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 4 

Exploring Gendered Dynamics in Performing Domestic Care Activities 

Marrium Zahra and Dr. Shahla Tabassum 

Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan 

Abstract 

Women’s domestic care work has been overlooked and is considered unproductive. It is 
rarely counted in the domestic, communal, and national economies. This research 
explores the total time men and women spend on domestic care activities the economic 
value they perceive and the market value of these domestic activities. The research 
design of the study is quantitative and uses only the domestic care dimension of the tool 
developed by Tabassum et al. (2023). The total sample of 530 participants, i.e., 170 males 
and 360 females, was selected from the inner areas of Rawalpindi, Pakistan, using simple 
probability random sampling. The results revealed significant gender differences in time 
spent on domestic care activities, with females spending 86,158 hours per month while 
men spent only 16032 hours per month, meaning women spent more than five times more. 
The findings further revealed the perceived economic value by the participants to be 9.76 
million rupees in a month, while the market-based economic value was 20.44 million 
rupees in a month, which is four times higher than the perceived economic value, showing 
the undervaluation of these domestic activities by participants. The study emphasizes the 
need for a more equitable recognition of roles and contributions within the domestic 
sphere and the necessity of redistributing gender roles and reevaluating social 
assumptions regarding the financial and emotional costs involved with these vital 
obligations. 

Keywords: Care, Domestic, Gender, Unpaid, Value, Work 

Background of the study 

Care is a range of activities that promote the well-being of homes and communities. 
Caregiving encompasses direct caregiving for individuals, housework, and unpaid 
community work, including volunteer work and care for friends and neighbors (Maestre & 
Thorpe, 2016). Klein (2021) succinctly underscores that care is not merely a luxury, but 
a necessity, a force that supports and nurtures individuals in their endeavors (Maestre & 
Thorpe, 2015). A gendered narrative emerges within the context of caregiving, revealing 
a stark division. A division that is engraved by societal norms that designate care 
predominantly to women (Klein, 2021). Gendered norms define duties and obligations 
and create conditions that maintain the duality, in which, women and girls provide unpaid 
care for society's well-being (Rost, 2021). Various research studies emphasized a 
significant gender discrepancy in the distribution of time devoted to these domestic care 
activities, wherein women bear the majority of the burden. In their study, Rubiano-
Matulevich, & Viollaz, (2019) stated that on average, women dedicate a considerably 
greater number of hours per week to domestic care responsibilities than men. Dorji et al., 
(2020) also mentioned that women devote twice as much time to unpaid care as men, 

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regardless of their income or family status However, this labor is not a straightforward 
equation; it is a multifaceted interplay of societal dynamics. Dorji et al. (2020) underscore 
the paradox of unpaid care labor, which is concealed behind market transactions, is 
disregarded despite its social value, and yet provides a public benefit that transcends 
economic concerns.  

Women have been neglected and undervalued in the household, community, and/or 
national economy due to their contributions to family domestic labor being treated with 
little respect. This contribution is considered unproductive and has no financial worth. 
Economic surveys fail to recognize and acknowledge women's economic contributions, 
ignoring a large sector of the economy.  This unseen sector is otherwise critical for the 
smooth functioning of a family and has a significant impact on the broader economy 
(Ferrant et al. 2014). 

This invaluable contribution is concealed by hurdles such as unequal distribution, which 
results in time poverty, the invisibility of their efforts, and the weight that jeopardizes their 
well-being. Maestre and Thorpe (2015) provided a detailed account of how pleasure and 
satisfaction can rapidly transition into exhaustion and restriction, thereby further 
entrenching women in societal hierarchies. A contradiction is concealed beneath the 
surface: the capitalist system's dependence on unpaid caregiving, a foundation that 
frequently goes unnoticed. 

The unpaid care work done by women is not limited by geographical boundaries; it 
resonates throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Crisologo (2022) shared the statistics that 
women account for 60% of the 187 million hours spent daily on unpaid activities. This 
gender disparity has a ripple effect on households. It is a testament to the dedication of 
women, as an average of 4 hours and 32 minutes is spent on unpaid care each day, and 
a testament to their resilience in the face of overwhelming responsibilities (UN Women, 
2022). The intricacies of this discourse become increasingly complex as it progresses. 
Unpaid care labor is both a foundation and a constraint for the development of human 
capital, societal participation, and the well-being of women. Dong and An (2014) unravel 
this complex equilibrium, which impedes women's equal participation in the labor market 
due to the burden of care work.  

The economic consequences of unpaid care labor are evident beyond the confines of 
domesticity. Stuart (2014) posits that this labor could represent a significant portion of the 
GDP if it were assigned a monetary value, a hidden treasure that is yet to be recognized. 
It is a realization that encourages policymakers and experts to imagine a world in which 
caregiving is not confined by gender. A vision in which male involvement is encouraged, 
and in which the potential of women is not restricted by care labor, but rather enhanced 
by their societal engagement. As Folbre (2006) emphasizes, a comprehensive 
comprehension is achieved: the cost of care includes debts and sacrifices, as well as 
profound bonds, intrinsic satisfaction, and invaluable services for dependents.  

The dimension of unpaid labor, which has been neglected, is given prominence in this 
economic and societal context (Picchio, 2017). It is an essential element, a propelling 

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force that supports both economies and households. It reflects the multifaceted roles that 
women play, as Singh and Pattanaik (2020) reveal the complex interplay of restrictions, 
choices, and vocations that propel women into this field. The complex interplay of 
caregiving and its gendered subtleties becomes apparent when society expectations 
clash with personal ambitions, which are elaborately shaped by factors like age, marital 
status, family size, as well as caste, and religious background (Samantroy & Giri, 2015). 
Care is a thread that unites lives, communities, and ecosystems within the intricate 
tapestry of existence. Unpaid care labor predominantly performed by women, is an 
unquestionably vital yet underappreciated force, from its gendered division to its societal 
implications. By acknowledging and valuing the contributions of women to the care 
industry, it may be possible to prevent social and gender inequality in the development of 
sustainable communities. 

Research Questions 

The following are the research questions of the study: 

• How much time do men and women spend on domestic care activities? 
• How do men and women perceive the economic value of domestic care activity? 
• What is the market-based economic value of domestic care activities? 

Methodology 

This study adopts a quantitative research design to explore and find out the types of tasks 
men and women perform in the household and also the time spent on each activity in the 
old city of Rawalpindi. The target population comprised the residents of Rawalpindi of one 
union council No.38 and the locality of ‘Rehmat Abad’. Using a non-probability purposive 
sampling technique, 530 participants took part in this study.  Out of the 530 sampled 
participants 300 were from Union Council No.38 and 200 from ‘Rehmat Abad’. 
Additionally, data were collected from specific subgroups, like 100 pregnant women, a 
sample of 100 female participants from different paid working categories like public sector 
primary school teachers, Lady Health Workers (LHWs), and domestic workers, and the 
remaining 300 from the males and females from the selected communities. 

The data for the current study was collected through the survey method by using a 
questionnaire developed by Tabassum et al., (2023) in their recent study on ‘Measuring 
Women’s Contribution in Care Economy: Constructing Survey Based Indexed 
Questionnaire’. The Questionnaire consists of five dimensions namely child care, elderly 
care, domestic care, and the care of persons with special needs, and one additional 
component i.e., reproductive care. Only one dimension i.e., domestic care dimension was 
included. The collected data was entered using the software SPSS (Statistical Package 
for Social Sciences). Ethical considerations were paramount throughout the study. Before 
data collection, participants were fully informed about the purpose of the study and 
informed consent was obtained ensuring their voluntary participation. Participants' 
identities were kept confidential, and their responses were anonymized to protect their 

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privacy. Data were stored safely and only authorized researchers have access to this 
data. The researchers were mindful of their own biases and preconceptions, ensuring 
that these did not influence the data collection process or analysis. 

Calculation of economic value 

Following the study of Suh (2021), the economic value of domestic care activities is 
measured as: 

𝑉 =#
!

"#$

[𝐷"𝑓"(𝐻" ∗ 60 +𝑀")/60] ∗ 𝑊% 	 

Where V is the total economic value of all respondents for performing composite domestic 
and care activity, 

𝐷" = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓	𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠	𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑	𝑎	𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛	𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠	𝑖𝑛	𝑎	𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ	𝑏𝑦	𝑎	𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 

𝑓" = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦	𝑜𝑓	𝑑𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔	𝑎	𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛	𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 

𝐻" = 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠	𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡	𝑜𝑛	𝑎	𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛	𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦	𝑖𝑛	𝑎	𝑑𝑎𝑦 

𝑀" = 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠	𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡	𝑜𝑛	𝑎	𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛	𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦	𝑖𝑛	𝑎	𝑑𝑎𝑦 

𝑊% = 𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒	𝑝𝑒𝑟	ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟	 

The wage rate for calculating the economic value for domestic care activities is 
considered the minimum wage i.e., 32 thousand (w.e.f. July 2023, as announced by the 
Government of Punjab).  

A worker is required 40 hours to work in a week, using the minimum wage, we’ve 
converted per hour wage using the formula below: 

𝑊% =
32000	𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚	𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒	𝑖𝑛	𝑎	𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ	

(40 ∗ 4)	ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠	𝑖𝑛	𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ = 153.85	𝑅𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑠	𝑝𝑒𝑟	ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 

Results and discussion 

This part of the study describes the major findings. Following are the details, 

Table 1:  

Descrip(ve Sta(s(cs of quan(ta(ve aspects of demographics 

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Variables Obs. Mean Stand. Dev. Minimum Maximum 

Age (years) 530 33.5 10 17 65 

Monthly household income 

(in rupees)  

530 45,214 28583 2000 200000 

Education of respondents  530 8.7 4.9 0 18 

Total time spent in 24 hours  530 7.2 4.3 0 20 

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics of quantitative aspects of participants. The mean age 
of participants is 33.5 years, with a minimum and maximum of 17 and 65 years 
respectively. The monthly income of a household varies from Rs. 2000 to Rs. 200000. 
The education of participants has an average of 9 years of schooling, with a maximum of 
18 years of education. The average time spent on domestic care work is 7.2 hours a day, 
with a minimum of zero hours and a maximum of 20 hours a day. 

Table 2:  

Descriptive Statistics of qualitative aspects of demographics 

Variables Obs. Category Frequency Percentage  

Gender  530 Male 170 32 

Female 360 68 

Marital Status 530 Never married  48 09 

Married 437 83 

Divorced  43 08 

Widowed  2 0.4 

Employment Status 530 Employed  186 35 

Not working 270 51 

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Self-employed  74 14 

Family System  530 Nuclear 230 44 

Joint 300 56 

Type of household 

earners  

530 Dual earner 267 50.5 

Single male earner 223 42 

Single female earner  40 7.5 

Feeling while doing 

these activities  

530 Fresh  46 8.7 

Better 80 15 

Fine 150 28.3 

Fatigued  203 38.4 

Drained  51 9.6 

Table 2 depicts gender, marital status, family system, types of household earners, and 
overall feelings of participants for performing domestic care activities. The gender-wise 
representation of participants shows 32% males and 68% females. The majority of 
participants were married (i.e., 83%), followed by never married and divorced (9% and 8% 
respectively) and the least is widowed which is less only 0.4%. The employment status 
of participants includes 35% employed, 51% unemployed, and 14% self-employed. The 
types of household earners include dual earners 50.5%, single male earners, 42% and 
single female earners 7.5%. 38.4% of participants feel fatigued while doing domestic care 
work, followed by fine with 28.3% and 15% of participants feeling better. Out of the total, 
9.6% responded to being drained and only 8.7% felt fresh in doing domestic care activities. 

Time spent on domestic care activities 

The following section covers the gender differences in the time spent on domestic care 
activities: 

Figure 1: 

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Mean gender di*erences in time spent per day on domestic care activities 

Figure 1 shows the mean time spent per day by males and females in different domestic 
care activities. It reveals that females spend around 9 hours a day on average on 
domestic care activities. Whereas males spend 3.4 hours on average on domestic care 
activities out of 24 hours. It is pertinent to mention that females spend almost three times 
more time spending on domestic care activities than males. 

Figure 2:   

Gender difference in (me spent per month on cleaning ac(vi(es in domes(c care 

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Figure 2 shows the gender differences in spending time based on several hours in a 
month on cleaning of house and washing utensils. Females spend more time cleaning of 
house and washing utensils 64.8 and 31.8 hours in a month whereas males spend time 
only 14.7 and 11.2 hours in a month. Various research studies emphasized a significant 
gender discrepancy in the distribution of time devoted to these domestic care activities, 
wherein women bear the majority of the burden (Rubiano-Matulevich, & Viollaz, 2019). 

Figure 3:  

Gender difference in (me spent on preparing and serving different meals to family and guests 

 

14.7
11.2

64.8

31.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Cleaning of the house Washing utensils

N
o.

 o
f H

ou
rs

 in
 a

 M
on

th

Activities

Male Female

9.2 9.9

16.8

6.8

2019.2

25.9

30.1

18

23.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Making breakfast Preparing lunch Preparing dinner Serving meal Serving guest

N
o.

 o
f H

ou
rs

 in
 a

 M
on

th

Activities

Male Female

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Figure 3 reveals time spending based on number of hours in a month on preparing food 
and serving meals to the family and guests. Females spend more time for preparing 
dinner, followed by lunch, and then making breakfast as 30.1, 25.9 and 19.2 hours on 
average in a month. Whereas males spend 16.8, 9.9, and 9.2 hours per month on average 
for preparing dinner, lunch, and breakfast. The time for serving meal is 18 and 6.8 hours 
in a month for females and males respectively. While serving guest, females spend 23.9 
hours and males spend 20 hours per month. The results are similar to the study 
conducted in 2008 by Fontana and Natali that discovered, women in Tanzania dedicated 
three times more time than males to caregiving and household chores. 

Figure 4:  

Gender difference in (me spent on washing, and ironing clothes in domes(c care ac(vi(es 

 

Figure 4 shows the time spent based on the number of hours in a month on washing, 
ironing, and mending of clothes by males and females. Females spend more time in each 
activity that is 15, 10.5 and 8.2 hours in one month as compared to males who spend 5.1, 
6.1, and 1.2 hours per month. The results are supported by the ILO report (2018) that 
mentioned that regardless of demographic or cultural contexts, women devote 
significantly more hours per week to unpaid care work than males. 

Figure 5:  

Gender difference in (me spent per month on shopping for domes(c care ac(vi(es 

5.1
6.1

1.2

15

10.5

8.2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Washing and drying clothes Ironing Mending of clothes

N
o.

 o
f H

ou
rs

 in
 a

 M
on

th

Activities

Male Female

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Figure 5 highlights time spend based on number of hours in a month for shopping. It 
reveals that males spent substantially larger amount of time in a month as compared to 
females. These activities comprise of doing groceries, shopping household 
supplies/appliances, personal shopping and travel related to household maintenance and 
shopping. Males spend 11, 5.5, 5 and 22.8 hours in one month while females spend 8.4, 
5.8, 8.6 and 14.3 hours per month for the sequence of above-mentioned activities. It is 
very much evident from Pakistani culture where mobility of women is restricted, therefore 
males spent more time on shopping than females. While the time spent for shopping of 
household personal shopping by females outweighs than males. 

Figure 6:  

Gender difference in (me spent on collec(on of household supplies for domes(c care ac(vi(es 

 

11

5.5 5

22.8

8.4

5.8

8.6

14.3

0

5

10

15

20

25

Buying groceries Shopping household
supplies/appliances

Personal shopping Travel related to
household maintenance,

and shopping

N
o.

 o
f H

ou
rs

 in
 a

 M
on

th

Activities

Male Female

6

13

3.3

10.1

0

5

10

15

Fuel collection Fetching water

N
o.

 o
f H

ou
rs

 in
 a

 M
on

th

Activities

Male Female

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Figure 6 shows time spend based on number of hours in a month on collection of 
household supplies for domestic care. These activities (consisting of fuel collection and 
fetching water) are related to outdoor activities. Males are spending 6 and 13 hours in a 
month while females are not much far from males, they are spending 3.3 and 10.1 hours 
per month for fuel collection and fetching water in urban context of Pakistan. 

Figure 7:  

Gender difference in (me spent per month on livestock management and gardening 

 

Figure 7 reveals time spend based on hours in a month on livestock management and 
gardening. The figure highlighted that females are more inclined towards gardening as 
they spend 17.2 hours per month on it while males are spending 12.2 hours on these 
activities. The time spent on taking care of livestock is dominantly by males than females 
that is 30.3 and 13.2 hours per month in an urban setting of Pakistan. 

Figure 8:  

Gender difference in total (me spent on different dimensions of domes(c care ac(vi(es 

30.3

13.213.2

18.2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Livestock management Gardening

N
um

be
r o

f h
ou

rs
 in

 a
 m

on
th

Activities

Gender difference in livestock managment and gardening

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Figure 8 illustrates the gender difference in time spent based on the number of hours per 
month on different activities of domestic care. Females spend the most time on preparing 
food and serving meals to the family and guests, followed by cleaning of house, washing 
and ironing of clothes, shopping, livestock management and gardening, and collection of 
household supplies. The quantum for this domestic care is: 34194.2, 32755.08, 10178.42, 
5179.03, 3083.67, 767.43 hours for one month. Male spent the highest time on shopping 
(6115.15 hours), followed by preparing food and serving meals/guest (4355.22 hours), 
cleaning of house (1766.72 hours), livestock management (1620.32 hours), collection of 
household supplies (1434.57 hours) and washing/ironing of clothes (730.33 hours) per 
month. It is understandable that male spent higher time than females on the dimension 
of domestic care which are related to activities outside of house (i.e., shopping, collection 
of household supplies, livestock management). On the other hand, the activities related 
to indoor tasks including cleaning of house, preparing food, washing/ironing clothes and 
even gardening, females dominate in spending higher time than males. These results are 
supported by the study conducted Arora (2015) that analyzed data on time allocation in 
Mozambique and discovered that males dedicate around 1.5 hours per day to household 
duties, but women spend over five times as much time, namely 7.6 hours (Dhungel, 2022; 
Rios-Avila, et al., 2021). 

Figure 9:  

Gender difference in total (me per month spent on domes(c care ac(vi(es 

17
66

.7
2

43
55

.2
2

73
0.

33

61
15

.1
5

14
34

.5
7

16
20

.3
2

32
75

5.
08

34
19

4.
2

10
17

8.
42

51
79

.0
3

76
7.

43 30
83

.6
7

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

Cleaning of
house

Preparing foods
and serving
meals/guests

Washing and
Ironing Clothes

Shopping Collection of
household
supplies

Livestock
management and

gardening

N
um

be
r o

f h
ou

rs
 in

 a
 m

on
th

Domains of Domestic Care

Males Males

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Figure 9 shows the total time spent by males and females in different 19 domestic care 
activities in a month. It reveals that females spend around 86158 hours in total in a month 
on domestic care activities. Whereas males spend 16032 hours in total on domestic care 
activities in a month. It is pertinent to mention that females spend almost more than 5 
times higher time spending on domestic care activities than males. 

Economic Value of Domestic Care 

Figure 10:  

16032

86158

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

100000

Total time

H
ou

rs
 in

 a
 m

on
th

Total time spent in a month
Males Females

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Gender difference in economic value of different dimensions of domes(c care ac(vi(es

 

Figure 10 illustrates the economic value of various domestic care activities, as perceived 
and determined by the market. For women, the perceived economic value of cleaning the 
house is 1.76 million rupees per month, while for males, it is 1.55 million rupees. However, 
the actual market-based value of female economic value (5.04 million rupees) which is 
higher than the perceived value, indicating that females are undervaluing their 
contributions. The perceived economic value of the preparation and serving food is 3.45 
million rupees for females and 2.96 million rupees for males per month. In contrast, the 
market-based economic value for women is significantly higher (6.03 million rupees), 
indicating that they are undervaluing their responsibilities. Conversely, the value for men 
is low (0.67 million rupees), indicating that they highly value their contributions to domestic 
tasks. The perceived value of washing and ironing clothes is higher for women than for 
men (1.73 million rupees versus 1.50 million rupees per month), while the market-based 
economic value is higher for women (1.57 million rupees versus 0.11 million rupees per 
month). This indicates that males place a high value on their role in the washing and 
ironing of clothes. The perceived economic value for household shopping is 1.61 million 
rupees for males and 1.69 million rupees for females while the market based economic 
value for household shopping is 0.94 and 0.80 million rupees for males and females 
respectively. This indicates that both males and females’ priorities their contribution. In 
the similar manner, collection of household supplies, the perceived economic value for 

1.
55

1.
76

0.
27

5.
04

2.
96

3.
45

0.
67

6.
03

1.
50

1.
73

0.
11

1.
57

1.
61

1.
69

0.
94

0.
80

0.
29

0.
30

0.
22

0.
12

0.
38

0.
43

0.
19

0.
47

0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00

Male

Female

Male

Female

Pe
rc

ei
ve

d 
Ec

on
om

ic
 V

al
ue

M
ar

ke
t b

as
ed

 e
co

no
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ic
 v

al
ue

Million Rupees in a Month

Gender difference in economic value of different dimensions domestic care 
activities

Cleaning of house

Preparaing & serving food

Washing & Ironing of clothes

Shopping

Collecting household supplies

Livestock management & gardening

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females is 0.30 and 0.29 million rupees for males. While the market based economic 
value calculated for the same activities for females is 0.12 and 0.22 million rupees for 
males. This shows that participants prioritize their involvement in these activities. The last 
activities of livestock management, perceived economic value for females is 0.43 million 
rupees and 0.38 million rupees for males per month. While the market-based economic 
value for these activities for females is 0.47 and 0.19 million rupees for males. A lot of 
researches indicate that caregiving activities are frequently under value in terms of 
financial recognition and compensation to females (Kolovich, et al., 2024; Maestre, & 
Thorpe, 2016; Grimshaw, & Rubery, 2007). This has been mentioned that the reasons 
behind this gender disparity is due to traditional associated activities which are neglected 
and male-dominated in major societies and industries of the world (Oxfam, 2020). 

Figure 11 

Gender difference in total economic value of domes(c care ac(vi(es 

 

 

Figure 11 shows the total economic value for 19 domestic care activities by males and 
females in a month. For females the total economic value of all these activities worth 
14.03 million Pakistani rupees while for male, the economic wroth is 2.4 million Pakistani 
rupees in a month based on 19 domestic care activities which are calculated on the 
minimum wage rate of workers on a monthly basis. 

Conclusion 

2.4

14.03

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Economic Value

M
ill

io
n 

Ru
pe

es
 in

 a
 m

on
th

Total Economic value
Males Females

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Domestic care responsibilities between men and women are not equally shared in 
Pakistani society but there is a huge disparity between them to perform these activities. 
There are 19 domestic care activities that are measured in the urban context of Pakistan. 
The average daily commitment of males to these activities is 3.4 hours per day, which is 
significantly lower than that of women, who perform approximately 9 hours per day on 
these activities. The total time spent by females is more than 86000 hours per month as 
compared to males, this time spent is 16000 hours per month. The economic value 
calculated against these activities for females is 14.03 million Pakistani rupees while the 
economic value for males is 2.4 million Pakistani rupees per month. This shows a 
significant gender difference based on the government per month minimum wage for 
workers. Despite this gender-based disparity, unpaid caregiving labor remains a critical 
component of society, providing maintenance to communities and individual lives. 
Addressing this gender disparity is important to promote sustainable development, 
enhance social well-being, and to promote gender equality. To achieve this objective, it 
is essential to encourage male involvement in caregiving responsibilities and ensure that 
caregiving responsibilities are organized in a manner that facilitates women's participation 
in society, rather than impedes it. It is imperative that we acknowledge and provide 
support for the valuable contributions of women in the care industry to create a more 
sustainable, inclusive, and equitable future for all. 

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Author Notes 

Marrium Zahra is a dedicated professional with a strong academic background in 
Gender Studies, holding an MPhil degree from Fatima Jinnah Women University, 
Rawalpindi Pakistan. She has extensive experience in project coordination, research, 
and community engagement, focusing on gender-related issues mainly Girls Education, 
human trafficking, and unpaid Care Work. Marrium has worked as a Program Officer, 
Project Co-lead, and Research Associate on various research projects. She has 
expertise in qualitative and quantitative research, data analysis, and thematic analysis 
using MAXQDA and SPSS. She is committed to advancing gender equality through 
research, community engagement, and education. 

Dr. Shahla Tabassum is an accomplished academic and researcher, currently serving 
as the Head of the Department of Gender Studies at Fatima Jinnah Women University 
(FJWU), Rawalpindi, Pakistan. With a career spanning over three decades, she has 
significantly contributed to the field of Gender Studies through her teaching, research, 
and consultancy, and has been an active advocate for gender equality and women’s 
rights. 

She has led several research projects and publications, focusing on topics like women’s 
contributions in the care economy, women in digital spaces, sexual harassment, rape 
survivors and girls’ education. Additionally, Dr. Tabassum has worked as a consultant 
and trainer on feminist research methodologies, aiming to promote inclusivity and 
equality in Pakistan. Dr. Tabassum has received several honors, including the Fatima 
Jinnah Award for Research Productivity and nominations for the Global Partners in 
Education Award. 

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