


































Global Research in Higher Education 
ISSN 2576-196X (Print) ISSN 2576-1951 (Online) 

Vol. 4, No. 2, 2021 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe 

69 
 

Original Paper 

Distance Learning in Greece during Covid-19 Pandemic 

Apostolou George
1*

, Papatsimpas Achilleas
2
, Gounas Athanasios

1
 & Gkouna Ourania

1
 

1
 International Hellenic University, Greece 

2
 Ministry of Education, Greece 

*
 Apostolou George, International Hellenic University, Ioannina, 45333, Greece 

 

Received: May 9, 2021          Accepted: May 21, 2021         Online Published: June 3, 2021 

doi:10.22158/grhe.v4n2p69              URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/grhe.v4n2p69 

 

Abstract 

The purpose of this study is to investigate the reaction of Greeks to this new educational reality due to 

the Covid-19 outbreak. Since the first restrictive measures were implemented in March 2020in Greece, 

distance learning has become a dynamic part of people’s daily lives with the prospect of remain in gas 

such in the future. A total of N=170 students, parents, teachers, civil servants, private sector employees 

who were involved in the distance learning process either as instructors or as students in the period of 

Covid-19 pandemic in Greece, were selected with the use of snowball sampling. A questionnaire using 

demographic and satisfaction related variables was completed by the respondents, namely citizens 

across Greece, based on a Likert scale questionnaire which is a useful and multidimensional 

instrument, to assess satisfaction within the time frame from July 7, 2020 to October 20, 2020; the 

period when there occurred a loosening in the restrictive measures between the two lockdowns in 

Greece. It was investigated how the demographic factors, specifically gender, age, occupation, and 

place of residence, influence the attitude of the respondents towards synchronous and asynchronous 

distance learning as well as their intention to continue using online education services in the future 

after the lifting of the restrictive measures. Additionally, the customers’ preferences concerning the 

most enjoyable distance learning experience were examined, so that they will be available to the 

distance learning program designers. Descriptive statistical analysis and non-parametric statistical 

hypothesis tests were conducted in SPSS and R. Most of the respondents had not participated in online 

courses before the Covid-19 outbreak, 46 % did participate in e-learning courses before the Covid-19 

lockdown while 54 % did not and  

34.1% respondents prefer face-to-face learning, while 15.9% prefer e-learning. Also, 50% respondents 

prefer a combination of face-to-face learning and e-learning. Hypothesis tests showed that there are 

statistically significant differences between users’ preferences as well as regarding their demographic 

characteristics. Undergraduate and postgraduate university students continue to participate in online 



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learning courses and are willing to invest financial resources and time in this new educational process 

(χ
2
(4)=10.440, p=0.034), unlike high school students who prefer face-to-face learning (p=0.042). The 

present study will lead to practical implications, such as the formation of e-learning programs which 

aim for the best user experience and the best learning outcomes. Also, private educational 

organizations can include the results in the key elements to implementing a strategic marketing mix. 

Keywords 

Covid-19, e-learning, face-to-face learning, distance learning, student experience 

 

1. Introduction 

The coronavirus disease (Covid-19) outbreak has affected millions of people and threatens their lives 

all over the world. Most countries’ governments have ordered a lockdown and mandated that people to 

stay at their homes due to the transmissibility of this new virus. Therefore, the Covid-19 outbreak has 

brought about major changes in working conditions all over the globe within a month. In the wake of 

the worldwide pandemic, most sectors, ranging from economy and industries to education, were 

severely affected. The consequences of this pandemic have been unstoppable and uncontrollable for 

many industries all around the world including educational institutions. As a result, principals 

(headmasters), teachers, and educators in many countries have started using e-learning. 

The management of each educational organization is responsible for providing information for the 

services and curricula offered by the Learning Services Providers (LSP’s), as well as for designing 

innovative, cost-effective, and efficacious solutions. The implementation of innovative curricula, 

management models and processes ensure efficient management methods, quality services, reduced 

economic waste and optimal utilization of human resources. 

To be able to design and implement innovative schemes, what should be explored and clarified is 

students’ needs and the degree to which organizations offering secondary education services in Greece 

today were satisfactory, under the current circumstances. The LSP’s, more specifically tutorial schools, 

private tutors, and e-learning platforms, are involved in the educational process, as educational 

institutions, through the academic support that they offer to elementary and high school students as 

well as to autonomous students. These are provided with the purpose of filling learning gaps, assisting, 

and organizing the study process, as well as preparing pupils and students for their participation in 

exams and competitions (Papakonstantinou, 2016). 

 

2. Market Orientation (MO): A Key Element in Educational Institutions’ Marketing 

Marketing Orientation is the extent to which an organization creates and uses information about current 

and future customer needs. It develops a strategy to meet these needs and implements it for that 

purpose. MO takes into consideration the influence of competitors and integrates it into interoperable 

co-ordination. It encourages raising awareness, using data accumulated about competitors and employ 

in integrated and interoperable processes to form a strategic organizational response to marketing 



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opportunities (Slater & Narver, 2000; Harris, 2002; Helfert, Ritter, & Walter, 2002). All these activities 

are oriented towards creating and satisfying customers through a continuous assessment of buyers’ 

needs. As far as school context is concerned, it is believed that the focus on current and future clients 

(Parents, students) should prevail over the other two MO functions. In our opinion, MO is a set of 

beliefs that prioritizes customer interests but also increases the willingness of the educational 

organization to obtain information about its competitors and create cross-sectoral activities to gain a 

distinct advantage within a hectic and highly competitive environment. 

 

3. Distance Learning 

Distance learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skills using information and 

instructions provided by means of online material and courses, as opposed to both teachers and students 

being physically present during the educational process. Thus, E-learning is covered under a larger 

term of technology-based learning through websites, learning platforms, video conferencing, mobile 

apps, and many types of free available websites for blended learning technologies (Bower & Hardy, 

2004). Currently, e-learning is enhancing students’ knowledge and is assessing the skills of academic 

staff through the internet (Adams et al., 2018; Chopra et al., 2019). Most higher education institutions 

are providing online courses for their students both within and off university campuses. Studies also 

show a mean growth 7.9% in e-learning annually worldwide. More specifically, the highest growth rate 

is in Asia with 17.3%, followed by Eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America with 16.9%, 15.2%, and 

14.6%, respectively (Rana et al., 2014). 

Globally, due to the Covid-19 outbreak, schools and universities halted their function and most teachers 

and students are satisfied with the progress of the online education. All faculty members of many 

recognized universities have begun to get online certifications to deliver online lessons. Currently, 

academic staff members and students are learning how to use the online learning platforms. Before this 

outbreak, mostly face-to-face teaching was used and this shift to the online courses has raised many 

queries on the quality of education (Sahu, 2020). Omotayo and Haliru (2020) also added that learners 

must be motivated to acquire digital competency for them to remain up-to-date and not let their 

education be impeded in times of crisis. 

3.1 E Learning 

E-learning not only covers content (Nichols, 2003) and educational methods provided via 

asynchronous material, the Internet, or an Intranet (Benson et al., 2002; Clark, 2002) but also includes 

audio and video material, satellite broadcasting, and interactive television (Ellis, 2004). Thus, there is 

some level of interaction in the learning process (Moore et al., 2010). 

3.2 The Importance of Online Learning in the Time of Covid-19 Crisis 

The Covid-19 effects can be seen in schools, colleges, and universities. Subsequently, all these online 

learning platforms can be viewed as a panacea for the crisis. The Covid-19 outbreak has made 

educational institutions switch from the offline pedagogy mode to online pedagogy. Crisis will force 



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the educational institutions (which had earlier demonstrated reluctance to change) to accept modern 

technology. Internet is the state-of-the-art technology that allows both asynchronous distance learning 

(two-way communication involving intervals between sending and receiving) and synchronous (direct 

communication without delay), teleconferencing and online chat, which can be used for 

student-to-student interaction, among students, teachers, but also within large groups of people. The 

Internet also provides access to digitized educational materials, scholarly articles, books, and current 

reports. It allows students to take lessons according to their lifestyle and daily schedule, instead of 

having to compromise with a set time and location. Therefore, it allows students who are unable to get 

an education due to geographical distance, personal disability, or physical disability, to have access to it 

(Inman, Kerwin, & Mayes, 1999). 

This crisis will show us the lucrative side of online teaching and learning as with the aid of the online 

teaching tools, we can coordinate many students at any time and in any part of the world. All 

institutions must use technology more aptly and many universities around the world fully use their 

digital operations understanding the imposed need that the current outbreak created. Online learning is 

emerging as something innovative and has increased exponentially after the Covid-19 outbreak in the 

Greek universities. During this tough time, the concern is how academic institutions will be able to 

adopt online learning in such a massive manner (Carey, 2020). 

Education today must provide opportunities for a variety of socio-economic, national, and diverse 

social groups. Due to the modern requirements of a changing student population, with a variety of 

different demographics and increased operating costs, educational organizations are driven to find ways 

to become more productive in the methods of delivering their courses and educational services (Baker 

& Gloucester, 1994; Barnard, 1997). Technological developments look to distance education to reduce 

the cost of building new facilities, while still serving a changing student population (Bothun, 1997). 

Finally, e-learning has some positive effects on students, it is a crucial platform for extra ordinary 

circumstances, or even for people who are unable to complete their studies in person (Eltayeb et al., 

2020). 

3.3 Educational Needs 

Exploring and identifying the needs of students and parents is crucial for the development and 

improvement of the strategic planning of an educational organization. For that reason, in recent decades 

there has been a systematic effort to categorize them, with the resulting educational needs of students 

being divided into 6 types (Burton & Merrill, 1991; Alivizos, Apostolos, & Paraschou, 2015): 

 Normative Needs, the difference between a person’s performance (or a team’s), against a given 

performance standard.  

 Felt Needs, an individual or a group desire for improvement. 

 Expressed Needs, that arise from the actions of individuals and are identified in practice. 

 Comparative Needs, the differences that exist between a group of people with certain 

characteristics and another group of people with similar characteristics. 



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 Anticipated/Future Needs, a mismatch between the current situation and the expected future 

situation. 

 Critical-Incident Needs, that may occur infrequently but can have a significant impact on the 

operation of a system. 

3.4 The Main Problems of E-Learning and Solutions 

The main problems impeding the effectiveness of online instructions are: 

 The content of some educational material is not suitable for students whose learning ability is 

weak. 

 Sometimes online courses are hindered by poor network connection and poor lesson 

planning/student attentiveness. 

 Insufficient teaching resources for online courses. 

 Insufficient (financial) support for teachers’ teaching space, environment, and equipment. 

 Lack of teachers’ enthusiasm in teaching. 

 It is relatively difficult for teachers to engage students’ attention, maintain classroom order and 

organize classroom discussions, the way they would in face-to-face learning. 

 Difficulties in addressing different learning styles. 

 Isolation (Sanad & El-Sayyed, 2020). 

The solution to those problems is building strong self-motivation skills concerning the online learning 

environment. Additionally, face-to-face communication with the tutors can be substituted with online 

communication, and online interactive activities between students should be promoted, similarly to the 

way they would be in traditional schools or in university classrooms. Also, solving an e-learning 

problem with a non-e-learning solution (e.g., taking course materials home to have the student’s 

husband read them aloud or writing an exam at a different time from the rest of the class) is an alternate 

format (Fichten et al., 2009). Both the sentence and the examples in this last period are not adequately 

explained, further elaboration is needed for them to make sense). 

 

4. Research 

The purpose of this quantitative research was to investigate how the Covid-19 pandemic influenced 

parents’ and students’ preferences over e-learning or face-to-face learning. Self-completion 

questionnaires were distributed online, to achieve receiving answers from all over Greece in a short 

period of time. The population was approximately 7,000,000, i.e., Greek nationals, aged 18 to 65. The 

survey was conducted between 7 July and 20 October 2020. Snowball sampling was used and applied 

when it is difficult to access subjects with the target characteristics. In this method, the existing study 

subjects recruit future subjects among their acquaintances and sampling continues until data saturation 

(Naderifar, 2017). The 170 questionnaire responses comprised: 56 males (33%), 114 females (67%). 

The absolute (relative) frequencies of the occupation of the respondents are: 7% civil servants, 4% 

graduates, 5% secondary school students, 10% high school students, 10% parents, 12% postgraduate 



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students, 8% private sector employees, 11% teachers and 35% undergraduate university students. 

As for the educational level of the participants, 48% have a bachelor’s degree, 7% are secondary school 

graduates, 21% are high school graduates, 23% have a master’s degree and 1% are PhD holders. 

4.1 Results and Discussion 

4.1.1 Descriptive Statistics  

Descriptive statistics summarize various aspects about our data, giving details about the sample and 

providing information about the population from which the sample was drawn. Each variable’s type 

determines the nature of descriptive statistics that one calculates (Larson, 2006). 

An important question of the survey (“Have you participated in distance learning before the Covid-19 

lockdown?”) focused on the information that shows that in Greece, e-Learning appeared not to have 

been very popular before the Covid-19 lockdown. 46 % did participate in e-learning courses before the 

Covid-19 lockdown while 54 % did not. This comes in accordance with Edelhauser et al. (2020) that 

the e-Learning concept appeared to be considered relevant only after the beginning of the coronavirus 

pandemic. 

One other relevant question shows that students (68 % of our sample, Table 1) have quickly migrated 

to online courses after the Covid-19 lockdown as well as in Edelhauser et al. (2020) and Kamal et al. 

(2020). 

 

Table 1. Participation in E-learning due to Access Issues to Face-to-Face Learning 

 Frequency Proportion 

Yes 103 60.9 % 

No 66 39.1 % 

 

Several questions were asked to trace out the learning status during lockdown that includes modes of 

learning, number of students participating in an e-learning course and average time in hours per day 

that an online course last. 

 

Table 2. Questions to Trace Out the Learning Status 

Variables Frequency 

(n) 

Percentage (%) 

Mode of learning   

Face-to-face learning 58 34.1 

E-learning 27 15.9 

A combination of the above 85 50 

Replacement of face-to-face learning vs e-learning   

Yes 124 72.9 



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No 46 27.1 

Average time (in hours) per day of online courses   

0-1 31 19.7 

2-15 122 77.7 

15 and above 4 2.6 

Satisfaction with the internet services connection   

Not at all satisfied 9 5.8 

Slightly satisfied 19 12.2 

Moderately satisfied 48 30.8 

Very satisfied 58 37.2 

Extremely satisfied 22 14.1 

 

Table 3. Attendance in Distance Learning Courses Per Day 

 Hours per day  

M SD 

Occupation 

Secondaryschool student 12,86 16,96 

High school student 2,86 3,90 

Graduate 3,33 1,75 

Undergraduate student 4,46 3,41 

Postgraduate student 2,61 1,79 

Parent 2,35 1,66 

Teacher 4,06 1,98 

Civil servant 3,67 2,99 

Private sector employee 1,90 1,60 

 

The respondents prefer face-to-face learning 34.1%, while 15.9% prefer e-learning. Also, 50% 

respondents prefer a combination of face-to-face learning and e-learning. This conclusion comes in 

agreement with Kapasia et al. (2020) where 37.9% respondents were continuing their study through 

textbook reading and digital e-learning, while 30.6% students opted for self-studying through reading 

textbooks not participated in e-learning. Additionally, in the study of Abbasi et al. (2020) it was found 

that e-learning is perceived to have little impact compared to face-to-face learning as indicated by 86% 

of the participants. Furthermore, 72.9% participants reported that they believe in a potential 

replacement of face-to-face learning from e-learning, while 27.1% participants do not believe in such a 

possibility. 

 

 



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Singh and Min (2017) did a study on the effectiveness of conducting digital lectures on gross anatomy. 

The study investigated students’ satisfaction level towards e-learning, and it was found that most of the 

students characterized digital learning as efficient. In our study, 40.6 % participants believe that 

e-learning is moderately effective compared to face-to-face learning, 24.7% slightly effective, 17.1% 

not at all effective, 14.1% very effective and 3.5% extremely effective. In Ana et al. (2020), 51% of the 

students expressed agreement related to e-learning preparation and 68% expressed their neutrality 

about the implementation of e-learning. 

Adnan and Anwar (2020) found that most of the students 71.4% voted against the notion that online 

learning is more motivating than face-to-face learning, which agrees (is in line) with our statement. 

Finally, investigated which educational institution offered the e-learning courses.52.1% of the 

respondents attended e-learning courses from university, 21.8% from tutorial schools, 19.4% from 

public schools, 16.4% from private lessons and 10.9% from e-learning services providers. 

In reference to the duration of lessons, 10.7% respondents maintain/contend that an online lesson 

should last 30 minutes while 34.5% believe that it should last 45 minutes. Also, 32.7%, 17.3%, 4.8% 

respondents believe that an online lesson should have a duration of 60, 90 and 120 minutes, 

respectively. 

4.1.2 Inferential Statistics  

The Chi-square statistic is a non-parametric (distribution free) tool designed to analyze group 

differences when the dependent variable is measured at a nominal level. Like all non-parametric 

statistics, the Chi-square is robust with respect to the distribution of the data (McHugh, 2013). Fisher’s 

exact test is a statistical test used to determine if there are nonrandom associations between two 

categorical variables. 

A Fisher’s test was used, to examine if participation in e-learning courses before the Covid-19 

lockdown differs between participants of different occupation. There was a statistically significant 

difference (p<0.001) between different occupations. Particularly, postgraduate students, teachers, and 

employees (civil servants and private sector employees) had participated more in e-learning courses 

before the Covid-19 lockdown (Table 3). 

 

Table 3. Participation in E-learning Courses before the COVID-19 Lockdown Per Occupation 

Occupation 
Participation in e-learning courses before the COVID-19 lockdown 

Yes No 

 

Secondary school student  4 (3%) 3 (1.8%) 

High school student  6 (3.6%) 11 (6.5%) 

Graduate  4 (2.4%) 2 (1.2%) 

Undergraduate student  13 (7.7%) 46 (27.2%) 

Postgraduate student  17 (10.1%) 3 (1.8%) 



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Parent  5 (3%) 11 (6.5%) 

Teacher  13 (7.7%) 5 (3%) 

Civil Servant  9 (5.3%) 3 (1.8%) 

Private sector employee  7 (4.1%) 6 (3.6%) 

 

A Fisher’s test was calculated comparing the willingness of investing time and financial resources in 

e-learning and the age group. A significant interaction was found (p=0.045). Respondents aged 18-30 

are more likely to invest in e-learning while respondents aged 45-60 are not open to a distance learning 

module (Table 4). 

 

Table 4. Willingness of Investing Time and Financial Resources in E-learning 

 Willingness to invest time and 

financial resources in e - learning 

Yes No 

Age 

Under 18 years 13 (7.7%) 10 (5.9%) 

18-30 46 (27.2%) 36 (21.3%) 

30-45 28 (16.6%) 11 (6.5%) 

45-60 8 (4.7%) 16 (9.5%) 

Up to 60 years 1 (0.6%) 0 (0%) 

 

 

A chi square test was calculated to test the relationship between the kind of course implementation that 

respondents prefer and the participation in e-learning courses before the Covid-19 lockdown. There 

was a statistically significant difference (χ
2
(2)=7.492, p=0.024). Supporters of face-to-face learning had 

not participated in e-learning courses before the Covid-19 lockdown while the exact opposite applies to 

those of e-learning. Respondents who prefer a combination between the two kinds, have not 

participated in e-learning courses before the lockdown. 

The Kruskal-Wallis test (Kruskal & Wallis, 1952) is the nonparametric equivalent of a one-way 

ANOVA and is used for testing whether samples originate from the same distribution and test the 

relationship between a nominal independent variable and an ordinal (or numeric) dependent variable 

with more than three groups. 

A Kruskal Wallis test was used to test if the number of financial resources that the respondents are 

willing to invest per month in e-learning differs depending on which e-learning module they prefer. 

Statistical significance exists (χ
2

(2)=14.457, p=0.001), with a mean rank of 62.67 for the respondents 

who prefer face-to-face learning, 103.26, for the respondents who prefer e-learning and 73.42 for the 

respondents who prefer a combination of e-learning and face-to-face learning. 



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The Mann-Whitney U test is a statistical test that compares two independent groups that do not require 

large normally distributed samples (Nachar, 2008). Mann Whitney U test was used to assess if there 

was a statistically significant difference in the effectiveness of distance education compared to 

face-to-face learning, depending on the perception that due to the Covid-19 outbreak e-learning will 

gradually replace face-to-face learning. Statistical significance exists (U=2264, p=0.031). There is a 

mean rank score of 90 for the respondents who believe in this transition and a mean rank score of 72.73 

for those who do not. Conclude that respondents who believe in the replacement of face-to-learning 

from e-learning believe also that distance education is very effective. 

The one-sample Wilcoxon signed rank test was originally designed to test for a specified median, under 

the assumption that the distribution is symmetric, but it can also serve as a test for symmetry if the 

median is known (O-Thas et al., 2005). One-sample Wilcoxon non-parametric statistical test was used 

to test if: 

 the median amount of money that the respondents are willing to invest per month is 55 euros. The 

test indicated that the median was not significantly different from 55euros (Z=-0.225, p=0.823) 

 the daily median duration of a learning course is 3 hours. The test indicated that the median daily 

time was not significantly different from 3 hours (Z=1.541, p=0.123). 

 

5. Conclusions 

Covid-19 outbreak has brought on challenges for all educational institutions and especially in higher 

education. Certainly, like many other aspects of everyday life, Covid-19 has had a serious impact on 

students, teachers, and educational organizations around the globe (Mailizar, Almanthari, Maulina, & 

Bruce, 2020). As a result, a transition from face-to-face learning to e-learning has occurred. E-learning 

accommodates everyone’s needs, can be used several times, it is a form of quick delivery of lessons, 

and it has reduced cost. Due to the wide set of benefits it gives to students, e-learning has become quite 

popular a solution in the Covid-19 period among students all over the world. 

In our quantitative research, a sample of 170 from all Greek territory was used. Many respondents have 

been diverted to e-learning from the conventional learning and most of them had participated in 

distance learning before the Covid-19 period. However, a combination of the two modes of learning is 

widely preferred by the sample. Concerning the effectiveness of e-learning, it is considered moderately 

effective besides traditional face-to-face learning. Additionally, undergraduate students, postgraduate 

students, teachers, and employees (civil servants and private sector employees) prefer a combination of 

e-learning and face-to-face learning while school students and parents prefer mainly face-to-face 

learning and respondents aged 18-30 are more likely to invest in e-learning while respondents aged 

45-60 are not open to a distance learning module. Also, followers of face-to-face learning had not 

participated in e-learning courses before the Covid-19 lockdown while the exact opposite appears to be 

the case with the followers of e-learning. About the investment of time and financial resources in 

distance education, mainly PhD holders and undergraduate or postgraduate students are ardent 



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supporters. Finally, respondents who believe in the replacement/substitution of face-to-learning from 

e-learning believe also that distance education is very effective. 

Finally, the short period of time available for investigation, was one of the major limitations of this 

research study. Future research should either extend the sample size to a larger time or focus on the 

preferences of the educational community in the after Covid-19 period. A study on the appropriate 

number of financial resources needed to be invested in e-learning is recommended. 

 

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