


































Global Research in Higher Education 
ISSN 2576-196X (Print) ISSN 2576-1951 (Online) 

Vol. 5, No. 1, 2022 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe 

50 

 

Original Paper 

Checking for Understanding Strategies Using Formative 

Assessments for Student Learning 

Angela Lumpkin
1
 

1
 Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, United States of 

America 

 

Received: January 29, 2022    Accepted: February 15, 2022     Online Published: March 14, 2022 

doi:10.22158/grhe.v5n1p50                URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/grhe.v5n1p50 

 

Abstract 

Effective teaching is not just standing in front of a classroom filled with students and sharing 

disciplinary content knowledge, especially with today’s students. Without student learning, has teaching 

actually occurred, or was it just talking? What are students thinking about? What are students 

understanding? Are students able to connect new information presented with prior knowledge and then 

construct new knowledge that can be reinforced and committed to long-term memory? Are students 

able to use this knowledge to meet the learning goal of “knowing and being able to do”, by making 

practical applications? Checking for understanding is a research-proven approach using real-time 

assessments of students’ learning to inform teachers about students’ progress in learning. Using a 

variety of questioning techniques is one approach to using in checking for understanding. One five-step 

process using a learning objective, cold calling, no op out, guided practice, and debrief offers a 

structure for helping students actively self-assess formatively as they progress in their learning. Over 

30 strategies are provided for checking for understanding before, during, and after class, verbally, in 

writing, and through physical movements describing how to engage students in learning activities to 

reinforce what they know and are able to do.  

Keywords 

checking for understanding, student learning, formative assessment, effective teaching 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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1. Introduction  

The goal of teaching is not covering the content in the textbook by standing in the front of a classroom 

and just talking (Briggs, 2014). Lecturing has been adopted as the favorite course delivery method in 

colleges for centuries because it is easier to do as well as assumed to be effective because it is the most 

popular choice (Barkley & Major, 2018). However, Bligh (2000) emphasizes that while lectures are 

effective in transmitting information, they are much less effective in promoting thinking and learning. 

That is, “just because we teach it, doesn’t mean that students are learning it” (Berger et al., 2014, p. 59). 

College teachers seem to hope students understand information spoken during lectures, despite their 

inattentiveness, falling sleeping, non-academic use of technology devices, and too often lack of class 

attendance. Albert Einstein is credited with defining insanity as “Doing the same thing over and over 

again and expecting a different result”. Yet, many college teachers continue lecturing throughout the 

semester despite disappointing evidence on tests indicating inadequate learning. Instead, college 

teachers during each class need to periodically assess whether or not students are understanding the 

content, and if not, then they need to make changes as Berger et al. (2014) emphasize.  

Checking for understanding during daily lessons encompasses a wide range of 

techniques—formal and informal, oral and written, verbal and nonverbal—used by teachers 

and students to track what students understand and can do throughout the lesson. As a 

result of this ongoing assessment, teachers and students make adjustments to what they are 

doing to ensure that gaps in understanding are addressed and that students who have 

mastered concepts may comfortably move on to another learning task. (p. 56) 

Effective teachers incorporate continuous checking for understanding using real-time assessments of 

students’ learning (Rosenshine, 2012) as information about students’ progress toward achieving the 

learning objective (Berger et al., 2014). Checking for understanding, as formative assessment, informs 

teachers about students’ current levels of knowledge and whether they are understanding information 

presented (McTighe, 2021). Simultaneously, these assessments provide feedback and support to 

students to enhance their learning (McTighe, 2021). Checking for understanding facilitates teachers’ 

instructional pacing decisions during the content delivery, such as when to speed up, slow down, or 

re-teach to help facilitate student learning (Bogdanovich, 2014). Checking for understanding, at a 

minimum of three times per class, should incorporate student practice and application to make learning 

more permanent (Briggs, 2014). Use of a variety of checking for understanding strategies ideally 

occurs in each class, with none of these strategies repeated (Newman & Flaherty, 2012). Checking for 

understanding fosters a growth mindset by encouraging students to monitor and progress in their 

learning (Berger et al., 2014).  

Classroom assessment helps “teachers find out what students are learning in the classroom and how 

well they are learning it. This approach is learner-centered, teacher-directed, mutually beneficial, 

formative, context-specific, ongoing, and firmly rooted in good practice” (Angelo & Cross, p. 4). 



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Checking for understanding uses formative assessments to provide students with direct, timely 

feedback. For example, Berger et al. (2014) suggest four ways to use questions when checking for 

understanding: (1) ask students how to connect the learning objective to prior knowledge learned; (2) 

scaffold questions from basic to more complex to strengthen their thinking skills, synthesize 

information, and make applications; (3) ask student text- and content-specific questions, rather than 

opinion questions, to elicit higher-order thinking; and (4) use questions to ensure students know the 

expectations for success.   

Newman and Flaherty (2012) argue that checking for understanding is the key to learning by using 

formative assessment techniques. First, they suggest identifying and displaying the learning target or 

objective for each class, such as on a presentation slide, when starting a new topic. In addition, teachers 

need to discuss the learning objective, including asking students to restate its meaning in their own 

words and explain how they can be successful in meeting this objective. Refocusing attention on the 

learning objective throughout the class reinforces learning and culminates in explicitly debriefing the 

class at the end while checking for student progress. Second, Newman and Flaherty urge the use of cold 

calling as long as the question asked precedes identifying the student to answer it. When cold calling, 

teachers can use a variety of techniques, such as random calls or shuffled cards with students’ names to 

ensure all students contribute. Teachers scaffold questions from simple to complex while encouraging 

students to make connections with their own knowledge and build on classmates’ comments with the 

goal of higher-order analyses. This process encourages attentively listening to classmates and helps 

facilitate an ongoing discussion to strengthen learning. Third, using the concept of no opt out when 

each question is asked, the teacher always ends with the correct answer. For example, if the student 

who initially is asked the question fails to answer or answers incorrectly, the teacher cold calls on 

another student, calls on a student with a raised hand, or provides the correct answer. The teacher again 

asks the initial student to answer the question correctly to reinforce learning, including providing 

coaching as needed, to achieve this outcome. Fourth, after teaching new knowledge or a skill, the 

teacher uses guided practice before expecting students to make independent applications. In guided 

practice, teachers ask students to use new knowledge or a skill in a specific learning activity or 

low-stakes assignment. For example, the teacher can identify a problem to be solved with a classmate 

or each student is directed to complete a writing assignment to describe in their own words the concept 

presented. While guided practice is occurring, the teacher moves around the classroom monitoring 

students’ engagement with the task and determines if any students need re-teaching or would benefit 

from other examples or illustrations. If so, the teacher pulls the class together to share new learning 

strategies, correct common misunderstandings, and answer questions before challenging students to 

make independent applications. Fifth, each class concludes with an effective debrief by returning to the 

learning objective and asking students to reflect on whether it is achieved. Specifically, teachers 

challenge students by asking for evidence of their progress in learning and reinforcing learning 



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connections and applications made. The teacher concludes the class by affirming and reinforcing 

students’ achievement of the learning objective. This five-step process offers a structure for helping 

student actively self-assess formatively as they progress in their learning.  

 

2. Strategies for Checking for Understanding 

Checking for understanding is important before, especially during, and also after class, as well as 

verbally, in writing, and through physical movements as students engage in learning activities to 

reinforce what they know and are able to do (i.e., learning is occurring). When used before class 

instruction, checking for understanding can investigate students’ prior knowledge as well as activate it. 

This helps teachers understand students’ current knowledge and skills as a foundation upon which to 

build. Within classes, checking for understanding holds students accountable for engagement in 

creating and retaining new knowledge as well as how to communicate this knowledge with classmates 

and the teacher. Checking for understanding is essential for informing the teacher about students who 

are struggling with the concepts and need more guidance, while also helping students reflect and 

self-assess where they are struggling so they can ask for assistance (Model Teaching, 2021). Reflection 

through checking for understanding at the end of class provides valuable feedback to students and 

teachers about whether content has or has not been mastered. This section briefly describes a variety of 

checking for understanding strategies used before, during, and after class.  

2.1 Before Class 

 Bring to class in writing (students) what they already know about the class topic and what they 

want to know (Mugabi, 2019).   

 Prepare questions (students) about the assigned text to quiz the teacher in class (Mugabi, 2019). 

 Read teachers’ answers to students’ questions, such as from minute papers or emails, on 

Blackboard so all students can learn from responses (Lumpkin, Achen, & Dodd, 2015). 

2.2 During Class (Verbal) 

 Ask students to teach classmates what was learned in the previous class (McTighe, 2021). 

 Begin each class with review questions (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005). 

 Discuss with a classmate an answer to a question posed by the teacher (Rosenshine, 2012).  

 Encourage students to ask questions of each another to gain a new understanding in a Socratic 

seminar (Briggs, 2014). 

 Facilitate peer instruction by asking students to teach another student a concept learned, then 

exchange roles as the peer instructor (Briggs, 2014).  

 Make cold calls randomly using names to ask students to respond to questions and restate 

concepts (Newman & Flaherty, 2012).  

 Ask open-ended questions repeatedly throughout each class to help students determine what they 

have learned and what they still need to learn (Model Teaching, 2021).   



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 Avoid Yes/No questions and phrases like “Does this make sense?” In response to these questions, 

students usually say nothing. nod, or answer “yes,” when in reality many students, if asked 

directly, would admit they do not understand the content presented (Briggs, 2014). 

 Ask higher-order applying, analyzing, and creating questions from Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy 

(Krathwohl, 2022) to develop critical thinking skills (Depka, 2017). 

 Use think-pair-share to challenge students to think about an answer to a question, pair with a 

classmate to compare responses, and share with classmates (Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2005). 

 Revise and restructure notes in a buzz group with a classmate for two minutes between lecture 

segments (Bligh, 2000). 

 Use 3-2-1 by asking students to respond verbally (or in writing) with three things they learned, 

two things they want to know more about, and one remaining question they have (Barkley & 

Major, 2018).  

 Ask students to provide verbal examples or applications other than those given by the teacher 

(Newman & Flaherty, 2012). 

 Summarize verbally the key take-aways from the class (Barkley & Major, 2018). 

2.3 During Class (Written)  

 Integrate writing and other critical thinking activities to facilitate richer class discussions and 

student engagement (Bean, 2011).  

 Reflect on and write briefly about what was learned from the day’s reading assignment (Lumpkin, 

Achen, & Dodd, 2015). 

 Do a quick write in response to the teacher’s or a classmate’s question (Mulvahill, 2021). 

 Ask open-ended questions challenging students to respond in writing using higher-order thinking 

skills, such as analyzing, evaluating, or creating (Lumpkin, 2019). 

 Ask students to reflect during the last five minutes of class on the content presented and write 

what was learned and how to make applications other than the examples provided by the 

teacher (McTighe, 2021). 

 Facilitate concrete learning by asking students to make applications of information presented to 

real-world issues or problems (Nilson, 2010). 

 Require an exit ticket on which students are asked to write a response to a question or prompt 

before leaving class (Berger et al., 2014). 

 Use written quizzes to check for understanding (Mugabi, 2019). 

 Record in class notes student-developed written definitions of key concepts (Mugabi, 2019). 

 Summarize in writing one or two sentences the main idea(s) presented and discussed in a class 

and exchange these written ideas with a classmate (Rosenshine, 2012). 



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 Respond to a minute paper with these two questions: “What was the most important thing you 

learned today in class?” and “What important questions remains unanswered?” (Angelo & 

Cross, 1993). 

2.4 During Class (Physical Movement) 

 Raise hand if agree with the answer provided by a classmate (Rosenshine, 2012). 

 Use technology, such as student response games like Kahoot and Quizlet (Mulvahill, 2021). 

 Use technology-based clicker quizzes to check for understanding (Briggs, 2014). 

 Ask students to give a physical response, such as Thumbs up: I understand and can explain it in 

my own words; Wave hand: I’m not completely sure and doubt I could explain it; Thumbs 

down: I don’t yet understand and cannot explain it (Mulvahill, 2021). 

 Ask students to give a physical response, such as four-finger response (1—I do not understand; 

2—I am still confused; 3—I understand. I can do it by myself; and 4—I understand it and can 

teach it to a classmate) (Mulvahill, 2021). 

 Ask students to stand beside on a stop sign (Red means I need help with this before we move on!; 

Yellow means I almost have this, but I need a little bit of help before we move on!; Green 

means I got this down and am ready to move on) (Mulvahill, 2021). 

 Use four corners to provide opportunities for students to respond to questions by moving to one 

of the four corners of the classroom where signs are posted stating “I strongly agree,” “I 

strongly disagree,” “I agree somewhat,” and “I’m not sure” (Briggs, 2014). 

 Provide response cards for students to hold up, like index cards or signs with yes or no, true or 

false, or agree or disagree when responding to closed-ended questions (Briggs, 2014).   

2.5 After Class 

 Ask students to write questions they need help answering to bring to the next class or send via 

email to the teacher for answers (Mugabi, 2019). 

 Assign students to write and bring to next class an example or application of what was learned in 

class (Mugabi, 2019). 

 Keep a reflections journal listing the key learning points after every class (Mugabi, 2019). 

Rosenshine (2012) in his article “Principles of Instruction: Research-based Strategies that all Teachers 

Should Know” recommends strategies based on research about instruction in cognitive science, 

classroom practices of master teachers, and cognitive supports that concur and reinforce how to help 

students learn complex tasks. In introducing these principles, he states,  

The most effective teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired, rehearsed, and 

connected background knowledge by providing a good deal of instructional support. They 

provided this support by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling, guiding 

student practice, helping students when they made errors, and providing for sufficient 

practice and review. (p. 12) 



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Rosenshine (2012) also offers a list of 17 principles that overlap with and offer slightly more detail than 

those described in the article. These principles affirm and reinforce that checking for understanding 

using continuous formative assessments is essential for student learning. 

1) Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning. 

2) Present new material in small steps with student practice after each step.  

3) Limit the amount of material students receive at one time. 

4) Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.  

5) Ask a large number of questions and check for understanding. 

6) Provide a high level of active practice for all students. 

7) Guide students as they begin to practice. 

8) Think aloud and model steps. 

9) Provide models of worked-out problems. 

10) Ask students to explain what they have learned. 

11) Check the responses of all students. 

12) Provide systematic feedback and corrections. 

13) Use more time to provide explanations. 

14) Provide many examples. 

15) Reteach material when necessary. 

16) Prepare students for independent practice. 

17) Monitor students when they begin independent practice. (p. 19) 

 

3. Conclusion 

Effective teaching requires going beyond just lecturing. To actually learn, students need to actively and 

repeatedly engage through answering questions, reviewing content verbally and in writing, sharing 

what they learning through incremental steps, and making practical applications. Students can learn 

from the teacher and each other and benefit from and enjoy learning through concrete, real-world 

examples. The passivity of traditional college classrooms needs to be replaced with learning 

environments filled with students emersed in discovering how they can develop a growth mindset by 

thinking more deeply and reflecting upon and synthesizing information in their own words.   

The research is clear that using a variety of checking for understanding strategies before, during, and 

after class, verbally, in writing, and through physical movements will lead to greater student learning. 

Unless information learned is reviewed, practiced, and stored in long-term memory, it is easily 

forgotten, rather than mastered. The most effective teachers use checking for understanding strategies 

to engage students in learning activities to reinforce what they now know and are able to use.  

 

 



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