









































Abstract

This paper covers literature on translanguaging, translating, and interpreting in education, primarily K-12 
institutions. Translanguaging is defined by Dr. Josh Prada and its strengths are demonstrated in different 
contexts, including its use in the English as a New Language classroom. This study is elucidates the value of 
translanguaging in the classroom since it offers opportunities for scaffolding and building confidence in English 
while encouraging English language learners (ELLs) to actively participate in the learning process and to feel 
more comfortable around peers and staff. Multilingualism is reviewed in the context of language choice in 
different social contexts to better understand the usefulness of translanguaging. Spanish and English literacy 
and their impact on native Spanish-speaking children is also explored in this paper which allows understanding 
of personal experience from ELLs.  English-only policies are discussed and cautioned against due to the 
environment that is created by monolingualism. The importance of interpreters in schools is stressed because 
it has been determined to provide better educational outcomes for English Language Learners. The importance 
of translated written documents was covered in this study to better understand family involvement in 
education. Findings from this research include opportunities provided by translanguaging, the necessity of 
overcoming internalized biases, the harm of English-only policies, the importance of interpreters in schools, 
and the importance of translated documents/communications to strengthen family involvement.

Keywords: Translation, Interpretation, Translanguaging, Bilingualism, Monolingualism

Gentry, C. Global Journal of  
Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3   
DOI  10.14434/gjte.v3i1.32233

Open Access

Published by the Global Insitutute of Transformative Education (http://www.gite.education)
© Gentry, C. 2022. Open Access This journal is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
NonCommercial NonDerivative 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which 
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction without revision in any non-commercial medium, provided you 
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,

Literary Review of Translanguaging, Translating, and  
Interpreting in Education 

Corinne Gentry

Full listing of authors and contacts can be 
found at the end of this article.

Introduction
In this paper, I will review literature on translan-

guaging, interpreting, and translating in an educa-
tional context. I chose this topic because of my career 
in a large midwestern urban school district. I am the 
school’s parent liaison, and it is my goal to involve the 
parents and families of students in their education and 
in the school community. 

I am the only staff member in the school who 
speaks Spanish. The secretary calls me to the front of-
fice several times a day when a Spanish speaker is pres-
ent or on the phone. Normally, it is a simple question 
or message, such as the student is ill and will not be in 
class that day. My coworkers are unable to communi-
cate with Spanish speakers, and sometimes I think they 
do not want to learn how. However, their unwillingness 

to learn is likely rooted in a lack of time and energy to 
dedicate to language learning.

How do these families feel at school? They can only 
communicate in their home language with one person 
in the entire building. When a teacher needs to commu-
nicate with a Spanish-speaking parent, they ask me to 
translate a document or letter, or they ask me to call a 
parent. One could argue that the language barrier re-
duces communication with these families, whether the 
communication is negative or positive. 

In my research, I am going to explore the state of 
translanguaging and interpreting in schools. Translan-
guaging is defined as “using the two languages strategi-
cally to maximize communication to express a message” 
(Prada, 2019). While communication with families 
is very important in education, communication with 
students is important as well. I will explore methods of 
translanguaging in the classroom and in communi-



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 16

nication with families. The majority of examples are 
based on native Spanish speakers who are learning 
English as a new language.

It is clear that transformative changes are necessary 
in the school system for English Language Learners 
(ELL). Some teachers use English-only policies that 
are destructive to the child’s self-worth. These policies 
make the child feel unvalued and less-than, which is 
detrimental to the teacher-student relationship and 
will result in poor educational outcomes. Educators 
must welcome and celebrate different languages and 
cultures rather than pushing them aside.  While some 
English as a New Language teachers use English-only 
policies because they themselves only speak English, 
these policies are incredibly alienating. We must allow 
our students to learn by translanguaging and providing 
scaffolding to build their confidence in English, which 
will result in the student feeling welcomed and valued. 

Transformative teaching methods for English 
Language Learners include multilingual books, using 
the native language in writing, visual displays, notes in 
the native language, and bilingual dictionaries. These 
practices break away from the status quo of enforcing 
English-only policies. These practices will result in 
better educational outcomes, providing more equity 
between native English speakers and native speakers 
of other languages. The practices are easily applied to 
real-life educational settings.

Native Spanish Speakers and Translanguaging
Translanguaging means using the two languages 

strategically to maximize communication to express a 
message, meaning the two languages are an integrated 
system instead of two separate languages, as defined 
by Dr. Josh Prada in his article “Exploring the role of 
Translanguaging in Linguistic Ideological and Attitudi-
nal Reconfigurations in the Spanish Classroom for Her-
itage Speakers.” Another definition of translanguaging 
is “the multiple discursive practices in which bilinguals 
engage in order to make sense of their bilingual worlds” 
(Garcia, 2009). The first language can be utilized to its 
full potential to adopt a fluid instead of a fixed notion of 
language (Kabir, 2019). The speaker uses characteris-
tics of the two languages for the highest communication 
potential. This is also where we experience loan words 
between languages, such as siesta and paella.

English learners use translanguaging as a bridge 
between English and their native language. Translan-
guaging builds confidence when the speaker can use 
simple words and phrases in the new language; the 

speaker can build the foundation of the new language 
when using the native language if they do not know the 
phrases or words in the new language (Prada, 2018). 
The practices of translanguaging in pedagogy will be 
discussed in this paper later on.

People also use translanguaging when a concept ex-
ists in one language and does not exist in the other. For 
example, there is an American woman who has visited 
Spain and wanted to explain characteristics of Spanish 
culture. She would not say that “My classmate is having 
a big party for her 15th birthday”, she would say “My 
classmate is having a quinceanera.”  On the contrary, 
people use translanguaging to explain concepts in En-
glish as well. A girl in high school wouldn’t say that “The 
boy asked me to the big dance for the 12th graders”; 
she would say ¨A boy asked me to the prom¨. 

It is important to consider many perspectives when 
a native Spanish speaker is translanguaging. One must 
consider the population of Spanish speakers in the 
community. Does the speaker live in Miami, which has a 
majority Hispanic population, or in a small, white town 
in Ohio? Also, it is important to consider the context 
(casual or formal) and life experiences, such as level of 
education or socioeconomic status, as the social context 
and socioeconomic status may change the vernacular 
used in the exchange. Native speakers use translan-
guaging to give more meaning to interactions with 
language flexibility. Translanguaging allows the speaker 
to offer, obtain, process, and understand information. 

The definition of translanguaging introduces the 
concepts of heteroglossia and diglossia “Heteroglos-
sia means using the two languages in a flexible way; 
the barriers of which words and phrases are from one 
language, and which are from the other language do 
not exist” (Prada, 2018). Heteroglossia also transcends 
barriers of geography. The use of each language has no 
restrictions because the two languages are so integrat-
ed. 

 Diglossia means that the two languages are sepa-
rate and are not used together (Prada, 2018). They are 
separate in the mind, and they are not integrated. Sadly, 
the idea of diglossia introduces a hierarchy of language. 
In the United States, many people believe that English is 
the superior language and Spanish is inferior. This be-
lief stems from racism, white supremacy, and xenopho-
bia. Some people think that native Spanish - the method 
that people speak casually, such as with family - is infe-
rior because it is not in line with the standard. But, it is 
important to remember that this idea originates from 
raciolingusitics - people want them to “sound white”

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 17

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3

when they speak English. While Spanish as the heri-
tage language works perfectly in most situations, it is 
difficult for its speakers to enter the academic spheres. 
People who translanguage can learn to speak and write 
more “academically” to enter these academic spheres; 
in this case, translanguaging is a skill. 

Translanguaging has a great influence on the lan-
guage classroom. When the language is separate and 
an abstract entity, translanguaging cannot happen. The 
second language needs to be integrated into the class-
room. For the sake of simplicity, I will discuss translan-
guaging in pedagogy in the context of native Spanish 
speakers learning English. The first point to consider 
is that the teacher needs to differentiate instruction 
for small groups or individual students; the “one size 
fits all” strategy is not effective in the English language 
classroom. It is important to ensure that students have 
prior knowledge and context to do class work. For 
example, a teacher at a higher-income magnet school 
could assign students to do research and write about 
college and career prospects that interest them. A staff 
member or classmate could explain that students at 
this particular school are expected to go to college, 
so they should research a career path that requires a 
college degree. Many authors encourage the idea of 
flexible language use in the classroom to ensure that 
students feel comfortable in class and with their peers. 
The use of flexible language can allow students to 
connect with the material in a more personal way. Also, 
translanguaging can strengthen relationships between 
classmates because they have the native language in 
common, and with language comes life experiences and 
culture. It is recommended to pair students who know 
more English with students who speak less English, and 
this practice is common in many academic contexts and 
subjects. One other point to consider is if local language 
factors, such as accents and vocabulary, should be used 
in the classroom. Some argue that local vernaculars are 
not up to standard; however, many academics argue 
against the idea of a language standard as it creates an 
unfair deficit framework (Harris & Schroeder, 2013). 
Awareness of regional accents and vocabulary increases 
language fluency.

In conclusion, it is important to have a definition of 
translanguaging and how to give context to this phe-
nomenon. The author gives information on translan-
guaging in the context of pedagogy in the language 
classroom. We are reminded that raciolinguistics are 
present and create a hierarchy between the two lan-
guages, and it is important to view this phenomenon

without judgment and internalized racism (Prada, 
2018). Translanguaging is a great method to build a 
bridge between the native language and the second 
language. 

Multilingual Translanguaging in  
Different Social Contexts

Speakers use translanguaging differently in each so-
cial context. My research on this phenomenon is based 
on a study of a trilingual couple from China, as outlined 
in Translanguaging and translation: The construction 
of social difference across city spaces.  (Blackledge, Cre-
ese, and Hu, 2018). The husband is from China and the 
wife is from Malaysia, and they usually speak Mandarin. 
They speak Cantonese and English as well. The couple 
met when working together at a restaurant, and now 
they have three children. The couple owns a meat busi-
ness in Birmingham, which is a “superdiverse” city. The 
couple uses translanguaging and translation in differ-
ent areas in the city. This is a strategic use of the three 
languages that depends on the context and the partic-
ipants in the interaction (Blackledge, Creese, and Hu). 
The authors analyze three recordings - a conversation 
at their business, a social conversation, and a conversa-
tion at home between husband and wife. 

In this study, we see that interpreters are “social 
agents” who reflect and transfer information (Black-
ledge, Creese, and Hu, 2018). This couple can find com-
mon ground with whom they would have not otherwise 
communicated. More people can connect with translan-
guaging because they can use their entire repertoire 
of communication (Blackledge, Creese, and Hu, 2018). 
Speakers of different walks of life, ethnicities, gen-
ders, and more can connect when they translanguage. 
Translanguaging fills in the gaps in each language to 
communicate the entire message - all three languages 
are integrated into one large language repertoire for 
successful interaction (Blackledge, Creese, and Hu, 
2018).

The methodology of this study consists of record-
ings at work (the meat stand), among friends, and at 
home. The authors explain the wife’s parents were 
visiting from Malaysia, and the couple spoke Canton-
ese with the parents. When the couple was at work, 
they usually spoke Mandarin, and they usually spoke 
Cantonese, Mandarin, or English to communicate with 
customers (Blackledge, Creese, & Hu, 2018).

The first recording was at the meat stand in town 
square. The husband and another cashier were at the 
booth, and the recording is an interaction between the



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 18

husband, the other cashier, and the customer. In the 
context of the stall or a store, people cross social lines 
to make the transaction. The two men made a judgment 
to decide which language to use, or would test all three 
languages to see which language succeeds in conversa-
tion. The customer asked the husband to translate the 
question to the other cashier, but the cashier under-
stood the dialect of Chinese that the customer spoke. In 
the recording, the husband was more concerned about 
expressing the main idea of the message rather than the 
details (Blackledge, Creese, and Hu).

In the next recording, we listen to a conversation 
between the husband, the wife, and the other cashier. 
The conversation is about a birthday celebration for a 
friend. The other cashier expresses that while he wants 
to go to the party, he does not want to spend money 
on beers and a taxi. The group discusses the cultural 
differences between England and China with respect to 
the etiquette of celebrations. In this conversation, the 
other teller speaks in English. The wife speaks to the 
husband in Mandarin a few times to confirm that she 
understands English, which shows that she thinks the 
husband understands more English than she does. The 
husband uses colloquial phrases, and the couple uses 
English and Mandarin as an integrated system (Black-
ledge, Creese, and Hu, 2018).

The final recording takes place in the home. During 
the study, the wife’s parents were visiting, and the cou-
ple spoke in Cantonese with the parents. The parents 
do not participate in this conversation, but are present 
during the interaction. The couple discuss the business 
and that they think some workers are lazy. The couple 
uses offensive words about white workers. While the 
words are racist, the couple does not feel bad about 
using these words because there are no white people in 
the vicinity. The couple speaks informally and they use 
sarcasm. There are no social lines in the house because 
the husband and wife are of the same social class as 
the in-laws, and they do not need to cross these lines 
(Blackledge, Creese, and Hu, 2018). 

It is also important to consider how young people 
use translanguaging, as seen in “Translanguaging as a 
Boundary-Crossing Mechanism: A Turkish-American 
Youngster and her Linguistic Negotiation of Three 
Discursive Spaces” (de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). This study 
reviews a young girl around age six and her experiences 
in translanguaging at home, her Turkish-language her-
itage school, and her mainstream school. The authors 
state that her family valued the girl’s multilingualism 
and wanted to preserve her knowledge of the Turkish

language, so they spoke Turkish at home and sent her 
to a Turkish heritage school on Sunday afternoons. The 
child was born in Hong Kong and had Hong Kong citi-
zenship, so they also valued her knowledge of Canton-
ese. Her mainstream school was fairly diverse, but the 
teacher had little knowledge of the Turkish language 
and culture, based on a teacher interview. The teachers 
at the heritage school spoke both English and Turkish 
(de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). 

One of the findings the authors found was the 
difference in language use by the adults in her life. 
Her parents only used Turkish at home, aside from 
using English to help the girl with homework (de Jong 
& Yilmaz, 2020). Her teacher at school used English 
most of the time, aside from occasional Spanish with 
some Spanish-speaking students (de Jong & Yilmaz, 
2020). The teachers at the heritage school spoke both 
English and Turkish in order to facilitate understanding 
between students of varying language proficiencies 
(de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). Based on these findings, we 
can conclude that her teachers at the Turkish heritage 
school were using translanguaging to allow for a broad-
er repertoire of communication. 

Another finding from the study was the difference 
in language use by her peers in these three different 
places- home, the heritage school, and her mainstream 
school. Her peers at home were the children of family 
friends who also spoke Turkish, so these interactions 
were almost entirely in Turkish (de Jong & Yilmaz, 
2020). Her peers at her mainstream school spoke 
almost entirely English, aside from occasional Span-
ish conversations with Spanish-speaking peers. In an 
interview, the girl noted two experiences of speaking 
Turkish at school- once when she met another Turk-
ish-speaking student, and once when she was teaching 
a peer a few words in Turkish (de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). 
Her peers used translanguaging frequently at the 
heritage school in order to accurately convey messages 
between students of varying language proficiencies 
(de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). The teachers at the heri-
tage school supported translanguaging so they could 
embrace both parts of their identity and widen their 
community (de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020).

Another finding to consider is the boundaries be-
tween these three locations. The girl could easily tran-
sition between home and the heritage school because 
Turkish could be spoken at both places, but the transi-
tion from home to her mainstream school was incred-
ibly difficult (de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). The transition 
from the heritage school to the mainstream school was

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 19

not as difficult because English was spoken in both 
places, but the girl was able to translanguage at the 
heritage school, which was not an option at her main-
stream school (de Jong & Yilmaz, 2020). 

In conclusion, the couple uses translanguaging as 
a very important resource in the business and with 
the family (Blackledge, Creese, & Hu, 2018) and in the 
young Turkish girl’s experience in navigating home, her 
mainstream school, and her heritage school (de Jong 
& Yilmaz, 2020). The husband and the other cashier 
use translanguaging with customers at the meat stand, 
and they use translanguaging in social situations as 
well. They decide which language to use strategically 
depending on the context, and they can mix the three 
languages to get the message across, along with using 
the same strategy with the wife’s parents (Blackledge, 
Creese, and Hu, 2018). The young Turkish girl decides 
which language to use with different people in her life 
(parents vs. teachers, peers at the heritage school vs. 
peers at her mainstream school, etc.). This study shows 
that people communicate more effectively when they 
use their entire repertoire to communicate with differ-
ent people in different situations strategically.

Latinx Childrens’ Use of Translanguaging
Many Latinx students have an internal conflict be-

tween English and Spanish, and have compartmental-
ized English for use during the school day and Spanish 
for use at home (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 2018). 
The authors of Latinx Children’s Push and Pull of Span-
ish Literacy and Translanguaging explain that schools 
have “English-only” policies because state tests are only 
in English, and funding for schools depends on state 
test scores. The pedagogy only focuses on phonics and 
grammar, which does not allow analysis, synthesis, and 
higher order thinking (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 
2018).

Unfortunately, these children often do not learn 
to read and write in Spanish, and sometimes they 
lose their Spanish. When students lose their Spanish, 
they lose a rich culture and family connections. Sadly, 
schools see Spanish as a problem rather than a magnif-
icent resource. Many schools force Latinx students to 
take very basic classes (possibly because students do 
not earn high scores on state tests, because the test is in 
English), and students are not prepared for higher edu-
cation (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 2018). Another 
hypothesis is that schools see Spanish as a language 
of the lower social class, and they think that Spanish 
speakers are not intelligent, so they have a deficit.

Many of these students do not feel comfortable in class 
and rarely participate (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 
2018). 

We can investigate Latinx childrens’ use of translan-
guaging by reading a study that takes place in a pri-
vate tutoring program during May and June 2017, as 
outlined in Latinx Children’s Push and Pull of Spanish 
Literacy and Translanguaging (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & 
Lewis, 2018). The students in this program were there 
because they were struggling in school,  particularly in 
reading and writing. Fifteen student teachers worked 
with 19 children for an hour and a half in the after-
noons, and then the college students had a literacy class 
in the evenings. College students would help children 
write in English, in Spanish, and in translanguaging. All 
of the students were in grades kindergarten through 
eight, and did not learn Spanish literacy in school. 

The data from the study was based on interviews 
with the children. The study authors would ask ques-
tions about experiences with the tutoring program 
and experiences with Spanish at school. The students 
liked the opportunity to write in Spanish because they 
never had the opportunity to write in Spanish at school 
(Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 2018). In the inter-
views, many children talked about state tests, and they 
were not permitted to answer the questions in Spanish 
(Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 2018). Some children 
said that writing in Spanish was too difficult and they 
could not do it, because they had not had formal in-
struction to write in Spanish (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & 
Lewis, 2018).

Some children were confused by translanguag-
ing because of  “bracketing”- the separation between 
English and Spanish (Bussert-Webb, Masso, & Lewis, 
2018). The children understood that Spanish was at 
home, and English was at school. However, the students 
did not realize that they had been translanguaging for 
a lifetime with their families and in the community. For 
example, many of the children had been translating 
for their parents for many years. One student felt that 
translanguaging was like “Spanglish” with a pouting 
face - my thought is that she has an internalized dislike 
of Spanish, which is based on racism and the hierarchy 
between English and Spanish. However, the faculty at 
the tutoring center worked very hard to create positive 
associations with Spanish and translanguaging. For 
example, the center had a Mother’s Day card making 
activity in May, and the messages within the cards were 
in Spanish. The children enjoyed this activity because 
their language and culture were respected and cele-

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 20

brated. College students switched between English and 
Spanish to show that the two languages are important. 
The center acted as a “third place” between home and 
school, a place to experience and learn. 

In conclusion, the study shows that bilingual chil-
dren have internalized racism because schools only 
value English,  Schools only value English because state 
tests are often only in English, and school funding is 
based on state test scores. If there were not any govern-
ment pressure and testing, schools could teach Spanish 
literacy to support English literacy. Perhaps states like 
Texas and California need to consider different policies 
to preserve Spanish instead of its erasure. 

Translanguaging in Practice and  
Its Shifts in Ideologies

Unfortunately, there are some educators who do 
not allow native language in the classroom. We learn 
more about the benefits of linguistic diversity in the 
classroom from a study on eight schools that choose to 
introduce the project “City University New York State 
Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals” [CUNYSIEB] (Menken 
& Sanchez, 2019). The CUNYSIEB faculty introduced 
the concept of translanguaging to the faculty of the 
eight schools during professional development meet-
ings, and asked them to allow students to use the entire 
linguistic repertoire in class flexibly and strategically 
within translanguaging pedagogy. This request caused 
a change of mind and changed monolingual practices in 
schools (Menken & Sanchez, 2019).

To give context, some teachers spoke Spanish, but 
some native languages of the students were not spoken 
by the teachers. The teachers slowly introduced new 
practices of translanguaging pedagogy. For example, a 
practice of translanguaging in the classroom is to put 
students in pairs and small groups. Translanguaging 
offered opportunities for scaffolding in partner/small 
group conversations. The multilingual practices in-
cluded multilingual books, using the native language in 
writing, visual displays, notes in the native language, 
and bilingual dictionaries. 

The schools had many changes of ideology about 
the language. Teachers no longer acted like the “En-
glish police,” which developed a schoolwide belief in 
translanguaging.  The schools no longer see the native 
language as a deficit, but as an advantage (Menken & 
Sanchez, 2019). Translanguaging is a very useful re-
source even when the teacher does not speak the native 
language of the student. 

The study shows that it is important to see the

bilingual student holistically. In the past, educators 
in the school district did not consider the native lan-
guage’s grammar and sentence structure (Menken & 
Sanchez, 2019). With translanguaging, teachers can 
view the  language, culture, and history of students 
more favorably and with context. According to the 
study, translanguaging eliminates language hierarchies, 
because languages are woven together and are not 
separated. The students participated more in class and 
felt like a part of the school community. The students 
understood the class topics more thoroughly and had 
more control over their learning. 

As a result of this project (CUNYSIEB), the dis-
tricts enacted new education policies. Five of the 
eight schools created bilingual programs, and three 
schools created transitional bilingual programs. Some 
schools created classes that are entirely in Spanish. The 
study authors pointed out that developing the native 
language supports the development of English. One 
problem with bilingual education is that it is difficult to 
staff bilingual teachers. Another problem with bilingual 
education is that it can separate the two languages, but 
the study schools are using translanguaging to prevent 
the separation (Menken & Sanchez, 2019). 

In my research, I found it important to include 
findings from “(Re)imagining the Future of Translan-
guaging in Pedagogies in TESOL Through Teacher-Re-
searcher Collaboration” from Shepard-Carey and Tian, 
2020. This article highlights teacher and researcher 
collaboration to mobilize and sustain translanguaging 
pedagogies in Teaching English to Speakers of Other 
Languages, or TESOL. The two researchers  paired up 
with a local English instructor to build a collaborative 
partnership to create effective translanguaging strate-
gies to ensure higher educational outcomes. 

Researcher Tian built a partnership with a former 
classmate who taught an intensive English course at a 
university (pseudonym Ms. Davidson). When outlining 
their goals, Ms. Davidson explained that translanguag-
ing had been a “hidden” practice in her classroom via 
online bilingual dictionaries and students resorting 
to their native language in small group discussions 
(Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). Ms. Davidson wanted to 
learn ways to leverage those multilingual resources in 
her teaching (Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). Tian and 
Davidson created translanguaging activities in their 
classroom based on course goals and learner back-
grounds, “such as comparing and contrasting semantic 
and cultural use of language in context (e.g., idioms and 
language in mass media) and culturally relevant figures’

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 21

role play” (Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). One challenge 
they faced was student resistance to use the native lan-
guage due to the hidden curriculum of immersion being 
the only way to learn a language, so Tian and Davidson 
held open discussions about native languages and their 
relation to English (Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). Tian 
and Davidson found that translanguaging pedagogies 
significantly increased learner comprehension, metalin-
guistic awareness, and comfort level with using English 
(Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020).

Researcher Shepard-Carey worked with her former 
co-teacher, pseudonym Ms. Hassan. While Shepard-Car-
ey had a stronger background in pedagogy, Ms. Hassan 
identified as an immigrant and spoke Somali, the native 
language of many of her students; her background 
provided knowledge and experience that was beneficial 
to the classroom (Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). They 
both had to confront some internalized biases; both 
teachers had been taught to use English-only policies in 
the classroom, but their collaboration allowed for more 
opportunities for students to use translanguaging in the 
classroom (Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). For example, 
the co-teachers used a multilingual morning meeting 
routine that lasted all year (Shepard-Carey & Tian, 
2020). Since the students were translanguaging, they 
were able to create deeper connections between their 
native language and English for better understanding 
(Shepard-Carey & Tian, 2020). 

In conclusion, the CUNYSIEB project created a more 
positive view of bilingual students and their cultures 
and histories. This project led to more researchers and 
educators to use translanguaging in the classroom, as 
seen in Shepard-Carey and Tian’s work. The project 
went beyond pedagogy practices and created a change 
in ideology. It is important to remember that teachers 
need to believe in translanguaging to teach with these 
practices, and it is a reminder that English is no better 
than any other language (Menken & Sanchez, 2019). 
Some students may meet translanguaging with resis-
tance, but with open communication and encourage-
ment, students can benefit greatly from translanguag-
ing. Small changes can create a change in ideology, and 
it can make a big change in the school and community.

The Importance of Interpreters in Schools
We must also consider the importance of interpret-

ers in schools for families who speak languages other 
than English.  “Bridging the Latino Achievement Gap: 
The Importance of Interpreters In Schools” by Rachel R. 
Williams of University of Kentucky offers perspective 

based on real experiences in public schools. The author 
begins with the notion that schools generally fail to 
understand and accommodate languages and cultures 
other than English and American. Sometimes there are 
conflicts between students and adults in school due to 
a lack of understanding of their culture and language 
(Willams, 2016). But, there is a large communication 
barrier between the families that only speak Spanish 
and the schools that only communicate in English (Wil-
liams, 2016). Studies show that there is a correlation 
between family involvement in education and student 
success. 

What are the advantages of family participation in 
education? According to the author, students are much 
more successful when their families are involved in 
the school versus not being involved in the school. The 
first advantage is that students are more engaged in the 
classroom. The second advantage is that students are 
more motivated. The third advantage is that students 
have higher levels of control and competence, and more 
effective self-control and goal orientation. All of these 
advantages lead to higher outcomes of student success 
(Williams, 2016). 

Why are these students more successful? The 
author writes that students feel more comfortable in 
school. These students are often “high-achieving” due 
to intellect or “high-achieving” because they have help 
and support in education. These students often take ad-
vanced classes and feel happy and confident (Williams, 
2016).

Parents who are Spanish speakers have many dis-
advantages in education, primarily in regards to com-
munication. It is difficult for these parents to help with 
homework because they do not understand directions 
and content. It is important to consider that some par-
ents have not had much education, and many did not 
graduate from high school. The largest barrier is that 
parents cannot communicate with school personnel. 
Children are often “language brokers”, or interpreters 
for their parents (Rossato, 2010).  These situations 
when the child needs to interpret give children a lot 
of stress; also, there is a limit to the complexity and 
potential of the communication because the child does 
not understand the subject, or the vocabulary is too ad-
vanced (Rossato, 2010). When children are interpreting 
for parents, it is not possible to determine the accuracy 
of communication, which could lead to misunderstand-
ings.

Williams (2016) coordinated a study on parent and 
family involvement in education. A bilingual and Latino

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 22

interviewer asked the children about their attitude 
about education, such as “How do you feel about math?” 
and “What subjects do you like?” The interviewer asked 
parents about their experiences and attitudes about 
school. 58% of parents said they were confident in their 
ability to communicate with their child’s teacher, and 
42% said they were not confident in communicating 
with their child’s teacher. 78% of the 42% said they had 
access to an interpreter, and 22% did not have access to 
an interpreter. 

Another aspect of this study was about conversa-
tions between school staff and parents. The researcher 
concluded that it is very necessary to have an interpret-
er during these conversations to maximize communica-
tion. The presence of an interpreter increases the pace 
of communication, the level of communication, and the 
levels of trust between the two parties. It is imperative 
that the interpreter and staff work together to maxi-
mize communication with parents. 

Communication flow between parents and school 
staff has a positive correlation with monitoring student 
achievement, such as looking at grades in PowerSchool 
(Williams, 2016). Parents with adequate communica-
tion can help with homework and support students 
when they need it. There is more frequent contact be-
tween parents and the school, and these conversations 
are of a higher caliber. However, communication is not 
a factor in how much the family values education. All 
families want their students to be successful academi-
cally, but sometimes they are unsure of how to help. It 
is very difficult to help with homework and communi-
cate with the school when they do not speak the same 
language and there is no interpreter. 

It is unlikely that a child can understand complicat-
ed documents like these, especially in their second lan-
guage. Documents need to be in Spanish, or the office 
needs to provide an interpreter. It is not the child’s re-
sponsibility to translate documents or for other adults. 
The content of such documents is often too complicat-
ed for the child to understand. Sometimes the subject 
matter is not appropriate, such as details of a divorce or 
medical forms regarding reproductive health.

In conclusion, all families want to support their 
children, and they want children to be successful in 
their education. But, it is very difficult to help the child 
with homework when the parent does not speak the 
same language. It is important that interpreters work 
together with school staff to ensure that parents who 
are Spanish speakers have the same quality of service 
and communication as parents who are English

speakers. Families and schools are a team, and the goal 
is the child’s success. 

Translations in School Communication
It is also imperative to discuss the responsibility 

of schools to communicate with all families. Stephanie 
Fordice, former communications coordinator for Cook 
County Schools in Illinois, offers strategies to ensure ef-
fective communications for all families. Fordice’s article 
“At the Corner of Diversity and Communication” gives 
many suggestions for schools and school districts. The 
first suggestion is to ensure that the translations are ac-
curate and readily available and it is also recommended 
to have an interpreter at all school events so all families 
can communicate and feel comfortable (Fordice, 2014).  
All schools and the district office need an interpreter 
in the building to answer questions in a timely man-
ner, and all documents and publications (newsletters, 
calendars, etc.) need a translation; of course, these 
translations need to go to the correct students. One 
simple strategy is to make bilingual copies with English 
on one side and the second language on the other side. 
The author compares the translations to differentiated 
instruction because all families need different supports. 
It is important to consider the format of the documents 
as well, as some languages read right to left instead of 
left to right (Fordice, 2014). 

 It is also important to ensure that these documents 
and publications are on paper and online, since some 
families do not have the technology or access to the 
Internet (Fordice, 2014). When furthering my research 
in school communication, I came across the article “The 
Roles of the Online Environment in School-Family Com-
munication ‘’ by Otilia Clipa, faculty member of Stefan 
cel Mare University of Suceava. In Clipa’s findings, we 
discover that 80% of parents feel that online communi-
cation would strengthen the relationship between the 
school and the family, along with 76% of teachers. If 
the school decides to have information on the website 
or social media, the platform needs to have a function 
that translates the content into other languages, and 
it is important that the translation is correct (Fordice, 
2014). Some schools and districts post videos, so they 
need captions available in the needed language (For-
dice, 2014). In personal experience, many schools use 
Blackboard Connect, a service that broadcasts phone 
messages, text messages, and emails to families. These 
communications are fairly easy to translate into the 
needed language.

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 23

Another important idea is to have a school liaison 
who is bilingual so the parents and families can com-
municate with at least one staff member at the school 
(Fordice, 2014). The liaison focuses on communication 
with families and community partners. The liaison 
considers all factors that prevent parent and family 
involvement, such as transportation and language 
barriers. The author’s research was based on a school 
in Chicago that has two family liaisons (one bilingual) 
because family involvement has a positive correlation 
with student success. It is also important that these 
liaisons and other school staff members are competent 
in internet and social media usage (Clipa, 2019).

Conclusion
Students learning English as a new language could 

have more success if school staff members change 
their ideologies and confront their internalized biases. 
Translanguaging allows students to access their entire 
repertoire of communication to fully communicate a 
message, along with allowing students to scaffold as 
they build confidence in English.  It is imperative to 
celebrate progress instead of showing disappointment 
when a child’s attempt in English is not quite correct; 
many children would shut down and feel very embar-
rassed in that instance. When teachers enforce “En-
glish-only” policies, this destroys the student-teacher 
relationship, which is detrimental to student success. 
Students need to know they are safe and valued at 
school for authentic learning to take place and have 
positive educational outcomes. Staff members could 
show a genuine interest in the child’s culture and learn 
more by speaking with the child and doing research. 

In order to improve communication with families, 
one of the simplest strategies is to print school docu-
ments in English on one side and Spanish on the other. 
That way, it is ensured that families who need the the 
document in Spanish will have it. Another strategy is to 
hire an interpreter whose sole duty is to communicate 
with families during meetings or other school events. 
The interpreter could also make phone calls and write 
correspondence in the needed language to improve 
communication and remove any barriers. 

It is imperative to value diversity instead of viewing 
it as a burden. As educators, we are doing ourselves a 
disservice when we do not value a child’s background 
and language. It is our job to ensure each child has 
what they need to be successful, and a child whose first 
language is not English should have the same opportu-
nities as a child who is a native English speaker. These 
barriers need to be removed to ensure equity in school 
and beyond. 

Global Journal of Transformative Education (2022) Vol 3



Gentry, Translanguaging, Translating & Interpreting Page 24

References

Bussert-Webb, K., Masso, H., & Lewis, K. (2018). Latinx 
Children’s Push and Pull of Spanish Literacy and 
Translanguaging. The Qualitative Report. 

Clipa, O., Stefan cel Mare University, R., Juravle, V., & 
Stefan cel Mare University, R. (2019). The Roles of 
the Online Environment in School–Family Commu-
nication. Innovations, Technologies and Research in 
Education.

Creese, A., Blackledge, A., & Hu, R. (2017). Translan-
guaging and translation: The construction of social 
difference across city spaces. International Journal 
of Bilingual Education and   Bilingualism, 21(7), 
841-852.

Fordice, S. (2014). At the corner of Diversity and Com-
munication. Education Digest, 79(6), 22. 

García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st cen-
tury: A global perspective. Chichester (UK): Wi-
ley-Blackwell.

Harris, Y. R., & Schroeder, V. M. (2013). Language defi-
cits or differences: What we know about African 
American Vernacular English in the 21st century. 
International Education Studies, 6(4). 

Kabir, D. M. (2019). Reviewing translation and L1 in 
language pedagogy from translanguaging lenses. 
BELTA Journal, 3(1), 32–46.

Menken, K., & Sanchez, MTM (2019). Translanguaging 
in English-only schools: From pedagogy to stance in 
the disruption of monolingual policies and practic-
es. TESOL Quarterly, 3, 741. 

Prada, J. (2019). Exploring the role of translanguaging 
in linguistic ideological and attitudinal reconfigura-
tions in the Spanish classroom for heritage speak-
ers. Classroom Discourse, 10(3-4), 306-322. 

Rossato, L. (2010). Former child language brokers: 
preliminary observations on practice, attitudes and 
relational aspects. «MEDIAZIONI», 2010, 10. 

Tian, Z., & Shepard-Carey, L. (Re)imagining the future 
of translanguaging pedagogies in TESOL through 
teacher-researcher collaboration. TESOL Quarterly, 
54(4), 1131–1143. 

Williams, R. R. (2016). Bridging the Latino achievement 
gap: The importance of interpreters in schools. 
Retrieved April 24, 2021.

Yilmaz, T., & de Jong, E. (2020). Translanguaging as a 
boundary crossing mechanism: A Turkish-American 
youngster and her linguistic negotiation of three 
discursive spaces. Australian Journal of Applied Lin-
guistics, 3(1), 11–25. 

Corinne Gentry (csgentry@gmail.com) is a Graduate 
Certificate Student in the Department of World 
Languages & Cultures at Indiana University-Purdue 
University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.

Author

https://www.academia.edu/65333062/Latinx_Children_s_Push_and_Pull_of_Spanish_Literacy_and_Translanguaging
https://www.academia.edu/65333062/Latinx_Children_s_Push_and_Pull_of_Spanish_Literacy_and_Translanguaging
https://www.academia.edu/65333062/Latinx_Children_s_Push_and_Pull_of_Spanish_Literacy_and_Translanguaging
https://www.academia.edu/73400648/The_Roles_of_the_Online_Environment_in_School_Family_Communication
https://www.academia.edu/73400648/The_Roles_of_the_Online_Environment_in_School_Family_Communication
https://www.academia.edu/73400648/The_Roles_of_the_Online_Environment_in_School_Family_Communication
https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/hub/publication/995678
https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/hub/publication/995678
https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/hub/publication/995678
https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/hub/publication/995678
https://www.academia.edu/61952540/Language_Deficits_or_Differences_What_We_Know_about_African_American_Vernacular_English_in_the_21st_Century
https://www.academia.edu/61952540/Language_Deficits_or_Differences_What_We_Know_about_African_American_Vernacular_English_in_the_21st_Century
https://www.academia.edu/61952540/Language_Deficits_or_Differences_What_We_Know_about_African_American_Vernacular_English_in_the_21st_Century
https://www.academia.edu/43789020/Reviewing_Translation_and_L1_in_Language_Pedagogy_from_Translanguaging_Lenses
https://www.academia.edu/43789020/Reviewing_Translation_and_L1_in_Language_Pedagogy_from_Translanguaging_Lenses
https://www.academia.edu/70061978/Translanguaging_in_English_Only_Schools_From_Pedagogy_to_Stance_in_the_Disruption_of_Monolingual_Policies_and_Practices
https://www.academia.edu/70061978/Translanguaging_in_English_Only_Schools_From_Pedagogy_to_Stance_in_the_Disruption_of_Monolingual_Policies_and_Practices
https://www.academia.edu/70061978/Translanguaging_in_English_Only_Schools_From_Pedagogy_to_Stance_in_the_Disruption_of_Monolingual_Policies_and_Practices
https://www.academia.edu/70061978/Translanguaging_in_English_Only_Schools_From_Pedagogy_to_Stance_in_the_Disruption_of_Monolingual_Policies_and_Practices
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336170680_Exploring_the_role_of_translanguaging_in_linguistic_ideological_and_attitudinal_reconfigurations_in_the_Spanish_classroom_for_heritage_speakers
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336170680_Exploring_the_role_of_translanguaging_in_linguistic_ideological_and_attitudinal_reconfigurations_in_the_Spanish_classroom_for_heritage_speakers
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336170680_Exploring_the_role_of_translanguaging_in_linguistic_ideological_and_attitudinal_reconfigurations_in_the_Spanish_classroom_for_heritage_speakers
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336170680_Exploring_the_role_of_translanguaging_in_linguistic_ideological_and_attitudinal_reconfigurations_in_the_Spanish_classroom_for_heritage_speakers
https://www.academia.edu/72456995/Former_child_language_brokers_preliminary_observations_on_practice_attitudes_and_relational_aspects
https://www.academia.edu/72456995/Former_child_language_brokers_preliminary_observations_on_practice_attitudes_and_relational_aspects
https://www.academia.edu/72456995/Former_child_language_brokers_preliminary_observations_on_practice_attitudes_and_relational_aspects
https://uknowledge.uky.edu/honprog/24
https://uknowledge.uky.edu/honprog/24
https://www.academia.edu/73759542/Translanguaging_as_a_boundary_crossing_mechanism_A_Turkish_American_Youngster_and_her_linguistic_negotiation_of_three_discursive_spaces
https://www.academia.edu/73759542/Translanguaging_as_a_boundary_crossing_mechanism_A_Turkish_American_Youngster_and_her_linguistic_negotiation_of_three_discursive_spaces
https://www.academia.edu/73759542/Translanguaging_as_a_boundary_crossing_mechanism_A_Turkish_American_Youngster_and_her_linguistic_negotiation_of_three_discursive_spaces
https://www.academia.edu/73759542/Translanguaging_as_a_boundary_crossing_mechanism_A_Turkish_American_Youngster_and_her_linguistic_negotiation_of_three_discursive_spaces

