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Global Research in Higher Education 
ISSN 2576-196X (Print) ISSN 2576-1951 (Online) 

Vol. 1, No. 1, 2018 
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe 

57 
 

Original Paper 

Attaining Children’s Development through Appropriate 

Assessment Practices: Insights from Kindergarten Teachers 

Mumuni Thompson1* 
1 Department of Basic Education, Faculty of Educational Foundations, College of Education Studies, 

University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana 

* Mumuni Thompson, Department of Basic Education, Faculty of Educational Foundations, College of 

Education Studies, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana 

 

Received: April 4, 2018         Accepted: April 15, 2018        Online Published: May 9, 2018 

doi:10.22158/grhe.v1n1p57         URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/grhe.v1n1p57 

 

Abstract 

The research contributes to the conversation regarding kindergarten teachers’ knowledge about 

developmentally appropriate assessments practices in attaining curriculum goals of selected 

kindergartens classrooms within the Ghanaian settings. The mixed method research approach was 

employed. Quantitative data were gathered from 1,413 teachers using questionnaires, while qualitative 

data were collected from 10 participants who were interviewed and observed. The participants for the 

quantitative research were randomly selected from ten districts in the Central Region of Ghana. The 

data were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. However, the participants for the 

qualitative research were purposely sampled. The qualitative data were analysed through open and 

axial coding. The study revealed that KG teachers were achieving curriculum goals and were using 

developmentally appropriate assessment procedures. They were however, not conversant with some of 

the curriculum goals and emerging assessment practices. It was also evident that there is a positive 

relationship between KG teachers’ achievement of the goals and the use of assessment procedures. It 

was recommended among others that through orientation and training sessions, KG teachers should be 

given insights into KG curriculum goals and diverse authentic assessment procedures to enhance and 

promote children’s development in varied ways. 

Keywords 

early, childhood, curriculum goals, assessment, kindergarten 

 

 

 



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1. Introduction 

A significant element that is closely linked to high-quality education in early childhood settings is 

having teachers who have insights into assessment practices that are in sync with the nature of children 

and how they learn which in turn, help in achieving set curriculum goals (Bredekamp, 2014; Zaslow, 

Tout, Halle, Whittaker, & Lovelle, 2010). Teacher’s insights regarding diverse assessment practices 

that are apt in early childhood settings and how to use each of them appropriately in any teaching and 

learning context is likely to determine the experiences that individual children have gained in any 

teaching and learning encounter (Bagnato & Ye-Ho, 2006). This presupposes that early childhood 

teachers who have in-depth knowledge and experiences regarding how to apply these assessments 

procedures tend not only unearth learning difficulties of children but are able to apply remedial 

measures in dealing with the situation. This is not surprising because assessment practices give the 

teachers insights into the developmental needs and the uniqueness that each child brings to the learning 

context and how each of them can be helped to develop along their natural endowment paths. 

In spite of this, research findings suggest that there is continuously a tension between teachers’ 

knowledge about assessment practices and actual practices in early childhood settings (Stipek & Byler, 

1997; Abroampah, 2008). Several research findings point to teachers’ knowledge of curriculum goals 

and its attendant assessment practices but at times, apply traditional assessment practices (Abroanpah, 

2008; Elicker & McMullen, 2012). One possible explanation to the disconnect is that some 

kindergarten teachers might not have in-depth knowledge and experiences regarding how to assess 

children’s development under certain learning contexts such as play-based learning activities. 

Moreover, officials from the inspectorate division in a centralised and controlled educational system, 

tend to obstruct implementation of emerging assessment practices in early childhood settings. This is 

not surprising because they are not abreast with modern trends regarding assessment practices in early 

childhood settings and the significance therein (Carolyn & Jane, 2014). 

Teachers’ effectiveness, in assessing children’s learning outcomes are largely influenced by their 

knowledge and understanding of each of the curriculum goals and the assessment procedures closely 

linked to each of them. More significantly, experiences teachers gain from years of assessing children 

tend to give them insights into effective of use assessment instruments to ascertain the developmental 

level and needs of individual children which in turn, give them insights regarding a fitting remedial 

measure in dealing with certain developmental challenges of children (Stipek, 2004). 

Previous research findings suggest that Ghanaian early childhood teachers often use assessment 

practices that are not developmentally appropriate, even though they have the theoretical understanding 

and experiences regarding the use of authentic assessment practices in early childhood settings 

(Hamilton, 2014). Further study is required to fully gain understanding regarding the relationship 

between teachers’ knowledge and their assessment practices. Having insights into the connection 

among these factors is likely to inform how teacher preparation programmes in other socio-cultural 

contexts can be adopted and adapted within the Ghanaian settings to develop assessment skills of early 



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childhood teachers.  

The main thrust of this study is to determine how teachers put their knowledge about assessment into 

practice. Precisely, the study sought to understand whether teachers’ theoretical knowledge about 

assessment is linked to the quality of assessment practices that they are expected to use in determining 

children’s learning outcomes. 

Having insights into the connection between teachers’ knowledge and assessment practices is likely to 

reveal children’s level of development, needs, interests and the uniqueness that each of them brings to 

the teaching and learning context which in turn, informs effective planning in kindergarten setting. In 

this article the focus is to establish whether increased knowledge in assessment practices can improve 

teachers’ ability in achieving the curriculum goals which invariably, tend to influence children’s 

development in diverse ways. 

The research questions driving the study include the following: 

1) How are KG teachers achieving curriculum goals? 

2) How do KG teachers assess pupils? 

It was also hypothesized that: 

 There is no significant relationship between how KG teachers are achieving curriculum 

goals and their assessment practices. 

 

2. Literature Review 

2.1 Authentic Assessment Practices in Early Childhood Settings 

The assessment procedures underscored by Piaget’s cognitive constructivist theory of learning is 

referred as authentic assessment. Dennis, Reuter and Simpson (2013) argue that authentic assessment 

which is also referred as play-based, naturalistic or performance based is a process of gathering 

information by kindergarten teachers who are well-informed about the behaviour and capabilities of 

young children as they unfold in kindergarten classroom settings. Evidence gathered from authentic 

assessment tends to underscore the strength and weakness that each child brings to any learning context. 

This not surprising because, it gives teachers insights into how young children put into practice their 

knowledge and skills in real life classroom context. Examples of authentic assessment instruments are 

as follows. 

2.2 Interview  

Interview is one of the major assessment instruments of authentic assessment. This assessment 

instrument is very useful because it tends to highlight the capabilities of young children across a wide 

spectrum of learning contexts. Authentic assessment along the lines of observation is a collaborative 

affair between the teacher and the parents of individual children as well those who are well-informed 

about how young children learn. This is significant, because the kindergarten teacher needs information 

from diverse sources such as teaching assistants, other teachers and parents regarding individual 

children before the level of development of each of them can be acertain (Banks, 2000). 



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2.3 Observation 

Observation is another assessment instrument for obtaining information about the growth and 

development of individual children in kindergarten classroom settings (Dennis, Reuter, & Simpson, 

2013). During observation, the preoccupation of the kindergarten teacher is to lookout for certain 

capabilities that a child demonstrates while engaging in learning activities (Neisworth & Bagnato, 

2004). The data that emanate from observation form key component of authentic assessment 

procedures for gathering information about the level of development of individual children. 

Assessment instruments which fall under observation include running and anecdotal records, 

Antecedent, Behaviour and Consequence (ABC), analysis and permanent products or portfolios 

(Dennis, Reiter, & Simpson, 2013). However, the question that arises is the significance of each of 

these observation assessment procedures in determining children’s development. Each of them is 

significant in diverse ways and is illustrated as follows: 

2.4 Running Records 

Running records is an observation mechanism which has the capacity to establish the sequence of 

events that happen over a period of time in a classroom setting. This not surprising because it provides 

details about the behaviour of young children over a period of time. Nevertheless, to maximize, its 

potentials, the teacher has to be as objective as much as possible so that the real behaviours of children 

that unfold during the observation can be captured instead the teacher’s judgement of what might have 

happened. Kindergarten teachers are expected to include the following information; date and time of 

the information, names of children involved, location of the episode and what individual said (Dennis, 

2002). 

2.5 Anecdotal Records  

Anecdotal records provide room for the kindergarten teacher to focus on a particular behaviour of 

individual children over a period of time for the purpose of fashioning out effective mechanism for 

determining level of development of children in a group context and on individual basis as well 

(Dennis, Reiter, & Simpson, 2013). 

2.6 ABC Analysis  

The ABC analysis is an observation procedure which aims at recording the behaviour of child by first 

establishing what triggered off the behaviour as well as well as what happened after the behaviour was 

sparked off. These factors help kindergarten teachers to establish reasons individual children behave in 

a particular way (Clay, 2000). 

2.7 Permanent Products or Portfolios 

Portfolio assessment might consist of samples of a child’s work, photos, graphics or audiotapes. These 

products are incorporated into a file for the purpose of gathering information about certain works that 

the child has done over a period of time. The purpose of portfolio assessment is to monitor the progress 

of the child over a period (Gullo, 2007). 

 



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In short, a blend of these data collection procedures is likely to give kindergarten teachers insights into 

the uniqueness that individual children bring into the kindergarten classroom context. This information 

would then serve as a compass to enable the teacher to effectively plan the curriculum which in turn, 

help young children harnesses their individual potentials. 

 

3. Method 

3.1 Participants 

The study was conducted in Central Region, one of the regions in Ghana. The mixed method research 

design (survey, phenomenology) was used in this study. For the sample of the quantitative study to be 

representative, all the districts were selected. A stratified sample of 1,413 participants were randomly 

selected from the districts to participate in the study. The participants of the qualitative approach 

comprised 5 participants who were purposively sampled. The names of the participants in this study are 

not real but pseudonyms. The teachers who participated in the qualitative study have taught in various 

schools ranging from 9 to 10 years. They included: comfort, Amina, Kate, Cecelia, and Serwaah. A 

phenomenological qualitative study approach was used in this study (Creswell, 2012). By using 

phenomenology research approach, insights were gain regarding teachers’ assessment practices in early 

childhood settings and how children’s development unfolds. 

3.2 Instruments 

Four main research instruments used in this study include questionnaire, interview, documentary 

analysis and observations. For the quantitative research, the teachers were required to complete a 

questionnaire consisted of demographic information of the respondents (age, teaching experiences, 

educational background). The second part covers the analyses and interpretation of data elicited from 

KG on how they are achieving curriculum goals. The following keys have been used to represent the 

scales in the tables below; NA-not at all, PL-poorly, FW-fairly well, and VW-very well. Data were 

interpreted using means and the following mean ranges: NA 1.00-1.49; PL 1.50-2.49; FW 2.50-3.49; 

VW 3.50-4.00. The questionnaire was a four-point Likert-type scale which was coded 4-very well; 

3-fairly well; 2-poorly and 1-not at all. It was pretested using 30 KG teachers in Western Region. The 

content validity and reliability of the instruments were determined through expert review of items and 

the use of the Cronbach Coefficient alpha which generated alphas of .890 for items on kindergarten 

curriculum goals achievement and .843 for use of assessment procedures respectively. 

For the qualitative study, a semi-structured interviews, observations and documentary analysis were 

used to have nuanced understanding of participants views regarding curriculum goals that define the 

early childhood curriculum and the assessment practices linked to each of them. The participants were 

interviewed and observed thrice on separate occasions. Moreover, information was tease out from 

documents that were relevant to the study. The semi-structured individual interviews and the 

observations lasted 45 minutes for each of the three sessions. 

 



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3.3 Procedure 

The instruments were administered to the participants from July 2017 to December 2017. The data 

regarding the curriculum goals and teachers’ assessment were analysed using descriptive statistics 

(mean, standard deviation) while the Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to analyse the 

hypothesis. In the case of the data regarding the qualitative research, teachers’ thoughts were audio 

recorded and transcribed verbatim. The teachers’ thoughts were further organised into categories. The 

themes that emerged from the analyses were further validated by the observational data linked to 

individual teachers use of diverse authentic assessment practices in their classrooms. In short, the 

themes were determined through open and axial coding (Boeijie, 2010). From the analyses above, it 

can be concluded that a theme is a pattern across data sets that is important to the description of a 

phenomenon which is linked to a research question. 

3.4 Findings 

In the ensuing section, the first present the descriptive statistics regarding the achievement of 

curriculum goals, assessment procedures as well as the link between assessment procedures and 

curriculum goals are presented. The inferential statistics which establishes the nuances regarding the 

relationship between assessment curriculum goals would be unearthed. 

3.5 Kindergarten Teachers Achievement of KG Curriculum Goals 

This part covers the analyses and interpretation of data elicited from KG on how they are achieving 

curriculum goals. The following keys have been used to represent the scales in the tables below; 

NA-not at all, PL-poorly, FW-fairly well, and VW-very well. Data were interpreted using means and 

the following mean ranges: NA 1.00-1.49; PL 1.50-2.49; FW 2.50-3.49; VW 3.50-4.00. 

 

Table 1. KG Teachers Achievement of Curriculum Goals 

Statement Mean SD 

Enabling pupils develop listening skills  3.65 .53 

Enabling pupils develop speaking skills 3.62 .52 

Enabling pupils develop reading skills 3.51 .58 

Enabling pupils develop writing skills 3.62 .56 

Getting pupils to familiarize themselves with the 

environment  

3.57 .57 

Enabling pupils live a healthy life 3.41 .61 

Developing pupil’s ability to interact and socialize 

with peers and others 

3.49 .58 

Helping pupils to relate positively with people  3.46 .50 

Awakening and developing the creative abilities of 3.36 .63 



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pupils 

Helping pupils to acquire and interpret information 3.29 .63 

Getting pupils to appreciate and find pleasure in 

their own creations and those of others 

3.36 .64 

Facilitating experiences to lay foundation for 

further learning in the formal school system 

3.34 .62 

 

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of kindergarten teachers knowledge and understanding of the 

curriculum goals. Overall, most of the teachers have insights about the goals and are helping in 

developing diverse skills of children and this is supported by a mean of 3.65. It was followed closely by 

their ability to enable pupils develop both speaking skills and writing skills both of which yielded 

means of 3.62. These three elements are termed as fundamental literacy skills because they play 

significant roles in children’s language development. Teachers again reacted favorably to the issue of 

helping pupils to familiarize themselves within the world around them, with a mean of 3.57. Though, a 

mean of 3.29 signified that teachers are helping pupils to acquire and interpret information fairly well, 

it was considered the least of the goals they are achieving. Largely, the responses of the teachers 

suggest that they are achieving the goals of the kindergarten curriculum fairly well which is implied by 

the cumulative mean of 3.47. 

The qualitative data obtained through observations and documentary analysis revealed that the 

teachers’ lesson objectives were clearly define and were closely linked to the curriculum goals of the 

early childhood curriculum. This is illustrated in the following excepts:  

 Objectives by Kate: By the end of the lesson, the pupil will be able to: 

i. Count numbers from 1 to 10. 

ii. Assign numerals to number names. 

 Objective by Amina: By the end of the lesson, the child will be able to: 

i. Associate upper and lower-case alphabet (A-J) in a matching activity. 

 Objective by Cecilia: By the end of the lesson, pupils will be able to: 

i. Identify at least four (4) sources of light. 

ii. Mention the uses of light. 

Even though, the objectives where clearly stated some were not specific in terms of the number of 

activities learners were expected to carry out or standard set to determine whether they have learnt as 

expected in objective (ii) for Kate and Cecilia. It was further discovered that teachers who stated such 

objectives copied directly from the kindergarten syllabus. Moreover, some teachers could not get pupils 

to exhibit all the outcomes stated due to the large class sizes which is a common phenomenon in most 

public schools in the study context. However, a mere statement of objectives does not translate to the 

achievement of curriculum goals because effective teaching is largely influenced by multiplicity of 

factors. 



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However, the interview data further provided insights into how the participants were achieving the 

curriculum goals. The teachers provided varying explanations to that effect; 

  Amina: I have not looked at the goals. I only look at the specific 

 Objectives provided for each subtopic to be taught. The specific objectives  

 Give you a very clear understanding of what you are supposed to do.  

 Cecilia: Looking at the goals at first sight they look broad but later  

 They become clearer. If you take your time to look at the specific objectives 

 You will see that you are achieving the goals. 

  Joana: Infact for the goals, I have not taken time to look at them, 

 But the objectives for the various activities are clearer. 

The responses suggest that most of the teachers had not taken time to read and understand the 

kindergarten curriculum goals. It appears most of them got to know the goals through the questionnaire, 

though, the goals are stated on the very first page of the curriculum. This suggests that there appear to 

be flaws regarding the teacher preparations programmes and in-service training. This is significant 

because it highlights one weakness about the teacher education programmes and the need for a 

remedial action by the powers that be. 

The follow-up question sought to find out how teachers could assist learners achieve intended learning 

outcomes. All the teachers believed that they could assist learners exhibit outcomes stated in the goals 

and objectives. This seems to be consistent with their responses to items in the questionnaire. However, 

Kate made one striking observation about the hindrance pertaining to the implementation of authentic 

assessment in kindergarten settings: 

... my problem is that because of the pressure from circuit supervisors it becomes very difficult to find 

out whether children are achieving them (goals) or not. Since they only come around to count exercises 

showing that you are working. They forget that it’s not all the things the children can do for you to see 

in class.  

This extract is every revealing because even though, the participant has in-depth knowledge and 

understanding about assessment practices which are developmentally appropriate for assessing 

different learning outcomes of children but is constrained by the assessment preferences of officialdom.  

 

Table 2. KG Teachers’ Use of Assessment Procedures  

Assessment Procedures Mean SD

Pupils’ opinion of themselves and 
their work  

3.12 .77

Conversing with pupils 3.37 .72

Observation of pupils 3.44 .66

Interacting very closely with 
pupils 

3.35 .74

Setting tasks for pupils 3.21 .72



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Using pupils’ appreciation of each 
other’s work 

3.24 .74

Using checklist 2.80 .95

Using anecdotal records 2.31 .90

Using rating scales 2.46 .86

Using tests/exercises 3.22 .71

 

Table 3 reveals diverse assessment procedures used by the teachers. The use of observation generated 

the highest mean of 3.44 which suggest that it was a major tool used by the teachers to assess children’s 

learning outcomes. Moreover, conversation with individual children also played significant roles in 

assessing the children’s learning outcomes (3.44). Yet, anecdotal records were the least used. This is 

significant because it gives insights regarding the teachers’ lack of competencies in using other 

assessment practices such as anecdotal records (2.1) which also have something to offer with respect to 

different developmental trajectory of children. 

 

Table 3. Relationship between Use of Assessment Procedures and Curriculum Goal Achievement 

Variables 
Total goal 

achievement 
Total 

assessment 
KG curriculum goals Pearson correlation 
Sig (2-tailed) 
N 

1 
 

1413 

.433 

.000 
1413 

Use of assessment procedures Pearson correlation 
Sig (2-tailed) 
N 

.433 

.000 
1413 

1 
 

1413 

 

The relationship between kindergarten teachers’ achievement of curriculum goals and use of 

assessment procedures was explored using Pearsons Product Moment correlation coefficient as shown 

in Table 4. The study’s finding revealed a positive correlation between the two variables (r=.433, 

n=1413, p<.0005). However, the relationship was moderate, so the null hypothesis was thus rejected. 

The study’s finding suggests that the teachers used appropriate assessment procedures which in turn, 

impacted children’s development. This is not surprising because assessment practices partly contribute 

to achievement of curriculum goals and objectives in in any teaching and learning context. 

Nevertheless, these elements form just a few of the key determinants of effective teaching and learning 

in early childhood settings, so there is an incomplete picture regarding how other developmentally 

appropriate assessment practices influence children’s development (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2000). 

 

4. Discussion 

It can be discerned from both the quantitative and qualitative data that though, all the respondents 

indicated that they have insights into the curriculum goals which in turn, helped them use 

developmentally appropriate assessment practices in determining diverse developmental trajectory of 



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children, yet, there appears to be an inherent weakness linked to their assessment practices too. This is 

significant because the essence of kindergarten education is to promote the holistic development of 

children (cognitive, social, emotional, physical, spiritual, moral) through appropriate use of diverse 

assessment practices. Moreover, the support of officialdom is also, required before it can become a 

reality. Nevertheless, the question that arises is whether the officials from the inspectorate division 

have insights regarding the essence of kindergarten education. The evidence from the study’s finding 

points to the contrary, because if they do, they would not insist on using only tests scores of children in 

determining the level of development that each of them had attained. The competencies of the officials 

appear to be suspect because there is more to early childhood education than mere tests scores. The 

government and other stakeholders have roles to play if the curriculum goals are to be effectively 

implemented. This is not surprising because it takes an early teacher and the support of officials who 

have in-depth understanding of the curriculum goals before learning activities which takes into account 

the needs, interests, and individuality of children can be planned in early childhood settings. However, 

it appears the teachers are constrained by the insistence of test scores by officials from the inspectorate 

division. This is significant because it gives us insights into the caliber of officials manning the 

inspectorate division because officials with in-depth knowledge and understanding regarding the nature 

of children and how they learn would not largely be concern about tests scores. However, this might 

not be a complete picture of the puzzle because the kindergarten curriculum is controlled and 

centralized and emphasis is placed on accountability issues by the political dynamics of the times and 

officialdom from inspectorate division (MoE, 2012). However, there is the need for a paradigm shift in 

assessment practices if the study’s finding which suggest that the teachers have insights about 

developmentally appropriate assessment practices is to become a reality. In this vein, the officials at the 

inspectorate division need to be given insights regarding, the differences with respect to children’s 

developmental needs and how the one-size-fit-all approach to assessment practices is likely to have a 

detrimental effect on children’s development because it focuses only the cognitive aspect alone. Yet, 

the cognitive domain is not the only way of measuring a child’s intelligence because intelligence of 

children manifests in multiple ways (Gardener, 2009). This not surprising, because a clear 

understanding of the goals has positive implications for assessment practices in kindergarten sittings 

(Pyle & Deluca, 2017). Early childhood teachers should be given the leeway by the powers that be to 

implement assessment practices that are in tune with the dictates of global trends in early years 

education.  

4.1 Implications for Practice 

The study’s findings have significant implications for early childhood education in Ghana. There is the 

is need for officials of the district directorate of education to be given insights into modern trends 

regarding developmentally appropriate assessment practices in kindergarten classrooms to prevent a 

situation where tests scores become standard measures of children’s trajectory of development. This is 

significant because they would be reoriented to understand that the essence of kindergarten education, 



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is to harness and develop children’s potentials, which is often not closely-linked to only the cognitive 

aspect of learning because intelligence can be expressed in multiple ways. 

 

5. Conclusion  

It can be discerned from the study’s findings that in an apparent uniformity regarding assessment 

practices in early childhood settings, there is bound to be diversity. This not surprising because each of 

participant’s assessment practices was largely informed by an identy that has evolved over the years 

through their teacher preparation years and experiences gained during their professional practices 

which in turn, give them insights into diverse assessment practices that suite the socio-cultural contexts 

of their children. This is significant because the philosophical underpinning of the 2007 curriculum 

reforms in Ghana is to provide effective teacher-child interactions that would impact the holistic 

development of children which is determined through developmentally assessment practices. The 

study’s findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge which suggests that children’s 

development can best be measured through assessment practices which are in sync with the nature of 

children and how they learn. Nonetheless, the significance of the current assessment practice can only 

be realised if officials from the inspectorate division of Ghana Education are well-informed about 

emerging theories and assessment practices in early childhood settings across the globe. 

 

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