 
satisfaction with care (Sutcliffe et al, 2012). This is not 
unique to Africa because midwifery is practiced in most 
countries throughout the world (Jesse & Kilpatrick, 
2013). This is important because mid-wives are usually 
community members who can eaily be sort for advice 
after the baby is born, unlike the hospital birth where 
the nurses and/or doctors are not easily accessable. 
In addition, the mid-wives speak the same language as 
the new mother, therefore, communication is easy and 
cultural expertise on how to care for the newborn is 
shared. This is important because this communication 
of what to do after the baby is born helps the mother to 
relax and bond with her baby. In some cases, hospital 
deliveries can be cold and distant especially for moth-
ers from rural and low income families. Sometimes, 
the language used by doctors is not understood by the 
mother, which can make the mother feel inept as a par-
ent. Feelings of incompetence can affect parent-infant 
interacrion after birth. Physicians believe that during 
the period shortly after birth, the parents and newborn 
need to form an emotional attachment as a foundation 
for optimal development in the years to come (Kennell, 
2006). In some mother-infant-pairs, including preterm 
infants and mothers from disadvantaged circumstanc-
es, early bonding may establish a climate for improved 
interaction which promotes optimal child development 
(Kennell, 2006). It would therefore be beneficial for the 
medical profession to tap into this expertise by work-
ing together with the midwives to reduce the stigma 
attached to home births and promote safe births for



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 14

to be problematic for African children. Since the era of 
Clark and Clark’s Doll study which found that African 
American children preferred lighter skin tone dolls, 
scholars have grappled with the issue of beauty and 
skin tone (Mucherah & Frazier, 2013). Mucherah and 
Frazier’s study (2013) found that majority of women of 
African descent preferred lighter skin tone and this was 
significantly correlated with their self-esteem. Findings 
like this present a challenge to Africans who are try-
ing to instill a sense of pride in African children with 
darker skin tones. Research indicates that variations in 
self-esteem have been linked with many children’s de-
velopment. For example, children with high self-esteem 
show greater initiative. They are also prone to prosocial 
behavior and exhibit more happiness (Baumeister & 
others, 2003. On the contrary, studies show that indi-
viduals with low self-esteem report more feelings of 
depression and have lower levels of life satisfaction 
(Birkeland et al, 2012). 

Possible Ways to Raise Children’s Self-esteem with-
in the African Context

The findings from reviewed studies affirm the impor-
tance of increasing children’s self-esteem within the 
African cultural context (Baumeister, 2013; Campbell, 
2012; Harter, 2012; Mucherah & Frazier, 2013; Ro-
chat, 2013). This process starts with the educators, 
guardians and any adult who serves as a role model, 
that they need to embrace and promote African attri-
butes, values and norms with conviction. One way to 
raise children’s self-esteem is by providing emotional 
support and social approval (Harter, 1999). Emotional 
support and social approval can be powerful influences 
on children’s self-esteem. The support and approval can 
be from teachers, parents and peers through encour-
agement and praise when children embrace culturally 
relevant behaviors and activities. For example, wearing 
cultural dresses/outfits, natural hair/braids, eating and 
enjoying traditional African foods, and speaking their 
heritage languages. Some of the current trends on the 
content are promising. For instance, it’s encouraging to 
see young women and men embrace African attributes 
such as natural hair/braids and dark skin tone, use of 
African names only, and use of native languages with 
pride. This is important because our efforts to under-
stand ourselves and to develop an identity that reflects 
our cultural heritage is long overdue. However, there 
is more that can be done to promote children’s self-es-
teem in schools. For example, there is a need to re-ex-
amine the textbooks that are used in schools. Who are

low-income mothers. This will also preserve the natural 
and African cultural funds of knowledge. This expertise 
has been passed on from generation to generation and 
if the current hospital deliveries continue, Africa will 
lose this valuable skill. According to the socio-cultural 
theory, knowledge is learned and shared through social 
interaction and engagement in culturally valued activi-
ties. Therefore, trained medical professionals working 
alongside traditional mid-wives sends the message that 
this is a valued expertise in the African culture.

Self-esteem and Self-concept
Another key concept in children’s development 

is self-understanding which includes self-esteem, 
self-concept and identity. Children’s conceptions and 
understanding of self is their cognitive representa-
tion and is the central aspect of their personality and 
psychological well-being (Harter, 2012; Rochat, 2013). 
A child’s self-understanding is based, in part, on the 
various roles and membership categories that define 
who children are, and more importantly, it is deeply 
embedded in their social-cultural contexts (Harter, 
2006; 2012). The large question here is, how do African 
children define themselves? What attributes are central 
to their self-understanding? A healthy understanding 
of Self promotes one’s self-esteem, which is associated 
with positive life outcomes (Harter, 2012). Self-esteem 
refers to a person’s self-worth or self-image, while 
self- concept refers to a domain-specific evaluations 
of self (Harter, 2012). Having a high self-esteem and a 
positive self-concept are important aspects of children’s 
well-being (Baumeister, 2013; Campbell, 2012). For 
years, beauty has been defined based on the Western 
and/or European standards. For example, long, straight 
hair and fair skin for women have been the criteria for 
judging women’s beauty (Mucherah & Frazier, 2013). 
Rarely are African attributes embraced in the defini-
tion of beauty. In the 60’s there was a movement in the 
United States of America, championed by prominent 
African Americans like James Brown, to promote Black 
Beauty. This movement promoted wearing natural hair, 
Afro, and encouraged Black people to embrace darker 
skin tones. Unfortunately, this movement faded in the 
80’s and the 90’s, but emerged again in the Twenty-first 
century. There is also hope because in the United States 
prominent people and celebrities in Hollywood are now 
wearing natural hair and embracing African names.
If self-esteem refers to a person’s self-worth or self-im-
age, and if Western or European standards are used to 
determine one’s perceptions of beauty, this is bound

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 15 

fitting in with the group and connecting with others. 
The collectivist emphasis is especially prevalent in 
African countries such as Kenya. Research has found 
that African adolescents and young adults develop their 
identity through identification with and imitation of 
others in the cultural group (Bosma & Kunnen, 2001). 
This emphasis on interdependence in African cultures 
includes an expectation that adolescents and young 
adults will accept and embrace social and family roles 
(Berman et al, 2011). Ethnic identity is an enduring 
aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership 
in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings 
related to that membership (Phinney, 2006). 

Identity development becomes a central feature 
during adolescence. Most young people start to grap-
ple with issues such as “What is my purpose in life?” 
(Erikson, 1968). Helping African youth navigate the 
challenges of their ethnic identity by providing oppor-
tunities for them to experience strong African values 
and attributes with pride, is critical. This is because 
research shows that a positive ethnic identity is related 
to positive outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents 
(Umana Taylor et al, 2012). Furthermore, adolescents’ 
positive ethnic identity is linked to higher self-esteem, 
school connectedness, and a healthy social functioning 
(Jones & Galliher, 2007). It is therefore safe to state that 
it’s imperative to ensure that African adolescents devel-
op a positive ethnic identity as Africans.

Conclusion
A comprehensive understanding of factors that 

impact the major aspects of child development requires 
an awareness of the relevant cultural contexts. This 
understanding begins with institutions of education 
that promote the values and practices embedded in the 
African cultural heritage. Educators and policy mak-
ers need to start re-examining their curriculum and 
teacher practices. In addition, scholars need to develop 
research instruments that are culturally relevant and 
to intentionally assess the construct validity of the 
research instruments in order to adapt the current 
Western and European measures to the African context. 
One of the challenges facing transformative educa-
tion is that there are not many writers in African 
languages on the continent. The continent appears 
to be captive to European languages and hostile 
towards African languages. According to Ngugi, 
Africa has to make an intentional effort to change 
because losing a language is losing one’s soul

the authors? Having many books with African authors 
is a place to start. Even better, having books that are 
written in African languages would greatly promote Af-
rican languages and pride in the African culture. Finally, 
having books with main characters who are African 
helps children to see “themselves” in these books and 
sends a message that African characters are important.

Identity Development
Children start to grapple with identity in middle 

childhood. They start to have questions such as “Who 
am I?” “What do I want to be when I grow up?” As they 
look for answers to these questions, they are paying 
close attention to their social contexts such as home, 
neighborhood, school, and community at large. The 
process of identity development helps children to navi-
gate some of the challenging and awkward social issues 
as they interact with their peers. This is critical because 
identity is who a person is and represents a synthesis 
and integration of self-understanding (Erikson, 1968). 
Vygotsky would argue that a child’s identity develop-
ment is significantly influenced by the social cultural 
contexts including the interactions with more knowl-
edgeable members of society (Vygotsky, 1962). Ac-
cording to Erikson, identity is a self-portrait composed 
of many pieces including the career a person wants to 
pursue, country of origin and how intensely the per-
son identifies with his or her cultural heritage, and the 
kind of things a person likes to do which include sports, 
music, hobbies and interests (Erikson, 1968; Moshman, 
2011). Africa is known for its immense wealth in music, 
folk songs and dances. These folk songs should not only 
be performed during special occasions like school and 
college competitions. Rather, they should be woven 
into the daily lives of Africans so that children grow-up 
embracing these African gems. The challenge is, how 
strongly do African children embrace their African 
identity with its attributes? The world is becoming 
small and Africa needs to be represented in this “small” 
world. As Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory posits, the 
social contexts play significant roles in identity. For 
example, family, culture, and ethnicity are linked to 
identity development. Unfortunately, most research on 
identity development has been based on data collect-
ed from adolescents and young adults in the United 
States and Canada (Schwartz et al, 2013). Many of these 
individuals have grown up with a cultural identity that 
emphasizes the individual. However, in many countries 
around the world, adolescents and young adults have 
grown up influenced by a collectivist emphasis on

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Mucherah & Mbogori, African Culture and Child Development 16

(Thiong’o, 1986). There is clearly a need in Africa 
to adopt a three-language policy where, in the case 
of Kenya for example, every child will be grounded 
in their mother tongue, Kiswahili and then English. 
The environments in which children in Africa de-
velop should exposure them to strengths and val-
ues of the continent. For example, schools should 
teach the Egyptian civilization, before Western and 
Greek history. Egyptian civilization is the missing 
link in most of the African education system, yet 
the 3,000 years of  Egyptian civilization showed 
that they did incredible things (Thiong’o, 1986). 
These Egyptian inventors were Black Africans who 
were leaders in art, sculpture, and astronomy. They 
also invented writing (Hieroglyphs)! As children in 
Africa develop, they need to have this knowledge. 
This goes back to the African native languages, au-
thors, writers, and books because the lack of con-
fidence in ourselves begins with hating our native 
languages. The history carried by those languages 
is erased, there is no memory of Africa inventing 
things when we abandon our native languages 
(Mucherah, 2008). 

This is supported by Vygotsky’s theory of so-
cio-cultural development. Culture and social inter-
actions guide children’s development. Child de-
velopment is inseparable from cultural and social 
activities. The education system in Africa needs to 
provide relevant competencies for their children, 
embedded within the cultural contexts, so that 
they emerge from these institutions and stand on 
the world stage with pride for their African culture 
and without an excuse!

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1 Winnie Mucherah (wmucherah@bsu.edu) is Professor in 
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2 Teresia Mbogori (tnmbogori@bsu.edu) is an Assistant 
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Authors



McConnell, T. J., J. M. Parker, & J. Eberhardt. Global Journal 
of Transformative Education (2019) 1. pp 18-25. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.25848 

Open Access

Problem-Based Learning for Responsive and Transformative 
Teacher Professional Development

Tom J. McConnell,1 Joyce M. Parker2 and Jan Eberhardt3

Abstract

Educational reform should include teacher professional development (PD) to help educators learn how to 
implement new programs. This article shares a research-tested model of PD that uses the analytic framework 
of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to support professional learning. Evidence suggests that PBL is effective in 
changing content knowledge and pedagogical practice. To teach content, facilitators engage teachers in learning 
activities designed using common PBL structures. Stories about authentic phenomena present problems asso-
ciated with specific concepts. Learners work in groups to analyze problems, seek additional information, and 
construct plausible solutions. This same approach can support Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) to 
help teachers examine and revise their own teaching. In this model, teachers collaborate to identify “problems 
of teaching.” The group uses PBL to analyze information and solutions. Teachers research teaching strategies, 
test a proposed strategy, and analyze evidence to build new understandings of teaching.

Keywords: Teacher PD, Problem-Based Learning, Professional Learning Community, Action Research

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© McConnell, Eberhard, & Parker. 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 
Attribution NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), 
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in any non-commercial medium, provided you 
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

As we think about the need to create models for 
transformative education, education leaders need to 
consider how teachers will be educated in whatever 
new programs we develop and implement. If we truly 
value transformative teaching strategies, we should 
also think about how to best provide professional 
development (PD) for teachers that is as transformative 
as we aim to create for students. This paper presents 
NSF-funded research about effective PD that employs 
Problem-Based Learning as a pedagogical strategy. The 
model was developed and tested with K-12 teachers 
over a four-year project.

Professional development is an important element 
of any education system. Any professional, including 
teachers, enters the workplace as a novice, so contin-
ued learning is necessary. Changes in student needs, 
diversity, new technology, revised standards and new 
curriculum, and many other variables also create a 
need for continued learning for even the most experi-
enced teachers. But especially as we explore ways to

identify and adopt new strategies that create a more 
transformative education system, teacher PD needs to 
be an intentional and well-planned component of any 
reform. 

For the PD planner, this presents a challenge very 
similar to those facing the teachers we serve. Teachers 
who participate in any professional development (PD) 
program are sure to be a diverse group of individuals. 
Some enter the program with years of teaching experi-
ence while others are new teachers. Participants may 
come together from different disciplines, grade lev-
els, school cultures, and communities. They also have 
different educational backgrounds and probably very 
different personal experiences in their own lives. One of 
the key challenges in planning effective PD is ensuring 
that all participants benefit.

But in any discussion of “transformative education,” 
we must also think about how to help this diverse array 
of teachers learn to implement educational strategies 
in a way that empowers them to address problems in 
their own particular settings. If we wish to develop a 



McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt.  PBL for Transformative Teacher PD 19 

authentic situations. This is largely because the patients 
do not often present as cases that neatly fit the textbook 
examples. Patients sometimes presented information 
that was not directly relevant or failed to show symp-
toms that would help in the diagnosis. 

PBL model developed for medical schools has since 
been adopted in other content areas (Hung, Jonassen, 
and Liu 2008) in which students need to learn critical 
thinking skills that resemble clinical practice in a medi-
cal setting. One of these areas is education. 

Teachers may be thought of as clinicians. Like a 
physician, a teacher must apply the critical thinking 
skills of diagnosing a problem and developing an action 
plan to address a need. Each day, teachers assess stu-
dents’ actions and ideas, make judgements about what 
ideas students are developing or have constructed, and 
devise strategies for helping students achieve the objec-
tives not yet mastered. For nearly two decades initia-
tives to improve the quality of teaching have pointed to 
the clinical practice view of teaching as a structure for 
teacher education and professional development. The 
Carnegie Corporation of New York helped shape teach-
er education through a clinical practice model (CCNY, 
2001), and the latest CAEP standards for accreditation 
of teacher preparation programs (Council for Accred-
itation of Education Preparation 2013) call for clinical 
practice as a part of teacher education in the United 
States based on studies from the preceding accredita-
tion organization (Zimpher et al 2010). In both of these 
initiatives, teachers need to learn to think like master 
teachers, just as medical students need to learn to think 
like doctors. Those skills require both content knowl-
edge and an understanding of pedagogical approaches 
that meet the needs of diverse students.

The model included in this paper is described in 
more detail in a book to be published in 2020, Prob-
lem-Based Learning for Responsive and Transformative 
Teacher Professional Development (McConnell, Parker, & 
Eberhardt, in preparation) as part of the Problem-Based 
Learning for the Science Classroom series (McConnell, 
Parker, & Eberhardt, 2016-2018) of books from Nation-
al Science Teachers Association Press.

PBL Problem Structure
Problem-Based Learning features a real-world 

problem presented in the form of a story divided into 
two pages. The problem in the story is authentic in 
that it needs to be either a real event or a fictional one 
that reflects real phenomena. The problem story is also  
ill-defined – readers are not given all the facts needed

body of students that has the capacity to face new 
problems in a culturally relevant way as they develop 
critical thinking and problem-solving schools that lead 
to innovation and meaningful change, we should also 
apply the same goals to the ways we teach teachers. 
The design of the PD program also needs to be one that 
not only permits but encourages teachers’ leadership 
in identifying, investigating and implementing changes 
in curriculum, in classroom practices, and pedagogical 
strategies (Yaron 2017).

The PBL Project for Teachers
The Problem-Based Learning Project for Teachers 

was an NSF-funded research project that developed 
a comprehensive PD program for science teachers in 
grades K-12. Participants enrolled in the program were 
asked to identify content standards for which they felt 
they needed to improve their teaching. Planners de-
signed content learning activities to be offered in the 
first part of a summer workshop. The content of the 
activities was based on teachers’ selection of content 
topics or strands. In the second part the summer work-
shop, teachers learned to apply PBL to teaching prac-
tice, and formed Professional Learning Communities 
((PLCs; Hord 1997) that would meet in the next school 
year. The PLC groups then met monthly to facilitate a 
PBL-based inquiry into problems of teaching practice 
each participant had identified. This PBL inquiry pro-
cess resulted in lasting and meaningful changes to the 
way participants presented content, assessed student 
learning, managed classroom behavior, or designed 
entire curricula.

The information shared in this paper reflects the 
research conducted over four years of the project, as 
well as continued refinement of the model through 
continued practice and reflection by the author and 
other principles in the PBL Project for Teachers. While 
the reader will find mention of content learning, most 
of the discussion will focus on using PBL to examine 
pedagogy.

Problem-Based Learning
Problem-Based Learning was first developed in the 

field of medical education as a response to a need to im-
prove students’ ability to diagnose illnesses in a clinical 
setting (Barrows 1980). Instructors had noticed that 
first-year medical students were very good at memoriz-
ing facts, but they were not very successful in translat-
ing that knowledge to the type of clinical practice they 
face in diagnosing the condition of real patients in

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

http://www.nsta.org/publications/press/pbl.aspx
http://www.nsta.org/publications/press/pbl.aspx


20

to solve the problem and may be given information that 
is not needed to solve the problem. This messy nature 
of the problem helps learners to think about what infor-
mation is relevant and identify information they need 
to find from other sources. This feature of the problem 
more closely resembles the real world than traditional 
textbook story problems in which students need all the 
given information, and nothing more.

Learners in a PBL lesson then use an analytical 
framework to facilitate a collaborative discussion that 
helps learners identify known and unknown informa-
tion, and begin proposing hypotheses, the possible 
solutions they think may help answer the challenge 
presented in the problem. A graphical representation of 
this process can be seen in Figure 1. 

Learners begin by reading Page 1 of the story, then 
generate a list of three main types of information:

• What do we know?
• What do we need to know?
• Hypotheses.

A facilitator (the teacher) helps monitor the dis-
cussion and record ideas on the whiteboard or papers 
posted where the class can see them. When the class 
has exhausted their analysis of Page 1, the facilitator 
gives the learners Page 2, and the process is repeated. 
After analyzing Page 2, the class identifies the “What 
do we need to know?” items they feel are most rele-
vant as “learning issues.” They then search for more 
information from the internet, library, textbooks, and 
other resources provided by the facilitator or through 
investigations. At the end of the discussion, students or 
groups present their findings and propose a solution to 
the problem. Students are expected to use evidence to 
support their proposals. The discussion of alternative 
solutions may lead to selection of a final solution for the 
problem, or students may be asked to write about the 
solution they feel is best.

In the PBL Project for Teachers, this structure was 
used to help participants learn about the science con-
tent standards they had identified when they enrolled 
in the program. The PBL Problems created by project 
planners were the basis of problems included in the 
first three volumes of the PBL in the Science Classroom 
series.

Research on teachers’ learning with these content 
PBL problems revealed that about 83% of teachers 
gained significant amounts of content knowledge 
during the activity, including knowledge that persisted

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

for at least 8 months (McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt 
2013). The data revealed that teachers with varying 
degrees of prior education and content knowledge 
were all able to gain new ideas about the science topics 
through the PBL lessons.  

Our research also suggested several key elements 
in designing effective PBL-based professional develop-
ment for content learning. In order to be most effective, 
teacher PD programs need to include…

• Teacher participation selection of content topic
• A close link between content taught and stan-

dards (or curriculum)
• A mix of text-based and hands-on activities to

support learning
• Time for individual teachers to process ideas
• Multiple forms of assessment of teachers’ un-

derstanding, with an emphasis on open- 
response items

McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt.  PBL for Transformative Teacher PD



McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt.  PBL for Transformative Teacher PD

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

21

Applying the PBL Structure to 
Pedagogical Learning

Designing PBL professional development activities 
for content learning is very similar to writing lesson 
plans for K-12 students. The structure of the lesson 
and the way it is facilitated are nearly the same. But if 
we apply the structure of PBL to professional learning 
about teaching practice, the structure needs to change 
in several ways. The following section describes the 
design of a “Focus on Practice” component of the PBL 
Project for Teachers.

The structure of a PBL problem for the “Focus on 
Practice” (FoP) is very different from a content prob-
lem. One key difference is that the central focus of the 
problem is identified by the participant, not the facilita-
tor. Each teacher developed a unique problem that was 
very specific to his or her personal teaching situation. 
The problems were also resolved over the course of 
at least two months during the formal presentation of 
the teacher’s research into the “problem of practice.” 
In some cases, teachers spend most of the school year 
examining their question and trying various solutions. 
The extended time frame is very different from most 
content PBL lessons. Figure 2 provides a comparison of 
the two different structures for a PBL problem.

Another change was the source of information 
upon which the group builds a solution to each prob-
lem. When applied to pedagogy, teachers were encour-
aged to use text-based resources, but they were also 

asked to collect evidence from their own classroom. 
This evidence included samples of student work, the 
teachers’ reflective journal, and videotaped records of a 
lesson when possible.

The roles of group members also shifted. Each 
teacher had primary responsibility for collecting infor-
mation (research and evidence from the classroom). 
An initial analysis of that data was done individually 
by the “owner” of the problem before the evidence was 
brought to the group to be shared. Group members then 
helped analyze the evidence, but most of the responsi-
bility for a final solution fell on the problem’s owner.

The “Focus on Practice” (FoP) was the final part of 
the summer workshop and focused on pedagogy. PD 
planners led sessions on how to use PBL as a way to 
structure teacher-led inquiry and reflective practice 
within the context of a Professional Learning Commu-
nity (Hord 1997). The summer session included sample 
PLC meetings to model the process we encouraged 
teachers to employ for the following school year. Teach-
ers also formed their new PLCs and began developing a 
schedule for a meeting each month through the school 
year. Those groups met to discuss potential teaching 
problems that would guide each participants’ inquiry. 
Other workshops included practice in videotaping their 
own classroom and the process of analyzing videos of 
teaching practice. 

The PLC groups were first created by facilitators to 
generate groups with similar grade bands (Grades 6-8 
or 3-6 for example), geographic location to help facili-
tate meetings, or common subject areas (Earth science, 
physical science). The ideal group had some similari-
ties, but we also found some value for including a more 
heterogeneous group. Teachers sometimes negotiated 
different groupings, usually based on geographic loca-
tion when a teacher lived closer to one group but taught 
closer to a different group.

To help teachers focus on a problem of practice 
they could use as their PBL problem, teachers were 
asked to write a “Day in the Life” journal entry. This 
writing asks the teacher to write about a typical day in 
their classroom that reflects a problem they wish to  
resolve or improve. The problems could focus on a 
science concept they struggled to explain accurately, 
a classroom management issue, or a particular lesson 
that does not seem to be effective in achieving the 
learning goals. In a sense, the “Day in the Life” writing 
served as Page 1 of that teachers’ problem. 

Just as in a content problem, the next step was group 
analysis. Teachers shared their “Day in the Life” writings



McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt.  PBL for Transformative Teacher PD

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

22

with members of their PLC and discussed what they knew 
or needed to know about the problem. Groups used the 
same three-topic lists as in the earlier example: 

“What do we know?” 
“What do we need to know?” 
“Hypotheses.” 

A “hypothesis” in this case was a possible strategy 
to test out in the classroom. In some cases, group mem-
bers would send the problem’s owner a book or jour-
nal article that might support or explain the proposed 
solution. Figure 3 lists some samples of the problems of 
practice generated by participating teachers, along with 
the hypotheses they developed to be tested during the 
academic year.

This “Page 1” analysis took place during the sum-
mer workshop. Each member shared the ideas they 
generated for a problem and talked about possible 
solutions. Teachers then planned when in the school 
year they would test their solutions and schedule 
meetings to be led by each member of the group. Each 
teacher was expected to teach the at least one lesson in 
which they would test their proposed solution before 
the assigned meeting. Some participants extended their 
research to span an entire unit or most of the school 
year. Teachers selected a one-month period that would 
be the focus of the problems they presented to the 
FoP group. Teachers shared entries from a reflective 
journal written before and after the lesson, collected at 
least three samples of student work showing a range of 
achievement, and recorded a videotape of the lesson.
That teacher was also expected to view the video and 
select a segment of about 10 minutes that represents 
the problem being examined. Each meeting was mon-

itored and led by a facilitator, usually one of the PD 
program planners.

When each teacher’s assigned month to present 
arrived, the group would listen to a summary of the 
problem and a review of the lesson taught. They also 
viewed the videotape and samples of student work. 

During this discussion, the group commented only 
on observations they made during the video. Teachers 
were reminded not to make inferences or judgements 
or to propose solutions as they watched. This is similar 
to helping learners in a content problem to focus on 
“What do we know.” Their observations were recorded 
on the “What do we know?” list in accordance with the
PBL process. This process parallels the Page 2 analysis 
shown in Figure 1. There are also elements of the re-
search phase of the PBL structure in that teachers were 
“investigating” and collecting evidence from the lesson 
they observed. 

After viewing the video, the group shared questions 
they had about the video and student samples. The 
questions generated are part of the “What do we need 
to know?” list during the analysis process. Some of the 
questions may be answered by the teacher presenting 
the video and might focus on questions about the con-
text of the lesson such as previous lessons, plans for the 
next day, or the teacher’s directions for the students. 
When the questioning step is done, the group can begin 
generating a list of solutions. This may focus more on 
drawing conclusions about the strategy tested by the 
teacher presenting the problem, or it may lead to new 
suggested strategies. The conclusion of this presenta-
tion comes when the teacher has feedback from the 

group that can be useful in shaping ped-
agogical choices for future classes. If the 
meeting led to a list of topics the teacher 
wanted to by the teacher presenting the 
problem, or it may lead to new suggested 
strategies. 

The conclusion of this presentation 
comes when the teacher has feedback from 
the group that can be useful in shaping 
pedagogical choices for future classes. 
If the group created a list of topics for 
further research or classroom trials, the 
presenter would use then the next month 
as an opportunity for further research. In 
some cases, more questions arise, or the 
teacher may wish to test another solution, 
either alone or with help from the group.



23

The process is flexible enough to permit multiple 
iterations of the cycle of reflective practice represented 
in the PLC’s process. This would be followed by anoth-
er discussion in the next PLC meeting to share what 
the teacher found. This presentation was usually more 
informal and briefer but gives a chance for the group to 
extend their learning beyond the initial month.

Teachers who participated in the PLC groups to 
analyze their own problem of practice were invited 
to attend a year-end meeting to share their work and 
celebrate each other’s successes. Before the year-end 
meeting was convened, participants were asked to com-
municate their inquiry in a formal written summary. 
The document included the original problem statement 
and hypothesis, a description of the lesson or unit in 
which the hypothesis was tested, and a review of the 
evidence shared with the teacher’s PLC. The summary 
also included a final “solution” statement and a reflec-
tion on what the teacher learned in the process. Some 
of the teachers chose to also write about a “next prob-
lem” they would investigate. 

The process led to changes not only in the way 
participants taught the lesson they identified, but the 
changes transferred into many other aspects of the 
teachers’ practice. Many of the teachers reported shar-
ing the process with other teachers in their buildings 
and adopting the model for their school’s improvement 
plan. Teachers’ lesson plans developed during the 
workshops also reflected changing ideas that suggest 
meaningful learning. The researchers also reviewed 
evidence of effective PBL implementation in PLC groups 
and developed recommendations for PD planners:

• PLCs function best when teachers feel a sense
of belonging and ownership of the group.

• PLCs are most effective when teachers lead by
identifying problems of importance to them.

• Analysis and discussion must focus on teaching
practice, not the teacher.

• Shared leadership leads to a sense of account-
ability to peers – a strong motivator.

practice, but the changes are more likely if the mem-
bers have a sense of belonging in the group. Salinas 
(2005) refers to this as a sense of “presence,” the feeling 
that the group is sharing not a physical place but a com-
mon goal. To promote the sense of presence, planners 
worked with each group in the summer workshop to 
discuss goals and guidelines for discussion. Making 
the guidelines explicit helps members focus on teach-
ing practice rather than talking about the teacher as 
the cause of a problem. For groups in which members 
felt like equal members, they quickly internalized the 
guidelines and became nearly self-facilitating. An ex-
periment with one group suggested that teachers with 
experience in the PLC format and with the PBL frame-
work are capable of functioning as a group without an 
external facilitator. 

Other experiments found that PLCs that met in a 
virtual environment could be just as effective as those 
who met face-to-face. The virtual PLC groups (McCo-
nnell, Parker, Eberhardt, Koehler, & Lundeberg 2013) 
met via webcams using a videoconference application 
that permits screen sharing, video, audio, and confer-
ence recording. The virtual groups were created to ad-
dress the challenge of convening a group when teachers 
cannot easily meet face-to-face because of distance or 
difficulties in traveling to a meeting. Teachers who had 
a natural connection because of subjects and grades 
taught were located at distances that made a face-
to-face meeting each month impractical. The groups, 
consisting mostly of teachers with prior experience in a 
face-to-face PLC, reported the same “sense of presence” 
as the in-person groups.

The research also suggests that giving teachers the 
task of selecting the focus of the PLC’s inquiry is ex-
tremely important. This is a feature not of PBL, but of 
collaborative teacher inquiry into practice. PLCs are a 
very popular format for in-school PD right now in the 
United States. But administrators have chosen their 
own definition of a PLC to mean any group of teach-
ers who meet for “PD.” In many cases, the focus of the 
group’s research and discussion is assigned by teach-
ers who meet for “PD.” In many cases, the focus of the 
group’s research and discussion is assigned by a build-
ing or district administrator. A popular use of so-called 
“PLCs” is to create groups to identify trends and prob-
lems in standardized test scores or to review a problem 
identified by administrators as an area of need. While 
groups like these are necessary in some cases, they do 
not give teachers a sense of autonomy or professional 
respect (Talbert 2010). We found that groups who are

McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt.  PBL for Transformative Teacher PD

Discussion
The recommendations above are based on research 

on variations in the design of the PLC groups and the 
structure of the PBL problems. This section includes-
discussion of some of the key lessons learned and the 
variations that may make PBL an effective design for 
teacher PD in a variety of contexts.

One of the most important findings is that the PLC 
groups can be very effective in influencing teacher

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



24

long-term learning and changes in practice.
PBL, when used as described above, is adaptable to 

nearly any context. Teachers from different countries 
can use the PBL framework as a structure for PLCs to 
conduct their work. The culture of the PLC, because it is 
led by its members, will naturally fit the school commu-
nity in which it is formed, and can focus on the specific 
needs of that group of teachers. The PLCs can address 
whatever problems are prevalent in their own commu-
nity or school, whether it be related to effective educa-
tion, meeting the social needs of a diverse and chang-
ing group of students, or create a school that is more 
responsive to the needs of the students and community 
it serves.

But for the purposes of our current discussion, PBL 
also represents a tool that is well adapted for creating a 
transformative learning environment. If we want teach-
ers to make the kind of deep changes in consciousness, 
they need to be empowered to make the changes where 
and how they find them to be most appropriate. De-
mocratizing schools often means allowing learners to 
take leadership roles and make important choices. 

Teacher professional development should be 
viewed through the same lens – teachers are the learn-
ers. If we hope to democratize their professional learn-
ing, we must move away from the one-size-fits-all PD 
programs selected and designed by administrators. PBL 
serves as a process for turning over the control of much 
of the professional learning to the professionals and 
focus on change that will be sustainable while meeting 
the real needs of the community.

In order to bring about a shift toward this more 
teacher-centered approach to teacher professional 
development, we suggest a need to train teachers, ad-
ministrators and PD leaders in the PBL process and the 
structure of effective Professional Learning Communi-
ties. With adequate training, those stakeholders will be 
more likely to plan time for the PLCs to meet, and more 
capable of creating and supporting effective and reflec-
tive teacher PLCs.

It is our hope that Problem-Based Learning for 
Responsive and Transformative Teacher Professional 
Development will serve as a resource that PD planners 
around the world can use to help them design, facili-
tate and implement such teacher centered professional 
learning experiences.

McConnell, Parker & Eberhardt.  PBL for Transformative Teacher PD

assigned a task devote less effort to their tasks between 
meetings. More importantly, the changes in their prac-
tice are far more superficial and short-lived when the 
topics are assigned by others. 

In order to make lasting changes in practice, PD 
planners need to honor the professionalism of partici-
pants by structuring the groups in ways that let teach-
ers turn their attention to issues, problems and topics 
they find important and relevant. This recommenda-
tion can inform the make-up of groups to ensure that 
members of a group share a common goal. This finding 
aligns well with the goal of democratizing education – 
and in this case, teacher education – that is so prevalent 
in the research about transformative education.

Another important finding is the role of peer-to-
peer accountability in motivating teachers to persist in 
their PD efforts. Data supporting this finding came from 
surveys and interviews with participants after the year-
long program. One of the themes that emerged in these 
sources of data is that teachers felt it was important 
to complete the tasks they were assigned by the group 
because of the shared leadership within the PLC group. 
The shared leadership was created by avoiding having a 
“group leader” who ran meetings. The facilitator served 
as a resource person and an aide in recording ideas. 
While the facilitator helped monitor time and redirect 
the group if discussion veered off topic, the leadership 
of the meetings was given to whichever teacher was 
sharing his or her own problem and evidence – the one 
referred to above as the problem’s “owner.” 

A recurring comment from teachers each year was 
they felt “accountable to the group” each month. This 
was identified as a factor that helped encourage com-
pletion of tasks even when they considered avoiding 
the work they were doing for the PLC. Most teachers 
said this was true in a month when they presented their 
work, but that they also felt a sense of purpose when 
helping their colleague analyze their videos and re-
view student work. One teacher wrote that she felt she 
“would be letting my group down” if she didn’t bring 
resources to help others with their PBL problems.

Conclusions
Problem-Based Learning has been shown to be 

an effective structure for teacher professional devel-
opment. When teachers use a systematic analytical ap-
proach to problems of pedagogy, they can more easily 
base their clinical decisions on evidence. PBL offers a 
structure that draws evidence both from research lit-
erature and from teacher-led inquiry in the classroom. 
Both of these are powerful sources of ideas that lead to

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



25

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1 Tom J. McConnell (tjmcconnell@bsu.edu) is an 
Associate Professor in the Dept. of Biology at Ball State 
University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.

2 Joyce M. Parker (parker@cns.msu.edu) is an Assistant 
Professor in the Dept. of Earth & Atmospheric Sciences 
at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 
USA.
3 Jan Eberhardt (eberhar3@cns.msu.edu) is an Assistant 
Director (emerita) of the Division of Mathematics and 
Science Education at Michigan State University, East 
Lansing, Michigan, USA.

Authors

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Lozenski. Global Journal of  
Transformative Education (2019) 1, 26-37. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.26142

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Lozenski. 2019 Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which 
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in any non-commercial medium, provided you 
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity: Understanding the 
Intersection of Ethnic Studies and YPAR

Brian David Lozenski1

Abstract

This article explores the outcomes of using Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) as an entry point 
into Africana Studies. The author draws from empirical research and anecdotal narratives to document a pro-
gram where youth of African descent in the United States engage in Ethnic Studies through the lens of action 
research. Beginning with a tracing of the development of Ethnic Studies in the United States, the author shows 
how combining Ethnic Studies and YPAR builds a dual-subjectivity within youth where they are subjects of 
their own curricular exploration and simultaneously developing a subjectivity as researchers and knowledge 
producers. The article highlights three major implications of this dual-subjectivity for the political agency of 
youth of African descent living in a midsized U.S. city.

Keywords: Dual-subjectivity, Ethnic studies, YPAR

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Philosophers have long conceded, however, that every 
man has two educations: ‘that which is given to him, and 
the other that which he gives himself. Of the two kinds 
the latter is by far the more desirable. Indeed all that is 
worthy in man he must work out and conquer for himself. 
It is that which constitutes our real and best nourish-
ment. What we are merely taught seldom nourishes the 
mind like that which we teach ourselves.’ 

– Carter G. Woodson, The Mis-education of the Negro

With his explanatory assertion, Carter G. Woodson, 
who many recognize as the founder of the field of Afri-
can American Studies (Grant, Brown & Brown, 2016), 
refuses to allow for the conflation of education and 
schooling. Through a Woodsonian framing, education is 
about cultural sustenance, survivance, and human liber-
ation. It is a vehicle that pumps the historical lifeblood 
of a people to their collective hearts and minds. Any 
educational endeavor, whether taking place inside of a 
school or not, must foreground the self-determining ca-
pacities of the people who constitute it and participate 
in its function. As an ideal, educational self-determin-

ation is conceptually sound, yet, it becomes infinitely 
more complex in application.

This task of educational self-determination is even 
more fraught for communities who have been histor-
ically marginalized and dispossessed of their educa-
tional rights (Espinoza & Vossoughi, 2014; Lozenski, 
2017a). In exploring the construct of dignity in relation 
to education and schooling, Espinoza and Vossoughi 
argue that despite systems of schooling that have come 
into existence through the denial of educational rights 
to negatively racialized groups, communities faced with 
an attack on their humanity have found ways to assert 
their human dignity through manifestations of self-ed-
ucation. For instance, the authors explore how despite 
anti-literacy legislation and state-sanctioned violence 
(Williams, 2005), enslaved Africans in the United States 
found ways to teach themselves to write their own 
humanity into existence for others to know through the 
genre of (en)slave(d)1  narratives. 

1  I use the term “(en)slave(d)” rather than “slave” to assert that 
African people were never slaves in an ontological sense. The 
shift in terminology focuses on the action of the enslavement 
rather than constructing the people who were acted upon as less 
than human.



Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity  27

Cradled—sometimes buried—within these bodies 
of information (narratives) are brief, luminous 
first-person accounts of intellectual activity in 
the shadow of sanction, vigorous endeavors to 
learn that were suppressed, and fertile brushes 
with the acquisition of knowledge that, on occa-
sion, resulted in harrowing forms of punishment. 
These reports are the remnants of learning—ev-
idence of its cultivation, proof of its liquidation, 
and enduring witness regarding what partici-
pation in educational endeavors meant to the 
people involved (Espinoza & Vossoughi, 2014, p. 
287).

Although no longer legally denied access to for-
mal education, the African American descendants of 
these enslaved African authors continue to face forms 
of educational dispossession. The State has traded in 
its anti-literacy laws for a compulsory form of educa-
tion designed to adhere the descendants of enslaved 
Africans to its settler colonial logics based in white 
supremacy through a Eurocentric curricular standard. 
While “multicultural education” is a common buzz-
word in contemporary K-12 education systems in the 
U.S., a myriad of scholars (Casey, 2010; Royal & Gibson,
2017; Spring, 2016) have documented how classrooms
remain centered on the subjectivity of those who have
been socially constructed as “white”. Often, implemen-
tations of “multicultural education” continue to place
all other communities of color in relation to the white
settler subject. Thus, African American history often be-
gins with enslavement, Native American history begins
with European contact, etc.

Ethnic Studies as a discipline constituted by subfields 
(e.g. Africana Studies, Chicanx Studies) seeks to decenter 
the non-ethnic white subject2 from the educational imagi-
nation. By constructing educational space and curriculum 
around the subjectivity of historically constructed ethnic 
groups, youth are able to come to understandings of them-
selves and their communities on their own terms, and not 
as background actors in a human history of those who have 
come to be called “white”. This article explores an instance 
of the praxis of Ethnic Studies with youth of African

descent in a midsized city in the Midwestern United States. 
The article describes an approach to Ethnic Studies that 
further seeks to build on the subjectivity of youth of 
African descent by positioning them not only as learn-
ers, but as researchers and community documentarians 
(Kinloch, 2010; Stovall & Delgado, 2009). The youth de-
scribed in this article worked to grapple with their own 
lived experiences by historicizing themselves (Lozenski, 
2017b) within an intellectual tradition, and by becom-
ing producers of knowledge using participatory action 
research (Cammarota & Fine, 2008; Caraballo, Lozens-
ki, Lyiscott, & Morrell, 2017). The article outlines the 
context and curriculum of a program called the Uhuru 
Youth Scholars (Lozenski, 2017b), and demonstrates 
outcomes of the intersection of Ethnic Studies and 
Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR). I argue 
this intersection constructs a dual-subjectivity where 
youth of African descent are simultaneously subjects 
of their own curricular explorations and of their own 
research practices. I suggest this dual-subjectivity 
constructs an agentive identity for engaging with Ethnic 
Studies. 

Tracing the Development of Ethnic Studies 
in the United States

It is hard to know where to begin when trying to 
define the contours of Ethnic Studies as an academic 
field in the United States. Here I am exploring Ethnic 
Studies as an umbrella term for multiple sub-fields that 
explore the histories and cultural practices of peoples, 
foregrounding ethnic heritage as the emphasis of study. 
Ethnic Studies are interdisciplinary and although they 
are typically focused on the Social Sciences and Human-
ities, they can be applied to the Fine Arts, and Natural 
Sciences (Cuauhtin, Zavala, Sleeter, & Au, 2019). There 
has been plenty of recent scholarship about the appli-
cation and role of Ethnic Studies in K-12 schools (de 
los Ríos, López, & Morrell, 2015; Sleeter, 2011; Tin-
tiangco-Cubales et al, 2015), and we know that Ethnic 
Studies in these institutions has had to be fought for in 
political battles and even court cases, such as the recent 
trials in the state of Arizona3 (Zehr, 2010; Palos, 
2011). In its current manifestation, Ethnic Studies 
stands as a direct challenge to the historical project of

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

2 I use the phrase “non-ethnic white” to underscore the notion 
that “white” does not refer to a specific ethnic heritage; rather, 
multiple ethnic groups, typically of European origin have 
become “white” in the United States (Painter, 2010). There 
are myriad instances of European ethnic groups in the US 
creating educational environments around their own ethnic 
subjectivity. For instance, there is a long history of bilingual 
German, Polish, and Finnish schools (Iyengar, 2014); Hebrew 
schools; and Irish/Catholic parochial schools.

3 In 2010 the State Legislature of Arizona passed House Bill 
2281, effectively banning Ethnic Studies courses throughout the 
state. The bill targeted popular Chicanx/Latinx Studies courses 
being taught in Tucson, AZ. The bill was overturned in 2018 
because it was found to have been “motivated by racial animus”.



 28Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity

U.S. schooling, which has been designed to culturally 
castrate youth of color, and inculcate their thinking 
with Eurocentric ideation, and rationalizations for 
race, gender, and class hierarchy in order to subsume 
the potential for social unrest. As Woodson asserted, 
“If you can control a man’s thinking you do not have 
to worry about his action” (Woodson, 1990, p. 60). So 
it is no wonder why State-mandated education does 
not want Ethnic Studies to become a prevalent feature 
in its schools. Conceptually, Ethnic Studies is bigger 
than schooling, and school has never been the primary 
location for this work. Ethnic studies, perhaps, suffers 
from its own nomenclature. The difficulty in framing 
the field stems from the fact that Ethnic Studies has al-
ways been here. All peoples have found ways to educate 
generations and socialize them into a worldview that 
centers their own historical subjectivity. As Simpson 
(2017) describes in As We Have Always Done, referring 
to Nishnaabeg tribal knowledge systems, “These stories 
relied upon a return to self-determination and change 
from within rather than recognition from the outside” 
(p. 22). In this way, even the idea that people should be 
contextualized in these “ethnic” categorizations can be 
problematic. However, in a vulgar attempt to trace the 
modern manifestation of the field in the United States, I 
look to African Americans, who were at the forefront of 
broad-based movements to reaffirm their subjectivity 
through education.

The descendants of enslaved Africans in the U.S. 
have always had a precarious relationship to State-man-
dated, State-administered schooling, and thus, have 
been forced to deconstruct and reconstruct what 
notions of education mean. In the aftermath of legalized 
slavery and its adherence to educational dispossession 
through white terror and de jure anti-literacy laws, 
African Americans fought intently for access to print lit-
eracy by any means. Williams (2005) documents the at-
tempts of the formerly enslaved to build schools, read-
ing collectives, intergenerational knowledge sharing 
communities, and even militarized educational spaces. 
The desire for print literacy, that had been denied to so 
many, was palpable. An early connection made along 
with print literacy was the importance of the content 
of texts. For many, religious motivations to read the 
Bible drove desires for literacy. Yet, leaders like Martin 
Delaney and David Walker argued that literacy should 
primarily be used to know the histories of African 
people. In other words, print literacy was only a tool for 
reclaiming educational subjectivity. Literacy was not 
education in and of itself. These ideas continued

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

to build as public schooling in the U.S. was developed. 
Early proponents of educational self-determination in 
public education were people like Anna Julia Cooper 
and W.E.B. DuBois, who argued that black youth should 
not only be taught classical European history, which 
was the central focus of elite education in U.S. schools. 

Still, much of the focus on the education of black 
youth was about print literacy, rote memorization, and 
vocational skills. Ironically, this approach was not much 
different than what occurred for working class white 
communities as public education was still being formed 
to indoctrinate ethnically diverse European immigrants 
into a culturally homogenous “American” ideal, which 
included the notion of becoming “white” (Painter, 2010; 
Spring, 2016). Yet, for people of color who had little to 
no access to whiteness, this technical approach to edu-
cation was part of the process of cultural erasure, and 
relegation to the bottom of the social strata. It was not 
until the liberatory transnationalist movement led by 
Marcus Garvey (Blaisdell, 2012; Chapman, 2004) that 
educational subjectivity gained more traction within 
black communities. Garvey’s organization, the Univer-
sal Negro Improvement Association , argued in its “Dec-
laration of Rights” that the education of black people 
should center their history and fundamental humanity: 
“We demand that instructions given Negro children in 
schools include the subject of ‘Negro History’ to their 
benefit” (Vincent, 1977, p. 261-265).  

 Absent the black nationalist fervor of Garvey 
and the Universal Negro Improvement Association4, 
Carter G. Woodson was developing curriculum and a 
network for the dissemination of African American 
history across the country to black educators through 
his organization, The Association for the Study of Negro 
Life and History (Grant, Brown & Brown, 2016). Build-
ing his theory of “mis-education”, Woodson argued that 
traditional education models were rendering “edu-
cated” black people useless to the liberation of their 
communities.  In his classic text, The Mis-education of 
the Negro, Woodson wrote, “From literature the African 
was excluded altogether. He was not supposed to have 
expressed any thought worth knowing. The philosophy 
in the African proverbs and in the rich folklore of that 
continent was ignored to give preference to that devel-
oped on the distant shores of the Mediterranean (p. 18).

4 The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) came 
to prominence in the 1920s and was one of the largest Pan-Af-
rican, Black Nationalist organizations in history, spanning 
several countries in North America, South America, and the 
Caribbean.



Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity  29

Like Garvey, Woodson’s hope was that black youth, 
largely, would become the subjects of their own educa-
tional thinking and learning. 

Yet, this conception of education, which has come to 
be the core of Africana Studies, did not gain mainstream 
appeal. With the passing of the Brown v. Board of Ed-
ucation Supreme Court decision5, a lackluster process 
of racial desegregation began, where black youth were 
slowly phased into formerly all white schools, often fac-
ing violent resistance and hostility. Black teachers were 
fired en mass, further reducing the chances that black 
youth would be at the center of their own educational 
endeavors (Bell, 2004; Siddle Walker, 2009). 

It was not until the movements on desegregat-
ed college campuses for Ethnic Studies departments 
toward the end of the Civil Rights Movement, that these 
desires for subjectivity became popular again (Kelley, 
2016). Campuses like San Francisco State, Berkeley, 
Cornell6, and the University of Minnesota, among nu-
merous others, saw massive protests and occupations 
demanding Africana Studies, Chicano Studies, Asian 
American Studies, and Indigenous Studies departments. 
Combined with postcolonial nationalist movements 
and calls for Third World Solidarity (Olesen, 2004), a 
global movement to displace colonial rule paralleled a 
movement for decolonial education. On college cam-
puses today, it is not unusual to see Ethnic Studies 
programs, concentrations, majors, departments, and 
even some academic centers. In the 1970s a number of 
community-based and independent schools (Rickford, 
2016) began, which focused on specific communities of 
color. Freedom Schools and political organizations like 
the Black Panthers and Nation of Islam modeled Afri-
can-centered education (Perlstein, 2011). Still, as men-
tioned earlier, Ethnic Studies has not gained traction in 
the State-sanctioned elementary and secondary class-
rooms in across the US, despite perpetually growing 
numbers of youth of color in US Schools (Sleeter, 2011).

A Community Context for Ethnic Studies
Community-based educational spaces have at-

tempted to mitigate the resistance to Ethnic Studies 
in traditional schools. It is common to find commu-
nity-based organizations that provide Ethnic Studies 
programming across communities. The context for this 
article comes from one such organization called the 
Network for the Development of Children of African 
Descent (NdCAD) (Lozenski & Ford, 2014). NdCAD is 
located three blocks from one of the city’s main thor-
oughfares, yet it is unassuming as it sits tucked away 
from heavily trafficked areas. Upon entering the organi-
zation, visitors are immediately drawn to the shelves of 
books on the left and the couches on the right. African 
art adorns the walls, and most people seeing NdCAD 
for the first time spend several minutes silently walking 
and looking at the art and posters filled with informa-
tion about the global histories of peoples of African 
descent. In the main corridor, past the couches, is a 
meeting area with chairs seated around large tables 
pushed together. Beyond the large main room is a hall-
way connected to smaller rooms. The family resource 
room, which is reminiscent of a combined living and 
dining room with a fireplace, sofas, and large china 
cabinet, is filled with African ceramics made by Susan 
Martin, the assistant director of NdCAD. Large por-
traits of influential elders in the local African American 
community sit directly over the dining table, giving the 
room a homey feel, as though pictures of relatives were 
hanging on the wall. Down the hallway, around a corner, 
sits the Sankofa reading room, with a small table, child-
size chairs, and books with a rainbow of black faces on 
the covers. There is also the Elder Kwame McDonald7 
Memorial Library, which has several bookcases filled 
with the personal library of the distinguished activist, 
writer, and elder who left his accumulated lifetime 
collection to NdCAD, after his passing in 2011. The 
collection contains volumes of rare materials from the 
past half-century, such as originals of local black news-
papers, journals, and magazines collected during the 
Civil Rights era. 

NdCAD itself is the manifestation of a community 
vision developed from a series of community conversa-
tions in the mid-1990s called “Cultural Beginnings.” The 
idea of Cultural Beginnings was to engage in a system-
atic inquiry of the assets that local people and commu-
nities of African descent could draw from to promote

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

5 The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas was a Su-
preme Court decision in 1954 making racial segregation in US 
schools illegal. The decision spurred a wave of policies outlaw-
ing racial segregation in all public accommodations.
6 In 1969 the Willard Straight Hall takeover by African Amer-
ican students at Cornell University was the impetus for the 
development of the first ever Africana Studies and Research 
Center. The protest gained notoriety as the first armed building 
takeover when students procured weapons after being attacked 
by a white fraternity. 

7 Elder Kwame McDonald was a local educator and journalist, 
influential in founding NdCAD.



 30

The Uhuru Youth Scholars
Caraballo et al. (2017) describe Youth Participatory 

Action Research (YPAR) in their comprehensive review 
as:

a critical research methodology that carries 
specific epistemological commitments toward 
reframing who is “allowed” to conduct and dis-
seminate education research with/about youth in 
actionable ways. Its origins in critical pedagogy 
inform its role as a pedagogical approach based 
on a conception of teaching and learning through 
collaborative and transformative inquiry (p. 
313). 
Situated in critical theory, YPAR positions youth 

as researchers and documentarians of their own lived 
contexts. Caraballo et al suggest that there are four 
major entry points for youth into this work including, 
academic learning and literacy, youth development and 
leadership, youth organizing and civic engagement, 
and cultural and critical epistemologies. The Uhuru 
Youth Scholars (Uhuru) program emerges from the last 
of these entry points. Uhuru was imagined, designed, 
and implemented by a collective of high school youth, 
parents, faculty from a local university, and staff from 
NdCAD. Uhuru is a year-long course where high school-
aged youth gain high school and college credit through 
an Ethnic Studies course. The hybrid course combines 
exploration of classical and contemporary Africana 
studies with research methods in YPAR.  Uhuru holds 
steadfast to its goals of positioning youth as research-
ers who use historical constructions of African thought 
to make sense of contemporary issues related to their 
lives.  

The constant features of Uhuru are an initial scaf-
folding of critical educational theory connected to their 
schooling experiences, practice in traditional qualita-
tive research methods, and exposure to community 
educators and elders (Lozenski, 2017b).  For instance, 
Uhuru youth read excerpts from critical texts like Peda-
gogy of the Oppressed (Freire, 1970), The Mis-education 
of the Negro (Woodson, 1990), and The Souls of Black 
Folk (DuBois, 1986).  They explore the educational lives 
of the youth from a macro level and ask them to inter-
pret the purpose, curricular breadth (or lack thereof), 
teaching techniques, and learning outcomes of their 
time in school.  This is often the first time these youth 
have had the opportunity to openly discuss the “why’s” 
and “how’s” of school.  They make connections between 
disparate pedagogies.  They describe specific teachers 
as culturally relevant, and specific types of pedagogy as

Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity

social change. This asset-based framework of collective 
inquiry was already a departure from the deficit-based 
approaches that have become predictable in attempts 
to “fix” black communities, absent of any discussion 
of structural white supremacy. NdCAD’s vision and 
mission statements are displayed prominently at the 
entrance of the organization.

Our Vision
We envision a place where the African spirit 

is nurtured and renewed
We envision a place where African people 

come together to learn of and from ourselves
We envision a place where we come to learn 

from our elders and our children
We envision a place where we affirm our 

global family
We envision a place where we take care of 

family business

Our Mission
We exist to strengthen the cultural 

connections within communities of African 
descent that promote, sustain, and enhance 

the healthy development of our children.

NdCAD uses several programmatic strategies to 
achieve this vision and mission within its community. 
Among these strategies is the Sankofa Reading 
Program, which is an 8-week reading intervention 
for children in grades K–8 that uses a sociocultural 
approach to learning connecting literacy with 
African identity. Parent Power is 4- to 8-week series 
of workshops that recognizes that parents have the 
ultimate power to help their children become lifelong 
independent readers. Parent Power helps parents 
mobilize this power to work with their children to build 
literacy skills and become literacy advocates for their 
children when working with educators. Through its 
Think Different, Do Different affiliate network, NdCAD 
facilitates professional development for educators, 
helping teachers, youth workers, administrators, and 
others gain a deeper understanding of how culture 
is implicit in how children learn. The Uhuru Youth 
Scholars program is the fourth programmatic strategy 
developed by NdCAD.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 31

depth of thought, and acts as a visual for presentations 
of the research design process. At this point the work of 
Uhuru becomes largely unique from cohort to cohort as 
their research questions dictate their modes of inquiry, 
methods of data generation, and action-oriented activ-
ities. In the remainder of this article I highlight three 
important implications for pedagogy in Ethnic Studies 
work when mediated by YPAR.

A Critical Research Methodology
I have studied Uhuru for several years as a partic-

ipant ethnographer (Madison, 2005), facilitator, and 
co-researcher with the youth in the program. Each of 
these positions impacts my understandings of the ped-
agogical and methodological implications in nuanced 
ways, as does my social location and racial construc-
tion as an African American, cisgender, man. Yet, as I 
explored in previous writing specifically focusing on 
methodology (Lozenski, 2016), it is impossible for 
me to disaggregate these positionalities into distinct 
identities. I have described my role as being engaged in 
an “irreversible methodology”, which I liken to an irre-
versible chemical reaction, such as baking a cake. When 
baking a cake, the constituent parts (e.g. flour, eggs, 
sugar, milk) cannot be retrieved once the chemical re-
action takes place. In similar ways, being an ethnogra-
pher, an educator, and a co-researcher cannot be easily 
disjoined. I explored how my research was impacted by 
my teaching, which was impacted by my collaborative 
relationship with the youth in Uhuru. 

Methodologically, I situate my work amidst pre-
vious critical ethnographers engaged with youth in 
PAR (Morrell, 2004; Kinloch,2010). Drawing from this 
critical research tradition, I see my role as both criti-
cal pedagogue and critical researcher as an attempt to 
enact what Kincheloe, McLaren, and Steinberg (2011) 
have referred to as “bricolage”. Kincheloe (2008) writes, 
“Appreciating research as a power-driven act, the 
critical researcher-as-bricoleur abandons the quest for 
some naïve concept of realism, focusing instead on the 
clarification of his or her position in the web of reality 
and the social locations of other researchers and how 
they shape the production and interpretation of knowl-
edge” (p. 131). Bricolage refers to the hyper-awareness 
of social location amidst a field of power such that 
researchers are forced to imagine new ways of making 
interdisciplinary meaning about their social world. My 
theorization of my own “irreversible methodology” is 
an attempt to describe the complexity of educating and 
being educated within a context of inquiry. More 

Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity

“banking” (Freire, 1970).  This allows the educators to 
situate the pedagogical philosophy of Uhuru in “prob-
lem-posing” and collective inquiry (Freire, 1970).  Uhu-
ru’s work is metacognitive and transparent.  The youth 
are informed by the political goals of black liberation 
and use African American scholars to construct them-
selves alongside black intellectual traditions, situating 
research as a form of literacy.   

Another staple of the Uhuru Youth Scholars pro-
gram is to spend time connecting African knowledge 
systems to African language systems. Pedagogically, 
language provides a unique avenue to make tangible 
connections between Diasporic and continental African 
peoples. Using the writings of raciolinguists like Smith 
(1998) and Smitherman and Smitherman-Donald-
son (1986), the youth explore how language contains 
something like the DNA of a people and can be helpful 
in tracing movement and transformation over time. 
Typically, the short stint with African language systems 
is one of the more eye-opening periods for the youth 
researchers who have usually been told since they were 
of school age that their and their families’ black linguis-
tic codes were deficient and “broken.”  The youth often 
return with stories of how they showed the readings 
to their parents and grandparents who would respond 
with reserved interest, or their English teachers who 
would skeptically look at the readings and then com-
mence with their narrow curriculum.  

As Uhuru youth connect the pieces of their deep 
dive into the construction of their own belief systems, 
the educators help them organize their thinking by ex-
ploring how African knowledge systems are defined by 
interconnectedness rather than distinct disciplines of 
thought (Lozenski & Ford, 2014).  Through this fram-
ing black language is connected to spirituality, which 
is connected with aesthetics, which is connected with 
science and math, which is connected to photography, 
which is connected to history, and so on. 

As the youth circle a research topic, they develop 
what is known as an “issue tree”.  The issue tree is 
made up of leaves (research questions about issues/
topics that interest the youth), branches (categories 
connecting each of the leaves by topic), limbs (under-
lying structures that connect multiple categories), and 
finally the trunk and roots (final research questions 
that explore the most pertinent limbs and go “below the 
surface”).  Not only is the tree a way to help excavate 
the underlying ideas that connect many of our interests, 
it is a teaching tool that helps them learn how to design 
researchable questions, provoke dialogue that requires

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 32

refusing notions of objectivity and neutrality that up-
hold the status quo of educational research. 

Findings
Black youth in the United States embody particular 

explanatory forms of contradiction. They stand as tes-
taments of survivance—sheer and utter determination 
of generations to simply resist erasure. They inhabit a 
liminal space between rhetoric and practice, enslave-
ment and emancipation, and colonial subjectivity and 
citizenship. Their construction as youth situates them 
uniquely within their communities as well. They experi-
ence the world differently, inhabit underground spaces, 
and fight to maintain some semblance of innocence, 
though that often dissipates early in their lives. The 
precarious positionality of black youth situates them 
powerfully as community researchers and documentar-
ians (Payne, Starks, & Gibson, 2009; Stovall & Delgado, 
2009). Understanding this positionality has important 
implications for enacting critical forms of research, de-
veloping curriculum, and rethinking teaching practices 
and the functions of schooling. Positioning black youth 
as community researchers builds a Deweyan (Dewey, 
2011, 2013; Kurth-Schai, 2014) sense of educative 
meaning, and “psychologizes the curriculum” of their 
lived environment. 

In our current historical moment of videotaped 
police brutality and murder, the reification of colonial 
curricula in schools (Calderon, 2014), mass media de-
monization of black youth, and the continuance of mass 
incarceration, positioning black youth as community 
documentarians is a radical act. Yet, this is precisely 
the goal of the Uhuru. Through their use of YPAR, I saw 
how Uhuru’s constructions as both black and youth 
produced important researcher dispositions such as 
skepticism, cultural hybridity (Gonzalez, 2005), and 
historicity. Although Dewey was, at best, passive and, at 
worst, complicit (Fallace, 2015) with regard to racism 
and structural white supremacy in the United States, 
the youth in my study inadvertently buttressed his 
treatment of democracy as an ongoing practice, which 
is constantly threatened by the status quo.

Kurth-Schai (2014) writes, “For Dewey, democracy, 
as a radical process of living in dynamic relationship, is 
always vulnerable. Among democracy’s greatest threats 
is complacency—an unreflective passivity that renders 
processes of communal decision-making and civic 
action irrelevant and ineffective” (p. 428). This re-envi-
sioning of democratic practice that moves away from an 
adherence to State-governmentality, realized only

Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity

importantly, the Uhuru youth, as described below, 
enacted this conceptualization of research more pro-
ficiently because they were unbounded by years of 
disciplinary limitations. 

The findings explored in this article come from 
both empirical and anecdotal evidence. Uhuru has been 
in existence since 2012, and I completed an empirical 
study of the 2012-13 academic year. I then co-facili-
tated the program until 2017. Some of my empirical 
findings have become more nuanced in the subsequent 
years of teaching and co-researching with Uhuru youth. 
The methods that inform these findings are both formal 
and informal. My ethnographic study of the 2012-13 
cohort consisted of six high school seniors of African 
descent (ages 17-20), including youth who had recently 
immigrated to the US from Liberia, African American 
youth, and youth who identified as having mixed ethnic 
and racial heritage. All of the youth who participated 
in Uhuru agreed to take part in the ethnography as 
research participants. Empirically, I conducted multiple 
semi-structured interviews with participants, video-re-
corded class sessions, took ethnographic field notes, 
and collected cultural documents such as data from the 
youths’ research (Lozenski, 2014; 2016; 2017b). These 
data consisted of the youths’ metacognitive research 
journals, semi-structured interviews and focus groups 
they conducted with community members, iterative 
concept maps of their findings, and video recordings 
of the youth disseminating their research in multiple 
forums. Analytically, I engaged in mediated discourse 
analysis (Lozenski, 2014) of the Uhuru program, in-
cluding iterative qualitative coding (Strauss & Corbin, 
1998). 

Informally, I have engaged in discussions with in-
dividuals and groups about their experience, analyzed 
video resulting from their community-based research, 
video-recorded disseminations of their research at 
local and national academic conferences, video-record-
ed artistic performances based on their research, and 
collected cultural documents from their work together 
(Lozenski, 2016).  The findings here come from years 
of contemplating this work from multiple perspectives 
and positions. The entirety of the Uhuru program, in-
cluding its implementation, operation, and the research 
described in this analysis are embedded in critical the-
ory, which is inherently attuned to the flows of power. 
Uhuru was constructed out of a space of resistance to 
the dominant educational power structures. This anal-
ysis assumes these asymmetrical power dynamics are 
always in place and seeks to serve as a disruptive force,

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity  33

through participation in electoral politics and voting, 
prioritizes the agency of community-based processes of 
self-governance and active citizenship. In this framing, 
citizenship is less about membership to a nation-state 
and more about local efforts to draw from community 
cultural wealth (Yosso, 2005) to impact the lived reali-
ties of families and close-knit communities. Drawing on 
this notion of “democracy as a radical process of living”, 
black youth are situated as researchers in three import-
ant ways:

1. The precarious nature of citizenship for black
youth provides a healthy skepticism of ubiqui-
tous claims of the United States being an egal-
itarian, democratic society. The distance be-
tween rhetoric and reality can push black youth
toward a Deweyan construction of radical lived
democracy.

2. Due to the constant threat of state-enacted and
state-sanctioned violence against black youth,
often through schooling, they are more apt to
resist the complacency that Dewey suggests
is a constant threat to lived democratic prac-
tice. Thus, these youth should be positioned as
holders of particularly insightful capacities (e.g.
oppositional consciousness) (Sandoval, 2000)
for action-oriented research.

3. Critical participatory action research with youth
provides the conditions for radical democracy
to be practiced and allows curriculum to be
“psychologized”, or have intrinsic meaning with-
in the lived experiences of youth.

circumstance. As Vaught (2017) writes, “Children have 
no vested rights. They do not own property. They are 
not enfranchised. Attached to White propertied guard-
ians, youth are private citizens-in-the-making or citi-
zens-in-waiting. If they are not, they are a threat… They 
are foremost a threat to the exclusivity and authority 
of… the state” (p. 113). Faced with this limited notion 
of democratic practice, all youth, and particularly black 
youth must conceive of democracy in alternative ways. 
They must either completely depend on the adults in 
their life to be their vicarious democratic conduits, or 
they need to find ways to assemble this practice us-
ing the means available to them. In this way, similar 
to the methodological bricolage (Kincheloe, McLaren, 
Steinberg, 2011) described above, these youth become 
bricoleurs of democracy, thus enacting this Deweyan 
approach. 

Across each of the Uhuru cohorts, they have found 
creative and critical ways of engaging in an active 
democratic process to influence the political contexts 
that impact their lives. This is due to a combination of 
the developing political agency that attracts youth to 
a program like Uhuru, and the pedagogy mediated by 
YPAR and its active approach to influencing the social 
worlds of the youth. From this perspective, the political 
realm need not be reduced to electoral politics. Elected 
officials are not the only policymakers in the lives of 
these youth. Often, Uhuru youth are impacted by more 
intimate policies happening at the school level, or by 
contact with local law enforcement. For instance, Uhuru 
youth in the 2015-16 cohort engaged in research ex-
ploring the role of “school resource officers” (SROs) in 
their high school. SROs are police officers designated to 
public schools based on a contract between the police 
department and the school district (Boarini, 2017). 
The youth surveyed their peers about contact with 
SROs, engaged in a discourse analysis of district policy 
regarding the presence and role of SROs, presented 
their findings at school board meetings, and engaged 
in protest around the presence of SROs, and the dispro-
portionate contact they have with students of color in 
the district. 

Uhuru’s interest in this issue came after one of their 
classmates was assaulted by an SRO, which came on 
the heels of several similar incidents. Interestingly, the 
youth organized themselves outside of the context of 
Uhuru, but used many of the methodologies they adopt-
ed through the program to inform their activism. They 
recognized that in order to challenge the power struc-
ture of the district that they would need to employ

Enacting Democratic Praxis
Typically, democratic participation in the US is 

narrowly conceived around electoral politics. Voting 
stands as the epitome of what it means to be a par-
ticipatory democratic citizen. Historically, the right to 
vote has been denied to most subgroups in the United 
States at one time, including women, people who did 
not own property, people of color, felons, the disabled, 
and youth. Today in most states, people convicted of a 
felony still face some form of disenfranchisement, even 
if they have served their sentence (Fortin, 2018). Youth 
under eighteen have always been disenfranchised, 
limiting their capacity to practice the perceived mech-
anisms of democratic practice. Black youth are particu-
larly vulnerable as pseudo citizens because they experi-
ence the historical accumulation of civic discrimination, 
and do not have access to the levers of power that many 
tell them are the only legitimate way to change their

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 34

step back and began to explore media accounts of how 
current events were being covered using critical me-
dia studies (Morrell, Duenas, Garcia, Lopez, 2013). We 
investigated language, bias, media production, con-
sumption, and ownership, asking “who benefits from 
this coverage and who suffers?” Simultaneously, we 
explored methods of qualitative and mixed-methods 
data generation such as field observations, semi-struc-
tured interviewing, survey development, and photog-
raphy. Youth saw the process of research from multiple 
angles and perspectives, generating and deconstructing 
data simultaneously. They were exploring their own 
purposes for conducting research while contemplating 
why other researchers and journalists were not being 
transparent about their relationship to the issue. They 
were questioning why what they were observing was 
being defended as “objective” while they could see obvi-
ous bias in the study. All the while they were immersed 
in classical African epistemologies (Martin, 2008; 
McDougal, 2014), which stood in stark contrast to the 
ways in which they were used to thinking about social 
inquiry. The resulting framework of their own research 
illuminated how all of these elements came together to 
provide a powerful lens through which to begin their 
own inquiry.

YPAR as Bricolage
An undertheorized aspect of youth research is 

creativity and improvisation in the research process.  
Like other collectives of youth researchers, the Uhuru 
Scholars were unafraid to explore alternative methods 
of data generation.  For instance, one Uhuru cohort was 
interested in researching perceptions of beauty among 
black youth. They hypothesized that black youths’ un-
derstandings of beauty were tied to anti-black market-
ing and exposure to demands for hyper-consumption 
from the beauty industry. On a larger level, they were 
also attempting to historicize their work within the 
context of European colonization and the psychological 
impacts of domination on black communities. After 
doing interviews at a local beauty salon, the team found 
out that a group of people got together each week to 
watch the popular TV show Empire at the salon.  The 
group called up members of a different cohort explor-
ing media conditioning to join them for the gathering 
to interview attendees.  After the show finished mem-
bers of each team held an impromptu focus group with 
everyone in the salon, which they video recorded, to get 
their perspectives about how media impacted the ways 
in which they saw the world and also defined beauty.

Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity

multiple methods beyond the franchise. Understanding 
the practices of these youth as democratic broadens 
how we conceive of democracy in action. Once youth 
see themselves as political agents, the methodological 
bricolage of democratic practice opens up to them, only 
being limited by their imagination.

The Praxis of Ethnic Studies in Understanding 
State-violence

The 2014-15 cohort of the Uhuru Youth Scholars 
consisted of twelve high school youth from across St. 
Paul. This particular year of Uhuru was rife with emo-
tion and frustration as the non-indictments of police 
in the slayings of Michael Brown (Ferguson, Missouri) 
and Eric Garner (Staten Island, New York) seemed to 
pile on top of each other each week.  Much of our early 
class time was spent giving the youth space to vent, 
yell, question, and voice desires for what justice could 
look like.  Our role as pedagogues was to help our youth 
develop the practice of historicity (Lozenski, 2017b), 
by exploring how these seemingly modern instances of 
injustice were cyclical manifestations of white suprem-
acy.  We examined past accounts of police injustice and 
asked the youth to draw parallels between the rela-
tionship between police and black communities over 
time.  We examined the role that research could play in 
documenting police brutality (Eisen, 2014) and how, 
as researchers, we could develop a skill set to more 
effectively mobilize the resistance that was palpable in 
our community. 

Some Uhuru Youth Scholars became part of out-
side organized efforts to protest and resist through 
participation in the Minnesota contingent of #Black-
LivesMatter and the local National Association for the 
Advancement of Colored People’s (NAACP) efforts to 
bring awareness to disparities in the criminal justice 
system. We were careful to make distinctions, however, 
between our roles as researchers and our participation 
in direct action, which allowed us to explore the mul-
tifaceted aspects of historical social movements that 
required the intellectual renderings of historical mo-
ments combined with the willingness to place bodies 
on the line in the face of oppression. Martin Luther 
King’s Letter from a Birmingham Jail (1963/1992), en-
abled us to engage with dualism between thought and 
action, exploring how they constitute each other.

Still, our work was not only about being im-
mersed in the current events of our time, although they 
provided us with usable evidence that we had much to 
learn and do as scholars and activists.  Thus we took a

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity  35

Whether it was due to the youths’ boldness, intuition, 
or naiveté, they generated some of the most rich, in-
sightful data of their project. 

The focus group allowed for generative discussions 
about data analysis, coding, and alternative methods of 
collective meaning making.  At the same time, it allowed 
us to discuss more abstract ideas like research ethics 
and the responsibility of collecting sacred stories from 
our community that we may not want to share with ev-
eryone.  The notion of collecting sacred stories became 
an idea that the Uhuru scholars continued to develop 
and presented at a national conference over the sum-
mer.  It is experiences like these that give substance to 
the Uhuru Youth Scholars program.  The combination of 
the structured and the unscripted, the jazz-like flow of a 
solid foundation infused with improvisation provided a 
rhythmic heartbeat to our work, which allowed them to 
live out their heritage. 

Conclusion
As educators, researchers, and activists continue 

to demand Ethnic Studies in K-12 contexts, it becomes 
more imperative to be vigilant about how Ethnic Stud-
ies are implemented. Just as important as the existence 
of spaces for the exploration of the ethnicized subject 
are the curricular, instructional, and monetary struc-
tures that constitute its capacity. In this article, I used a 
particular context for Africana Studies to illustrate how 
the capacity of black youth to engage in this work re-
quires our expansive methodological and spatial imag-
inations. The intersection of YPAR and Ethnic Studies 
positions youth to be subjects of their own analysis at 
the curricular level, and it positions them to be subjects 
of their own instructional practice at the research level. 
This dual subjectivity has important implications with 
regard to how the Uhuru youth were able to understand 
the work of Africana Studies. Ethnic studies are larger 
than the container of school. They require contexts 
that are not about technical approaches to teaching 
and learning. Understanding the Ethnic Studies stu-
dent-as-bricoleur enables educators to see that youth 
in these contexts are working to cobble together their 
freedom through self-determination.

Through this framing, the purpose of Ethnic 
Studies becomes entirely different. As Kelley (2016) 
describes, referring to institutions of higher education.

Black studies was conceived not just outside the 
university but in opposition to a Eurocentric uni-
versity culture with ties to corporate and military 
power. Having emerged from mass revolt, insurg-

ent black studies scholars developed institution-
al models based in, but largely independent of, 
the academy. In later decades, these institutions 
were—with varying degrees of eagerness—in-
corporated into the university proper in response 
to pressure to embrace multiculturalism (p. 157).
If we are true to the inception of these educational 

spaces, as Kelley describes, then their purpose cannot 
purely be academic, or for some credential. Rather, we 
should understand Ethnic Studies spaces as prepara-
tion for, and an attempt to engage in liberatory praxis. 
Thus, Kelley argues, we cannot separate our activist 
and intellectual capacities. Ethnic Studies is activism. 
The two cannot be disaggregated. 

As explored in the examples from the Uhuru Youth 
Scholars program, if we see Africana Studies as an ac-
tive space for liberation of the ethnicized subject, then 
there needs to be a concomitant pedagogy. YPAR holds 
this capacity. YPAR, as a pedagogical and methodologi-
cal practice, provides the necessary fluidity for both the 
intellectual and action-based entities needed to engage 
in this work. I am not arguing that Ethnic Studies can-
not be conceived of absent YPAR. I am suggesting that 
the merging of the two creates a dynamic environment 
where the reciprocation of their ideals live in tact. Eth-
nic Studies cannot simply be taught using disconnected, 
technical, and mainstream methods in similar ways that 
YPAR cannot take up issues absent of critical theory. 
The Uhuru Youth Scholars demonstrate that liberato-
ry democratic praxis needs a diverse theoretical and 
methodological environment. Kincheloe (2008) writes, 
“The bricolage exists out of respect for the complexi-
ty of the lived world…. The task of the bricoleur is to 
attack this multicultural complexity, uncovering both 
the visible and invisible artifacts of multiple forms of 
power, and documenting the nature of its influence on 
not only their own but on scholarship and knowledge 
production in general” (p. 131-132). The ethnic subject 
is within this bricolage. The Ethnic Studies student 
must become bricoleur to describe the complexity of 
this experience in order to know the ethnicized sub-
ject’s liberated pathways.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Lozenski, Constructing a Dual-Subjectivity  36

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Author



Okebiro. Global Journal of  Transformative 
Education (2019) 1, 38-45. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.26125

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Okebiro. 2019. Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
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give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Anthropological methods in curriculum instruction for learners in 
informal education for Abagusii of south western Kenya

Gilbert Nyakundi Okebiro

Abstract

Abagusii used methods known as anthropological for transformative education. Anthropological methods 
refer to indigenous ways for impacting knowledge and skills to children in the society. The methods differed 
in content and technique, but transformative education was moral, progressive, gradual and practical. The 
problem learners are ignoring anthropological methods because are indigenous and suppress transformative 
education for instance in acquiring university education, cannot adjust in the society. The objective is to exam-
ine the best approach to integrate, anthropological methods in curriculum development in educational system. 
The research employed survey method and data collected through questionnaire technique. Results indicates 
Abagusii have discarded anthropological methods for transformative education. The research paper concludes 
anthropological methods were transformative, effective and efficient in education since content was retained 
for long period by the learners. It recommends curriculum developers to incorporate them in the teach-
ing-learning process in schools.

Keywords: Anthropological methods, Curriculum development, Transformative education

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
The success of any education system depends not 

only on the nature of its aims, but also on its content 
(Sifuna & Otiende 2009, p.151), therefore, the curricu-
lum of the informal education among the Abagusii grew 
out of the immediate environment, real and imaginary, 
through the use of anthropological methods, which 
lead to transformative education. In this sense, Farrant 
(2009, p. 19) has defined informal education, as there 
is no attempt at structuring it and was transformative 
from one skill to another. Much of the learning goes on 
is almost unconscious, as with those things the child 
learns from his/her family, friends, experience and 
environment (Farrant 2009, p. 19).This is applicable 
in the modern educational  system but the teachers 
and learners forget and do not apply them because the 
anthropological methods are transformative in nature 
which are not applied in curriculum instruction in mod-
ern educational systems. 

Methods used in curriculum development instruc-
tion in Gusiiland were varied and diversified in age sets 
or groups, which were practical and demonstrative in 
the curriculum. In the contemporary society, curricu-
lum is a syllabus followed in educational system. In Gu-
siiland, education was imparted to the young beginning 
from birth until the end of life (death).In the modern 
society there are two types of basic education such as 
formal and informal. The former refers to education 
which is systematically planned in schools, colleges and 
universities. The latter is hidden learning that students 
undergo consciously or unconsciously within a school 
setting, for example assimilation desirable habits like 
punctuality, cleanliness, fairness, courtesy and so on 
which are portrayed by the staff and students in ed-
ucational institutions globally (Farrant 2009, p. 19). 
This research refers to the latter where students were 
instructed informally using formal methods among the 
Abagusii. The curriculum instruction in Gusiiland was/
is done by dominated mountains (Ebitunwa), valleys, 
plains, rivers, grasslands and forests which were used 
asvenues for instruction (Bogonko 1994, p. 2). In the



Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education. 39

which included myths-which were tales effectively, de-
scribed or accounted for natural phenomenon. Elderly 
people used to explain to the young children things 
they did not understand. Also legends were applied as 
methods of instruction. Legends were tales fabricated 
to account for real events that took place time immemo-
rial. The Abagusii children also were instructed through 
folk-tales. Folk tales were used to teaching ethics and 
some of these had an exciting ending or sorrowful or 
frightening ending. Children also learned through dance 
and folksongs because a style of dance and folk song 
signified a type of rites, ceremonies, feasts and festival 
were performed through accompanying of melodious 
music and dancing. Ceremonies, feasts and festivals 
were important sources of teaching. Proverbs were 
used widely in ordinary conversation. Uses of proverbs 
(Emebayeno) were seen as a sign of wit/intelligence 
by the user, proverbs were a condensed wisdom of the 
Abagusii ancestors.

The third anthropological method of instruction 
among the Abagusii was traditional learning by use of 
deterrence or inculcating fear method. Children were 
taught morals and good behavior as they were born 
into the clan as a sign of transformative education 
taught in the stages of child growth and development. 
According to Sifuna et al, (2006, p. 64),  verbal warnings 
were used and more often followed by punishment for 
the offenders. Children who committed offences were 
rebuked, smacked or assigned some piece of work, 
which expected to be completed before being allowed 
to eat. Serious offenses resulted into severe beating and 
leading to reformatory. Deception was another deter-
rent method especially used with the young.

The fourth method was involving children in pro-
ductive work. (Ogosoma/Chisemi) Learning through 
medium of work enabled children acquires right type 
of masculinity and feminist roles. Children learnt by 
being useful, by doing and working hand-in-hand with 
adults-this prepared children to become capable future 
husbands and wives. Training of the children was done 
according to age and sex.such that the work that a child 
did usually increased in amount and complexity as s/he 
grew up. Also the physical ability of the child was taken 
into consideration; a child was not assigned a task be-
yond his/her physical fitness (Sifuna et al 2006, p. 64).

In the formal methods, it involved theoretical and 
practical inculcation of skills. Learning through appren-
ticeship was formal and direct method. Children were 
instructed and trained as craftsmen such as potters, 
blacksmiths and basket makers/weavers by teaching

modern schools, children should be introduced and 
made aware of natural features in the neighborhood 
such as rivers, hills, dams, mountains, lakes and wa-
ter falls (Ochieng 2015, p. 25). This features are seen 
and are within their experiences and children should 
learner about their uses for transformative education 
in Kenya. Therefore, according to Bogonko (1994, p. 2), 
some specialty was needed in making musical instru-
ments-drums,flutes,harps,horns,and trumpets-from the 
animal remains, reeds and other grasses. These were 
some of the areas where formal instruction and train-
ing were undertaken (Bogonko 1994, p. 2). Studies of 
transfer training, however, indicated that student was 
much more likely to apply his learning when he rec-
ognized the similarity between the situations encoun-
tered in life and situations in which the learning took 
place (Tyler 2000, p. 18). In this aspect, the student was 
more likely to perceive the similarity between the life 
situations when two conditions were met:  (1) the life 
situations and the learning situations were obviously 
alike in many respects, and (2) the students given prac-
tice in seeking illustrations in his life outside of school 
for the application of the things learned in school (Tyler 
2000, p. 18).

Abagusii developed different systems of education 
to transmit their particular knowledge and skills to 
the learners, which they used as methods known as 
anthropological. Anthropological methods refer to the 
indigenous ways or devices for impacting knowledge 
and skills to the children in the society. The methods 
differed in content and technique, but the African 
indigenous education was moral, progressive, gradual 
and practical. The learners were taught how to cope 
with environment, how to farm, hunt or fish and pre-
pare food or build a house and how to run a home. The 
methods were part of the culture among the Abagusii 
and learners were taught orally by their parents and 
community members. 

The anthropological methods for curriculum 
instruction among the Abagusii, were classified into: 
Formal and informal. The informal methods included. 
First, learning to play-children engaged in many activ-
ities and the play activities were described as initia-
tory, imaginative and symbolic. Children also enjoyed 
imitating their parents or other grownups through 
play. A popular form of play was wrestling (E’nyameni) 
through the age mates and fostered physical strength. 
Other play activities includedswinging (Oborundarun-
di), chasing one another aimlessly, striding and dancing 
aimlessly. The second method was use of oral literature

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 40

them formally. Formal instructions were also given in 
constant corrections and warning to children, in do-
mestic work, in herding, in cultivation and tending to 
certain crops, in fishing and so on. According to Sifuna 
and Otiende (2009, p. 154) formal education took the 
form of succeeding stages of initiation from status. The 
most prominent of initiation practices was the form of 
circumcisition.Circumcision (Okwaroka) was normally 
accompanied with formal lessons (Sifuna & Otiende 
2009, p. 154), which were done through the anthropo-
logical methods of instruction and were transformative 
in nature. The instructors used to test whether or not 
the initiate understood the lessons, by use of songs. The 
questions were asked in a form of riddles (Chimbach-
ero) for the initiate to interpret their meaning. Such 
questions dealt with issues pertaining to the protection 
of homestead (Enka y’omugusii) against enemies com-
mitting adultery and many others (Sifuna & Otiende 
2009, p. 154). 

The statement of the problem
The problem nowadays children are ignoring the 

anthropological methods of instruction because they 
are indigenous and cannot adjust in the society after ac-
quiring formal in university education girls for example 
are not able to prepare food and depend on maids and 
boys cannot run a home, as they depend on services 
from servants. 

The objective of the study
The objective is to examine the best approach in 

integrating the anthropological methods in curriculum 
development in educational system in Kenya.

Hypotheses
H1- There is no significant relationship between 

the anthropological methods to students in school for 
transformative education in Kenya.

H0 - There is significant relationship between the 
anthropological methods to students in schools for 
transformative education in Kenya.

Literature Review
The term curriculum is derived from a Latin word 

“Curere” which implies a racecourse or track followed 
by racing horses. As time went by, the racecourse came 
to be likened to course of study followed by learners in 
educational institutions. This thereafter, led to emer-
gence of the term curriculum, which its initial meaning 
implies curriculum is a process or set of activities that

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

has a beginning and an end. Curriculum simply is the 
syllabus, but in much more complex terms “curriculum” 
is much more than the syllabus or course outline. This 
means the anthropological methods were infused in the 
informal curriculum of education among the Abagusii 
leading transformative education.  Kerr (1969) defines 
curriculum as “all the learning which is planned or 
guided by the school whether it is carried out in groups 
or individuals inside or outside the school.” According 
to Mbithi (2009, p. 54), curriculum refers to what is 
taught at any given level of the school system. It re-
fers to all the learning experiences that a learner goes 
through within a specified period in order to attain 
certain set objectives. 

 Curriculum development is understood to include 
a repeating process of planning based on national 
policies, production of instructional material, and 
implementation of the programme through the alloca-
tion of resources and evaluation (Peiris 1976, p. 1).In 
this aspect, a comprehensive meaning od curriculum 
development include all of the following aspects of the 
curriculum: (a) The content or subject matter of the in-
structional programme, in this case of the Abagusii for 
example circumcision was done openly for transforma-
tive education in the society. (b)Instructional materials 
for instance teaching/learning aids or resources such 
as horns,skins,and so on were used. (c) Instructional 
methods or strategies to achieve stated objectives, in 
this sense Abagusii used the anthropological methods 
for transformative education.(d) The methods of evalu-
ating the degree to which the intended objectives have 
been achieved.

Children were highly valued in African communi-
ties, because they played a very important role in the 
family and the community (Kabiru & Njenga 2009, p. 
14).According to Kabiru and Njenga (2009, p. 19), an-
cient Romans began to educate children as soon as they 
could speak, probably they used the anthropological 
methods which are discussed in this paper. The Tabu-
la rasa view emerged during the 17th century from 
teaching of John Locke. To him, children were born as 
“Clean slates” ready to be moulded through experiences 
and he advised parents to spend a lot of time with their 
children and guide them through instructions, exam-
ples and rewards such as praise and approval. This was 
also done through the anthropological methods applied 
in classical Gusiiland, but in the contemporary modern 
society they are no longer applicable. Education grew 
out of the immediate environment, real and imaginary. 
From the physical environment, children had to learn

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



 41

about the weather, type of landscapes, animals and 
plants. Above knowledge the children had to be ac-
quainted with the problems and possibilities of the en-
vironment by being equipped with skills of overcoming 
and exploiting them-by use of axe, hoe, the spear and 
other tools of the past in the Stone Age period.

Children were taught how to cope with the environ-
ment, how to farm, how to hunt, how to fish or prepare 
food or build a house and how to run or manage a 
home. Individual was to live and serve other people in 
accordance with accepted manners, laws, avoidance of 
taboos and a rigorous code of morality. Every person 
in the homestead and its environment, parents and old 
relatives were responsible for the training in economic 
responsibilities. Learning by imitation played a big role, 
for young boys and old men, were building, herding and 
hunting, for girls and women, sweeping, carrying wood 
from the forest, carrying water from the river/fetching 
water and cooking. Indigenous education inculcated a 
religious attitude of life because religion was concerned 
morality and rules of conduct such as courtesy, gener-
osity and honesty.

Methodology
The research employed survey method and data 

collected through questionnaire technique. The study 
used a survey research design on the primary and 
secondary schools in Kisii county. Mugenda & Mugenda 
(2003) noted that surveys are the excellent vehicles 
for the measurement of characteristics of large popu-
lation. The design was appropriate because it helped 
the researcher to obtain information that describes 
phenomenon by asking individual students about their 
perceptions, attitudes, behavior or values related to 
the anthropological methods of curriculum instruction 
among the Abagusii. 

Data collection procedure
A structured questionnaire was used as the main 

instrument of data collection from respondents/stu-
dents. A total of 400 questions were distributed in ten 
schools in Kisii through stratified random sampling and 
380 were returned to the researcher having an aggre-
gate of 95% of the total questionnaires distributed. The 
data collected were analyzed, summarized and inter-
preted using simple percentage and chi-square method 
to measure inconsistency between the observed and 
expected frequencies and to prove the significance in 
the stated hypothesis. The responses from the ques-
tionnaires were measured using Likert scale five-

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

point scale namely: Strongly agree (5 points), disagree 
(4 points), Undecided (3 points), disagree (2 points) 
and strongly disagree (1 point).This is used to register 
and know to what extent of agreement or disagreement 
with a particular statement of and attitude, belief or 
judgments in concept of anthropological methods in 
curriculum instruction for transformative education.

Results
The following summary describes the data collected 

from the field survey (2018) applied in the test subject 
classrooms. (n=380).

Table 1 indicates that 220 or 57.8 percent of the 
respondents were males and 160 or 42.2 percent were 
females. This shows that most of the respondents were 
males.

Table 1. Gender of respondents 
 Gender Frequency Percentages
 Male 220 57.8
 Female 160 42.2
 Total 380 100

Table 2 indicates that 180 or 47.4 percent were 
between the ages of 10-13 while 200 or 52.6 percent of 
the respondents were between the ages of 14-17 years. 
This means that the majority of the respondents were 
over 13 years of age and in secondary schools.

Table 2. Age of respondents 
 Age Frequency Percentage

10-13 180 47.4
14-17 200 52.6

18 and above - -

Table 3 shows that 150 or 39.5 percent of the 
respondents were in primary schools while 239 or 
60.5 were in the secondary level of education. This re-
vealed that most of the respondents were in secondary 
schools.

Table 3. Student level in education system
 Level Frequency Percentage
 Primary 150 39.5
 Secondary 230 60.5

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



 42

Table 4. The anthropological methods applied for 
corrections or warning 

Scale Frequency Percentage
 Strongly agree 280 73.7
 Agree 74 19.5
 Undecided 6 1.6
 Disagree 12 3.2
 Strongly disagree 8 2.1

Table 4 shows that 280 or 73.7 percent of the 
respondents strongly agree that the anthropological 
methods are applied for corrections or warning stu-
dents/children, while 74 or 19.5 percent of the respon-
dents are the similar views and agree;6 or 1.6 percent 
were undecided;12 or 3.2 percent disagree and 9 or 2.1 
strongly disagree. Obviously, the majority of the respon-
dents believed that anthropological methods in cur-
riculum development have an impact on the student’s 
transformative education.

Table 5. Learners acquire skills through apprenticeship
 Scale Frequency Percentage
 Strongly agree 280 73.7
 Agree 100 26.3

Undecided -  -
 Disagree -  -
 Strongly disagree - - 

Table 5 indicates learners attached to teacher to 
acquire skills through apprenticeship, thus 280 or 73.7 
percent of the respondents strongly agree while 100 or 
26.3 percent of the respondents agree.

Table 6. Anthropological methods focused on socio-
economic and environmental locale 
 Scale Frequency Percentage
 Strongly agree 280 73.7
 Agree 100 26.3
 Undecided - -
 Disagree - -
 Strongly disagree - -

In Table 6 Anthropological methods were focused 
on socio-economic and environmental locale, 280 or 
73.7 percent of the respondents strongly agree and 100 
or 26.3 percent of the respondents agree. This depicts 
that the locale was the major area used for transforma-
tive education when applying anthropological methods 
in curriculum development in informal education.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

Table 7. Anthropological methods applied in natural 
and human resources for transformation
 Scale Frequency Percentage
 Strongly Agree 230 60.53
 Agree 144 37.89
 Undecided 6 1.58
 Disagree - -
 Strongly disagree - -

Table 7 shows the Anthropological methods applied 
in natural and human resources for transformation and 
this aspect 230 or 60.53 percent strongly agree,144 or 
37.89 percent agree and 6 or 1.58 undecided. This indi-
cates that the environment was the field of study where 
natural and human resources were available. 

Table 8 illustrates Knowledge transfer and knowl-
edge applicable in real life, therefore 280 or 73.7 
percent respondents strongly agree;74 or 19.5 percent 
respondents agree;6 or 1.6 respondents undecided;12 
or 3.2 percent respondents agree and 8 or 2.1 percent 
of the respondents strongly disagree.

Table 8. Knowledge transfer and knowledge applicable 
in real life
 Scale Frequency Percentage
 Strongly Agree 280 73.7
 Agree 74 19.5
 Undecided 6 1.6
 Disagree 12 3.2
 Strongly disagree 8 2.1

Test of the hypothesis
Chi-square (X2) tool was used, with an alternative 

hypothesis stating that there is no significant relation-
ship between the anthropological methods to students 
in school for transformative education in Kenya. The 
test suggests that the alternative hypothesis should be 
accepted (p < 0.001, X2 = 411,342, df=16).

Discussion 
The study has an enduring transformative change 

in education system, because the anthropological 
methods were used in every child and existed for the 
purpose of strengthening the community and should be 
used in the modern school for transformative educa-
tion. The formal instructions were given in the constant 
corrections and warning the children, in some aspects 
of domestic work such as herding animals and tending

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



 43

certain crops, which a transformative agriculture proj-
ects done in the formal education.

The study challenged the status quo of the tradi-
tional ways of teaching and learning where anthropo-
logical methods are not applicable. The economic role 
of the children featured prominently in their training 
and parents saw their new born babies in economic 
terms. All this descriptions of early African life make 
this a close link between education and economics, 
because within the homesteads and its environments, 
the parents and older relatives were responsible for the 
training in economic responsibilities (Kabiru & Njenga 
2009, p. 14).

The paper elevates the youth and adult voice and 
democratic practices in schools and in the society, as Si-
funa and Otiende (2009, p. 151) supports the idea that 
“a child was expected to learn largely by seeing (obser-
vation) and imitating”. In this sense a child was given a 
formal teaching usually after had made a mistake and 
when the outcome of the work was found unsatisfacto-
ry.

The paper serves to create a more equitable and 
sustainable future because, technical skills were 
learned on the apprenticeship principle. The learners 
were attached to the teachers in order to acquire skills. 
Even the teacher-student ratios were small and in some 
cases it was one teacher to one learner. This should be 
applicable in the modern schools for transformative 
education in Kenya.

The paper focuses on the natural and human re-
sources that are available in the locale or area as the 
resource such as mountains (Ebitunwa), valleys, plains, 
rivers, grasslands and forests which were used as ven-
ues for instruction for the student engagement, which 
are not applicable nowadays because students are 
confined in classrooms and go out on breakfast breaks 
and lunch breaks

The paper elicits knowledge transfer and knowl-
edge applicability in real-life contexts since traditional 
education (informal education) used well-tried anthro-
pological methods for teaching such as games, riddles, 
legends and acting - all related to culture and traditions 
of the Abagusii ethnic group. Also Sifuna and Otiende 
(2009, p. 151), argue that the informal methods of 
instruction included involving children in productive 
work. The learning trough medium of work enabled 
children to acquire the right type of their masculine and 
feminine roles in the real-life.

The paper encourage student-driven, collaborative 
project-based learning as the anthropological methods

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

had its structure of responsibility for who taught what 
was well defined, and the need for different teachers 
as the children matured were recognized. The children 
were taught how to cope the environment, how to farm, 
how to hunt and so on, which was part of focusing on 
social, environmental and economic problems in the 
locale or area.

methods were used in communalism, collective 
activity, cooperation and social responsibility were 
valued and emphasized in traditional education among 
the Abagusii. In this sense, the individuals were to live 
and serve other people in accordance with the accept-
ed manners, customs, laws, avoidance of taboos and a 
rigorous code of morality.

The paper nurture youth and parent/adult with 
partnership strategies for effective service learning as 
the family was recognized as the cornerstone of tra-
ditional life and a lot of learning took place at home 
under the guidance of parents and the extended family 
members.

The paper promotes authentic indigenous knowl-
edge systems and indigenous ways of knowing and 
doing as the anthropological methods were remarkably 
comprehensive and holistic, because its main aim was 
to integrate the child fully into the life of the communi-
ty.   

Results indicate Abagusii have discarded the use of 
some of anthropological methods in instructing chil-
dren in the family systems. The commonwealth secre-
tariat of 1993 gives the meaning of the curriculum as a 
combination of the following perspectives and dimen-
sions. The first perspective is official curriculum: this 
is a planned curriculum laid out in official documents 
such as syllabuses, catalogues, and prospectus and so 
on. Official curriculum consists of numerous courses or 
subject and course or subject combinations. 

The second perspective is actual or real curriculum. 
This is the received curriculum or reality of the student 
experiences for example to say what is actually taught 
in the educational institutions. The actual curriculum 
can also be viewed in terms of what individual student 
study as shown in the transcripts or certificates. 

The third perspective is hidden curriculum. It is a 
powerful perspective of the curriculum in institutions 
of learning. It respects the unplanned experiences and 
un intended outcomes in the area which students go 
through and develop as a result of the process of spe-
cialization in the institution for example music, athlet-
ics, football, drama and so on. 

The fourth perspective is ideal curriculum. This is a

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



 44

curriculum that a society aspires to have for it to realize 
its cherished dreams and ambitions. This forms the ba-
sis and directions and provides the guiding framework 
for the design of the curriculum. The ideal curriculum 
states the standard by the society’s contexts or what 
the society would like to have. 

There are three dimensions on focus as follows: 
one formal dimension - in or out activities that are part 
of the planned experiences for example syllabus con-
tents, laboratory experiments, field work, agricultural 
projects, home science projects, computer science 
projects and so on.Two, non-formal dimension - planned 
and guided activities which may be outside the formal 
syllabuses. It also refers to as co-curricular activities 
or sometimes in the past it used to be called extra-cur-
ricular (not worthwhile planned) examples including 
games, music, drama and so on. The third dimension 
is informal. It refers to socialization process through 
which students acquire certain habits as a result of 
interacting to the total environmental and the culture of 
educational institution for the manner of self-dressing, 
style of speech, styles of movements, self-image, cleanli-
ness, leadership styles and so on. The process of social-
ization affects students attitudes, growth and behavior, 
some of which may not be desired.

Conclusion
It is concluded curriculum is viewed as an explicitly 

and implicitly intentional set of interactions or activ-
ities designed to facilitate learning and development 
and impose meaning on experience. In this sense, the 
anthropological methods have the explicit intention 
usually are expressed in written documents denoting 
(expressing) courses of study for instance syllabuses, 
course outlines the anthropological included for trans-
formative education. The implicit intentions for an-
thropological methods are found in hidden curriculum 
which refer to unplanned learning which takes place 
as a result of interaction between students and fellow 
students, between students and the staff of the school 
and between students and subject matter and finally 
between students and school facilities.

The research paper concludes anthropological 
methods of instruction were effective and efficient as 
they are both informal and formal and were practical in 
nature and the objectives; content is retained for long 
period in the lifetime of the learners. The anthropologi-
cal methods were effective in transmissions and pres-
ervation of culture, skills, knowledge of the family, clan 
among the Abagusii from one generation to another. 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

The anthropological methods were adapting children 
into their physical and human environment where 
they were, in Gusiiland. In this sense, the anthropolog-
ical methods instilled the accepted standards, norms, 
beliefs and traditions governing the correct behaviors 
among the children and adults in the society. This cre-
ated unity and cooperation in the Omogusii society, the 
methods emphasized on collective responsibility, for 
instance children could be disciplined by any member 
not only parents particularly. Through the anthropo-
logical methods, the children acquired practical skills 
and knowledge which would be useful to the individual 
child and the omogusii society. Intellectual skills such 
as observation, problem and decision making are quite 
relevant in the transformative education in the world 
today.

Recommendation
Basing on the conclusion, the paper recommends 

curriculum developers in the education system, Kenya 
Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) to incorpo-
rate anthropological methods in the curriculum for the 
teaching-learning process in schools. It recommends for 
transformative education to be effective and efficient, 
the integrated approach to curriculum development is 
required in primary, secondary, tertiary and university 
levels, therefore, the stakeholders should take action of 
implementation.

It is recommended, in the modern schools, learn-
ers should be introduced and made aware of natural 
features in the neighborhood such as rivers, hills, dams, 
mountains, lakes and water falls, through the use of 
anthropological methods, because the features are seen 
and are within their experiences and learners should 
learner about their uses for transformative education in 
Kenya.

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



 45

References

Bogonko, S. N. (1994). A History of modern education 
in Kenya (1875-1991). Nairobi:Evans Brothers 
(Kenya) Ltd.

Farrant, J. S. (2009). Principles and practice of education. 
Malaysia: Longman.

Kabiru, M. & Njenga, A. (2009). Foundations of 
early childhood development and education and 
curriculum development. Nairobi: Focus Publishers 
Ltd.

Kerr, J. F. (1969). Changing the curriculum. London: 
University of London Press.

Mbiti, D. M. (2009). Foundations of school 
administration, Oxford University Press: Nairobi. 
Mugenda, O. M. and Mugenda, A. G.(2003). Research 
methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. 
Nairobi: ACTS Press.

Ochieng, E. (2015). Social environmental activities, 
Nairobi: Longhorn Publishers.

Peiris, K. (1976). Integrated approach to curriculum 
development in primary education in Sri Lanka. 
Singapore: The UNESCO Press.

Sifuna, D. N., Chege, F. N., & Oanda, I. O. (2006). Themes 
in the study of the foundations of education. Jomo 
Kenyatta Foundation: Nairobi. 

Sifuna, D. N., & Otiende, J. E. (2009). An introductory 
history of education. Nairobi: University of Nairobi 
Press.

Sifuna, D. N., Chege, F. N., & Oanda, I. O. (2006). Themes 
in the study of the foundations of education. Nairobi: 
The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Tyler, R. W. (2000). Basic principles of curriculum 
development and instruction. Chicago: The 
University of Chicago Press.

Gilbert Nyakundi Okebiro (okebirog@gmail.com) is an 
Assistant Lecturer in the School of Education at Turkana 
University College, Turkana, Kenya.

Authors

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



Page 46 of 9

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

Appendix 1 
Questionnaire

Anthropological methods in curriculum instruction for learners 
in informal education for Abagusii of south western Kenya

Kindly fill in the appropriate or correct answer to questions using: 
Strongly agree(SA)=5points; Agree(A)=4 Points; Undecided(U) 3 Points; Agree(A)=2 points; Strongly disagree(1 point)

1. Gender:
Male 
Female 

2. Age of the respondents
10-13
14-17
18 and above 

3. Level of education/status
Primary 
Secondary 

 4 .The relevance of anthropological methods in curriculum development for transformative education

Factor Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
agree disagree

The anthropological methods applied 
for corrections warning students/
children
Learners attached to teacher to 
acquire skills through apprenticeship 
Anthropological methods applied 
in natural and human resources for 
transformative
Knowledge transfer and knowledge 
applicable in real life  
Anthropological methods focused on 
socio-economic and environmental 
locale

Thank for your cooperation for filling the questionnare. God bless you

Okebiro, Antropological methods in instruction for learners in informal education.



McCaster, A. L.  Global Journal of  
Transformative Education (2019) 1, 46-51. 
DOI 10.14434/gjte.v1i1.25920 

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© McCaster, 2019 Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which 
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in any non-commercial medium, provided you 
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Adult Education and Dialogue: Utilizing Project-Based 
Education as a Method to Provide Transformative Change 
in Both Students and Teachers

Antonette L. McCaster

Abstract

Knowledge is built upon personal experiences and the information to which we have access. My area of 
research is in communicating the language of business (accounting) to non-business learners. I have found that 
both communication and motivation are primary factors in transformational learning. To this end, research has 
shown that project-based education improves student skills, and transforms the traditional classroom for both 
teachers and students. Combining project-based education with adult dialogue education provides a transfor-
mative method of education that encourages student-driven, collaborative project-based learning as well as 
opportunities for teachers to reflect upon their epistemology and pedagogy.

Keywords: Instructional technology, Adult dialogue education, Project-based education, STEM, 
          Transformative instructional approaches

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
In order to have an understanding of my theory of 

learning, I must discuss my epistemology and beliefs 
about intelligence. I believe that knowledge is relative 
and it should be evaluated based upon personal expe-
riences and the available information. I define intelli-
gence as the ability to relate new knowledge to existing 
knowledge in a variety of situations. I believe that 
intelligence is not fixed and knowledge is not discrete 
or constant. Consequently, I subscribe to the incremen-
tal theory that intelligence is changeable and can be 
improved. 

My philosophy of education is grounded in my 
personal beliefs about the nature of people and learn-
ing. I recognize that operant conditioning is beneficial 
for learning basic facts and principles. This is an area 
in which the use of various methods of instructional 
technology utilizing authentic activities can accomplish 
much. Liberal education provides practice for our

mind to explore connections, which satisfies the social, 
esteem, and self-actualization needs.

Learning is a personal experience and knowledge is 
based upon personal experiences and the information 
to which we have access. To this end, project-based ed-
ucation allows for authentic learning activities. A liberal 
education provides new areas from which we can draw 
valuable insight for problem solving. Humanistic educa-
tion places value in the whole person and underscores 
how relationships are critical to our development. Rad-
ical theory wants us to question the existing constructs, 
dismantle the status quo, and reshape our perceptions 
of reality. The radical ideas about communication 
(adult dialogue education) is an area that I continuous-
ly analyze in my current practice and have utilized in 
face-to-face courses. This study looks at prior research 
on project-based education and its intersection with 
technology for providing a transformative change in 
both teachers and students. 



McCaster, Adult Education and Dialogue  47

What is Learning?
According to Kirschner et al. (2006), Learning is 

defined as “a change in long-term memory” (p. 75). 
This is in contrast to Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007), where 
they indicate the goal of education is to learn content 
and soft skills; such as epistemic practices, self-directed 
learning, and collaboration. A broader definition can 
be gleaned from Gagne’s Events of Instruction; where 
learning is the process of “getting the student from 
one state of mind to another” (p.178). The importance 
of collaboration is supported in Merrill (2009) during 
the application principal. Specifically, when learners 
“actively engage in interaction with one another rather 
than passively observing the demonstration” (p. 47).

A broader definition is needed than what was pro-
posed by Kirschner et al. (2006). According to Gagne’s 
Events of Instruction; learning is the process of “getting 
the student from one state of mind to another” (p.178). 
Further, the importance of collaboration is supported in 
Merrill (2009) during the application principal. Spe-
cifically, when learners “actively engage in interaction 
with one another rather than passively observing the 
demonstration” (p. 47). This definition supported the 
Hmelo-Silver proposed definition for the purpose of 
education. 

I define a good learning experience as one in which 
any of the following activities occurred:

• I obtained valuable information that helped me
to understand a situation or experience I have
encountered in the past either personally, aca-
demically, or professionally.

• The experience provided tools to better resolve
existing issues or presented alternatives of which
I was not aware.

• The experience created a springboard for learn-
ing growth.

I define a bad learning experience as one in which:
• I received no benefit (including knowledge acqui-

sition of skill development) during the process or
afterwards.

• That I didn’t understand the purpose of the expe-
rience.

• The experience did not meet the objectives stated
for the experience.

included: centrality, diving question, constructive 
investigations, autonomy, and realism. Further, Brund-
iers and Wiek (2013) reviewed several articles to posit 
key features of problem and project based learning. 
The intersection of these two strategies included six 
elements; engaging students in real-world tasks, stu-
dent-centered/small group work, simulate profession-
al situations, use of multiple sources of information, 
teachers as facilitators and a resource, formative and 
performance-based peer evaluations. 

Taylor (2017) defined project-based learning in his 
abstract as “a teaching technique in which authentic, 
real-world projects are used as the primary vehicle to 
drive the student’s learning experience” (p.1). Nilsson 
(2012) outlined a method for implementing proj-
ect-based education called the “working seminar.”  It is 
based on the assumption that groups with a common 
base of knowledge increase both the group results and 
the individual learning.

The Buck institute for education (2015) similarly 
provided seven design factors that should be utilized 
for a successful implementation of project based educa-
tion (see Fig.1).

Teacher Transformation
Even now, the field of accounting and finance is 

dominated by white males over the age of fifty. As such, 
aspects of a liberal education such as collaboration, 
interpersonal skills, and the skill of discernment are 
integral. I have used the Socratic Method when students 
ask questions in the past. Especially, when it involves 
an authentic issue and the group is more than capable 
of formulating a response and sharing it. A transforma-
tion I have made through the use liberal education and 
adult dialogue included the incorporation of the liberal 
education model by having several students who have 
briefly discussed an issue with peers (think, pair, and 
share) to pull pieces of their understanding and write 
them with bullets upon the board. Then I will call on 
several other students to sum up what they heard their 
fellow students say, and add to what’s been bulleted 
or question further. In the end, I will call for a “vote” 
using clicker devices to poll all students based on the 
shared discussion. This represents liberal education in 
two ways. First, it allows the students to hear stories 
firsthand and draw their own conclusions about possi-
ble scenarios and their implications. Second, it lets the 
learner know that not all knowledge is central but but 
dispersed throughout a group and can be understood 
differently. 

What is Project-Based Learning?
Thomas (2000) conducted a review of the research 

on project based learning and outlined five components 
that he felt were necessary in a project for it to fit under 
the umbrella of project based learning. These elements

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2018) 1



McCaster, Adult Education and Dialogue  48

Kirschner et al. (2006) take the position that episte-
mology or how an expert does something is not equiv-
alent to pedagogy or how to learn the field. To support 
this, they offer DeGroot’s chess results where it is 
concluded that it is the extensive experience of profes-
sionals stored in long-term memory that enables them 
to be good at what they do. They conclude by indicating 
that the shortcoming is due to the differences between 
behaviors and methods knowns to experts as compared 
to novices with no foundation to draw from. 

In examining my assumptions on adult learning, I 
would like to highlight four that have been discussed 
extensively in the literature. The first is that adult 
learners have experiences from which to draw on to 
support their learning. The second is that adult learners 
need to understand how the information they acquire 
relates to what they already know. This allows them 
to see relevance and improves motivation. Third, adult 
learners have positive and negative self-efficacy in var-
ious domains that affect how they approach learning. 
Finally, a “readiness” to learn arises from an experience 
in which the individual realizes that they don’t have the 
skill, knowledge, or information to address it.

Theories that address these assumptions include 
Malcolm Knowles theory of Androgyny (2012), which 
posits that there are particular characteristics of adult

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2018) 1

learners that differ from the way children learn. These 
assumptions included self-concept, experience, read-
iness/orientation to learning, motivation to learn and 
relevance. Some critics point out that the perspective 
of andragogy supports “white middle-class values” and 
does not include the “relationship between self and 
society” (Sandlin, 2005, p. 27).

In contrast, Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) indicate that 
the shift in importance stems from sweeping reforms in 
education based upon the idea that the purpose of edu-
cation is to prepare students for the workplace. As such, 
“content and practice” should be central learning goals. 
Furthermore, the relationship to long-term memory 
storage is emphasized because there is a direct cor-
relation of the “influence of the learning context on the 
accessibility of the knowledge for future use” (p. 105).

In forming my response to rather project based ed-
ucation should be supported, I considered the results of 
these issues. Project Based Education should not be cat-
egorized like “discovery” and other “experiential” forms 
of instruction. Additionally, the definition of learning 
used by Kirschner et al. (2006) is too narrow and does 
not fully encompass learning as does the definition of 
the purpose of education put forward by Hmelo-Silver 
et al. (2007). This means I discount that minimally 
guided instruction is ineffective for student learning,

Figure 1. PBL design factors (Buck Institute 2015).



 49McCaster, Adult Education and Dialogue

due to evidence presented that demonstrates the condi-
tions that it is effective.

The decision to use project based education in a 
course should be based upon the broader definition of 
learning. Kirschner et al. (2006) present compelling ev-
idence as to why the content and timing of the guidance 
in inquiry based instruction must be scaffolded to be 
successful. That is to say, in order to reducing working 
memory overload, scaffolding will keep learning with 
the proximal development zone. Without scaffolding, I 
would not recommend the use of inquiry-based instruc-
tion under any circumstances.

Student Transformation
Blumenfeld, Soloway, Marx, Krajcik, Guzdial and 

Palinscsar (1991) published a study from the Univer-
sity of Michigan with the intent of exploring projects 
and examining difficulties that students and teachers 
encounter, and describing how technology supports 
both teachers and students for projects. In summary 
Blumenfeld et al. (1991) posit that projects allow for 
the integration of both thinking and motivation for stu-
dents. Historically, tasks utilized a programmed instruc-
tion approach which has resulted in some students 
having “poor attitudes toward learning and schooling.” 
(p. 371). An area of weakness for many students is 
group work and collaboration. In essence learning to 
work effectively in groups. Bell (2010) discusses how 
projects provide intrinsic motivation because students 
can present their best selves through the use of individ-
ual learning styles and preferences. 

Hmleo-Silver et al. (2007) states that PBL “supports 
the development of reasoning skills, problem-solving 
skills and self-directed learning skills” (p. 103). This 
statement implies that these are skills that can be car-
ried over to other areas. According to Vygotsky (1978), 
article entitled “Interaction Between Learning and De-
velopment,” learning in one general area will not carry 
over to another. It referenced the study of adults where-
by training on discovering the length of short lines did 
not improve the participants’ ability to determine the 
length of long lines. This points to the importance of 
learning in context. It concluded that “special training 
affects overall development only whenits elements, 
material, and processes are similar across specific do-
mains” (p. 83).

Technology
Taylor (2017) completed a study to answer several 

questions regarding the use of technology with project-

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2018) 1

based learning. Their study used two web-based sur-
veys to obtain data from participants at Georgia Tech. 
One survey was to teachers the other for students; 
the survey garnered 23 responses from teachers with 
prior PBL experience and 52 responses from students. 
Although the response rate is low, there were some 
interesting findings that I used to triangulate with 
information from other research. Of primary interest to 
this study, was the findings about PBL-specific teaching 
practices that technology provided the greatest support 
and overall how integral technology was to the delivery 
of project-based learning. “Nearly 74% of teachers and 
63% of students thought that technology tools were 
either very important or extremely important relative 
to their successful delivery of Project-Based Learning” 
(Taylor, 2017, p. 7).

The results of Taylor (2017) suggest that while 
technology can help support all PBL Teaching Practices, 
it is most impactful in three areas: (1) Helping teachers 
to design and plan for the successful execution of their 
projects, (2) Providing teachers with the ability remain 
in close contact with students throughout the project, 
as well as providing students the ability to collaborate 
with each other regardless of location. (3) Giving stu-
dents the creative freedom to explore the topics under-
lying their projects in ways that are meaningful to them, 
while simultaneously ensuring they are equipped with 
the core knowledge needed to stay focused. 

The need for minimal guidance is also supported 
by Gagne’s Events of Instruction (as step 5; “Providing 
learning guidance” (p. 162). The authors stated how 
too much guidance is considered “condescending to the 
quick learner” (p. 188). The importance of scaffolding is 
supported in Merrill (2009) “First principals of Instruc-
tion,” with the application principle where the author 
states that learning is improved when “coaching is 
gradually withdrawn for each subsequent task” (p. 47). 
This supported the need for scaffolding in minimally 
guided instruction.

Challenges
Kirschner et al. (2006) refer to PBL and IL as having 

no guidance, they cited these teaching strategies as 
“unguided” when discussing “Research Comparing 
Guided to Unguided,” the “Knowing Less After Instruc-
tion” and the “Empirical Evidence about Science Learn-
ing from Unguided Instruction” sections of the article. 
Consequently, the authors use examples of “unguided” 
research as a basis for their knowledge claim that PBL 
and IL are ineffective for learners.



McCaster, Adult Education and Dialogue  50

In contrast, Hmelo-Silver et al (2007), demon-
strate numerous examples that PBL is a guided form of 
instruction even if minimal; through the use of “scaf-
folding and guidance to facilitate student learning” (p. 
99). The authors included the Geier et al research to 
support this. This research was particularly strong due 
to the longevity of the study and “observed gains up to 
a year and a half after participation in inquiry-based 
instruction” (p. 104).

The need for minimal guidance is also supported 
by Gagne’s Events of Instruction (as step 5; “Providing 
learning guidance” (p. 162). The authors, stated how 
too much guidance is considered “condescending to the 
quick learner” (p. 188). Further, the importance of scaf-
folding is supported in Merrill (2009), “First principals 
of Instruction,” with the application principle where the 
author states that learning is improved when “coaching 
is gradually withdrawn for each subsequent task” (p. 
47).

Discussion
In forming my position as to rather or not inquiry 

based instructional strategies should be supported, I 
considered the results of the following issues:

• How does project-based education improve
learning?

• How does the role and beliefs of the teacher
change with Project Based education?

• How are students’ roles changed as a result of
project based education?

• What role does technology play in project-based
education?

Project based education improves intrinsic moti-
vation by working with a variety of learning styles and 
student preferences. The level of autonomy provides a 
sense of ownership for the results. Using project-based 
instructional strategies requires a transformation in 
teachers. They must rethink their role in the classroom 
from dictator to facilitator. The projects selected will 
not have a right or wrong answer. Additionally, teach-
ers must be willing to accept an element of unscripted 
learning.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2018) 1

Project based learning requires that students 
change their approach to the classroom. They must go 
from the “baby bird” method of receiving knowledge to 
assuming an active role. Many students will need assis-
tance in how to actively listen to others and engage in 
dialogue that requires negotiation. Finally, the ability to 
synthesis multiple ideas of sources of information into 
a cohesive thought pattern must be achieved. Technolo-
gy supports learning through the variety of sources and 
means of gathering information, increased volume of 
information, and multiple means of delivering artifacts. 
In conclusion, teacher and student transformations 
benefit from readily available resources, such as tech-
nology, to support them through challenges.

.



McCaster, Adult Education and Dialogue  51

References

Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st 
Century: Skills for the future. The Clearing House, 
83(2), 39-43, doi: 10.1080/00098650903505415

Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. 
S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating 
project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, 
supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 
26(3-4), 369-398.

Brundiers, K., & Wiek, A. (2013). Do we teach what 
we preach? An international comparison of 
problem-and project-based learning courses in 
sustainability. Sustainability, 5(4), 1725-1746.

Buck Institute for Education. (2015). Gold Standard 
PBL: Project based teaching practices. Novato, CA: 
Buck Institute for Education.

Gagne, R.M., Briggs, L.J., & Wager, W.W. (1988). The 
events of instruction. In (3rd Ed.),   Principles of 
Instructional Design (pp. 176-197). Fort Worth, TX: 
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). 
Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and 
inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, 
and. Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99-107.

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why 
minimal guidance during instruction does not 
work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, 
discovery, problem-based, experiential, and 
inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 
41(2), 75-86.

Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2012). 
The adult learner. New York: Routledge. 

Merrill, M.D. (2009). First principles of instruction. In 
Instructional Theories and Design Models Volume 
III: Building a Common Knowledge Base (pp. 41-56). 
New York, NY: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.

Nilsson, F. (2012). Working Seminar - A method for 
proactive learning in project based education. 
Paper presented at LTHs 7:e Pedagogiska 
Inspirationskonferens, 2012, Lund, Sweden. 

Sandlin, J. A. (2005). Andragogy and its discontents: 
An analysis of andragogy from three critical 
perspectives. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 
14(1), 25-42.

Taylor, J. (2017). Study on the best uses of technology 
in support of Project-Based Learning. arXiv preprint 
arXiv:1712.06034.

Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-
based learning. Buck Institute for Education.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning 
and development. Mind and Society (pp.79-91). 
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Antonette L. McCaster (mccaster@indiana.edu) 
is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Public and 
Environmental Affairs at Indiana University,  
Bloomington, Indiana, USA.

Author

http://www.bie.org/object/document/gold_standard_pbl_project_based_teaching_practices1
http://www.bie.org/object/document/gold_standard_pbl_project_based_teaching_practices1


Opiyo, R. Global Journal of  
Transformative Education (2019) 1, 52-67. 
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v1i1.25981

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Opiyo, R. 2019 Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
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Inclusive Practice and Transformative Leadership Are Entwined: 
Lessons for Professional Development of School Leaders in 
Kenya

Rose Atieno Opiyo1

Abstract

Inclusive Education (IE) is arguably a popular discourse in education systems as, not merely a concept 
that addresses concerns of Learners with Special Needs (LSNs) but rather a relatively broad approach looking 
into how to transform learning environments to respond to diversity.At the heart of human rights movement, 
Education for All (EFA) and social equity agenda, IE has lots of educational, social and economic premiums 
attached to it. Increasingly, what slows down the progress towards IE in Kenya is documented, but still, less is 
known about leadership acumen of school leaders yet, the art and science of transformation of the school into 
an effective inclusive environment squarely lies in the province of school leaders. Anchored on the Social Model 
of Disability , this paper presents results based on an extensive secondary data review . It provides evidence 
that IE and transformative leadership are closely knit. It urges that all initiatives geared towards supporting 
effective implementation of IE must interrogate leadership ability of school leaders and develop them as critical 
ingredients in turning around schools into effective inclusive learning environments.

Keywords: Inclusive Education, School Leaders, Transformative Leadership, Professional Development

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction and Background
International commitment to human rights has not 

only changed our views about individual’s “disabili-
ty” but it has also reduced emphasis on deficits in any 
social context. According to Ouane (2008), Inclusive 
Education moves beyond understanding, overcoming 
or tolerating disability but rather, accepting, valuing 
and demonstrating a broad concern on gender, ethnic-
ity, social class conditions, health and human rights, to 
encompass universal involvement, access, participation 
and achievement.

Arnesen, Mietola & Lahelma, (2009), pinpoint that 
IE is not just adding on to existing structures, but per-
haps a broad outlook that entailes transformation of so-
cieties, communities and institutions such as schools to 
become diversity-sensitive. IE represents a belief that 
all students belong and are valued members of their 
classroom and school communities (Council of Minis-
ters of Education in Canada {CMEC}, 2008); Specht & 
Young, 2010). Specifically, Black- Hawkins, Florian and

Rouse (2007,p. 15) look at it as a process of increasing 
numbers of students attending mainstream schools, 
who in the past would have been prevented from doing 
so because of identified special educational needs.In 
their recommendations , Black and colleagues ex-
pressed that promotion of inclusion in regular schools 
must begin with designing buildings and facilities 
suitable for LSN. This stance is supported by Jill Black 
More (2006) who argues that diversity among learners, 
whether in linguistic, cultural or disability, is a positive 
force in educational work.

With the above difinitions in mind, inclusion means 
different things to different groups in different contexts. 
In disability conversations, Inclusive Educational Prac-
tice (IEP) addresses the current discourses and dilem-
ma between special education and integration. Broadly, 
the concept suggests a practice where (a) enrolment 
practice do not discriminate between learners with or 
without disability (b) school services and facilities are 
equally accessible to students with or without disability 
(c) curriculum programs are designed in such a way
that learning needs are catered for (d) assessment and



Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership  53

certification procedures are responsive to the learn-
ing targets, goals, and outcomes (e) special services 
and equipment are supplied for learners to experi-
ence success in learning and, (f) school environment 
is friendly to both teachers and learners.

Generally, there is convergence of thought that 
IE is either, a process, an approach or a programme. 
As an ongoing process, Ainscow et al (2006) de-
scribes IE as that which has not reached a perfect 
state but rather is on the move. As a program and 
an approach, Odom (2000) looks at it as setting in 
which disabled and non-disabled peers benefit from 
common support services, an approach that entails 
addressing and responding to the diversity of needs 
of all learners through increasing participation in 
learning, cultures and communities, and reducing 
exclusion within and from education. Odom (2000) 
also adds that as an approach, it looks at teaching 
strategies or approaches that address the needs of 
students with a variety of backgrounds, learning 
styles, and abilities.To the aforementioned authors, 
IE is such a multiplex concept , basically, all that can 
contribute to an overall inclusive learning environ-
ment, in which students feel equally valued.

Timmons and Wagner (2008) looks beyond the 
education environments by seeing it as a foundation 
to an inclusive society since it provides opportunity 
for all students to be part of school communities to 
learn and grow alongside their peers. For these two 
authors, IE encompasses both academic and social 
life of a school. Corbett and Slee, (2000) supports 
inclusion as a philosophy of acceptance: 

It is about providing a framework within which 
all children- regardless of ability,  gender, lan-
guage, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued 
equally, treated with respect and provided 
with equal opportunities at school…. is an un-
abashed announcement, a public and political 
declaration and celebration of difference which 
requires continual proactive responsiveness to 
foster an inclusive educational culture? (p. 134)

to diversity by providing appropriate responses to the 
broad spectrum of learning needs, welcomes diversi-
ty reforms not only for special education but rather, 
reform of both the formal and non-formal education 
system benefiting all learners (Kalambouka, Farrell, 
Dyson, & Kaplan, (2007). Authors holding this view 
advance the debate on additional support to students 
within the regular school system, equal access to educa-
tion or making certain provisions for certain categories 
of children. Suffice to say, it is a never-ending search to 
find better ways of responding to diversity, living with 
difference and learning from difference. This way it 
fits as a more positive stimulus for fostering learning, 
amongst children and adults (Kalambouka, et al (2007).

Despite potential barriers to inclusion (such as 
teacher workload issues, a shortage of adequate sup-
ports, incomplete training for teachers and principals 
or legal questions) inclusive classrooms have been 
shown to benefit all students both socially and aca-
demically (Canadian Council on Learning, 2009; Cole, 
Waldron, & Majd, 2004; Crisman, 2008; Katz & Mirenda, 
2002). Convincing evidence exists affirming that it pro-
vides positive experience for all students .For instance, 
Timmons and Wagner (2008) identifies IE as a founda-
tion to an inclusive society as it provides opportunity 
for all students to be part of school communities to 
learn and grow alongside their peers.

In lieu of the above premiums, authors have con-
tinued to express that it should be further broadened 
to encompass both academic and social life of a school. 
Specifically, Timmons and Wagner’s study (2008) noted 
that children who are educated in inclusive settings are 
healthier, do better in school, enjoy going there more, 
and interact more positively with peers compared to 
students taught in less inclusive settings. Significant 
of all, LSNs from the study were more exposed to real 
environment situations with regards to diversity, and 
their non -disabled peers adopted to positive attitudes 
and actions towards them as a result of studying to-
gether in an inclusive classroom.

In determining whether education systems are in-
clusive three concepts emerge: Presence, Participation 
and Achievement of all students. “Presence” is con-
cerned with whether children are being educated and 
how reliably and punctually they attend. “Participation” 
relates to the quality of their experiences whilst they 
are inschool. To determine this, views of the learners 
must be incorporated. Finally, “Achievement” is about 
the outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not 
merely test or examination results. Definitely, this gives

Features and Benefits of Inclusive Education
IE is not a marginal issue on how some learners 

can be integrated in mainstream education, but rather 
an approach that looks into how to transform educa-
tion systems and other learning environments in order 
to respond to the diversity and improving quality of 
education for all learners. It addresses and responds

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership  54

it the most broad view which urges modifications in 
content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a 
common vision to cover all children of the appropriate 
age range remain a critical responsibility of the regular 
system as they seek to realization EFA goals (Kalam-
bouka, et al.2007)

In an effort to determine presence, participation 
and achievement, identification and removal of barriers 
is critical. This encompasses collecting, collating and 
evaluating information from a wide variety of sources 
in order to plan for improvement in policy and practice 
or using such evidence to stimulate creativity and prob-
lem-solving (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006). Understanding 
of these barriers enables teachers and school leaders to 
be alert and to consider the impact the differences can 
cause. This is because it recognizes and serves many 
different categories of children who may be exclud-
ed from the education for instance : LSN, children of 
immigrants, child domestic workers, poverty stricken 
children, children of ethnic, language minorities, street 
children, children in conflict zones, child soldiers, chil-
dren of prisoners or imprisoned, and children affected 
or infected with HIV/AIDS (Department for Education 
and Skills {DfES}, 2004)

In the ensuing definitions we also appreciate that 
IE shifts away from integration. While the former views 
learners as the root cause of difficulties in the school, 
the latter shares in tenets highlighted in the social mod-
el of disability which continues to challenge systems to 
examine the barriers within the educational system and 
look for ways in which to promote participation and 
positive learning outcomes of all learner. Terzi points 
out this in her writing:

Special needs are not needs that arise in a child 
with disabilities with regard to a system that is 
fixed. Rather they are needs that arise between 
the child and the educational system as a whole 
when the system fails to adopt itself to the char-
acteristics of the child. (Terzi 2005, p. 448)
Primarily, IE aims to (a) bring out the best in the 

realized by exploring some factors that are always left 
unexplored in less inclusive setting such as transforma-
tive leadership.

Inclusion and Education For All 
By welcoming every child, inclusion is an essen-

tial element of the whole Education For All (EFA) 
movement. It is framed within the context of wider 
international discussions around the United Nations 
Organizations’ agenda ,stimulated by the 1990 Jomtien 
Declaration. The Salamanca Statement on principles, 
policy and practice guiding education of LSNs (UNESCO 
1994) not only provides a Framework for leveraging 
policy and practice forward, but is arguably the most 
significant international document that has ever ap-
peared in IE conversations. In principle, this concept 
aligns with EFA goals as it seeks to provide universal 
access to basic education of good quality and com-
pels states to create environments in schools or basic 
education programs in which children are both able 
and enabled to learn. Such an environment must be 
inclusive of children, effective with children, friendly 
and welcoming to children, healthy and protective for 
children and gender sensitive.

The development of such child-friendly learning 
environments has increasingly been an essential part 
of the overall efforts by countries around the world 
to increase access to, and improve the quality of, their 
schools. Sharing at a meeting , held in June 2009 at Oslo 
on the results of the work of the OECD on equity in edu-
cation, a Norwegian Minister of Education (Bård Vegar 
Solhjell) in an opening speech described IE as a new 
compelling law on quality and equity for all by stating:

Inclusion and equity in education is the best long 
term instrument we have in order to secure eco-
nomic progress, as well as democracy and social 
stability…regular schools with an inclusive orien-
tation are the most effective means of combating 
discriminatory attitudes, building an inclusive 
society and achieving education for all.
IE development movement is anchored on human 

rights, equity and diversity (Riehl, 2000; Winzer and 
Mazurek, 2012) and around the right of every indi-
vidual to education, as stated in the 1948 Universal 
Declaration of Human Rights. In Article 26 , IE is not 
simply taken as a technical or organizational change 
but as movement with a clear philosophy that speaks to 
human right to education. It is a dynamic approach that 
looks at diversity and individual differences not as

child, without alienating him/her, (b) provide the child 
with a warm and enriched environment, (c) assist the 
child in developing basic skills to cope with day to day 
challenges, (d) enable a child develop life skills for 
self-reliance, (e) help a child develop a desirable atti-
tude towards society. For effective assimilation of IE, 
three key aspects – policies, practices and culture – are 
important. Full presence, participation and achieve-
ment of children with disabilitie as well as, respect to 
childrens social, civil and education rights can be

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership  55

problems, but as opportunities for enriching learning. 
At the core of this conversation is the pronouncement 
of UDHR, 1948 , Article 26 which states:

Everyone has the right to education... Education 
shall be free, at least in the elementary and fun-
damental stages and shall be directed to the full 
development of human personality, strengthen-
ing of respect for human rights and fundamental 
freedoms. It shall promote understanding, toler-
ance and friendship among all nations, racial or 
religious groups, and shall further the activities 
for the maintenance of peace. 
Equally, Article 2 and Article 23 of United Nations 

Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989) 
support this stance. In part, Article 23 stipulates:

 Children with disabilities should have effective 
access to and receive education, training, health 
care services, rehabilitation services, preparation 
for employment and recreation opportunities in 
a manner conducive to the child’s and to enable 
him /her achieve the fullest possible social inte-
gration and individual development, including 
his or her cultural and spiritual development.

should accommodate all children regardless of their 
diverse physical, intellectual, social, emotional and lin-
guistic needs (UNESCO, 1994). The resulting Salamanca 
Statement recognized the necessity and urgency of 
providing education for children, youth and adults with 
special educational needs within the regular educa-
tion systems (UNESCO, 1994). IE puts emphasis on all 
groups of learners who may be at risk of marginaliza-
tion, exclusion or underachievement and gives a moral 
responsibility to families communities and states to 
ensure that those groups that are statistically most “at 
risk” are carefully monitored and that, where necessary, 
steps are taken to ensure their presence, participation 
and achievement in the education system. Based on 
the above declarations countries of the world inclusing 
Kenya are on the path towards addressing diversity in 
education environments and realization of inclusive 
schools.

Inclusive Education in the Kenyan Context
Kenya places education as top agenda in both policy 

and investment by regarding education as one of the 
inputs to ensure the quality of life of its citizens. Every 
child has the right to education irrespective of age, 
gender, background, socio-economic status, race, caste, 
creed, religion and ability. The Constitution of Kenya 
(Republic of Kenya, 2010), section 43 (1), affirms the 
right of every person to education. Further, section 53 
(1) (b) states that every child has the right to free and
compulsory basic education. The Sessional Paper No.
1 (Republic of Kenya, 2005a) provides a policy frame-
work for the education sector in Kenya, including the
requisite legal context, within which to design, develop
and implement inclusive education programs. The con-
stitution outlines policy recommendations for enhanc-
ing education access, quality, relevance, equity and
efficiency, which are important factors in the overall
success of inclusive education.

Specifically, two Special Needs Education Policy 
Frameworks (Republic of Kenya, 2009; 2012) address 
a wide range of critical issues impacting on special 
needs education and provides a comprehensive policy 
framework that seeks to harmonize education service 
delivery for LSNs and diverse needs in all education 
subsectors. The polices recognize that our classrooms 
have children with different experiences, skills, knowl-
edge, values and abilities which are all invaluable ingre-
dients in classroom and takes due consideration in the 
wake of increasing diversity in the society, success can 
only be guaranteed to those children who will live

 In the same document (UNCRC, 1989) Article 29, 
articulates central aims of education in the devel-
opment and nurturing all children to reach their 
fullest potential in terms of cognitive, emotional and 
creative capacities. Addressing this also is the UNES-
CO Convention Against Discrimination in Education 
(1960) and the Convention on the Elimination of All 
Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) as 
the other key international human rights treaties 
that not only emphasize the prohibition but also the 
active elimination of discrimination.

A logical consequence of these rights is that all 
children have the right to receive the kind of educa-
tion that does not discriminate on any grounds such 
as caste, ethnicity, religion, economic status, refugee 
status, language, gender, disability etc. These con-
ventions not only provide measures be taken by the 
state to implement these rights in all learning envi-
ronments but demands a rights-based approach to 
education which is founded upon three principles (a) 
access to free and compulsory education, (b) equali-
ty inclusion and non-discrimination, and (c) the right 
to quality education, content and processes.

Guided by the above conventions, United Nations 
members at the World Conference on Special Needs 
Education adopted a guiding principle that schools

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 56Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

cooperatively with others.
All these frameworks advocate for including all 

children with diverse background and abilities and all 
those usually excluded from school and classroom par-
ticipation and learning for instance children of remote 
or nomadic population, children from linguistic, ethnic 
or cultural minorities, girl child, street and working 
children, children with disabilities, children affected by 
HIV/AIDS. The aim is geared towards (a) providing an 
understanding of the conditions for success for chil-
dren with diverse needs, (b) achieving equalization of 
educational opportunity, (c) removing barriers, and (d) 
attending to the specific needs of those who had been 
denied so far.

In order to ensure that this happens, the Kenyan 
Government believes that all learners are entitled to 
an excellent education that provide them with a gen-
uine opportunity to succeed in inclusive classrooms 
in inclusive schools. In responding to this vison, main-
stream schools and special schools in Kenya are adopt-
ing policies and practices that are driven by the desire 
to be providers of high quality education services to all 
learners regard less of their learning needs. 

The above framework outlines an explicit IE policy 
and the role of key stakeholders such as school-heads 
and general education teachers in the realization of 
this policy in creating of inclusive and child-friendly 
schools, while simultaneously focusing on a requisite 
legal framework to ensure that schools respect diversi-
ty and ensure equality of learning for all children.This 
is because schools leaders are recognized as important 
ingredients in supporting and setting a higher standard 
for inclusive practice in schools and in communities. 
They can do this through Strategic Resourcing Ensuring 
an Orderly and Supportive Environment Promoting and 
Participating in Teacher Learning and Development 
Planning, and Coordinating teaching and Evaluating 
Curriculum.

Who Supports Inclusive Education in Kenya?
It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education 

to ensure that school-accessible and child-centered 
programs are elaborated, implemented and evaluat-
ed. However, teachers, parents, communities, school 
authorities, curriculum planners, training institutes and 
entrepreneurs in the business of education are among 
education actors that serve as valuable resources in 
support of inclusion in Kenya . However, some stake-
holders are more than just a valuable resource. They 
are not only key to supporting all aspects of the

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

inclusion process but they can also provide the right 
atmosphere for effective implementation of IE both in 
school and in society at large.

According to Fullan (2004), progress towards an 
effective inclusive school culture depends on the will-
ingness and attitude of a number of educational stake-
holders in accepting to promote diversity and to take 
an active role in the lives of students, both in and out of 
school. Acceptance promotes optimal learning environ-
ment for IE and depends largely upon the relationship 
among teachers, parents, other students and society 
and more specifically the role of school leaders

Likewise, Lindqvist & Nilholm (2011) affirms that 
school leaders’ belief about inclusion, its process and 
their view about children’s capacity to change and be 
changed can be reflected in: (a) the way they encourage 
teacher learning through collaboration, (b) philoso-
phy, inclusive beliefs and practices, (c) the extent to 
which they collaborate with staff to develop an inclu-
sive philosophy relevant to the schools needs, and (d) 
the manner in which they actively and personally get 
involved in developing intervention strategies for at-
risk students as they dialogue with parents. As put by 
Clark, (2010) constant collaboration and training has 
a possibility of changing ideologies and perceptions of 
school leaders on inclusion and can simultaneous lead 
to reconstruction of beliefs tow diversity.

 Sergiovanni (2009) believes that school leader’s 
attitude change influences how we organize school 
to accommodate diverse needs and acknowledge that 
all children, irrespective of their race, socio-economic 
status, gender or disability, deserve quality education. 
Manisfestly, this can be detected in a shift in their value 
system and support for school based inclusion policy 
and procedures that ensure sustainability (Ainscow & 
Sandill, 2010). Conversely, negative attitudes towards 
inclusion is likely to result into exclusivity .It is asso-
ciated with lack of planning, lack of resources, lack of 
knowledge of better practices and limited experiences 
with special needs students (Bobb & Early, 2009; Ser-
giovanni, 2009).

Fortunately, negative attitudes can be minimized 
when school leaders learn and acquire the knowledge 
they need to build inclusive schools, more so, in facili-
tating teacher learning that will produce inclusive class-
rooms. Adequate knowledge will enable school leaders 
transform school into effective inclusive environment 
(Leithwood & Jantzi 2006). This then calls for prepara-
tion of school leaders who can (a) stimulate change in 
the follower’s attitudes and behavior through



 57

stimulate thinking and are grounded in understanding 
the needs of individual teachers rather than controlling 
them to meet desired outcomes (Halliger, 2005). As 
they seek to influence people by building from the bot-
tom-up rather than from the top down , they become 
overly concerned with modeling best practices and 
important organizational values, continuous profes-
sional development of teachers, shared decision making 
and leadership, experimentation, teacher reflection 
and building relationships with the school community. 
These are key ingredients for inclusivity. Transforma-
tive school leaders are also known to hold firmly to key 
values of democracy, equity, justice, emphasize social 
justice and equity and are able to live with tension as 
they display moral courage and activism. 

Based on the above arguments transformative lead-
ership is therefore more likely where schools take on 
the role of making profound social change where there 
is great inequality for example in relation to sexism, 
racism or other forms of profound exclusion. As Chris-
tiansen, Heggen and Karseth (2004) share, the job of 
leaders is to maximize the collective talent and efforts 
of all those involved in the education enterprise to pro-
mote and sustain inclusive cultures, meaning that for 
sustainability of IE transformative leadership should be 
our focus.

School leaders are the key to the success or failure 
of educational reform. They have to develop leadership 
style that meets the demands of educational change 
which is seen in the manner in which they (a) provide 
moral direction which gives meaning and significance 
to the goals of the school, (b) raise awareness, height-
en interest of followers and provide support for the 
group to carry out the full inclusion project, (c) develop 
projects and assist in overcoming challenges; provides 
vision and resources necessary to help teachers ac-
complish change, and (d) provide encouragement and 
energy to help make the innovation successful and the 
implementation of full inclusion.

Significantly, four themes emerge in relation to 
transformative leadership in effective schools: fostering 
shared vision, planning and decision-making processes, 
creating collaborative structures and processes using 
data to make decisions about curriculum and instruc-
tion, and understanding and utilizing policy to create 
comprehensive school and district wide systems. These 
themes mirror those identified by Waldron, McLeskey, 
and Redd (2014) in their case study of a highly effec-
tive, inclusive school. For this research, the themes are 
crucial because each point to potential areas of

Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

empowerment, (b) those who can create a global vision 
(Bobb & Early, 2009) and (c) reshape corporate culture 
and works along with the vision towards IE.

For this reason, this paper believes that there are 
complex and interrelated factors undergird the success 
of schools with effective inclusive education models 
and that moving towards more inclusive schools and 
education systems involves a series of leadership con-
ditions both at the macro and the school level, as well 
as at the level of pedagogical practices (instructional 
leadership). Although the Ministry of Education in 
Kenya , holds the key responsibility of ensuring inclu-
sion in school, school leaders who are ministry repre-
sentations and infact ‘the eyes’ of ministry have a huge 
responsibility in causing this change based on their 
transformative leadership acumen.

Transformative Leadership that Promotes Inclusion
Transformational leadership model is used to meet 

the current demand for innovation in education sys-
tems . Indeed current trend in the literature (Cristina 
and Ann, 2010) supports the idea that (a) school inno-
vations, such as inclusion, do not occur on their own 
(b) works when it is thoughtfully developed and (c) can 
only take place when the school leader who is a trans-
formational leader, in consort with the community and 
faculty uses collaborative decision-making to develop a 
full inclusion program.

According to Precey, (2008), transformational lead-
ers strive (a) build a compelling vision of a better future 
with others underpinned by high moral confidence (b) 
inspire others to follow them and offers individualized 
support (c) articulate a vision and passion can achieve 
great things and gets things done by injecting enthu-
siasm and energy(d) establish shared organizational 
goals and models best practices and important organi-
zational values (e) display high levels of interpersonal 
engagement with a deep understanding of personal, 
team and organizational learning (f) demonstrate ex-
pectations of high performance (g) provide intellectual 
stimulation for others and seek best practices (h) create 
a productive culture with a commitment to community 
(i) develop structures to foster participation in deci-
sion-making and distribute leadership throughout the 
organization and do have great personal resilience.

They are leaders who are motivated by the impor-
tance of individualized support that promotes student 
learning., intellectual stimulation, and personal vision. 
They support others through competence building to 
create inclusive classrooms , encourage collaboration to

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 58

by Kirtman (2013), Fullan (2014) asserts that as the 
change agent, the school leaders requires these com-
petencies to facilitate the building of personal and 
organizational capacity for greater leadership success. 
With these competencies, school leaders are able to 
(a) challenge the status quo by interrogating common
practices, takes risks, and explores innovations with the
aim of improving the learning of all students, (b) build
trust through clear communication and expectation to
ensure improved performance and organizational effec-
tiveness, (c) creates commonly owned plan for success
by working to ensure ownership of the plan, monitor-
ing implementation, and making adjustments as appro-
priate, (d) focus on the team over self by supporting the
professional growth of all staff and seeking critical feed-
back, (e) create a sense of urgency for sustainable by
mobilizing people to tackle core issues while matching
passion and urgency with requisite skills, (f) commits
to continuous improvement for self by seeking learning
opportunities and innovative ideas to ensure sustained
improvements, and (g) build external networks and
partnerships to adequate and sustainable support that
makes a positive difference to the organization (Fullan,
2014).

This paper believes in the sentiments of Fullan 
(2014) who expressed that efficient leadership remains 
an important indicator of successful inclusive educa-
tion implementation. He established that most of the 
leadership issues effecting inclusive education imple-
mentation are known but not sufficiently addressed in 
practice.

School Leadership and Inclusive Education 
School leaders play a critical role in improving 

learning through four sets of leadership practices. 
First, they are expected to : set directions by building a 
shared vision, foster acceptance of group goals, cre-
ate high performance expectations, and communicate 
direction. Second, they shoud develop staff by: provid-
ing individualized support and consideration, offering 
intellectual stimulation, and modelling appropriate val-
ues and practices. Thirdly, effective leaders must always 
seek to: refine and align their organizations when they 
build collaborative cultures, restructure the organiza-
tion to support collaboration, build productive relation-
ships with families and connect the school to the wider 
community.Finally, they are expected to improve the 
instructional program through practices that influence 
the nature and quality of instruction in classrooms 
(Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006). Leithwood and colleague

Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

implications not only for practice but also for focus of 
and approaches to school leadership development.

Salisbury and McGregor (2002) assert that inclusive 
education has emerged as a school wide improvement 
approach sharing characteristics of innovativeness, 
commitment to diversity, and a strong emphasis on 
school improvement. So school leaders must share 
common personal attributes such as sharing deci-
sion-making power with their staff, leading their school 
by example, extending the core values around inclusive-
ness and quality initiatives throughout the school, and 
actively promoting learning communities.

Waldron, McLeskey, and Redd (2011) acknowledge 
that strong school leadership is pivotal to effective im-
plementation of inclusive education. Their description 
of the characteristics of effective inclusive schools and 
the personal attributes of school leader of such schools 
are consistent with those articulated by Corbett and 
Slee (2000). Hehir and Kartzman (2012) affirm that 
inclusive schools are dynamic, problem solving organi-
zations.

Strong school leaders to them is one who creates 
both a sense of common purpose and internal account-
ability as well as conditions for high-quality teaching 
and learning to take place. Their stance is that com-
plex and interrelated factors undergird the success 
of schools with effective inclusive education models. 
Successful inclusive schools embrace comprehensive 
school-wide approaches, including a clear vision of high 
expectations and universally designed instructional 
practices that address both academic and behavioral 
components of schooling.

In order to develop effective inclusive schools, there 
is need for school leaders to establish collaborative 
frameworks, collegiality, and a commitment to support 
diversity among students (Kugelmass, 2004). Though 
not explicit to inclusive education implementation,Ful-
lan (2014) articulates what he terms the three keys that 
maximizing a leader’s impact. He suggests that a leader 
can achieve this by (a) ensuring intense instructional 
focus and continuous learning are the core work at the 
school. (b) working with district and system player in 
order to access the wide range of resources within the 
system to leverage leadership and inclusion success, 
and (c) be a change agent to foster school effectiveness 
and improved student learning and achievement. The 
conceptualization of the school leaders as a change 
agent is critical to inclusive implementation and its 
sustainability.

Based on seven critical competencies suggested

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 59Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

stress that school leaders can no longer function simply 
as school managers but also double up as instructional 
leaders (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010) 

To be successful, they are also expected to distrib-
ute leadership effectively for sustainable educational 
change and improvement that translates into improved 
learning outcomes (Harris, 2014). This can be achieved 
through what Dufour and Marzano (2011) advocate; 
a shift in focus to efforts aimed at building the collec-
tive capacity of educators. The functions of the school 
leaders discussed above, do not directly address inclu-
sive education but it can be assumed that leadership 
skills in the critical areas are helpful in leading inclusive 
schools. According Guzman (1997) the core mandate of 
every school leader is to diagnose his or her particular 
school’s needs and to meet these needs by utilizing the 
resources and talents available.

Purpose of The Study 
The Special Needs Education Policy Frameworks 

(Republic of Kenya, 2009; 2012) embraces inclusive 
education as the viable option in enhancing education 
access, equity, quality, and relevance for all children in 
Kenya. The policy documents provide a comprehensive 
approach, including ways of providing an inclusive 
education of quality to all children, highlighting the 
need for teachers to be sensitive to each child’s unique 
requirements, provide child-centred, socially relevant 
and equitable teaching/learning and understand the 
diversity in their social and cultural contexts. Based on 
these frameworks, huge resources (Republic of Ken-
ya 2005a, 2005c, 2009, 2010, 2012) are channeled in 
enhancing capacities and developing training of school 
leaders and teachers. 

Nonetheless, there seems to be insufficient specif-
ics and less clarity on service delivery models. and the 
roles of stakeholders, including those of school leaders 
within the inclusive education framework .Policies ac-
knowledge monumental challenges in the provision of 
inclusive education including; high pupil-teacher ratios, 
overcrowded classrooms, absenteeism, high drop-out 
rates, high repetition rates, increased number of or-
phans due to HIV and AIDS, inadequate infrastructural 
development, weak governance and financial manage-
ment, inequitable deployment and weak management 
of teachers, and gender and regional disparities. How-
ever, concerns raised by stakeholders on what shouldbe 
the unique competencies of school leaders in creating 
change within inclusive environment has not been giv-
en due attention. 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

Therefore, this theoretically review presents 
perspectives of different authors on the potential of 
transformative leadership ability of school leaders in 
offering a more inclusive, equitable, and deeply demo-
cratic conception of education. Specifically, the paper 
highlights transformative leadership practices of school 
leaders that are crucial for the implementation of this 
inclusive practice.

Theoretical Framework
This theoretical review is underpinned in the 

social model of disability which is a way of viewing the 
world, based on perspectives of disabled people. This 
approach sees disability as a concept that provides us 
with an opportunity for raising serious questions about 
the nature of the existing society we live in and the kind 
of society we desire or hope for.This is where the crit-
ical analysis has to focus and the changes have to take 
place.It recognizes the centrality of institutional, ideo-
logical, structural and material disabling barriers with-
in society that is , systemic barriers, negative attitudes 
and exclusion by society (purposely or inadvertently) 
as the main contributory factor in disabling people. 

The model says that people are disabled by barriers 
in society, not by their impairment or difference. They 
believe that unadaptive, unfriendly and hostile set of 
material conditions and social relations cumulatively 
contribute to the marginalisation, disempowerment 
and exclusion of disabled people .Barriers can be phys-
ical, like buildings not having accessible toilets or they 
can be caused by people’s attitudes to difference, like 
assuming disabled people can’t do certain things. The 
social model helps us recognize barriers that make life 
harder for disabled people and urges removal of these 
barriers to create equality and offer disabled people 
more independence, choice and control

Such an inclusive outlook permits stakeholders, 
especially school leaders - change makers , to give a 
holistic view of the education system by embracing 
inclusive philosophies and ideals of inclusion.This 
when they are likely to enable teachers and learners to 
feel comfortable with diversity, see it as a challenge and 
enrichment of the learning environment, rather than 
a problem , and significant of all, to take into consid-
eration the concepts of least restrictive environment, 
home school, and education with peers as important as-
pects of special education. Figure 1 illustrates the social 
model of disability.



Figure 1. Social model of disability (Oliver, 2013).

Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership  60

Discussions
Inclusion is a principle that is 

increasingly gaining attention in 
conversations about transformative 
education systems as one that cater 
for the diversity of students’ learning 
needs and their individual character-
istics such as learning motivations, 
abilities, styles and rhythm. The key 
element of inclusion is not individ-
ualization but the diversification of 
the educational provision and the 
personalization of common learning 
experiences in order to achieve the 
highest degree of participation of all 
students, taking into account their 

individual needs.
This implies advancing towards universal design, 

where the teaching-learning process and the curricu-
lum consider from the very beginning the diversity of 
needs of all students, instead of planning on the basis of 
an “average” student and then carry out individualized 
actions to respond to the needs of specific students 
or groups who were not taken into consideration by 
an education proposal based on a logic of homogene-
ity instead of diversity. The response to diversity , an 
essential condition to achieve high quality education , is 
probably the main challenge currently faced by schools 
and teachers, as it involves substantive changes in the 
existing conceptions, attitudes, curricula, pedagogical 
practices, teacher training, evaluation systems and 
school organization.

The role of the school leader is becoming critical 
in promoting the delivery of equitable education by 
teachers in an inclusive school classroom setting . First 
and foremost, it is imperative that the school leader: 
believes that outcomes can be equitable, whatever 
the individual starting points of their students, en-
thuses the staff and students to raise achievement in 
all students and measures the success of students by 
more than their academic achievement, School leaders 
should also be aware of the United Nations Charter on 
the Rights of the Child (1989), a significant driver for 
embracing diversity that legislates for every member 
state to provide education for all its children. It is the 
responsibility of a school leader to lead , promote and 
nurture inclusive attitudes and behaviours in your 
school community.This is possible by the school leaders 
with specific transformative skills.

Methodology
A search of the published literature for this re-

view included several steps. First, personal inquiries 
and consultations were made with professionals with 
relevant research and practice interests that is trans-
formative leadership and inclusive education. Second, 
articles, journals and government policy documents 
and scholarly research reports were reviewed, focus-
ing transformative leadership and inclusive education. 
Third, relevant texts were searched for applicable 
information. 

 Finally, a site search was conducted on the World 
Wide Web of organizations, databases, references, 
and on-line publications. Data was collected and syn-
thesized from these secondary sources pertaining to 
transformative leadership and inclusive education. 
Discussion of issues was bound within the social model 
of disability which sees an inclusive approach as one 
that permits a holistic review of the education system 
having a broader view of diversity as a challenge and 
enrichment of the learning environment, rather than a 
problem and takes into consideration the concepts of 
least restrictive environment, home school, and educa-
tion with peers as important aspects of special educa-
tion. The presentation was done thematically focusing 
on the key transformative leadership indicators that 
promotes inclusive education as dicussed in subse-
quent chapters.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 61

When wedded to a relentless commitment to 
equity, voice, and social justice, administrators’ 
efforts in the tasks of sensemaking, promoting 
inclusive cultures and practices in schools, and 
building positive relationships outside of the 
school may indeed foster a new form of practice. 
(Riehl, 2000, p. 71). 

In support, Copland (2003) suggests, that enquiry 
can be the engine to enable the determination of lead-
ership that is needed in order to foster participation 
in learning, and the glue that can bind a community 
together around a common purpose. From literature 
sources such as Leithwood, Harris and Hopkins (2008), 
the ensuing discussion identifies special abilities of 
school leaders that are associated with the success of 
schools in fostering the achievement of all their stu-
dents, that is ability to : create inclusive cultures and 
ethos, develop strong desire for change, strive to build 
instructional teams and inclusive communities, appe-
ciate active mentorship, embrace a clear philosophy 
and positive beliefs about inclusive education, nurture 
better instructional leadership and transformed school 
leaders and promote teachers learning and staff devel-
opment as discussed below.

Create Inclusive Cultures and Ethos
School leaders set the ethos that either welcomes 

or sidelines disabled children and children with SEN; 
and they create a culture where parents are either con-
fident to engage with the school or feel they are a nui-
sance (Lamb inquiry, 2009). Suffice to say, transformed 
school leaders who foster a sense of common purpose 
and are driven by a strong personal commitment to 
equal opportunities, seem to be remarkably successful 
in leading the whole school community – staff, students 
and parents – in ways that lead to a wholehearted 
commitment to the principle of educational inclusion. 
The strong sense of common purpose that provides 
the basis for the development of practices that take 
account of the learning of every student and manifested 
in visible efforts in establishing culture and ethos that 
emphasises the importance of respecting and respond-
ing positively to diversity in all senses.

Effective school leaders also go ahead to improve 
student learning by focusing on getting relationships 
right between themselves, their teachers, students and 
parents. They are culture builders (Halliger, 2010) who

Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

School Leaders’ Transformative Leadership Skills
Regardless of school type, schools need leadership 

in seven critical areas. One of these is in the area of 
instructional leadership, which entails assuring quality 
of instruction, modelling teaching practice, supervising 
curriculum, and assuring quality of teaching resources 
.The second area entails cultural leadership which is 
about tending to the symbolic resources of the school, 
for example, its traditions, climate, and history .

 The third area is managerial leadership encom-
passing tending to the operations of the school such as, 
its budget, schedule, facilities, safety and security. The 
other area is human resource leadership which is con-
cerned with recruiting, hiring, firing, inducting, mentor-
ing teachers and administrators; developing leadership 
capacity and professional development opportunities. 
The fourth one is strategic leadership which deals with 
promoting a vision, mission, goals, and developing a 
means to reach them

External development is the fifth domain of rep-
resenting the school in the community, developing 
capital, public relations, recruiting students, buffering 
and mediating external interests, and advocating for 
the school’s interests and The last area is micro-polit-
ical –leadership which entails suffering and mediating 
internal interests; maximizing financial and human 
resources (Leithwood, Harris & Hopkins, 2008). 

It is therefore, encouraging that a review of lead-
ership literature indicates that the issue of inclusion 
is increasingly seen as a key challenge (West, Ainscow 
& Notman, 2003). It is argued, for example, that with 
increasingly diverse populations schools need to thrive 
on uncertainty, have a greater capacity for collective 
problem-solving, and be able to respond to a wider 
range of learners.This is only possible with school lead-
ers with transformation outlook. 

The most helpful theoretical and empirical leads, 
however, are provided by Riehl (2000) who concludes 
that school leaders need to attend to three broad types 
of task of fostering new meanings about diversity, pro-
moting inclusive practices within schools and building 
connections between schools and communities . Riehl 
(2000) goes on to consider how these tasks can be 
accomplished, exploring how the concept of practice, 
especially discursive practice, can contribute to a fuller 
understanding of the work of school leaders . In her 
analysis she offers a positive view of the potential for 
leaders to engage in inclusive, transformative develop-
ments. She concludes:

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 62

towards the organizations desired ends. 
As summarized by Kugelmass (2004), effective 

inclusive schools are characterized by coherent school 
cultures in which teachers and school leaders demon-
strate high levels of personal responsibility and collec-
tive commitments that place students at the center of 
educational decision making. As a result, school leaders 
need to be committed to inclusive values and to a lead-
ership style which encourages individuals to participate 
in leadership functions (Dyson, Polat, Hutcheson & 
Gallannaugh, 2004).

Practice Active Mentorship
Sugai, O’Keeffe, Horner & Lewis (2012), defines 

a mentor as a single person, whose basic function is 
to help a new leaders or subordinates. On one hand, 
Moir (2005), stresses that in promoting new innova-
tion like inclusive, education mentors are important in 
decreasing the isolation of new teachers. When they 
guide them through their first year of teaching they can 
quickly get acquainted with their new environment. 
They do this by providing practical answers, ‘posing 
important questions to prompt reflection, modelling 
teaching techniques, observing and offering feedback.

Have a Clear Philosophy and Positive Beliefs about 
Inclusive Education

One of the foundations for building an inclusive 
school is to believe that ALL children, regardless of 
their social, economic, emotional, physical or cogni-
tive background have the ability to learn. In addition, 
adequate knowledge of inclusion and its processes can 
influence school leader’s attitude and will determine 
the extent of the school’s inclusive practices, regard-
less of the school context, the emphasis they place on 
teachers learning and the emphasis they place on the 
importance of a flexible curriculum.

The way a school leader constructs and employs 
certain leadership characteristics will depend on the 
changes that are taking place at the school at a giv-
en time, the school leaders knowledge regarding the 
change that needs to be implemented compared to his/
her teachers, and the school leader’s ability to co-op-
erate with others and build teaching teams. More-
over, strategies that can effectively facilitate teachers 
learning include school based collaboration, in-service 
training and mentorship. However, the strategies that 
school leaders will use to promote teachers learning 
will depend on the school’s vision and its inclusive 
education context.

Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

influence the school community in embracing inclusive 
attitudes and mindsets. Precey (2008) assert that real 
and sustained change is achieved by changing the cul-
ture of the school, rather than by simply changing the 
structures of the way the school operates. This means 
school leaders must seek an understanding of schools’ 
culture before leading. 

They have to Instructional leaders are viewed as 
culture builders who foster high expectations and 
standards for students, as well as for teachers (Pre-
cey,2008). They must also directly get involved in 
the teaching culture of the school, work directly with 
children and classroom teachers and base decisions on 
educational principles and values .

Develop Strong Desire for Change
Implementation of inclusive practices demand 

school leaders to take critical roles in providing a 
vision, leadership and administrative authority (Ser-
giovanni, 2009; Day & Leithwood, 2007) and challenge 
the norm of traditional approach to teaching, inspire a 
clear mutual vision of what the school should and could 
be and simultaneously, empower staff through cooper-
ative team work (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010). This means 
the school leaders will first and foremost need to buy 
in to the philosophy of inclusion, followed by influenc-
ing the formation of a school vision that will direct the 
school towards embracing inclusive goals. They must 
also seek to reconstruct the school system and commit 
to the implementation of inclusive processes.

Build and Support Instructional or Inclusive Com-
munities

School leaders can no longer function simply as 
school managers or as instructional leaders .To be 
successful in this front, they are expected to distrib-
ute leadership effectively for sustainable educational 
change and improvement that translates into improved 
learning outcomes (Rice, 2006). This can be achieved 
through what Dufour and Marzano (2011) advocate; a 
shift in focus to efforts aimed at building the collective 
capacity of educators.

Transformational leadership demands social skills 
of team building and inspiration without dominion. 
This can be evident in the way he/ she places lots of 
responsibilities on teams and team leaders. As for Hal-
liger (2005) transformational leaders must not provide 
leadership alone but shares it with teachers. This model 
is grounded in understanding the needs of individual 
staff rather than coordinating and controlling them

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1



 63Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

Demonstrate Strong Instructional Leadership
As instructional leaders, schools where leaders are 

expected to bring change (Webb, 2005). For this rea-
son, instructional leadership would be appropriate in 
schools that need to accommodate inclusive changes 
as they promote instructional time, promote profes-
sional development; provide incentives for teachers 
as well as for learning (Halliger, 2000). At the same 
time, instructional leaders are considered to be ‘strong 
directive leaders’ (Halliger 2005) who act as the day to 
day manager of the school building, are responsible for 
timetabling teachers and evaluating them accordingly 
. This implies that when promoting inclusive practices, 
changes will be based on school and teacher evaluation. 
They must be well versed with curriculum and instruc-
tion, role models and who are not only familiar with the 
curriculum but also one who practice inclusion for LSN. 
Halliger, 2000) refers to instructional shool leadership 
as an ability to be hands on, well versed with the cur-
riculum instructions and standards set in the national 
curricular, knowledgeable about what is happening at 
the school, and one that evaluates teachers accordingly 
by providing feedback during meetings. It means that 
instructional leaders must work with their staff in for-
mulating clear and measurable goals that are focused 
on the academic progress of students

Work To Transform Other School Leaders 
The transformational leadership model enables 

meeting the current demand for innovation by empow-
ering others through a distribution of leadership (Ser-
giovanni, 2009). They do not provide leadership alone 
(Halliger, 2010), instead they share their leadership 
responsibility with other teacher, providing leadership 
for inclusive change, uses the transformational lead-
ership model to share leadership responsibilities with 
other teachers through delegation of responsibilities to 
team leaders. 

 They must be grounded in understanding the 
needs of individual teachers rather than controlling 
them to meet desired outcomes (Halliger, 2010) as 
they seek to influence people by building from the 
bottom-up rather than from the top down In addition, 
they are motivated by the importance of individualized 
support, intellectual stimulation, and personal vision by 
supporting teachers through competence building that 
will enable them to create inclusive classrooms.

They are keen in encouraging collaboration to stim-
ulate thinking and promote student learning, demands 
social skills of team building and inspiration without

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

dominion, concerned with modeling best practices and 
important organizational values, continuous profes-
sional development of teachers, shared decision making 
and leadership, experimentation, teacher reflection and 
building relationships with the school community .This 
is apparent as part of the responsibility to ensure that 
teaches are doing ‘a good job’ that will promote teach-
ing and learning. Her managerial role is also reflected 
in the way she is involved in different teacher meetings 
to ensure that she is aware of what is happening in the 
school (Halliger, 2000).

Promote Teacher Learning and Staff Development
Promotion of teacher learning is important to the 

inclusion process as it will equip teachers in facilitating 
inclusive classrooms . Deppler (2010) reinforcded the 
importance of teachers learning when he argued that 
improvement of schools will depend on the quality of 
teachers to meet inclusive challenges. It means then 
that transformative leaders must put more effort and 
resources to promote teachers learning.A numbers of 
strategies that can be used to motivate teachers may 
range from school based collaboration, working with 
the school community, training and mentorship. 

Bubb & Early (2009) affirm that staff development 
which involves discussing, coaching, mentoring, observ-
ing and developing others is highly effective on matters 
inclusion. Therefore transformational leaders must 
always value teachers learning, but they show it in dif-
ferent ways. For instance, by making suggestions, giving 
feedback, providing modeling, using inquiry and solicit 
advice and opinions, and giving praise.

A similar study noted other six teacher devel-
opment strategies that is, emphasizing the study of 
teaching and learning, supporting collaboration efforts 
among educators, developing coaching relationships 
among educators; encouraging and supporting redesign 
of programs; applying the principles of adult learning, 
growth and development to all phases of staff devel-
opment; and implementing action research to inform 
instructional decision making.

Significant of all is that, is the development of intel-
lectual, academic and professional capital (Sergiovanni, 
2006) while empowering and supporting teachers as 
partners in decision making (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006) 
because there is a thin line between what happens to 
teachers and what happens to students is direct (Ser-
giovanni, 2006). For example, little collaboration among 
teachers will result in little collaboration among stu-
dents. Leithwood (2005) states that transformational



 64Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership

leaders help staff development by maintaining a collab-
orative professional school culture and involving staff 
in collaborative goal setting (Sergiovanni, 2009)

Conclusions
Inclusive education is a process of addressing and 

responding to the diversity of needs of all learners 
through increasing participation in learning, cultures, 
and communities, and reducing exclusion within and 
from education. In spite of the dilemmas that are cur-
rently faced in inclusive schools, in many countries like 
Kenya, school leaders have a responsibility in ensuring 
that that they provide a school for ALL children. School 
leaders will need to have inclusive attitudes which will 
entail an inclusive school vision. 

Part of providing a school for ALL will also require 
school leaders to provide school leadership that will 
bring about inclusive changes; which will in turn affect 
the practices of classroom teachers. School leaders 
play an important role in motivating teachers to build 
inclusive classrooms and will need to influence and 
challenge teachers thinking by promoting inclusive 
cultures, in-service training, and enquiry and evidence 
based collaboration that will go beyond a mere trans-
fer of knowledge to the acquisition of skills that will 
encourage, nurture and facilitate learning for ALLTrans-
formative leadership skills of school leadership is criti-
cal aspect to the successful implementation of inclusive 
education. This is particularly imperative considering 
that the overarching principle of inclusive education is 
that every child counts.

Recommendations
Inclusive education demands new skills and knowl-

edge, not only for an individual teacher, but for the 
whole staff, as the whole school will need to be com-
petent in order to make inclusion work. As a result, 
continuous staff development of teachers and all school 
leaders is crucial.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

a. A coordinated and multi-pronged action plan
to spur requisite policy reforms, system align-
ments, and funding strategies in order reframe
school leadership development.

b. Specifically, the Teachers’ Service Commission
and Ministry of Education, Science and Technol-
ogy should collaboratively develop leadership
standards for school leaders in order to spur
improvements in leadership programmes’ qual-
ity and effectiveness in inclusive setting’s.

c. The County Education Committees should
develop inclusive education indicators to be uti-
lized when designing and implementing school
development plans.

d. Moreover, in order to model effective inclusive
programmes and practices at least five model
inclusive schools should be established in each
Subcounty through a well-resourced pro-
gramme implemented by respective Subcounty
Education Commmittees. This may act as cen-
ters of excellence and models for what leader-
ship models works for inclusive education.



Opiyo, Inclusive Education and Transformative Leadership  65

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2019) 1

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1 Rose Atieno Opiyo (ropiyo@mmust.ac.ke) is a Lecturer 
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Kenya.

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