


































6 Cybercrime


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Cybercrime: An Emerging Global Challenge for the States 

Maria Kanwal, Qurat Ul Ain Zahoor, Saira Mussarat, Dr. Nadia Khadam, Ms. Zainab 
Iqbal 

Fatima Jinnah Women University Rawalpindi, Pakistan 

Abstract 

With an ever-increasing use of the internet and technology, cyber crimes have become 
a crucial global concern. Cybercrimes refer to all the illegal activities carried out using 
technology. It is buying and selling of malware, and individuals’ personal information 
illegally. This research focuses on different types of cybercrimes, such as hacking, 
cyber pornography, and cyber terrorism, etc. Cybercrime not only affects personal, 
business information, and Intellectual property but also damages reputation. According 
to the CSIS report, 2,299,682 cases of cybercrime are reported in 2020 and as a result 
of financial embezzlement carried out on the internet, individuals and the government 
had lost more than 1 trillion dollars per year around the world. Cybercrime has a direct 
and significant impact on jobs, innovation, economic growth, and investment. This 
paper strives to find out the causes of cyber perpetration and also suggest measures 
for its control. Cybercrime can be controlled by implementing digital and physical 
security methods, maintaining asset lists, patches, and updates, etc. This paper 
suggests a system of administrative regulations backed by criminal penalties that will 
provide the reason necessary to create a workable deterrent to cybercrime. 

Introduction  
 
Crime and criminality have been linked to man from the time of his creation. People of 
different eras adopted different methods according to their approach, to connect 
themselves with a  crime. (Dashora, 2011) With the increasing use of the internet, 
especially in the pandemic era, people are suffering from cyberattacks globally. 
Cybercrime is an activity that involves using or targeting a computer network or network 
device to carry out activities that damage one’s money or image. Cybercriminal 
activities are carried out for personal, political, or monetary reasons. Cybercrimes may 
include illegal intercepting or stealing data, infringing copyright, selling illegal items 
online, producing or processing child pornography, and more.  (McGuire et al., 2013). 
The benefits which are brought by the rapid expansion of the internet are accompanied 
by crimes that have a devastating effect on our individual and collective life. 

1. Definition of Cybercrime  

Cybercrime is committed by using a computer, another digital network or other forms 
of information communication technology either as a tool or to target a victim. These 
crimes are committed online, which is the reason why the prefix cyber is attached to 
crime. (McGuire et al., 2013). The three categories of cybercrime are a crime which 
targets a computer device, e.g. to gain access and then spread the malware to the 
whole network; a crime that uses the computer as a weapon, e.g. using numerous 
compromised computers to carry out malicious activity known as distributed Denial of 
Service; a crime that uses the computer as an accessory to crime, e.g. using a 
computer to save illegal data.  (Sarre et al., 2018) 



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A cybercriminal mainly chooses countries with weak cyber laws to carry out their 
activities to reduce the chance of detection.  

2. Types of Cybercrime  
 

a. Malware Attacks 
Malware is a virus or code delivered over a network to infect or steal information from 
the network by the hacker. A computer compromised by malware could be used by 
cybercriminals for numerous purposes.  (McGuire et al., 2013) 

b. Phishing 
Phishing is fraudulent communication that appears to come from reputable sources. It 
aims to steal a person’s login information and personal data or to affect the person’s 
computer. It fools the victim by presenting information that is from some trustworthy 
site and compels the user to share their personal information.  (Hong, 2012) 

c. Software Piracy 
It is the illegal distribution, selling, use, installation, and copying of software. It is usually 
done by end-users and dealers. This causes a serious hindrance to the success and 
progress of the software industry globally.  (Hinduja and Behavior, 2008) 

d. Credit Card Fraud  
Credit card fraud involves any crime using a credit card. Cybercriminals use credit 
cards to get information from a person’s bank account.  More than 270,000 cases of 
fraud were reported in the year 2017, according to the Federal Trade 
Commission.  (Ramdinmawii et al., 2014) 

e. Cyber Pornography  
Cyber pornography is the publication, distribution, importation, and designing of 
pornography through cyberspace. As the internet is easily available, people can view 
and upload pornographic videos easily. Child pornography is increasing at a rate of 3 
million cases a year. One of the factors includes the accessibility of these websites. It 
is estimated that more than 10,000 Internet locations provide access to these materials 
nowadays.   (Ramdinmawii et al., 2014) 

f. Identity Theft  
Identity theft is the theft that includes the stealing of personal information of someone 
and then using that information in crime. This personal information gives access to 
bank accounts credit cards or other accounts. The graph below shows the identity theft 
complaints data over five years. (Roberds and Schreft, 2009) 

 



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     Figure 1: Source: Internet Crime Complaint Center, Facts + Statistics: Identity 
Theft and Cybercrime, 2021  

3. Cybercrime Techniques 
 
Some of the most common techniques which cybercriminals use to access personal 
or private computers are:  

a. Botnet  
It is the network of interconnected devices that are infected by malware in a way that 
these devices are in a hacker’s control. Cybercriminals first gain access to botnet 
devices with the help of special viruses called trojans and attack the computer security 
system taking control of software and implementing commands and carrying out large-
scale malicious activity.  (Tyagi and Aghila, 2011) 

b. Zombie Computer  
A zombie is a computer connected to a network that is hacked by criminals to gain 
access to a private network. The computer is then used for a malicious 
task.  (Broadhurst, 2010) 

c. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)  
The main focus of a DoS attack is to overload the targeted machine with junk data, 
resulting in Denial of Service to additional requests. DoS attack is of two types: a buffer 
overflow attack and a flood attack. (Hasbullah et al., 2010) 

d. Metamorphic Malware  
One of the more advanced techniques, metamorphic malware, repeatedly adjusts its 
code, making it extremely difficult to detect by even the most advanced anti-virus 
software. (Walenstein et al., 2007) 

 
 



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4. Statistics Related to Cybercrimes 
 
a. In 2020, 60% -70% of businesses have been the victims of cybercrime, which 
made the thousands of companies suffer millions and led to the closing of these 
businesses. (Lazic, 2021)  
b. By the year 2021, half a million zoom passwords were available for sale in dark 
web crime forums at the time when the whole world was using zoom for business or 
educational purposes.  
c. Cybercrime statistics show that there is a rise in security breaches from the year 
2018 to 19 and mostly to small businesses. 
d. Cybercriminals attack someone online every thirty seconds and in this way, the 
rate of cyberattacks is 2244 times per day, with numerous attacks on the healthcare 
industry. In 2020 and 2019, data breaches affected 300.6 million people, and 887.3 
million people respectively. 
e. Likewise, attacks using emails or texts for provoking people to give their 
personal information are about 44%; 18% of cyberattacks are due to ransomware and 
12% are due to malware. (Lazic, 2021) 
f. The health care industry and finance industry are usually bigger targets of 
cybercriminals because they contain a large number of personal information and 
numbers.  
g. In 2019, the health care industry lost $25 billion to ransomware attacks. In the 
past three years, more than 93% of health care industries experienced a data breach. 
h. Financial services have 352,771 exposed sensitive files on average, which are 
open targets to cybercriminals, while healthcare, pharma, and biotech have 113,491 
files on average. (Sobers, 2021)  
i. Of the total of cybercrime breaches in the industrial sector, 56% of them are 
social media breaches, 27% are in the governmental sector, other industrial breaches 
include 8%, retailers include  4% and technology include 4%.  
j. $18.3 million per company is spent on the financial service industry to combat 
cybercrime.  (Morgan, 2020)  
k.  Cybercrime complaints also increased and the figure reached 791790 in the 
year 2020. 



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Figure 2: (Source: Internet Crime Complaint Center, Facts + Statistics: Identity Theft 
and Cybercrime, 2021) 

5. Challenges for the States 
 
Nowadays, states are facing many challenges to prevent cybercrime. In modern states, 
technology advances very fast. Because of this technology, where people are 
benefiting a lot on one hand and misuse it on the other, states face difficulties in 
protecting national and international safety. The rise in cybercrime cases in recent 
years has raised new challenges for states to combat cybercrimes if they want to 
eliminate them the threat. Some challenges are discussed below: 

 
a. Investigation of Cybercrimes 

The nature of cybercrime is complex and difficult to understand. A complex 
investigation is required for the prosecution of cyber cases. The gathering of authentic 
proof is needed if legal action against cybercriminals is to be initiated. State 
investigating agencies have faced difficulty in finding the basic source of information. 
Law enforcement units also face difficulty in applying cyber laws and selecting methods 
to investigate this digital crime. It is more difficult when the criminal is an outsider 
because they are not under the jurisdiction of the state. Therefore, help from 
International Law is needed in such situations. (Serwanga, 2019)  

i. Investigation Method and Its Trans-Border Nature 
Cybercrimes can be committed from any place and against anyone who is using the 
internet worldwide. For proper investigation of cybercrime, the criminal activity must be 
tracked across different national borders. Investigations may be carried out at an 
international level. The internet experts who are providing internet service all over the 
world may be the part of investigating team for effective investigation of crime. (Kasper 
and Laurits, 2016) 



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ii. Mishandling of Electronic Evidence 
Investigators are inexperienced in collecting digital evidence according to admissibility 
rules. That is why, courts reject improper electronic evidence, which is the important 
basis on which further cases might proceed. Sometimes electronic pieces of evidence 
related to cybercrime are easily deleted or stolen by criminals because of the lack of 
internet experts in courts and Cyber Crime Units. (Antwi-Boasiako and Venter, 2017)  

iii. Failure to Protect the Chain of Digital Evidence 
During the prosecution of cybercrimes, the pieces of evidence are passed among 
various institutions to check the validity of evidence, but due to lack of experts and the 
nature of the evidence, they are rejected or easily changed by cybercriminals to 
decrease their validity. There is a need for time to manage the digital evidence. Our 
courts and investigating teams must find different and innovative ways to handle the 
large amount of electronic evidence. (Roscini and Law, 2016)  

iv. Lack of Modern Instruments for Investigation 
Internet-specific tools are required for the investigation and proceeding of cyber cases 
and only these instruments can help investigators to carry out an investigation. Specific 
modern tools are required for the proper investigation of this crime. During the fight 
against cybercrime, we face unique challenges that need special attention from both 
investigators and lawmakers. The main challenges are the unavailability of guidelines 
on how to collect pieces of evidence and how to present these pieces of evidence in 
courts, day-by-day development in technology, and the use of hacking techniques by 
criminals. Police are poorly equipped to understand cybercrimes and they do not know 
how to investigate cybercrime cases. (Moore, 2014)  

v. Speed of Data Exchange Process 
The internet has made it possible for people to communicate between the two countries 
in a matter of seconds and is the main reason for the success of the Internet. Criminals 
easily take advantage of this facility of the internet and exchange data from one place 
to another. That is why there is a problem in investigating cyber cases and real pieces 
of evidence are lost and the culprit easily escapes. The invention of the internet has 
left our traditional investigation process far behind. There is a need for time to speed 
up our investigation processes if we want to get rid of cybercrimes. (Losavio et al., 
2018) 

vi. Absence of One Universal Law Governing Cybercrimes 
This type of crime is committed in one country but has had effects in other countries. 
Cybercrimes are borderless, international, and global crimes that are committed in 
cyberspace. The laws for cybercrimes are either national or regional and are not 
applicable at the international level or outside of the specific region. (Weber, 2003)  

The extradition process is a challenge due to the absence of universal law. Many 
countries do not extradite cybercriminals to other countries, making it a major challenge 
to enforce cybercrime laws around the world. Each country has its jurisdiction and it is 
the biggest impediment to the extradition of criminals to other states, because states 
deny extradition of the criminals to requesting states although they do have jurisdiction 
to take action against criminals. The requested country cannot do anything unless 
another country sends its criminals there. Due to the absence of one universal law, it 
is a challenge for one state to punish those criminals who are not citizens of that state 
but sit in their state and commit crimes that harm this state. (Ajayi and Systems, 2016)  



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b. Lack of Effective Reporting of Cybercrime 
Many women who fall victim to these crimes are reluctant to report these cases 
because they think that doing so could bring them disrepute. Even great leaders of 
society, parents, and intelligent people prefer to settle these cases out of court. (Menon 
and Siew, 2012) 

i. Limited Reporting of Crime 
It is important to report a case first before investigating as it may be the first step. If it 
is not reported, then it will not be investigated, and the fact is that many cases around 
the world are not reported. Only a limited number of cybercrimes are reported because 
people are not taking them seriously like other crimes, due to which the culprit gets 
more support and that is why cybercrime is increasing. (Bidgoli et al., 2019)  

ii. Lack of Trust in Reporting Methods 
There is no guarantee of confidentiality during reporting of cybercrime. People are 
afraid of reporting cybercrime because they cannot trust the reporting methods. Many 
cases are not reported because of security issues, as people are afraid of being 
exposed in front of the public which will damage their business and respect.(Brenner 
and Schwerha IV, 2007) 

c. Challenges for Businesses 
Whenever a person starts a business they get so busy that they forget about 
cybercrime. If they have not considered their company’s cybersecurity needs, their 
business and customers could be at risk. Nowadays businesses are done online, which 
increases the risk of cybercrimes. So far, many businesses have been affected by 
criminals through the internet by their data being hacked or their business ideas being 
stolen. (Teng, 2017)   

i. Increase in Costs 
Many companies spend a lot of money to protect themselves from online theft. 
Spending a lot of money for protection damages their business a lot. (Bernik and 
Security, 2014)  

ii. System Malfunction 
Along with financial losses, companies also face some challenges indirectly from 
cyberattacks. Since today all the data of every company is online, a cyberattack 
changes their entire system of working causing them a lot of problems that can result 
in lost profits. Cybercrime uses all sorts of tactics to stop company activities. 
Computers are hacked by inserting malware that removes all valuable information and 
installing malicious codes on the server which deprives them of access to their 
websites. (Yeboah-Ofori et al., 2019)  

iii. Changing Business Methods  
After a cyber-attack, many companies are forced to think about how they can restore 
their information and customers’ trust. It is difficult to convince customers that the 
information they provide will not be leaked. As a result, companies stop taking their 
customers’ data. When companies feel they cannot protect themselves from further 
cyber-attacks they shut down their online business, suffering huge losses. 

iv. Damage to Reputation 
A company that is a victim of a cyber-attack cannot prevent its brand from being 
destroyed. It is very difficult for both the supplier and customer to have their sensitive 



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information in the hands of a company whose IT set-up was broken or hacked at least 
once before. They feel less secure.  (Speer and change, 2000)  

v. Decreased Income 
The worst consequence of a cyber-attack is a drop in income. Customers choose the 
products of other companies to protect themselves from cyber-attacks. Companies 
waste a lot of money trying to catch hackers. Because of this, their revenue is greatly 
reduced. (Okeshola and Adeta, 2013)  

vi. Stealing Personal Thoughts 
The most valuable thing about a company is its ideas, its technology, and its market 
plans. And all this intellectual property is stored in the cloud, where it is most at risk of 
cyber-attacks. (Prakash et al.) 

 
6. Steps Taken by IGOs, NGOs & U.S. Government Agency Resources 

Below are some steps taken by different governmental agencies to deal with 
cybercrimes. 

a. International and Inter-Governmental Organizations 

The Council of Europe has established the “European Cyber Security Organization”, 
the main function of which is to act against cybercrime.  

Below are the two main functions performed by this organization: 

i. assisting countries in strengthening their criminal justice systems 
to meet the challenges posed by criminals operating in 
cyberspace. 

ii. Sponsoring an annual cybercrime conference. 
  

b. International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) 

Interpol’s core mission is to enable law enforcement agencies in its 190 member 
countries to work together to fight against transnational crime, including cybercrime, 
and crimes related to children.  In addition to serving as a hub for data exchange and 
intelligence sharing, it also supplies technical skills, instructions, and capacity building. 

c. International Telecommunication Union  

The ITU is a specialized organization of the United Nations that promotes the 
harmonization of technical standards for information and telecommunications 
technologies. It also encourages international cooperation to improve cyber security 
through its Global Cyber security Agenda and its partnership with UNODC (United 
Nation Office on Drugs and Crime). In addition, the ITU has affiliated with UNICEF to 
publish Guidelines for Child Online Protection.  (Levin et al., 2013) 

d. Non-Governmental Organizations 
i. Spamhaus 

This international non-profit company based in London and Geneva tracks cyber 
hazards (spam, phishing, malware, and botnets) and delivers real-time, actionable 
threat intelligence to all network operators, corporations, and security vendors.  For the 



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identification of spam and malware resources, it is also working with various law 
enforcement agencies worldwide. 

ii. Internet Watch Foundation 

This Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) is a UK-based, industry-funded non-profit 
organization.  Their works are to firstly recognize, locate, and remove/delete online 
pictures and videos of child sexual abuse with the help of law enforcement agencies 
worldwide.  

iii. The European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online   

Funded by the European Commission, the executive arm of the EU, it has offered a 
platform for child protection NGOs throughout Europe to share various expertise and 
best practices on policy matters related to the online safety of the child. (Taraszow, 
2013) 

iv. National Cyber Security Strategy 

To create a comprehensive and effective national cyber security strategy, the 2018 ITU 
Guide to developing a national cyber security strategy proposes the inclusion of the 
following thematic areas in the strategy:  

1. Governance  
2. Risk management (i.e., the process of identifying, 

evaluating, and controlling or eliminating threats) 
3. Preparedness and resilience  
4. Capacity and capacity building and awareness-raising in 

public  
5. Legislation and regulation  
6. International cooperation  

Other organizations have also guided the evolution of cyber security policy and 
regulatory frameworks, technical and organizational measures, capacity building, and 
cooperation e.g., the Commonwealth Telecommunications Organization's 
Commonwealth Cyber governance Model of 2014.  (Świątkowska et al., 2017) 

7. Suggestions 

While it may not be possible to completely eradicate cybercrime and ensure complete 
internet security, it can be reduced by maintaining an effective cyber security strategy. 
There are some suggestions and solutions to avoid cyber-attacks.  

a. Owing to the volatile nature of electronic evidence, international 
cooperation to combat cybercrime needs a quick response and the ability 
to perform specialized investigative actions, including the preservation 
and production, and analysis of data by private sector providers. 

b. Effective international cooperation in cases involving electronic 
evidence, therefore, requires mechanisms for the advance preservation 
of data, pending the consideration of further investigative measures.  

c. Strengthened national and international bonding between governments, 
law enforcement, and the other independent sector with increased the 
knowledge of cybercrime risks in public.  (De Paoli and Studies, 2020) 

d. The plan behind creating international guidelines is to fight cybercrime 
and facilitate a straightforward process to run digital investigations in 



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which computers from more than one country are involved, as well as to 
eliminate those gaps where a cybercriminal is far away from the reach of 
the national laws.  

e. Mutual legal assistance requires writer tools for the following two 
purposes: as a practical guide for practitioners from developing countries 
that could accelerate the submission of MLA (Mutual legal assistance) 
requests; as a way to generate a format of application that could be 
accepted by developed countries acting as applications states. 

f. Countries need to cooperate because cybercriminals are not confined by 
national or geographic boundaries, and digital proof relating to a single 
crime can be dispelled over multiple regions.  

g. Law enforcement and IT professionals need to work more closely with 
the companies to build a cyber-fighting team that has the abilities, the 
means, and the authority necessary to reduce the instances of 
cybercrime on the Internet.  (Ciupercă et al., 2021) 

h. Countries must become sharper in updating or developing any national 
cyber security plan, as well as legal and regulatory framework related to 
cyberspace. The contribution of the technical community and the 
independent sector is essential to building effective resilience capabilities 
because it is impossible for the government to act alone. 

i. Cyber security requires governments as well as private sector 
cooperation, therefore there is a need to increase trust among 
governments, at all levels, between countries and industries, and 
independent sectors. 

j. Governments and the private sector should join together to work toward 
broader awareness campaigns in all countries. “Stop. Think. Connect” is 
a national public awareness program in the US which aims to introduce 
the knowledge of cyber threats and empower the public to be safer and 
more secure online.   Furthermore, the public should play a vital role in 
self-educating and expanding the reach of awareness campaigns. Cyber 
security is a type of shared responsibility  

k. While countries need to have cybercrime laws in place, it is equally 
necessary that these countries have the legal authority to assist foreign 
countries in an investigation, even if that country didn’t report any activity 
by itself and is merely the location of the intruder or a pass-over 
site.  (Ciupercă et al., 2021) 

 

Conclusion 
 
Cybercriminals are developing new ways to damage organizations, individuals, and 
even the government's online and private data. New cyber laws are introduced by the 
government to combat cybercrimes and reduce their rate, but it is not easy and not 
possible without the cooperation of different countries. (Yar and Steinmetz, 2019). The 
non-binding nature and lack of strict enforcement mechanisms of International Law 
concerning cybercrime laws appear to have stultified the enforcement of cybercrime 
laws. (Kshetri, 2010) Cybercrime is causing tremendous losses not only to the 
economy but also to our personal information. It is essential to overcome this problem 
because technology not only causes harm but humans are doing so. Every citizen must 
remain alert and timely complain about any incident and the governments must enforce 



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cyber laws and make new laws to eliminate this devastating crime. (Ramdinmawii et 
al., 2014) 

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Author Notes  

Maria Kanwal is a hardworking and intelligent student of LLB at Fatima Jinnah 
Women's University Rawalpindi, Pakistan. She was born in Harronabad and completed 
her early and intermediate education in Rawalpindi. She is strongly motivated by the 
idea of women empowerment and is very keen to spread awareness among people of 
the world about the current issues, that is why she participated in the 6th Global 
International Conference and gave a presentation. She has chosen to study law 
inspired by Asma Javed, a great human rights lawyer who did a lot for empowering 
women. Contact email: mariaakanwal72@gmail.com  

Qurat Ul Ain Zahoor has completed her intermediate education in pre-medical. Now 
she is studying law at Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi. She originates 
from Azad Kashmir. She has an interest in many social activities. She participated in 
many debate competitions. She likes to talk about social issues. She also participated 
in GIC to highlight the different issues that are faced by COVID-19. She has choosen 
law inspired by advocates’ struggle to defend people's lives. She thinks that a good 
and truthful lawyer can also save a life like a doctor. Contact email: 
quratulainzahoor6@gmail.com  

Saira Muassart was born in Rawalpindi. She has done her intermediate education in 
computer science. She is currently studying law at Fatima Jinnah Women University. 
Her ambitioon since childhood has been to be a lawyer in the future because she wants 
justice for people. She has the interest to work for her country and that is why she 
chose law. She loves to participate in extra-curricular activities like debates, poetry 
competitions. She participated in GIC to show her presentation talent. Contact email: 
Sairaamussarat74@gmail.com  

Zainab Iqbal is currently working as a Lecturer in the Department of Law at Fatima 
Jinnah Women University Rawalpindi, Pakistan. She has completed her Master's 
Degree (LLM International Law) in 2019 from International Islamic University, 
Islamabad. In her LLM, she wrote a thesis on “The Need for a Comprehensive Arms 
Trade Treaty to Prevent Violations of International Humanitarian Law”. She has served 
as a consultant for various international organizations, including UN Women, British 
Council, and EU. The contact email is zainab.iqbal412@gmail.com   



Global Partners in Education Journal – Special Edition  March 2022, Vol. 10, No. 1 
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Dr. Nadia Khadam is currently serving as Assistant Professor/Head of the Department 
of Law at Fatima Jinnah Women University, Pakistan. After getting practical advocacy 
experience, she joined the Ph.D program in Criminal Law, Policy and Procedure. Her 
areas of research are criminal law, cybercrime laws, cyber security policies, e-
commerce policy, and reform in the justice sector of Pakistan. She is associated with 
different initiatives concerning internet governance in Pakistan. Moreover, she 
represented Pakistan at different national and international forums. The contact email 
is nadiakhadam@gmail.com. 


