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An Innovative Way to Teach Comparative Cultural Theory:  

A Descriptive Study at a Peruvian University 

 
Mariella Olivos Rossini & Stella Tippin de Malpica 

 
Universidad ESAN, Lima, Peru 

 
Abstract 

 
One common problem Global Understanding (GU) instructors face is 
teaching students how to critically analyze the similarities and 
differences between cultures. Comparative cultural theorists like Geert 
Hofstede have provided frameworks that help students learn to process 
and categorize these similarities and differences, but their theories can 
often seem abstract and divorced from the practical life of 21st century 
students. However, Universidad ESAN in Lima, Peru has developed an 
experiential learning methodology to help students understand and 
apply comparative cultural theory, as well as use quantitative and 
qualitative research methods, experience data collection and analysis, 
and work together in international virtual teams. For the past three 
semesters, GU students at ESAN have been assigned the task of 
developing and applying an exploratory questionnaire based on one of 
Hofstede's cultural dimensions, teaching their GU partners in three 
other countries about their assigned dimension, helping those partners 
apply the questionnaire in their own countries and then comparatively 
analyzing the results together with their partners at an exploratory 
level. The result has been increased comprehension of comparative 
cultural theory, heightened interest in research and data collection and 
greater, more applicable experiences of mediated collaboration via 
virtual teams. 

 
Introduction 

 
Educators who desire to ensure their students’ full comprehension of course subject 
matter must seek out ways to make that information interesting and relevant to the 
students in their classes. Especially in a 21st century context full of digital 
distractions, this often implies the use of technology and a practical, hands-on 
approach instead of the traditional reading-and-lecture-centered pedagogical 
paradigm so common in the past (Schwieger & Ladwig, 2018; Stern, 2014; Cilliers, 
2017; DuPlessis & Smit, 2014). According to Schweiger and Ladwig’s 2018 meta-
analysis on the most effective ways to attract and retain students in the 
contemporary classroom, teachers and professors who can successfully integrate a 
learning-by-doing methodology that includes digital aspects often find their 
Generation Z students are more engaged and interested in the class than they 
otherwise would be. 
 

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In 2017, Global Understanding professors at Universidad ESAN in Lima, Peru found 
themselves trying to teach students about comparative cultural theory, specifically 
about cultural dimensions, which are abstract, theoretical concepts, by using 
traditional methods. While these attempts met with mild success, the professors 
observed that deep comprehension of the subject matter was lacking: students were 
exhibiting only a superficial understanding of the theories being taught and did not 
display a deeper interest in those theories. In order to solve this problem, the 
professors decided to modify the way the theories were being taught in a way that 
would impact not only their students at ESAN but also students across the Global 
Partners in Education network. 
 

Case Context 
 
Global Partners in Education is an organization that exists, among other purposes, to 
facilitate multilateral cooperation between about 45 universities from around two 
dozen countries in all parts of the world (Global Partners in Education, n.d.; Global 
Partners in Education, 2018). GPE member universities take part in the Global 
Understanding (GU) Program, which matches member university GU classes with 
two or three other GU classes from different regions of the world per semester to 
participate in a series of videoconferencing “links” that last about three to four weeks 
each. During the links, students from the two countries have meaningful discussions 
regarding important aspects of culture and society: university life, family and cultural 
traditions, the meaning of life and religion, and stereotypes and prejudice (Global 
Partners in Education, n.d.; Global Partners in Education, 2017). In the last session 
of every link, pairs of students, one partner from each of the linking universities, 
present collaborative projects that they have developed regarding their cultural 
similarities and differences. According to the GPE website, the GU program is 
designed so that it “helps students better understand both themselves and their 
place in the world as well as how to understand, respect and effectively collaborate 
with individuals from diverse cultures” (Global Partners in Education, n.d.). 
 
Universidad ESAN has been a part of the GPE network since 2009. As is common 
for universities participating in GU, the GU class sessions not spent in 
videoconferencing links with partner universities are usually focused on having 
students learn background information about their own culture and the cultures of the 
countries the partner universities for that semester are located in so that the students 
will be able to make a comparison of the cultures and understand their similarities 
and differences. One way for GU professors to help facilitate the comparison 
between cultures is through the teaching of comparative cultural theories, such as 
the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede (1980), Hall (1976) and Trompenaars 
(1996). While the theoretical frameworks developed by these scholars definitely help 
students compare Peruvian culture to other cultures, many times students find the 
theories themselves very abstract and hard to understand. In order to solve this 
problem, GU professors at ESAN developed a methodology to help teach cultural 
dimensions through experiential learning and comparative research. 
 

Review of the Literature 
 
Social psychologist Geert Hofstede is well-known for developing a theoretical model 
for explaining the differences in national cultures that includes various “dimensions” 

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that purport to measure aspects of culture (2011). Cultural dimensions, according to 
Olivos (2016), are manifestations of culture that define “the inner elements of culture 
composed of orientation patterns” (p.). The dimensions Hofstede described include 
the following: Individualism versus Collectivism, which deals with the locus of human 
identity and people’s level of integration in social groups (Hofstede, 2011); 
Masculinity versus Femininity, which refers to whether gender roles are more 
differentiated and synthesized into society or they are the same for all people 
(Hofstede, G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. 2010); Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-
Term Orientation, which refers to whether people are oriented to be more pragmatic 
or more normative (Hofstede, G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. 2010); Uncertainty 
Avoidance Index, which refers to the how stressed people feel when in uncertain 
situations (Hofstede, 2011); and Power Distance, which refers to how much society 
is willing to accept centralized and hierarchical power structures (Hofstede, G., 
Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. 2010). 
 
Experiential learning, defined by the Association for Experiential Education (n.d.), “is 
a teaching philosophy that informs many methodologies in which educators 
purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in 
order to increase knowledge [and] develop skills.” Stern (2014) notes the importance 
of getting students outside the classroom and experimenting, reflecting on mistakes 
and turning to peers for suggestions on how to improve their ideas. Moreover, 
Wurdinger (2010) indicates that active learning and project-based learning can bring 
about enhanced results in the 21st century classroom, specifically. Schwieger & 
Ladwig (2018) indicate that classroom projects are especially attractive to the current 
generation of students and help them to “gain hands-on experience, as well as 
develop […] collaborative and group centered work skills, analytical [skills], problem 
solving, the ability to follow-through, coping, as well as oral and written 
communication skills” (p. 51). Clearly from the literature, experiential learning is ideal 
for 21st century students. 
 
Working in virtual teams is an increasingly common phenomenon, both in academia 
and in the professional world (Smith, 2014), related to the rise of experiential 
learning in the field of education (Schwieger & Ladwig, 2018). Educational 
researchers are increasingly recommending more online elements that might even, 
in certain cases, draw from models used in social networking in order to maximize 
student learning in the 21st century (DuPlessis & Smit, 2014; Cilliers, 2017; 
Schwieger & Ladwig, 2018). Cilliers (2017) says that, because current students are 
already familiar with virtual environments, which many of them have participated 
since they were old enough to hold a cell phone or tablet, they “expect a teaching 
environment in which they can interact in a similar way they do in their virtual worlds 
[which involves] replacing ‘communication’  with ‘interaction’” (p. 195). This is 
because current college students are technically-oriented, pragmatic, experiential, 
and skill-focused, as well as avid social media users (Schwieger & Ladwig, 2018), all 
traits which imply that an experiential learning approach utilizing virtual teams would 
be effective to teach them. Specifically, Bremser & Olivos (2017), who studied online 
interactions between German and Peruvian students, report that virtual teams, due 
to their low cost, efficiency and ease of use, are an ideal vehicle for allowing 
students to engage in cultural comparison. 
 

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Therefore, the theses of ESAN’s GU professors when designing a new, experiential 
learning methodology to teach cultural dimensions were the following: First, teaching 
students about cultural dimensions through experiential learning would help them 
understand complex, abstract theories. Second, teaching students about cultural 
dimensions through experiential learning would help them understand quantitative 
and qualitative research methods. Third, teaching students about cultural dimensions 
through experiential learning would help them understand how to work in virtual 
teams at a more sophisticated level than working with the traditional collaborative 
project presentation topics would. 
 

Research Method 
 
To implement an experiential learning methodology in their classes, GU professors 
at ESAN in 2018 first introduced Hofstede’s cultural dimensions on the first day of 
the semester. In the first or second week of class, students were asked to form pairs 
and choose one of the cultural dimensions they had been introduced to. The class 
was then given a practical lecture on questionnaire construction, and, after that 
lecture, each pair of students researched its selected cultural dimension in depth and 
composed an initial version of a questionnaire with three sections: a demographic 
information section with questions regarding subjects such as age and gender, a 
quantitative section composed of items measured on a five-point Likert scale 
designed to measure respondents’ orientation regarding the dimension at hand and 
a qualitative section composed of open questions designed to help explain why 
people responded to the quantitative items the way they did.1 The demographic 
questions were the same for all student pairs in each class. (See Table 1 for an 
example questionnaire from the second semester of 2018.) 
 
After developing their initial questionnaires, each pair of students was asked to test 
its questionnaire in class with classmates in order to detect items that needed to be 
edited or modified in order to be clearer or to elicit a more relevant response. This 
process produced a second version of the questionnaires, which the students then 
posted to a forum in the virtual classroom on the university’s digital platform. 
Students were asked to give specific and descriptive feedback and constructive 
criticism to one another regarding their questionnaires and then edit their 
questionnaires a second time based on their classmates’ comments. After this step, 
they turned in a third version of their questionnaire to their professor, who made any 
remaining minor, necessary changes in order to ensure questionnaire clarity and 
focus. 
Table 1 
Example Student Questionnaire on Hofstede’s Power Distance Dimension 
 

                                                           
1 The exact demographic questions and the number of questions in the quantitative and qualitative 
sections varied based on the semester. For example, students in the first semester of 2018 were 
required to include 10 quantitative items and 10 qualitative questions, and their demographic 
questions focused on gender, age, education level, size of childhood city, race, and religion. Students 
in the second semester of 2018, in contrast, had to include 10 quantitative items and only 5 qualitative 
questions, and the demographic questions on race and religion were omitted. 

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(Students from Section S-003 of Global Understanding, Universidad ESAN, second 
semester of 2018). 
 
 
Once the final questionnaires were ready, each pair of students was asked to use its 
questionnaire to interview ten Peruvian respondents: five women and five men of 
varying ages and backgrounds. Students were asked to record their respondents’ 
answers in the way they saw fit: with a pencil in a notebook, in Excel on a laptop or 
with the voice recording application of a cell phone. Liberty was given regarding the 
recording method, but students were asked to accurately and faithfully record their 
respondents’ ideas and opinions. 
 
Once the solicited data had been gathered, students were asked to analyze their 
results in Excel or a similar computer program. They needed to look for patterns in 
the quantitative data: what was their respondents’ overall “score” in their cultural 

Demographic Questions 
 
1. What is your gender?    2. What is your age? 
   
Male      From 18 to 26 From 36 to 44 
Female      From 27 to 35 45 or older  
   
3. What is the highest level of education  4. Where did you spend most of your years 
you have attained?    growing up? 
   
Unfinished high school    A rural area A medium-sized city 
Some university or technical school training  A small town A large urban metropolis 
University or technical school graduate   
Postgraduate studies   

Likert-Scale Questions 
 

For the purpose of this research, please rate the following statements on the following scale of 1 to 5. You may explain your 
answers if you would like. 
 
5 Strongly agree  4 Agree   3 Neutral/Neither disagree or agree 2 Disagree 1 Strongly disagree 
 
1. It is better for a group to have one clear leader as opposed to many people making decisions. 
2. When I have to make a decision, I usually ask for acceptance from my boss, teacher or parents. 
3. I would rather address my boss or teacher in a formal way as opposed to using his or her first name. 
4. Due to their position, managers and supervisors must receive more privileges than their subordinates. 
5. It is easier to fit into an organization when people precisely know everyone's place and role. 
6. We must follow the rules at the university or at work without questioning them. 
7. The best type of educational system does not encourage students to express their personal opinions through debates. 
8. Society’s rules are good because they help maintain the social order. 
9. A company should not have different levels of autonomy depending on the department. 
10. I usually have a great deal of respect for my teachers or bosses due to the positions they hold. 
 

Open Questions 
 
1. How involved should everyday citizens be in the way our country is run? Can you give an example of ideal political 
participation? Why do you feel this way? 
 
2. Some companies are very hierarchical in the way decisions are made, and other companies ask all employees for a lot input 
in the decision-making process. What do you think the ideal decision-making model for a company is? Why do you feel this 
way? Can you give an example of how companies should make decisions? 
 
3. When elections take place, do you think that everyone should be required to vote, or should voting be optional? Why do you 
feel this way? 
 
4. How do you think the clothing that workers wear affects their performance at work? Would it be better to wear casual clothes 
or formal clothes at work? Why do you feel that way? 
 
5. Some people feel that from an early age, children should be encouraged to express their opinions and defend their positions. 
What do you think about this idea? Why do you have that opinion? 

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dimension? Also, did any item receive especially strong responses? Were there any 
patterns to be seen regarding gender, age, or other demographic factors? Students 
also needed to look for patterns in the qualitative data: what sorts of explanations did 
respondents give for their ideas? Were the same sort of explanations offered by all 
respondents, or did their explanations vary based on gender, age, or other 
demographic factors? How might these explanations also shed light on the 
quantitative data obtained? 
 
After students had analyzed the Peruvian results of the questionnaires, ESAN’s GU 
professors asked each of their two to three GU partner professors for the semester 
if, for the link’s collaborative projects, their students could apply their ESAN partners’ 
questionnaires in their own countries. If the partner professors were amenable to this 
idea, each pair of ESAN students was responsible for explaining their cultural 
dimension and questionnaire to their collaborative project partner(s) at the partnering 
institution. They also needed to answer any questions their partners had regarding 
how to select respondents and use the questionnaire to carry out interviews. Once 
their partners collected data for their own country, the ESAN students helped them 
analyze the results and look for patterns in the data. 
 
In each collaborative project presentation carried out in this way, student groups 
presented the data for their respective countries and compared the results of the 
questionnaire for Peru and for the partnering country, focusing on general patterns 
(i.e., which country had a higher level of the dimension than the other, according to 
the quantitative section of the questionnaire), on specific patterns (e.g., if there were 
similar relationships between gender or age and the ways respondents answered 
questions) and on explanations given in response to the qualitative questions in both 
countries. After comparing the results, an analysis was given and the research 
assessed: were findings similar to what Hofstede and his colleagues discovered 
decades ago, or were there significant differences in the two sets of data? If there 
were differences, students were encouraged to hypothesize regarding reasons for 
those differences: were they different most likely due to problems in questionnaire 
design, due to students’ un-honed interviewing skills, due to differences in sample 
between countries2 or differences between the 20th century researchers’ and the 21st 
century students’ sample3? Was there probable cause to believe that cultural change 
had occurred over time, making Hofstede’s data outdated? 
 
A teaching model framework created by Fayole & Gailly (2008) serves to explain the 
logic of teaching comparative cultural theory through the methodology explained 
above (Figure 1). 
 
 
 
 
 
 

                                                           
2 As in some partner universities, students interviewed only their classmates or sometimes 9 men and 
1 woman: samples which differed from their Peruvian partners’ more diverse sample. 
3 As Hofstede’s sample consisted of mostly male IBM employees in 1970s, which is not necessarily 
comparable to the sample of 5 men and 5 women of diverse ages interviewed by the students in 
2018. 

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Figure 1 
Teaching Model Framework 

 

 
 

(Fayole & Gailly, 2008) 
 
In this case, the audience would be student participants in the GU program (“For 
whom?”), the content would be Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (“What?”), the goal 
would be to enhance and deepen student learning of the theoretical model (“Why?”) 
through the use of a questionnaire that inquires about the target culture in terms of 
behavior, values, customs and preferences (“How?”) that, in turn, reflect the cultural 
dimensions of the Hofstede model. The outcome (“For which results?”) is assessed 
and evaluated to confirm two facts: the students’ ability to grasp the essence of the 
theory and to confirm with the responses to their questionnaires and the comparison 
with other countries’ responses the characteristics of the cultures being studied.  
 

Results 
 
The results of this exploratory, descriptive study were obtained throughout each 
semester and at the end of each semester. Students’ behavior and informal 
feedback provided valuable insight into their learning progress and learning process 
with the experiential learning methodology used in their classes. First of all, students 
did report at the end of the semester via informal feedback that they felt they had 
learned a lot about cultural dimensions because of the research they had carried out. 
Out of necessity, each pair of students had become the classroom “experts” on its 
chosen dimension through reading about that dimension and through conducting 
firsthand research regarding it: writing and editing a questionnaire, applying the 
questionnaire, and analyzing the results for four different countries. Additionally, in 
the end, after watching one another present on their respective cultural dimensions 
on three separate occasions, it can be said that students were also secure that they 
understood one another’s assigned cultural dimensions and not only their own. Test 
results confirmed their enhanced comprehension of target material. 
 
Second, constructing, editing, and applying their research questionnaires did teach 
students more about both qualitative and qualitative research methods. One 
indicator of students’ learning curve was how, within only one or two months of 

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creating their questionnaires, they were able to clearly and objectively identify their 
questionnaires’ strengths and flaws and suggest practical and viable ways to 
improve the questionnaires in the hypothetical future. Several students each 
semester mentioned in the last class session or afterward that they would be 
interested in conducting similar interview-based research in the future for their 
undergraduate theses. 
 
Third, due to the more complex nature of this style of collaborative project, ESAN 
students necessarily had to work more closely with their collaborative project 
partners in other countries. Instead of simply doing “their part” and expecting their 
partners to do the other half of the project, as many ESAN GU students in previous 
semesters had done, the students in 2018 honestly collaborated with their foreign 
partners on each and every step of the research project preparation. This is, in part, 
because ESAN students were responsible for explaining to their partners regarding 
the project concept and the project methodology, as well how to interview people 
using the questionnaire, how to interpret questionnaire results, and how to compare 
results across countries. In order to accomplish this goal, students reported that they 
engaged in far more synchronous chats and exchanged far more email messages 
with their foreign partners than they did when engaging in a traditional GU 
collaborative project, which they did when GU professors at partner universities 
refused to participate in the cultural dimensions research collaborative project. This 
means that the experiential learning methodology allowed students to be able to 
practice virtual team collaboration skills more intensively than otherwise. 

 
Discussion 

 
The experiential learning methodology implemented by the ESAN GU classes to 
teach cultural dimensions in 2018 had very positive results. Taking a hands-on 
approach with the material allowed for students to become engaged and invested in 
the cultural dimensions they worked with on an intellectual and an emotional level. 
This is precisely what the Association for Experiential Education predicts, stating 
that, in experiential learning, “learners are engaged intellectually, emotionally, 
socially, soulfully and/or physically. This involvement produces a perception that the 
learning task is authentic” (n.d.). It was only natural, then, that student 
comprehension of the heavy, theoretical models that in previous semesters had 
presented difficulties increased not just in volume but also in depth. 
 
Students also gained deeper insight into the research process. It is only logical and 
intuitive that the ideal way to learn a methodology is through experiential learning in 
which that methodology is practiced. It is unsurprising that this turned out to be the 
case in the ESAN GU classes. As the Association for Experiential Education states, 
in experiential learning methodologies, “experiences are structured to require the 
learner to take initiative, make decisions and be accountable for results” (n.d.). 
 
Finally, the experiential learning methodology fostered a greater depth of 
collaboration via students' virtual teams. As already mentioned, giving undergraduate 
students so much responsibility for a project that was truly complicated helped them, 
in most cases, to personally identify with the research they were carrying out and 
helped empower them to take charge of their projects and bring them to a successful 
conclusion. Effectively, it gave them an internal locus of control, which increased 

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their motivation to make sure the projects were done well (Sutton, Baum and 
Johnston, 2004). In the process, it was also more relevant and more closely 
resembled real-life virtual team collaboration that students might encounter in the 
professional world. As the Association for Experiential Education states, “the results 
of the [experiential] learning are personal and form the basis for future experience 
and learning” (n.d.). 
 

Conclusions 
 
In conclusion, it can be said that an experiential learning methodology applied 
through cultural dimension research projects met the stated objectives of the ESAN 
GU professors. Through this methodology’s implementation, students were able to 
understand cultural dimension theory at a much deeper level than before, grow in 
their understanding of both quantitative and qualitative research methods and gain 
more practical experience working in virtual teams than they otherwise would have. 
The intensive, experiential nature of the product encouraged students to become 
more invested in their own learning than when they used traditional GU collaborative 
project methodology. 
 
It is necessary, however, to highlight the exploratory, descriptive nature of this case 
study. Because the population that used the methodology was small (four semester-
long classes of 8-18 students each) and consisted entirely of undergraduate 
students at one Peruvian business university, results may not be entirely 
extrapolatable for all university student populations in all countries. However, it is 
important to mention that European exchange students also took part in the 
methodology both semesters, and both they and students in Malaysian and Chinese 
partner university GU classes reported the same highly positive results as the 
Peruvian students. 
 
Future research of this or similar experiential learning methodologies used to 
collaborate with international partners should make sure to formally survey students 
regarding their perceived depth of knowledge of the theoretical framework to be 
learned, their comprehension of how to use quantitative and qualitative research 
methods, and their ability to successfully work in virtual teams with international 
partners. A control group using the standard GU collaborative project methodology 
should also be used. 
 

References 
 
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Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2008). From craft to science: Teaching models and learning 
processes in entrepreneurship education. Journal of European Industrial Training, 
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Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NJ: Anchor Press. 
 
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Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. 
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Hofstede, G., Hofstede G. J., & Minkov M. (2010). Cultures and organizations, 
software of the mind (3rd ed.). New York: McGrawHill. 
 
Olivos Rossini, L. M. (2016). Internationalization at home: Technology-supported 
multicultural learning in Peru. Tilburg: CentER, Center for Economic Research.  
 
Schweiger, D., & Ladwig, C. (2018). Reaching and retaining the next generation: 
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Smith, C. (2014). Working at a distance: A global business model for virtual team 
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Wurdinger, S. D., & Carlson, J. A. (2010). Teaching for experiential learning: 
Five approaches that work. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. 
 

 
Mariella Olivos Rossini is Professor of Intercultural Management and International 
Business and Associate Director of the Undergraduate Programs at Universidad 
ESAN in Lima, Peru. In addition, she is a Board Member of the Global Partners in 
Education Journal and Executive Coordinator at CLADEA (The Latin American 
Council of Management Schools). She holds a PhD from Universiteit van Tilburg in 
the Netherlands, an MS in Economics from Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina 
in Peru, an MBA from Université du Quebec in Canada, and a BS in Economics from 
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú in Peru. Email: molivos@esan.edu.pe 
 
Stella Tippin de Malpica teaches courses in Intercultural Management, 
Organizational Psychology, and English at Universidad ESAN in Lima, Peru. She 
holds an MA in Latin American Studies with a specialization in Andean Studies from 
University of Florida in the United States and a BA in Spanish and Communication 
with concentrations in cross-cultural communication and professional writing from 
Spring Arbor University in the United States. Email: stippin@esan.edu.pe 
 

http://www.gpejournal.org/
mailto:molivos@esan.edu.pe
mailto:stippin@esan.edu.pe

