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Global Online Journal of Academic Research (GOJAR), Vol. 3, No. 3 June 2024 

 

 

68 
 

Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict in North 

Eastern Nigeria 

 

By 

Livinus Nwaugha, Banwo A. Irewunmi & Odunusi Kolawole Olu 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT 

Environmental scarcity plays a significant role in triggering violence in many 

parts of the world and it is the position of this paper that it is a direct cause of 

violent conflicts in Nigeria’s North East geo-political zone. Evidence emanating 

from research conducted in the course of this study contradicts the view held by 

key Western analysts that although the adverse effects of climate change might be 

an underlying cause of violent conflicts, it is never a direct cause of such 

conflicts. Relying on secondary sources of data collection and structured 

interviews with knowledgeable persons residing in the affected states of the North 

East, this study investigated the issue of environmental scarcity and its direct link 

to violent conflicts in the North East zone of Nigeria and came up with findings 

that validate its position that environmental scarcity, in many instances, can be 

the direct cause of violent conflicts, not merely a contributory factor. Patterns of 

climate-induced violent conflicts, particularly those involving farmers and 

herdsmen in the North East, were identified, and possible lasting solutions to the 

conflicts were proffered by the study. 

Keywords: environmental scarcity, violent conflict, North East, Nigeria, farmers, 

herders 

 

 

INTRODUCTION 

Northern Nigeria is faced with several environmental challenges that 

threaten the ecosystem of the region, particularly that of its North-Eastern 

part, and make the eruption of violent conflicts more likely to occur in the 

area.  Research has shown that “environmental scarcity leads to certain 

destabilizing social effects that make violence more likely” (Kennedy 



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2001). Environmental scarcity plays a significant role in triggering 

violence in many parts of the world and it is the position of this paper that 

it is a direct cause of violent conflicts in Nigeria’s North East geo-political 

zone. This refutes the view of Kennedy (2001) that “Environmental 

scarcity is never the sole cause of conflict, but it is often an aggravating or 

contributing factor” and the claim of Martin, Blowers & Boersema (2006) 

that “environmental scarcity rarely creates fresh social cleavages”. Some 

local observers share this view which is generally held by Western 

analysts. Agwu (2010) holds the opinion that environmental scarcity is not 

a direct cause of violent conflicts. This study, however, argues that the 

adverse effects of environmental scarcity can predispose affected parties 

towards violence, and are known to have done so in North Eastern Nigeria. 

When someone or a group of persons, for example, feel that land which 

they could have utilized for farming or infrastructural project has been 

grabbed by another party, there will be feeling of animosity towards that 

party, and this can directly lead to mutual hostility or violent conflict. 

METHODOLOGY 

Utilizing secondary sources of data collection and structured interviews, 

this study will examine the subject of environmental scarcity and its direct 

link to violent conflicts in the North East zone of Nigeria to prove and 

reinforce its position that environmental scarcity, in many instances, can 

be the sole or direct cause of violent conflict, not merely a contributory 

factor. A mixed method of enquiry is used in this study. Primary data were 

sourced through semi structured interview of eighteen (18) respondents 

purposively interviewed on the topic of environmental scarcity and violent 

conflicts in the North East. The eighteen (18) respondents were segmented 

and selected from the six states in the North East geopolitical zone, 

namely, Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba, and Yobe. Three (3) 

persons were selected and interviewed from each of the six states. 

Secondary data were sourced from periodicals, newspapers, journals and 

the internet. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS 

Environmental Scarcity 

The term, “environmental scarcity” refers to the scarcity of an 

environmentally-generated and renewable resource, such as land, wood 

and water, due to “reduced supply (depletion or degradation), increased 

demand and/or increasing inequality of distribution” (Martin et al, 2006). 

Kennedy (2001) identifies three kinds of environmental scarcity, namely: 

 Demand-induced scarcity – this is created by a situation where 



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demand for limited natural resources outstrips its supply. He 

illustrates this scenario with sub-Saharan Africa where the 

population “has increased from 177 million in 1950 to 657 million 

in 2000, shrinking the amount of land and freshwater available to 

the average person. In the case of Rwanda, demographic pressures 

created extreme environmental scarcity that played a role in the 

1994 genocide”. 

 Supply-induced scarcity – caused by decreased availability of 

natural resources due to degradation of the environment. 

Desertification, for example, can reduce the percentage of arable 

land available in an area, thereby making it more difficult for 

farmers in the affected area to earn a living. Reduced food 

production in the area might lead to hunger, increased poverty 

levels, and make people in that area more likely to resort to 

violence at the slightest social pressure. 

 Structural scarcity – in this scenario, a privileged section of the 

community monopolises access to natural resources at the expense 

of the majority of the population. Kennedy cites the example of 

South Africa where “the system of apartheid provided whites with 

87 percent of the land, while blacks (almost 75 percent of the 

country’s population) lived within restricted areas that accounted 

for only 13 percent of the land”.  

Everywhere in the world where there is shortage of natural resources the 

available ones are scrambled for by individuals and groups, and 

competition for scarce resources can directly or indirectly lead to conflicts 

(UNEP, 2012).  

Violent Conflict 

To understand the scope of our discussion, we need to define the term, 

“violent conflict” and see what connections it has with similar terms, such 

as “armed conflict” and “war”. As stated by CGIAR, the global body that 

unites international organizations concerned with food security research, 

“A violent conflict involves at least two parties using physical force to 

resolve competing claims or interests” while “An armed conflict is a 

contested incompatibility that concerns government and/or territory where 

the use of armed force between two parties, of which at least one is the 

government of a state, results in at least 25 battle-related deaths in one 

calendar year”. According to the UK Save the Children organization, 

“Conflicts are part of war, though not every war sees actual conflict, nor is 

every conflict connected to war”. Since the security situation in the North 



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East involves diverse kinds of conflicts, including the protracted Boko 

Haram insurgency, it is important to note that the latter and similar armed 

struggles are excluded from the scope of this discussion. Our topic is 

narrowed to violent conflicts between parties in that zone contesting for 

renewable natural resources that have become scarce due to climate 

change or that have been degraded by destructive human activities. 

ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN NIGERIA 

Nigeria has a total land area of 923,768 km² and is endowed with diverse 

ecosystems its government and huge population have the responsibility of 

conserving and managing. According to the 2016 revised National Policy 

on the Environment (henceforth NPE 2016), the country’s ecosystems 

include air and atmospheric resources, fresh water and wet-land 

ecosystems, coastal and marine ecosystem, mountain ecosystems 

(Mambilla/Plateau), arid and semi-arid ecosystems, and forest ecosystems. 

Others are biodiversity and wildlife resources, livestock and fishery, land 

resources and land use (desertification, land degradation and drought), 

soils, oil and gas, and minerals. 

Studies have shown that disequilibrium in these ecosystems stems from the 

activities of human beings. Onuoha, Chinedu & Ochekwu (2022) have 

noted that the ill effects of “man's activities on the environment include 

urbanization, deforestation, improper waste disposal, unregulated 

agricultural practices, among others, which have resulted in desertification, 

pollution, ocean acidification, health issues, global warming, and 

ecosystem instability”. Further negative impacts of the activities of human 

beings on the environment include overpopulation and flood 

(Omofonmwan & Osa-Edoh 2008). 

Abuse or misuse of the environment is associated, among other causes, 

with the exploration and exploitation of natural resources as well as with 

industrial activities in both Southern and Northern Nigeria. Oil 

exploration, notably, has adversely affected the ecosystems of the southern 

region of Nigeria, particularly those of the South-South states of Bayelsa, 

Rivers, Delta, Cross-River and Akwa-Ibom. It began in 1956 when oil was 

first discovered in large quantities at Oloibiri, Bayelsa State; oil was 

subsequently discovered and explored in other states of the geo-political 

zone. Since then, the natural habitat of the zone has been in disarray such 

that aquatic resources and wildlife in general are threatened with extinction 

while farmlands and the sub-regions vegetation are devastated. Effects of 

frequent oil spillage and unsustainable exploitation of the area’s oil and 

gas have made it increasingly difficult for fishermen and farmers to earn a 

living, thereby exacerbating the environmental scarcity situation of the 



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area. Many of the environmental difficulties in northern Nigeria are linked 

to drought and desertification. 

Summarizing the environmental state of affairs in Nigeria, NPE (2016) 

notes: 

Nigeria's environment is under increasing threat from human 

activities and natural disasters. There are already certain ominous 

problems with the environment and visible scars associated with the 

destruction of the natural resource base (land, water and air) upon 

which all life depends are being noted. The country's large 

population of about 170 million and its rapid growth rate of 2.8 per 

cent are contributing to its environmental degradation. 

SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTH 

EAST 

Since the North Eastern zone of Nigeria is the focus of this research, we 

will discuss the social and ecological environment of the zone in this 

section in order to see how it might be associated with the eruption and 

prolongation of violent conflicts in the area. 

Social Environment of the North East 

The North East geopolitical zone of Nigeria is made up of Adamawa, 

Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe states. Before 1991 the states 

were known as Bauchi, Borno and Gongola states. In 1991, Borno State 

was divided into Borno and Yobe states while Gongola State was divided 

into Adamawa and Taraba states. Bauchi state, in 1996, was divided into 

Bauchi and Gombe states (Scan, 2016:154). According to Scan (2016), the 

essence of the split was to bring government closer to the people. The 

region has over 500 ethnic groups (Scan, 2016); the area’s many languages 

include Kanuri, Fulani, Hausa and Fulfulde. The population of the area is 

estimated to be 32 million (NBS, 2023), many of whom are engaged in 

farming, fishing and livestock. Islam, Christianity and traditional religion 

are the notable religious groups of the area.  

Ecological State of the North East 

The North East has challenging environmental problems that include “acts 

of God” occurrences such as drought, desertification and the drying up of 

Lake Chad basin – an important source of water supply to the pastoralists 

and farmers of the area. The major environmental hindrances of the North 

East are substantially man-made, and they include overpopulation, 

deforestation, destruction of the area’s fragile vegetation by herdsmen, 

land degradation, and air pollution. Both natural and man-made factors 



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combine to complicate the environmental situation of the North East 

where, on yearly basis, “the sand dune is progressing at a mean annual rate 

of about 15.2 km2” (UNOOSA 2022). Bolarinwa (2019:278) has also 

stated that several kilometers of land are lost to desertification.  

Although climate change is a universal phenomenon, it affects the nations 

of the world in different ways. According to NPE (2016),  

Nigeria is strongly predisposed to severe negative impacts of climate 

change due to the nature of its economy, weak resilience and low 

adaptive capacity. Much of the economy is dependent on climate 

sensitive resources. For example, the agriculture sector (crop 

production, livestock and fishery) and forestry which employ up to 

70% of the workforce and contributes about 22% of the rebased 

GDP is very climate sensitive. 

Climate change is responsible for the receding plight of the Lake Chad 

Basin, a great source of water for irrigation in the North East where desert 

encroachment has reduced the size of the zone’s arable land and grazing 

resources. 

ENVIRONMENTAL SCARCITY AND VIOLENT CONFLICTS IN 

THE NORTH EAST 

Since 1980, with the recession of the Lake Chad basin occasioned by 

climate change, there has been mass movement of herders and farmers 

within and out of the North Eastern part and this has been causing intense 

competition for the use of the available land. The convergence of these 

groups has generated altercations rather than amity as herders and farmers 

migrate away from arid lands towards the south. This southward 

movement of herders to southward has not been without its own 

challenges in the Southern states of Anambra, Enugu, Delta, Edo and 

Ondo. 

 Effects of desert encroachment in Nigeria are felt mostly in the North. The 

vast areas encroached by the desert become barren land and push farmers 

and herders to relocate to safer areas.  However, the most desert-prone 

areas in the North are found in the Maiduguri and Yobe axis and account 

for the great number of internally displaced persons in those areas as well 

as for occupational migrations among the farmers and the herders.  

The herders who are nomads would usually migrate to another destination 

and settle, and because they do not practise ranching system, their animals 

stray to farm lands and destroy crops, and when the farmers resist the 

encroachment, violent conflicts frequently ensue, and many of such 

conflicts have often led to horrible reprisal attacks by the herdsmen. 



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Nigerian pastoralists have said that Nigerien and Chadian nomads, who 

found their way into Nigeria as a result of the drying of the Lake Chad 

Basin, were mostly the perpetrators of these cruel reprisal attacks. 

Additionally, since the North-East region depends largely on land as the 

source of their livelihood and the increase in population has continued to 

exert pressure on land for food crops and grazing of cattle, there is a great 

deal of competition between the herders and farmers for the use of the 

available land. The challenge is that both the farmer and herder need the 

land for sustenance. Another dimension is the indigene-settler squabble. 

According to one viewpoint, the farmers see themselves as the indigenes 

who are entitled to the use and cultivation of the land while the herders, 

who are nomads, are seen as the settlers and usurpers of the land 

(Ahamadu, 2011). But this is not always the situation, especially in those 

circumstances where violence had erupted because the herders had failed 

to restrain their cattle from destroying economic crops. 

Part of the problem is the grazing reserve laws of 1965 and national policy 

on agriculture of 1988 (Ahamadu, 2011); much of the grazing routes 

envisaged by the 1965 law are no longer forests as they have been turned 

into built environments for housing, roads and other infrastructural 

purposes. Only the establishment of ranches, as obtains in many parts of 

the world, appears to be the most viable solution to the farmers-herdsmen 

conflicts. 

The frequency of environmental scarcity-induced violent conflicts in the 

North East and other parts of Nigeria has attracted the attention of 

governmental and non-governmental organizations. In 1976, the National 

Emergency Relief Agency (NERA) was established. It later 

metamorphosed into National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) 

by Act 12 as amended by Act 50 of 1999. 

National Emergency Management Agency is the agency of government 

responsible for resettling persons affected by violent conflicts and natural 

disasters. However, since 2009, NEMA has been saddled with the 

responsibility of handling cases of internally displaced persons caused by 

environmental scarcity-related violent conflicts in Nigeria, especially in 

the North East. This is a huge responsibility; according to the United 

Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: “the North 

East region would require over 1.6 billion U.S Dollar in order to provide 

shelter, health care, as as well as to ease hunger within the region”. 

According to Mba (2017), internal displacement crisis in the North East is  

caused by  natural disaster, communal clashes and Boko Haram 



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insurgency, with Boko Haram accounting for 85.65% of the cases, 

communal clashes 13.37% while natural disaster accounts for 0.99% 

(Mba, 2017). In order to deal with this problem, the Kampala Convention 

of 2009 for the protection and assistance of internally displaced persons in 

Africa spelt out the following objectives: 

(i) to promote and strengthen regional and national measures to 

prevent or mitigate, prohibit and eliminate root causes of 

internal displacement as well as provide for durable 

displacement solution, 

(ii) establish a legal framework  for preventing internal 

displacement and protecting and assisting internally  displaced 

persons  in Africa, 

(iii) establish a legal framework for solidarity, cooperation, 

promotion of  durable solution and mutual support  between  

the state parties in order to control displacement and address  

its consequences,  

(iv) provide for the obligation and responsibilities of state parties 

with respect to the prevention of internal displacement and 

protection of and assistance to internal displaced persons, and 

(v) Provide for the respective obligations, responsibilities and 

roles of armed groups, non-state actors and other actors 

include civil society organization, with respect to the 

protection of internal displacement and protection and 

assistance to internally displaced person. 

It is on the basis of the above that National Emergency Management 

Agency, in line with the provisions of the AU Kampala convention, was 

established to perform the following functions: 

(i) to provide relief materials to internally displaced persons and 

disaster victim, 

(ii) to co-ordinate and curtail the plight of IDPs, 

(iii) to provide for their settlement of the internally displaced 

persons and disaster victim, 

(iv) to provide for detection, respond and combat of disaster 

(v) to educate the public in order to raise their awareness on the 

reduction of the effect of disaster. 



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Thus, NEMA’s functions synchronize with United Nations charter and 

Kampala convention which emphasizes the protection of the internally 

displaced persons in line with the international human rights laws that 

mandated the government to protect the rights of internally displaced 

persons and to intervene in the welfare of the victims.   

To support the above objectives, the governors of the states in the North 

East signed memorandum of understanding (MOU) with NEMA to enable 

NEMA supply food and non-food items to the conflict-affected states of 

Adamawa, Borno and Yobe as part of federal government’s efforts to 

cushion  the humanitarian  challenges faced by the internally displaced 

persons (Daitti, 2016). 

 According to Daitti (2016), NEMA is expected to provide adequate 

intervention support in IDPs camps to reduce the plight of IDPs in 

Maiduguri, Adamawa and Yobe. Despite the bold initiatives of NEMA, it 

continues to encounter systemic setbacks that challenged its capacity to 

function optimally as an interventionist agency; these setbacks include 

lack of capacity and resources, poor record keeping of the actual number 

of the internally displaced persons, poor delivery and distribution of relief 

materials and diversion of funds and relief materials for private use. 

Types of Climate-Induced Violent Conflicts in the North East 

An important study by Obioha (2008) associated effects of climate change 

in the North East with certain types of violent conflict in the area: 

In the recent times, due to the increasing rate of global warming, the 

northeast region of Nigeria has been experiencing continuous 

climatic change characterized by drastic reduction in rainfall, 

increase in the rate of dryness and heat, which makes it a fast 

growing arid environment, with depletion in the amount of water, 

flora and fauna resources on the land. In response to the pastoral and 

arable farm occupational needs of the people, there has been 

continuous population drift southward where there are more fauna, 

flora and water resources.  

Such southward move, Obioha stated, is responsible “for the conflict 

between Tivs and the pastoral Hausa/Fulani people in June 2001 (IRIN-

WA 18 July 2001). Also in March 2003, many people were killed when a 

group of heavily armed men attacked the town of Dumne, Bornu state in 

northeastern Nigeria.” He said the attack was “not unrelated to a violent 

dispute over grazing land in September 2002 between local people, who 

are mainly farmers, and nomadic herdsmen”. 

In Obioha’s view “The decreasing availability of physical, environmental 



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and land resources such as clean water, good agricultural land for arable 

and animal husbandry could create a condition of ‘simple scarcity’, ‘group 

identity’ and ‘deprivation’ in the area, (Homer-Dixon, 1994) that may 

provoke violent conflicts of high magnitude due to population movements 

and scramble for the available resources.” Specifically, Obioha’s study 

sought to locate “the role of scramble for flora in conflict generation 

among the sedentary arable farmers and the migratory 

herdsmen/pastoralists in the area” and concluded that the “contention is 

either arable land or fresh vegetation grazing land…while the objective 

sort may be for distributive justice…to reinforce group identity or search 

for relief from scarcity when the occasion arises or both”. Obioha (2008) 

identified 11 types of climatically-induced violent conflicts in the North 

East; interestingly, subsequent climate-related conflicts in the area have 

followed the pattern outlined in his typologies table, shown below.  

 

Obioha used his typologies to characterize inter-ethnic violent conflicts 

which took place in the North East in the early 2000s. Those conflicts 

included 2000s Billiri uprising, 2002’s Song crisis and Dumen village 

crisis, and Yelwa/Shendam/Wase crisis of 2003. Others were Demsa, 

Lamurde, Madagali, Bali, and Numan crises of 2005. All of these crises 



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took place long before the Boko Haram insurgency erupted in the area. 

Unlike Boko Haram, these conflicts, and similar communal disturbances 

that subsequently took place, were not primarily caused by religious 

intolerance; rather, they were violent conflicts that arose “over the 

scramble over some types of resources in particular: river water and 

agricultural productive land. These renewable resources by implication 

seem particularly likely to spark conflicts because their scarcity is 

increasing rapidly without commensurate replenishment” (Obioha 2008). 

Such conflicts have generated a large number of internally-displaced 

persons (IDPs) in the area. According to Lawal (2018:53), about 22.5 

million people have been displaced by environment scarcity- and conflict-

related problems since 2008. Negative effects of climate change in the 

North Eastern part of the country continues to shape migration patterns in 

the region (Lawal, 2018), with more and more persons migrating 

southwards in search of arable and grazing land, moves which 

occasionally provoke violent conflicts. According to UNEP (2012), violent 

conflict is likely to occur in communities where environmental scarcity is 

increasingly a critical problem. The UN agency explains that 

environmental scarcity occurs where supply of renewable resources such 

as water, forest, ranchland and croplands are not sufficient to meet the 

demands of those who need them for their occupational or daily survival. 

UNEP further observes that wherever this scenario prevails, the outcome 

would be stiff competition which might lead to violent conflict. 

 Although violent conflicts, as we have shown, can be a direct result of 

environmental scarcity, some conflicts, even when climatically-induced, 

can broaden into ethnic or religious clashes, as they may be used to settle 

long-standing grievances, but this should not cancel the fact that the main 

trigger of the crisis was scarcity of renewable natural resources. So, a 

violent conflict triggered by environmental scarcity can be used by any of 

the warring parties not merely for the purpose of achieving “relief from 

scarcity” or “distributive justice” but also for “reinforcement of group 

identity”. 

Findings and Discussion 

As earlier mentioned, eighteen (18) respondents were selected and 

purposively interviewed from the six (6) states that make up the North 

eastern part of Nigeria, namely, Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba 

and Yobe.  Respondents #5, #6, #7, #1,#2 and #8 categorically stated that 

climate change is largely the cause of environmental scarcity in the North 

Eastern part of  Nigeria. They further maintained that the drying up of 

Lake Chad Basin caused by climate change, and the 2012 opening of the 



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dams that submerged farm lands, made many people vulnerable to harsh 

effects of the climatic crisis. They also said the desert encroachment 

caused by climate change in the north Eastern part of Nigeria is the source 

of farmer-herder clashes that left scores of people displaced and several 

farmlands abandoned.  

Respondents #3, #4, #9, #10, #12, #14, #16, and #18 blamed the situation 

on natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, desertification, gully 

erosions, tidal wind as well as over population; these, they said, dislocated 

the ecosystem in the North East. The respondents further opined that year 

in year out the metrological agency makes predictions/forecast on the 

weather condition and its likely consequences but the Nigeria government 

often failed to take pre-emptive measures. They cited Dubai, a desert 

region, which has now become the tourist heaven of the world. The last set 

of interviewees, respondents #11, #13, #17 and #15, attributed 

environmental scarcity to government’s insensitivity and advised 

government and the metrological agency to work in concert, so as to 

provide remedial measures should there be flood; they also said irrigation 

facilities should be provided for the desert prone north-eastern part of 

Nigeria, and that proper ranching system should be introduced to forestall 

incessant farmer-herder clashes that often led to loss of lives and 

destruction of farm crops and livestock.  

Conclusion 

Environmental scarcity is a major problem confronting developing 

countries, including Nigeria, especially North eastern part of Nigeria. In 

spite of the response of government and international agencies, the 

problem has remained prevalent and devastating, often leading to violent 

conflicts.  The study revealed that environmental scarcity, conflicts and 

insecurity are interrelated in the North Eastern part of Nigeria and 

constitute the direct cause of farmer-herder clashes in the region that have 

disrupted food production, unleashed hunger, killed many people, and left 

thousands of people internally displaced. The study concludes that 

environmental scarcity is an emerging global challenge governmental and 

non-governmental agencies all over the world should frontally address, 

and that the best way to start is to deal with regional hot spots, such as 

Nigeria’s North East, where the problem of environmental scarcity is 

already causing persistent violent conflicts.     

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Conflict over Land Resources in North Eastern Nigeria. Journal of 

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11906084 

Omofonmwan, S & Osa-Edoh, G. (January 2008). The Challenges of 

Environmental Problems in Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 

23(1). DOI:10.1080/09709274.2008.11906054 

Onuoha, C. A, Chinedu, N & Ochekwu, E. (July 2022). Environmental 

Challenges Awareness in Nigeria: A Review. African Journal of 

Environment and Natural Science Research, 5(2):1-14. 

DOI:10.52589/AJENSR-SAIRDC4K 

United Nations Environmental Program (2012) Report. 

 

 

 

Author Information: Dr Livinus Nwaugha is a lecturer 

at Department of Political Science and International Relations, 

Caleb University, Imota , Lagos State, Nigeria. Email: 

livinus.nwaugha@calebuniversity.edu.ng 
 

 

 

 

Banwo A. Irewunmi is of the Department of Political 

Science and International Relations, Caleb University, Imota , 

Lagos State, Nigeria. Email: 

banwo.irewunmi@calebuniversity.edu.ng 
 

 

 

 

Odunusi Kolawole Olu is affiliated to Department of 

Political Science and International Relations, Caleb 

University, Imota , Lagos State, Nigeria. Email: 

 



Global Online Journal of Academic Research (GOJAR), Vol. 3, No. 3 June 2024 

 

 

82 
 

kolabadd@yahoo.com.co.uk 
 

 

 

 
 

APA 

 

Nwaugha, L., Irewunmi, B. A., Olu, O. K. (2024). Environmental 

Scarcity and Violent Conflict in North Eastern Nigeria. Global 

Online Journal of Academic Research (GOJAR), 3(3), 68-82. 

https://klamidas.com/gojar-v3n3-2024-05/. 

 

MLA 

 

Nwaugha, Livinus, Irewunmi, Banwo A., Olu, Odunusi Kolawole. 

“Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict in North Eastern 

Nigeria”. Global Online Journal of Academic Research (GOJAR), 

vol. 3, no. 3, 2024, pp. 68-82. https://klamidas.com/gojar-v3n3-

2024-05/. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


