


































Global Research in Higher Education 
ISSN 2576-196X (Print) ISSN 2576-1951 (Online) 

Vol. 6, No. 3, 2023 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe 

1 

 

Original Paper 

Higher Education Means More than Vocational Training in the 

21st Century 

Yue Lyu
1
 

1
 School of Education, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK   

 

Received: June 16, 2023        Accepted: June 26, 2023        Online Published: August 2, 2023 

doi:10.22158/grhe.v6n3p1                    URL:http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/grhe.v6n3p1 

 

Abstract 

Based on theoretical approach of Biesta and Nussbaum, this essay argues that higher education means 

more than vocational training in the 21st century. The article first contributes to different insights into 

the area of educational purposes and policy. Then it analyzes the specific issue within this 

theme-vocationalism in higher education-with the help of the two theoretical tools, arguing that 

Biesta’s approach offers a more appropriate and fuller explanation for the issue. Maintaining the 

diversity of purposes of higher education can make it better function in the social system and prevent 

us from getting lost in the way of discovering its true value. Finally, there are two recommendations for 

thinking about the ultimate value of education regardless of its forms.  

Keywords 

vocationalism, higher education, educational purposes, Biesta, Nussbaum, theoretical analysis 

 

1. Introduction 

In the 21
st
 century, higher education is generally considered as the final stage of formal learning that 

occurs after the completion of secondary education. It develops with times and plays various but 

important roles in promoting the advancement of society. Despite that higher education has a variety of 

purposes, it has divergent focuses in different stages of human history which determine its main 

function and position in the social setting. Historically, vocational education and higher education were 

respectively derived from opposing traditions and had relatively monotonic forms. While universities 

concentrated on transmitting systematic scientific knowledge, vocational schools were aimed at 

providing a series of training for specific occupations (Maclean, 2010). This relationship has 

continuously changed with the socioeconomic development in different times. In the past few decades, 

human society has experienced dramatic changes driven by rapidly evolving science and technologies. 

We now live in an era in which a global and knowledge-driven economy largely changes the structure 



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of the labor market and makes new demands to the workforce. It places great emphasis on the needs of 

high-level talents that are no longer satisfied by primary and secondary education. Thus, deeply 

influenced by neoliberalism and human capital theory which claim that not only individuals but also 

society can benefit from direct investment on people, governments in many countries around the world 

turn to higher education for help. When making educational policies in this field, they regard higher 

education more as an effective way of investment in order to accumulate corresponding human capital 

for national economic growth and solve the increasingly prominent employment issues (Hayward, 

2004). Against this background, a growing trend of vocationalization starts to appear in this area. The 

incorporation of vocational education into higher education suggests a possible positive direction 

towards building a more comprehensive system including a wider range of institutions with diverse 

functions. However, this trend may also lead to excessive professionalism of higher education, which 

in essence is a kind of simplification of purposes and values of higher education. Such simplification 

will impede the sustainable development of an individual and the whole society.  

In this context, this essay argues that higher education means more than vocational training in the 21
st
 

century from a theoretical perspective. The article first explains why this issue and its relevant theme, 

educational purposes, are important to not only individuals and society but also education itself. Based 

on that, Biesta’s theory of three functions of educational purposes and Nussbaum’s capabilities 

approach are separately clarified in details to contribute to a deep understanding of this area. Finally, 

the essay demonstrates which theoretical approach provides a more powerful and insightful explanation 

to the vocationalism in higher education. Two recommendations for thinking about the ultimate value 

of education are also given at the end of this essay. 

 

2. Educational Purposes and Policy 

Education is the process of facilitating individuals’ learning, helping them acquire knowledge, shaping 

values and beliefs, forming habits and mastering skills (Dewey, 2004). This definition indicates one 

basic purpose of education that is to bring people to as full a realization as possible of what it is to be a 

human being. Based on structural functionalism (Macionis & Gerber, 2010), society serves as a 

complex system whose parts are similar to interconnected cogs and work together to promote solidarity 

and stability. Education is such a cog in the social system which has its own functions and is closely 

interrelated with other parts in society. Purposes of education are reasons behind its particular position 

and functions in the whole system which assist in pointing out directions of the progress. They can 

never be simple or independent. Educational purposes range from very small targets like spreading 

disciplinary knowledge or preparing students for a job to general goals such as contributing to national 

economic productivity or meeting social needs. In addition, situated within the social structure, 

education more or less serves interests of certain groups.  

 

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Since ancient times, debates on purposes of education have never stopped. Today, arguments on 

vocationalism in higher education in nature are reflections on purposes of education. Criticism of over 

professionalism in this field lies in the simplification of purposes of education. One of negative effects 

brought about by this vocationalized trend is that it makes higher education become more and more 

utilitarian. Currently, a paradigmatic shift has appeared not just in the field of higher education policies, 

but consequently among college students in regard to their attitudes towards the purpose of higher 

education. Students’ expectations have grown increasingly utilitarian and vocational. They mostly 

count diplomas as a stepping stone to success in the workplace. In order to keep in line with 

educational policies and satisfy student’s needs, higher education inevitably focuses more on offering 

them transferable skills. Education has become more as a tool that only aims to supply labor to the 

market and consequently its functions are limited. At the same time, the true value of education is 

hidden in this situation, which will hinder its own advancement. Except for this, the simplification of 

educational purposes can weaken the key role of education in promoting social justice and reducing 

social inequality, which is a major preoccupation of educational policy makers. On the one hand, 

according to distributive justice, no matter what their backgrounds are, everyone should have equal 

distribution of all material and social goods (Jawls, 2005). When discussing about this type of social 

justice, it is easy to only focus on “equal distribution for everyone” but overlook “all material and 

social goods”. However, the latter one is the fundamental part in course of distribution. Distributive 

justice cannot be achieved by everyone’s equal distribution of limited resources. Vocational training in 

higher education only gives people access to one kind of benefits from higher education. In a society 

pursuing fairness and justice, each individual has right to enjoy all benefits of this educational resource. 

On the other hand, in a sense, vocationalism, a narrow view of educational purposes, restricts 

individuals’ freedom of choice with reference to two aspects. First, it restraints people from freely 

selecting which benefit of higher education they would like to get. Different people may have diverse 

educational needs. Second, it imperceptibly prevents individuals from making their own decisions 

about whether they really need higher education. Excessive emphasis on vocational purposes may 

mislead the public to regard higher education as an indispensable way of getting better jobs. Thus, they 

have no choice but try to get into higher education. Moreover, in this case, advocacy of vocationalism 

represents interests of dominant groups such as governments or privileged class who try to use 

education to maintain their exclusive advantages. Based on the idea of recognitive justice (Gale & 

Densmore, 2000), a just society should foster respect of different social groups, attempting to serve 

their different needs. In addition, interests of dominated groups are supposed to be represented through 

dialogue and conversations. Therefore, discussions about multiple purposes of higher education should 

be brought back on the agenda to contribute to achieving social justice.      

 

 



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In such a diversified and democratic society, education regardless of its forms or levels has more 

responsibilities. Profound considerations upon educational purposes can help us have a deep 

understanding of education and its true value, finding out what the ultimate goal of our efforts is and to 

what end we are spending our time and energy in the process of conducting educational activities. 

Thinking more about educational purposes is the first step to address the issue and make education 

better function in the society. In next part, Biesta’s theory of three functions of educational purposes 

and Nussbaum’s capabilities approach will be introduced in details to provide us with insights into this 

field. Based on critique of the excessive influence of neoliberalism in the globe from different 

perspective, both of the theorists justify the significance of educational purposes and build a framework 

for a deep and broad understanding of this area.  

 

3. Biesta: “Learnification” and Three Functions of Education 

According to Biesta (2009), in such an age that is full of measurement and comparisons of learning 

outcomes, there is a need to rethink what constitute good education, a question which is closely related 

to the purpose of education. Firstly, he points out one important problem hidden behind the 

increasingly developing educational measurement culture and its excessive concentration on 

competition. It is that what we measure are not equal to what are supposed to be valued. Currently, 

educational policies and activities rely so much on evidence that we have an illusion that the factual 

information from our measurements is what is desirable for education. However, examined from a 

philosophical perspective, “what ought to be done can never be logically derived from what is” (Biesta, 

2009, p. 35). Most importantly, what we measure now may be what is easily being assessed. In 

consequence, the value of education lies in what we can do rather than what we should do. Targets and 

indicators of real quality are mistaken for quality itself. In fact, the current educational culture is in 

essence a culture of effectiveness, embodying an instrumental value mainly addressing a secure process 

which can ensure certain outcomes. However, value-based judgements are not determined by that but 

by ultimate values which consider about the true aims and purposes of education. In this context, Biesta 

further explains why questions about values and purposes of good education have been fading out of 

our sight. It consists in both external reasons caused by exterior environments and internal ones arising 

from education itself. As for the former ones, on the one hand, it is generally considered that 

educational purposes are too personal and subjective to be rationally discussed. On the other hand, 

people often mistake a specific view of purposes called as common sense for actual values and aims of 

education. However, such common sense always serves the interests of particular groups instead of 

those involving the majority. What is worse is that not only the dominant groups use this to maintain 

their edge and keep the status quo, but also the dominated ones are brainwashed and tend to support 

such opinions. Thus, social inequalities are not alleviated but reproduced in a different way. With 

respect to internal reasons, Biesta proposes a term “learnification” to describe the new language of 



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learning. It refers to the trend that teaching gradually exits from the center and is regarded as the 

facilitation of learning. Education places much emphasis on learners’ initiative and autonomy and it is 

mainly responsible for the provision of learning opportunities and resources. This trend leads to two 

problematic aspects. One is that learning makes people more likely to think of educational purposes 

from an individualistic perspective as what individuals can do rather than considering about the 

ultimate goal of education itself. The other is the exaggerated attention to the process which may lead 

to the ignorance of initial aims. At this point, Biesta applies “learnification” to stress the difference 

between learning and education, pointing out that the former is an individual process and the latter 

gives the process content (Nakai, Yonezawa & Biseth, 2016). Based on these reasons, he argues that an 

ongoing debate about the purposes of education should keep its existence in a democratic society. 

In order to put the debate back on the agenda, instead of directly describing what are educational 

purposes, Biesta outlines a conceptual framework into which a wide range of purposes in this area 

could fit by suggesting three functions of education. The first is qualification. It is aimed at offering 

people who participate in education knowledge, skills, understanding, dispositions and forms of 

judgement that enable them to do something ranging from the very specific like preparing students for 

a job to more general such as learning about modern culture. This function primarily lays the 

foundation for people to perform in the society and is undoubtedly one of the basic and major functions 

of formal education. The second one is socialization which is to do with the purpose of making a 

person become a member of a society, following particular social, cultural and political orders through 

education. This function shows that education is never neutral, usually representing interests of certain 

groups in the society and can be used to transfer particular values and continuous specific traditions. 

That is why a country always places formal education in the first place. Apart from these two functions, 

education can also make contributions to a person’s subjectification. It is a process of individualization 

which is generally counted as the opposite function of socialization. Its main goal is to provide 

individuals with capacities that allow them to act independently and freely make their own choices. 

Nonetheless, the establishment of this framework is just the first step. Starting from that, it is pivotal to 

shift discussions about actual educational functions to the exploration of real kinds of functions, 

namely aims and ends that education should have. 

Biesta’s theoretical approach gives us insights to the area of educational purposes from two 

perspectives. First, he indicates the imperatives of rekindling the debate on educational ultimate values 

by pointing out the problem behind current situations and factors impeding such a debate. Furthermore, 

this part can give us a hint at identifying educational issues that in nature is linked with this area. 

Second, he offers us a starting point which gives directions to explore the ends of education by creating 

a relatively comprehensive and understandable system of educational functions.  

 

 



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4. Nussbaum: Capabilities Approach 

Criticizing the simplistic theory of social development and policy that concentrates much more on 

economic indicators and outcomes rather than people’s quality of life, Nussbaum (2011) develops a 

capabilities approach borrowed from one of Sen’s key term to address a set of questions about both 

quality of life and basic social justice. She uses the plural form of capability to highlight the diversity 

and distinctions of the most significant elements of individuals’ quality of life which cannot be reduced 

to simple economic metric. The core of the capabilities approach lies in individual freedom and choices. 

It considers each person as an end, caring about not only their own state, but also opportunities 

available to each of them. This gives respects to personal free will and uniqueness to a large extent. It is 

far more different from egalitarianism which tries to get everyone equal distribution of the same thing 

regardless their diverse needs and historical backgrounds. On the contrary, this approach is designed to 

ensure people’s autonomy so that they can act and choose freely based on their characters. Grounded 

on the idea incorporated in this approach, when promoting social development, we should think about 

what kind of a society is supposed to be created so that everyone can enjoy the maximum freedom to 

make their own choices in it, rather than how we could help people fit into the current social structure. 

Therefore, the capabilities approach values much on a person’s self-recognition.  

Some basic concepts are introduced to clarify the approach. First is the notion of capabilities that is the 

heart of this theory. There are three forms of capabilities: basic, internal and combined. Basic 

capabilities are innate and lays the foundation for individuals’ future development of capabilities. They 

suggest some kinds of potentials. Internal capabilities are described as states and characteristics of a 

person including personality, intelligence, emotions, perceptions and so on. Being different from the 

former ones, they are trained abilities which are influenced by external social environments and then 

are internalized into one’s traits. As for combined capabilities, they are the synthesis of internal 

capabilities and external conditions that permit free functions of internal ones. In a sense, combined 

capabilities could be seen as exterior extensions of the internal ones in the surroundings. In spite of 

their differences, one cannot be truly developed without the other one. Another crucial aspect is about 

functioning which refers to the realizations of capabilities. The acquisition and strengthening of 

different forms of capabilities largely depends on their functioning. However, it may be restricted by 

particular social contexts. Functioning applicable in this approach is different from its traditional view 

that is more like an expression of utilitarianism. In this case it also focuses on freedom. It means that 

people can freely decide how to make their capabilities function instead of being forced to function in a 

certain way (Carlson, Nguyen & Reinardy, 2016). Thus, the development of capabilities that in essence 

is the exercise of human freedom should be ultimate goals for a fair society. Nonetheless, sometimes 

compromises are also needed because there is no absolute freedom. In certain circumstances, the right 

to do things may destroy not only one’s own capabilities but also those of others.  

 



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Based on these, Nussbaum further proposes ten essential and irreducible capabilities which are held up 

as the threshold of guaranteeing human dignity and their freedom of a series of choices. They cover 

from bodily health to mental health, from reason to emotions, from each individual to relationships 

with others, from study to play, and from human beings to other species and living environments. The 

basic claim of social justice is to respect human dignity and the quality of life, which requires that 

every citizen should be placed above the threshold by empowering their freedom to achieve these ten 

central capabilities. In the process of pursuing such kind of social justice, education plays a key role. It 

provides individuals with opportunities to develop their capabilities through a variety of educational 

functioning (Lozano et al., 2012). For example, general education such as literacy, reading and writing 

aimed at transmitting a broad range of knowledge forms the value system of students and exercises 

their abilities of imagination and reasoning. Physical education ensures them to be able to keep healthy. 

Vocational education helps people master professional skills. Environmental education makes 

individuals aware of the significance of surroundings and learn how to get along well with the nature. 

In this way, the capabilities approach builds a framework which also gives directions to thinking about 

educational purposes in different ways around the core issue of developing necessary capabilities. The 

quality of life is always supposed to be taken into considerations as well. At the same time, 

Nussbaum’s theory offers us a new way to approach educational purposes. Since ancient times, one 

continuing humanistic purpose of education is to evoke human beings’ self-recognition. The objects of 

education are thus always people themselves. However, as time goes by, education become more and 

more complicated with the development of the society. It has increasingly closer connections with its 

situated setting. As stated in Nussbaum’s theory, individuals develop capabilities within certain 

circumstances. It is also necessary to provide enough social setting for the functioning of people’s 

capabilities. Thus, the objects of education in current times are not limited to individuals. They can also 

be environments. Furthermore, when we think about educational purposes, we can not only consider 

about the value of educating people, but also the value of educating environments, in other words, how 

we could create better environments for the free development of people’s capabilities through 

education.   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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5. Vocationalism in Higher Education  

As demonstrated in the previous section, theoretical approaches of Biesta and Nussbaum make great 

contributions to the area of educational purposes and policy. In terms of the issue, while both of them 

can be used to have a deep understanding of the vocationalism in higher education, Biesta’s theory 

better fit in with the situation. 

To begin with, the trend of professionalism in higher education is largely influenced by neoliberalism 

coming from the economic field and its focus on human capital, which in essence suggests a simplistic 

view on purposes of education. Such simplification could be seen as a part of educational measurement 

culture mentioned by Biesta. It regards graduates’ employability as an important learning outcome. The 

higher the employment rate is, the more effective the higher education can be. Meanwhile, in this case, 

similarly being criticized by Nussbaum, the quality of higher education is only measured by economic 

indicators. Whether higher education meets the needs of labor market becomes the standard of 

measurement. As for negative effects caused by the excessive vocationalization in this field, both 

theories can provide certain explanations but from divergent aspects. According to Biesta, fitting into 

labor market is just an instrumental value of higher education. The extravagant emphasis on vocational 

training may make people have a wrong understanding of the ultimate value of education. Moreover, in 

fact, such a trend largely represents interests of governments for improving national economic 

productivity which may fail to address the real needs of different groups in the society. Apart from 

these, vocationalism also limits individuals’ freedom of choices that is placed at the center of 

capabilities approach. The imposed significance of receiving higher education as the guarantee of a 

better career prospect prevents people from freely deciding whether they truly need higher education 

and which kind of benefits they would like to get from it. Besides, it also impedes the exercise of 

people’s central capabilities by narrowing down the function of higher education. Given these 

situations, it is necessary to carefully rethink about the purposes of higher education so that it can better 

promote individual development and social justice.   

The criticism of the vocationalized trend in higher education does not mean that vocational training is 

not needed in this field. On the contrary, it is one of the main purposes of higher education in the 21
st
 

century. However, in such a diversified and democratic society, higher education is supposed to mean 

more than just vocational training. Thus, there should be an ongoing debate on its purposes. At this 

stage, Biesta’s theoretical approach has more explanatory power. It directly points out three functions 

of education. With reference to this issue, vocational training serves as the qualification and 

socialization functions of higher education. It gives students transferable skills which prepare them for 

better jobs. Meanwhile, it tries to make them become a qualified member who satisfy the needs of the 

labor market in the society. However, subjectification also has the same value of the other two which is 

aimed at providing students with capacities that allow them to act independently and make their own 

choices. This point is in accordance with the ultimate value of capabilities approach. Although 



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Nussbaum’s theory could provide different insights into this issue, in contrast with Biesta’s theoretical 

concepts, the capabilities approach is a more comprehensive and multidimensional framework for the 

whole human development based more on a political perspective. In addition, because the central 

capabilities are supposed to be secured to everyone at least at a threshold level in a decent political 

order, discussions about purposes around their development are more likely to be related to earlier 

stages such as primary or secondary education which is compulsory. Moreover, capabilities approach is 

critiqued for being too individualist and universal which can be applied to a variety of fields but lacks 

specific measurements (Carlson, Nguyen & Reinardy, 2016).  

 

6. Conclusions 

Education plays a key role in history of human development. The purposes of education decide its 

functions and positions in the society. They should always be taken into careful considerations in order 

to not only promote the advancement of human beings and the society, but also find out the ultimate 

value of education itself. Based on theoretical approach of Biesta and Nussbaum, this article first 

contributes to different insights into the area of educational purposes and policy. Then it analyzes a 

specific issue within this theme (the vocationalism in higher education) with the help of the two 

theoretical tools, arguing that Biesta’s approach offers a more appropriate and fuller explanation for the 

issue. As for the issue itself, this essay points out that higher education is supposed to mean more than 

just vocational training. Maintaining the diversity of purposes of higher education can make it better 

function in the social system and prevent us from getting lost in the way of discovering its true value. 

Finally, there are two recommendations for thinking about the ultimate value of education regardless of 

its forms. First, no matter how many kinds of purposes education may have, what we really pursue is a 

comparatively pure education which gives everyone infinite possibilities. Second, the existence of 

education is to make each person and each nation in the world be able to believe the truth.      

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Carlson, J., Nguyen, H., & Reinardy, J. (2016). Social Justice and the Capabilities Approach: Seeking a 

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Dewey, J. (2004). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan. 

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Macionis, J. J., & Gerber, L. M. (2010). Sociology. Canada: Pearson Education Canada. 

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https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9z6v 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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https://doi.org/10.1080/0305498042000190032
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2011.00839.x
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https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674061200
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9z6v

