


































Global Research in Higher Education 
ISSN 2576-196X (Print) ISSN 2576-1951 (Online) 

Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe 

24 

 

Original Paper 

Integrating Global Citizenship Education in Higher Education in 

Tanzania: Lessons from the Literature 

Mahona J. Paschal
1*

 

1
 Department of Educational Foundation, St. Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza, Tanzania 

*
 Mahona J. Paschal, E-mail: pajo.toronto@gmail.com 

 

Received: June 7, 2022          Accepted: June 18, 2022         Online Published: July 1, 2022 

doi:10.22158/grhe.v5n2p24                URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/grhe.v5n2p24 

 

Abstract 

Global Citizenship Education (GCE) has become an essential aspect of international education. 

Although GCE has been emphasized to be applied by some nations around the world, a clear 

awareness of GCE and how to develop it and mainstream it into the national education system remains 

unclear in some developing countries like Tanzania. The issue of inadequate global citizenship skills 

among graduates from higher education is a serious concern to researchers and practitioners in 

awakening the current world realities. This study employs a literature review as a central method of 

studying the problem. For this purpose, the study reviewed the current literature on the concept of 

citizenship education and the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions 

should use to implement global citizenship education. Based on the standing points of the review, the 

study concludes that GCE is currently inadequate in most African countries and there is a need to 

create awareness by both governmental and non-governmental associations. Therefore, if higher 

education institutions in Tanzania wish to attain their interested goal of developing global citizens, every 

educator must support the appropriate pedagogy that is vital in promoting GCE in every country of this 

globalized world. Furthermore, every educational stakeholder is needed to dedicate effort, time and 

other educational resources to GCE. Moreover, to meet the intended goals of promoting GCE in Tanzania, 

active cooperation, coordination and networking among teachers, governmental and non-governmental 

organizations, colleges and universities is fundamental to engage effectively, as well as productively to 

provide support for collaboration on finding solutions to the national curriculum as well as on global 

issues. However, these suggestions need strong leadership that considers changes in the way that GCE is 

effectively implemented in Tanzanian higher education. 

Keywords 

Global Citizenship Education (GCE), globalization, global learning approaches 



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1. Introduction and Background to the Study 

There is a concept in social science which says: ―today happened because of yesterday‖ (Wachuka, 

2019). In an attempt to determine the usefulness of this notion in this study, I find it provides 

indispensable insight for continual learning to nurture critical thinking, deepen understanding, and 

promote active citizenship as a strategy for finding a solution to the complex causes of the social 

problems in this transforming world. Today, our graduates need to be more educated and enlightened in 

their roles and responsibilities as global citizens in every aspect of human living and interaction. The 

media has played a major role in shaping the global community, values were reshaped, consciences 

were moulded, and the world is reaping what we sow positively as well as the anti-social vices. 

Literature reveals that human beings have continued to find innovative ideas to solve existing problems 

occurring in society. For this purpose, Pacho (2013, p. 1, pp. 27-29) clearly outlines those educational 

stakeholders such as students, policymakers and educators should study to discover, assess, understand, 

synthesize, reflect, share, and apply critical and creative ideas to find solutions to overcome problems 

and challenges in the community. Therefore, the need for seeking and rebuilding new knowledge and 

applying the discoveries in bringing positive effects in the world has a significance to prove that 

education has a vital role to play in the development of intellectual abilities of an individual to be a 

valuable citizen in the society. Interestingly, the purpose of education according to Plato is to produce 

individuals to lead and be problem-solvers of the community (Lodge, 2000, pp. 12-14). Similarly, 

Dewey (1916/2011, p. 196), asserts that education institutions are responsible for producing active and 

responsible citizens with the skills and knowledge to support democracy, the idea of active learning, 

development and the ability to respond to complex issues and challenges facing the community. With 

this reality, education is viewed as a means of accessing skills and knowledge that an individual or 

society needs to shape and enhance changes and development. Keeping in view of the prominent 

educational idea of the former president of South Africa, Nelson Mandela as cited in (Edberg, 2020), 

states that ―Education is the most powerful weapon we can use to change the world‖. From this 

standing point, it’s crucial to value the significant role played by education in our society because 

education can empower people and nurture them to be responsible and active citizens of their society. 

Thus, according to UNESCO, education has always been a tool for responding towards the changes 

facing society, as a foundational part of society (UNESCO, 2010). In our present time, higher education 

remains to be an essential and influential force for the development of an individual’s mind (Mahona & 

Pacho, 2021, p. 13). This is due to the fact that, higher education plays a critical role in empowering 

students with skills and knowledge that help them to cope with issues, opportunities, and challenges by 

being critical thinkers, problem solvers as well as effective decision makers to enhance their 

development. However, presently, higher education is experiencing rapid changes both in the ethical, 

social, economic, and political spheres of life in this globalized or interconnected world (Paschal, 

Pacho, & Adewoyin, 2022). For higher education to remain competitive, current, and effective to the 



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impacts of globalization, the call for every higher education institution in developing countries and 

individuals is needed to implement and prioritize the use of GCE. This is because GCE highlights 

crucial functions of education which are human rights education, international education, peace 

education and sustainable development. During the launch of Global citizenship education first 

initiative (GEFI), on 26 September 2012, the United Nations Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, called 

leaders and every citizen of every nation to effectively participate in fostering GCE. He empathized 

that: 

“We must foster global citizenship. Education is more about the literacy and numeracy. It’s also 

about citizenry. Education must full assume its essential role in helping people to forge more just, 

peaceful and tolerant societies” UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (UNESCO 2014) 

Furthermore, GCE should be considered as an indispensable and inevitable tool that can foster both 

local and global essential skills, community responsibilities, and global real-life experiences to citizens 

of a particular society that need to deepen their understanding through global citizenship education, and 

become critically and socially responsible citizens in this complex and challenging globalized society 

filled the challenges of decision making between vice and virtue, good or evil, focus and distraction, 

destruction and healthy living, happy marriage or painful endurance. Despite the urgent need for GCE 

in Tanzania, however, currently, developing and implementing GCE is challenging because it is 

intriguing that there is a scarcity of research and official guidelines on the role of GCE in developing 

the society, and how GCE is implemented. Yet, the educational system in Tanzania has frequently failed 

to integrate global learning education into its education system which may be a way that could prepare 

students to find solutions to the issues and challenges facing people worldwide. Citizenship is a role 

that must be learnt. It requires deliberate effort to consciously give attention to the duties, roles, rights 

and responsibilities of each stratum of the population. Literature has shown that many graduates in 

Tanzania enter the workplace with inadequate baseline skills and knowledge about the issues and 

challenges facing the global society. For instance, Pacho, (2021, p. 177) noted that the value of GCE in 

Tanzanian higher education is complicated, yet the integrated aspects of GCE in some academic 

disciplines are not clear in both curriculum and instructive pedagogies. For that reason, the critical 

examination of the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should use to 

integrate GCE in Tanzania will provide significant insight and future directions to educational 

stakeholders such as administrators, policymakers, curriculum developers, teachers, governments and 

students to support the integration of GCE not only in Tanzania but also in other nations around the 

world. The study will fill the gaps between what learners know about in the present world and what 

they are supposed to learn to be successful and competent in solving the world’s issues and challenges.  

 

 

 



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1.1 Objectives of the Study 

This review paper has one main objective. 

To explore the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions in Tanzania 

should implement for global citizenship education. 

1.2 Significance of the Study 

Global citizenship education GCE is gaining prominence and significance in this interconnected world. 

However, the literature shows that a small number of studies have been conducted on GCE in Tanzania 

but concrete studies on the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should 

use to implement GCE are missing. Thus, this study would shed a pioneering light on, curriculum 

experts, educational planners and policymakers on the significance and strategies for global citizenship 

in Tanzania because of this, and the significant need of reshaping the system of education to be more 

practical in producing active citizens with essential global citizenship skills. The findings from this 

study will be beneficial to all educational stakeholders such as educators, students in college, 

universities, government, and non-governmental organizations throughout Tanzania and beyond. This 

will provide practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions implement GCE to 

produce critical thinking as well as active citizenship. Moreover, the findings from this study would 

pave the way for other scholars to conduct additional studies on global learning and citizenship 

education.  

1.3 The Concept of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) 

GCE is understood to be a complicating concept in intellectual dialogue. The first international 

education development programmes launched by the UN Secretary-General in 2012, made it clear that 

promoting international citizenship was one of the priorities of educational activities worldwide. Since 

then, GCE has been one of the programmes that the world education organization manages and puts 

into its daily activities to ensure that this education reaches more people in the world, where it will help 

to promote peace, love, and collective development (JET Education Services, 2016, p. 13). Although 

the world aims to ensure that by 2030 each nation will be able to provide quality education to all 

learners, promoting GCE has not been left behind. Some of the countries like Canada, United States of 

America and Australia have been making efforts to ensure that they develop global citizens, although 

these efforts vary from one country to another depending on the economic capacity of the specific 

country (UNESCO, 2018, p. 3). Although GCE has been slowly expanding globally, this education has 

begun to be a very good topic and seems to bring positive results in the development of society, the 

country, and the world at large.  

In recent years, citizens have been required to have a chance of being knowledgeable enough to fit in 

their home country and at the international level (Kopish, 2017, p. 21). GCE teaches learners the issues 

that are taking place in their country and other countries worldwide, as well as the need for respecting 

the culture of other people in different countries (Asia-Pacific Center of Educational for International 



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Understanding (APCEIU), 2018, p. 14). GCE is education that focuses on instilling in citizens a sense 

of belonging to a global society and hence focus on achieving all global goals together ((Muwagga, 

Sekiwu, & Kiggundu-Musoke, 2016, p. 126). Globalization has made the world to be more connected 

and thus different challenges are hitting the world like poverty are being solved collectively (Mravcová, 

2016). UNESCO use GCE to respond to different global challenges by empowering people to know 

that challenges that are happening daily, are not local, they are global issues, so the world should work 

together to solve them (JET Education Services, 2016, p. 13). 

The concept of GCE is still new and complicating to many people. Different education scholars from 

around the world have been trying to provide their definitions about GCE in order to find out a 

common concept (Monaghan & Spreen, 2016, p. 52; Mravcová, 2016, p. 57). Presently, many scholars 

are trying to explain it in the way they understand and perceive which in turn, gives us a variety of 

definitions (Heiser, 2021, p. 13). The definition which gives the general meaning of GCE defines GCE 

as the term that involves ability to understand things beyond the physical world. In education, students 

need to be taught different issues about their society, their country, and other things that are happening 

in other parts of the world so that they can act locally and internationally (Pacho, 2021, p. 278). 

According to Lane Perry, et al. (2013, p. 185), GCE means ―education‖ for international citizenship is 

an educational concept that aims to prepare students so that they can participate mentally and 

practically in coping with the challenges and opportunities of life in today’s changing world. This 

definition gives a wide clarity that teaching students about global citizenship helps to widen their minds 

so that they can think about how to deal with local and international challenges currently and in the 

future. UNESCO (2017) has pointed out that, although there are a variety meaning about global 

citizenship education, all the definitions fall under three spheres of learning which are, cognitive, 

socio-emotional and behavioural; where cognitive means having knowledge and ability to think 

critically in analyzing global issues. Social-emotional means having communal skills and positive 

attitudes that help learners to respect and live with others accordingly. Behavioural means changes in 

learners' actions enough to act globally. According to Pacho (2021), all of these teaching areas are 

aimed at equipping students with the skills to participate and fulfil their responsibilities in their own 

country and other countries, so that the world can tackle and solve all challenges to foster peace, love, 

international tolerance and also building a world sustainable economy. 

GCE aims to introduce learners to the issues happening around the world including achievements and 

challenges so that students can work in collaboration with other people in other countries to solve the 

world problems (UNESCO, 2021). It also focuses to empower people to participate fully and contribute 

to international affairs wherever they are, to demonstrate their potential for international citizenship 

(Muwagga, Sekiwu, & Kiggundu-Musoke, 2016, p. 132). Most of the countries in the world are 

interdependent economically, politically, and socially; a situation that makes GCE world-famous for 

what it is alleged that this kind of education provides to students and the whole community with the 



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knowledge and techniques to deal with various economic, political and social challenges that are 

happening around the world (Yemini, Tibbitts, & Goren, 2019, p. 78). From this point of view, students 

to become ―global citizens‖, they are all encouraged to feel part of the international community, and 

thus take steps to seek to understand other nations in-depth, something they can achieve by reading 

different literature or by visiting other countries to learn about their cultures and also participate in 

various fields of development. 

  

2. Methodology 

This study employs a critical literature review as a major method to study the problem. To achieve the 

purpose of this study, a thorough analysis and synthesis of the current literature on the origin, the 

concept of GCE and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should use to implement 

GCE needs to be adopted. 

 

3. Literature Review 

3.1 Approaches for Effective Implementation of GCE in Higher Learning Institutions 

The concept of global citizenship arose after the rise for the need of international education for global 

development. If higher learning institutions need to incorporate and develop the concept of 

international citizenship in their institutions, they need to make changes in their educational process. 

Tarozzi, and Inguaggiato (2018, p. 21). The following are the approaches that can be adopted in higher 

learning institutions to implement global citizenship education: 

Modifying the Curriculum 

The teaching of a new discipline in any educational programme needs the intended discipline to be 

incorporated into the curriculum that has already been prepared. In Tanzania and other countries around 

the world, there has been a significant interest in equipping students with 21st-century education as a 

problem-solving model in this most globalized world UNESCO (2017; Pacho, 2021, p. 177). The 

implication of 21st-century education has been stimulating the need of developing educational 

curriculums for global citizenship learning. UNESCO (2018, p. 5) demonstrated that intellectual ability 

alone cannot solve the challenges that are currently facing the world. Educational instructors must 

prepare students to be global citizens both emotionally and socially so that they can acquire the skills to 

live well and interact with people of different nationalities in solving problems effectively. However, 

Tanzania has been facing challenges to implement GCE because the learning is focused on banking 

learning, a core curriculum which emphasises learning for passing exams not for discovering and 

utilizing knowledge to find possible solutions to existing problems. In this reality, banking education in 

Tanzanian higher education has been a big problem and the educators, as well as the curriculum design 

at the college and university level, makes it viable. Curriculums in higher education in Tanzania have 

not been redesigned for a long period and educators in higher education are rarely allowed to attend 



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professional development learning. This result is a low level of global participation, and a lack of 

competitiveness and productivity among graduates. It’s worth saying that modifying curriculums from 

lower level to higher education in Tanzania is highly needed to help students think critically about how 

to effectively solve the economic, social, political and environmental challenges of their communities 

and even of other countries. It should be noted that if the students will be developed to be global 

citizens, they will grow emotionally and socially to interact with people of different nationalities with 

love and peace and thus be able to gain more knowledge about the cultures of other nations. UNESCO 

(2017, p. 34) noted that to promote and develop global citizenship education, higher learning 

institutions should incorporate ―global learning‖ and GCE into the day-to-day teaching and learning 

process. Furthermore, higher education is encouraged to teach the GCE by introducing it as an 

additional topic in some subjects, or they can make it a self-contained subject, or they can teach GCE 

content after class lessons as extra-curricular activity; this will help in preparing effective global 

citizens Tarozzi, and Inguaggiato (2018, p. 21, p. 23). Hence, to reach the intended goal of developing 

GCE in Tanzania. Curriculum developers, decision and policymakers as well as higher education 

institutions in Tanzania should be encouraged to redesign and mandate the new syllabus and curriculum 

that integrates the discipline of GCE. 

Educational programmes for Teachers 

Guntars Catlaks, Senior Coordinator, Research Unit, Education international as cited in UNESCO 

(2014) noted that: 

“The quality of education will only be as good as the quality of the teacher”.  

From this standing point, scholars and leaders of the world should learn the value of education and be 

able to foster educational programmes for educators. Hence, initiating educational programmes for 

teachers is significant in building active efforts to promote GCE in any country. These learning 

programmes are required to train the varied teaching styles, backgrounds and professional experiences, 

of teachers (UNESCO 2018; Leighton, 2014). The essential component of the educational programmes 

for teachers is practices or strategies that can be used to equip teachers and educators with knowledge 

and skills on how to teach and manage students in their classroom and even outside the classroom 

(UNESCO 2018, p. 13; Osler, 2010). The training should be for effectiveness in issues related to global 

citizenship (UNESCO, 2016). Tarozzi, and Inguaggiato (2018, p. 23 & 31) have added that, there must 

be a teaching exchange programme between teachers of different countries which will help to promote 

the culture of other countries effectively. Thus, the ministry of education in Tanzania and the 

Commission for Universities in Tanzania should train both students—teachers, in-service teachers as 

well as lecturers in Tanzanian schools and higher education to participate in building learning 

programmes and participate in professional seminars, conferences and workshops. The government and 

all the stakeholders need to support the professional development activities for teachers. The support 

should be in terms of money, or other materials and educational resources to help in the effort of 



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implementing GCE in the country. 

Pedagogy for Global Citizenship 

Alicia Cabezudo, vice president, international Peace Bureau, Geneva Switzerland in her words noted 

that: 

“GCE needs not only new content but it needs new methodologies, particularly related to teacher 

training. It’s necessary to change the minds and train instructors” (UNESCO 2014). 

In this light, in order to enhance GCE in higher education; educators are required to identify the various 

content of GCE and consider the valid and appropriate pedagogy to teach GCE which can assist 

educators in better understanding values and assumptions that strengthen the particular type of GCE in 

their classroom contexts (UNESCO 2018, p. 3). In teaching GCE in a particular country, Bourn (2015) 

recommended that pedagogy for global social justice should be chosen to support the existing type of 

GCE. It is worth saying that when educators and teachers in universities, colleges and lower education 

apply the pedagogy for a global society, they need to integrate not only the content of subject and 

curriculum,  styles and skills of teaching and learning but also reflecting band reflecting on the issues, 

contents values and the actual relevance inside and outside the teaching and learning context by 

considering greatly both social values and cultural factors (Bourn, 2014, p. 8). 

Another modern approach that has been identified in teaching GCE is the values-based pedagogy that 

has been practically used at one of the university’s in Newcastle (Reynolds et al., 2015). The approach 

has been applied during the preparation of pre-service teachers in Australia. This approach reflects the 

relevance of social justice, equality, cooperation, diversity, kindness, and respect for all people from 

different cultures. inclusion, caring and reliance (pp. 177-178). With the standing point from reflecting 

the values-based global education students, students in learning institutions learn several skills about 

global citizenship education. The pedagogy of teaching about global education  involves, teaching the 

relevance of GCE due to its nature of using the critical approach in the classroom, providing 

information, application of technical strategies and knowledge to learning Blackmore (2016, p. 41).  

Interconnectedness is another approach that can be applied in fostering GCE (OXFAM, 2015, p. 9; 

Reynolds, 2015, p. 31) demonstrated that the best teachers in schools have been investing their efforts 

in teaching global issues, interconnectedness and global connections. IBE-UNESCO (2018, p. 10); 

Merryfield (2015; Zhao, Pandian, & Singh, 2016, p. 17) supported that the approach of 

Interconnectedness is significant because learners in school and outside schools need to better 

understand global issues based on their contexts and beyond. From the review of the literature, it is 

worth pinpointing that, to foster GCE in learning institutions a range of approaches to be adopted. Thus, 

this study is calling on all the educational stakeholders to develop and apply a variety of pedagogy as a 

tool for fostering global citizenship in Tanzania. 

 

 



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Contact with people from different cultures 

Contact with people from different societies is a vital strategy that increases and widens intercultural 

awareness globally. The professor Carlos Alberto Torres, Director, Paulo Freire institute at the UCLA 

Graduate School of education placed the great emphasis that  

“Global citizenship is marked by an understanding of global interconnectedness and a 

commitment to the collective good” (UNESCO 2014).  

Several programmes have been discovered to bring people together from around the world. Pacho 

(2021, p. 180) has recommended that internship, service learning, fieldwork, and corroborative learning 

are some of the approaches or strategies which can foster critical thinking and global learning. On the 

other hand, Zhou (2022, pp. 124-125) demonstrates the approach that can be applied to promote global 

learning for global citizenship at the school and programmes levels. For instance, international 

conferences, English language programmes, summer school programmes, service-learning and 

educational trips are some of the programmes that have been discovered to engage, inspire, and enrich 

people such as administrators, students, and educators from different parts of the world. Literature 

shows that promoting intellectual awareness and understanding through intercultural collaboration and 

travel is among the most effective strategies in developing common understanding, global citizens and 

promoting cooperation between people and nations (UNESCO, 2017; Zhou, 2016, 2017; Pacho, 2021). 

In reality, through international conferences, English language programmes, summer school 

programmes, service-learning and educational trips, educators can develop an understanding of the new 

purpose of teaching and learning, new methods and techniques of effective and responsive instruction 

as well as sharing education resources to maximize learning outcomes. Broadly speaking, programmes 

such as collaborative learning both virtual and physical participation, and participation in learning clubs 

can increase global and cultural understanding, widen multi-fasted cooperation, lasting friendship, 

foreign language skills, and connection opportunities among students, teachers and administrators. 

With this reality, Chernor Bah, Chairperson, Youth Advocacy Group, GEFI demonstrated that: 

“As a citizen you get your right through a passport national paper. As a global citizen, it’s 

guaranteed not by a State but through your humanity. This means you’re also responsible to the 

rest of humanity and not to state alone” (UNESCO 2014).  

Thus, programmes such as collaborative learning both virtual and physical participation, and 

participation in learning clubs can be considered to be  in awakening the citizen of Tanzania as well as 

education stakeholders would consider them in the effort to foster global citizenship in their areas. 

Study abroad  

Nothing prepares learners’ minds for the globalized world like higher education. Students who are 

studying abroad have been proven to have much better outcomes. As we live in this globalized world, 

studying abroad has been proven to be among the fundamental strategies that prepare individuals across 

the world for active global citizenship. (Perry et al., 2013, p. 186) demonstrate that studying abroad is 



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essential in instilling skills and potential experiences that should be applied in solving problems 

existing in this interconnected world. With this reality, studying abroad, and experiencing new cultures, 

places, and learning environments are the catalyst or driving force to enhance a transformative 

experience of a particular value in students’ minds that help them to be active citizens of the world. 

Marc (2019, p. 37) stated that studying abroad has inspired many international students to effectively 

develop new skills such as cultural understanding, international language skills, personal and career 

skills, as well as gaining experiences on academic perspectives, to be conscious of one’s interconnected 

world. Steves (2012) opined that studying abroad has significance for students to get a globalized 

education which can help them to fully participate in solving global issues as a global significance 

reality, one of the significances of studying abroad is to prepare learners to become active global 

citizens. It should be noted that students gain exposure to nationalities, cultures and different styles. 

Thus, the government of Tanzania through the ministry of education should increase support every year 

by offering scholarships to some students to study in the best universities in the world.  

Increasing use of “virtual” learning program  

In the 21st century, “virtual” learning programmes have a vital tool in promoting global citizenship 

education. Learners have been communicating and connecting with other students from other cultures 

through virtual learning programmes to learn and share experiences, cultural values and understanding 

of other perspectives. Popish & Marques (2020, p. 48), mentioned some of the tools which have been 

used in virtual learning to connect people of different cultures as citizens of a single community. Popish 

& Marques emphasize that virtual exchange programs are where people learn and exchange 

experiences using online learning platforms such as Google classrooms or Moodle and can also use 

social networks like Facebook and Instagram. With this standing point, virtual programmes for global 

learning inform students about the social, political and economic practices of other countries, which 

enable them to develop as global citizens (Ramirez, 2021, pp. 86-87). Although some literature 

encourages the use of mixed approaches to learning that involve both online and offline learning, 

online collaborative learning is viewed to smooth the progress of communication between people from 

one country and another (UNESCO, 2014, p. 29). Thus, the fast communication which is formed 

through virtual programmes of global learning is enlightening university students and other people to 

embrace the use of technology to communicate, explore and understand in-depth, learn, and validate 

their prior understanding of the culture of other countries and be able to work together as well as 

discuss issues and challenges to contribute positively as active citizens of the world community. With 

this reality, Tanzanian educational institutions should make an effort to develop a conductive 

environment for learning, such as improving learning facilities, internet connections and electrical 

installations in the areas where learning is taking place.    

 

 



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Integration of Service-Learning as a pedagogy of learning  

The idea of service-learning was coined from the pragmatist theory developed by John Dewey. He 

considered education as an experiential process that involves developing individuals and leaders to 

participate actively in solving the problems which exist in society. The idea integrates learning with 

work experience to prepare participants by acquiring skills and knowledge for change, effective social 

development and challenges existing in life (Pacho, 2018, pp. 1-4; Birdwell et al., 2013). Dewey’s 

thoughts became the solid foundation of service- learning which is based on educational principles that 

learners learn effectively and become active citizens of their society when they are actively involved in 

a particular service to the community and integrate the acquired experiences into their academic 

content (Pacho, 2018, p. 1; Metzger & Ferris, 2013). The benefits of service learning have been shown 

in many studies. A variety of studies indicate that service-learning is significant because it provides 

students with competencies including leadership skills, problem-solving skills, social and moral skills, 

teamwork skills, as well as a civic responsibility to the students, communities and faculty members 

(Pacho, 2018, p. 4; Zentner, 2011; Sheffield, 2011, p. 153). From the above standing point, the 

literature indicates that the current focus of service-learning is to promote global competence, civic 

growth, and transformational experience for students and the community to contribute positively as 

active citizens of modern and democratic society. In this way, global citizenship can be acquired 

through activities and practical corroboration in real-life situations. On the contrary, the teaching and 

learning process in Tanzania is based on the banking model of education, thus, it is not convincing 

because it encourages memorization of the contents given by a teacher. The system of education in 

Tanzania does not have a unique opportunity for students to participate in citizenship skills such as 

sharing their idea and experiences, critical thinking, decision making, communication as well as 

problem-solving skills. This study found service-learning to be among of effective strategies for 

developing global citizenship skills among learners. Based on the review of a variety of studies, this 

study suggests for Tanzania to achieve the goal of producing active and responsible citizens to work 

and foster the development of the country, it is better to integrate service-learning as a pedagogy of 

learning in its curriculum of education. 

International Sports Programmes 

Sports has been identified to be a critical tool for international education and global citizenship. Narin 

HajTass, educational and training manager, national Olympic committee of Jordan noted that 

―Sports is a strong tool, it is an educational environment it taught me to accept defeat and still 

stand on my feet. It taught me how to walk to my opponent and shake hands and say 

congratulations, it taught me to respect my team, my family , my country , my environment and 

my society and everything in my life” (UNESCO 2014).  

 

 



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Sports help to promote and develop global citizenship because it serves as an identity of people from 

other countries who can learn a lot about the culture of a certain country by watching or by 

participating in sports. It helps to strengthen awareness about one’s own culture and of other nations in 

general; because players can use games to showcase and promote their culture on different international 

platforms (Malkinson & He, 2014, p. 1). Due to the advancement of science and technology, there has 

been a globalization of sports. From this reality, there is a great need to establish and strengthen the 

management of international sports competitions in various higher learning institutions around the 

world. This is because the quality of the games advertises a certain country and makes the country 

socially and economically develop since the best sports attract more tourists. More importantly, sports 

help to strengthen friendships and unite people of different nationalities and thus be able to be together 

in solving different global challenges (Blanco, 2017, p. 105). It should be noted that globally, sports 

have become part of some people's daily lives and although they use sports as a means of developing 

themselves physically, mentally, socially and healthily; the sport has gained an international status and 

thus helps to promote the culture of a particular country (Katirci, 2016, pp. 562-563). For example, 

Bradbury and O’Boyle (2017, p. 18) have stated that the government sponsors a variety of sports events 

that aim to promote their victory in sports. An obvious example is the FIFA World Cup which involves 

different countries and players often get the opportunity to participate in sports in other countries, 

where we find participants from other countries accompanying their players to celebrate and thus be 

able to see and learn many international things and easy to develop their global citizenship.  

Professor Fernando Reimers, Harvard University pointed out that ―Sports can be 

transformative if we are intentional about how we use them. Not as episodic events but clear 

about the competences” (UNESCO 2014).  

Therefore, higher learning institutions in Tanzania should focus on stabling and promoting international 

sports programs because this will expose students to different lifestyles of other countries and hence 

develop their global citizenship. 

Developing and Maintaining International Students’ Exchange Programs 

An international student exchange program is a program that allows students to travel from one country 

to another either for short-term studies at a particular college or for academic conferences. Students can 

spend one semester, several semesters or several weeks visiting their fellow students from other 

countries purposely to improve their international understandings by sharing their ideas and being open 

to learning from others (Atalar, 2020, p. 63). In this sense, higher learning institutions should create 

different international students exchange programs as they help students and instructors to have good 

relations between the participating countries and thus build and promotes cooperation, which will 

enable them to cooperate on various developmental issues between countries and hence promote their 

global citizenship (Kishino & Takahashi, 2019, p. 551). In normal life, there must be an exchange of 

ideas between individuals or between groups of people, so that learning can be strengthened and 



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maintained. Therefore, for students to learn, understand and adopt the lifestyles of people in other 

countries, there must be something we call ―visiting‖ where students visit other students abroad to 

teach and learn new cultural activities (Henry & Lima, 2012, p. 105). For example, history shows us 

that between 400-700 AD, scholars from China (Fa Hsien, Sung Yun, Hsuan Tsang & Tsing) visited 

India to learn the Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit. These Chinese scholars were able to teach the 

Indians some of their cultures, and they were also able to learn some of the Indian cultures. In general, 

the issue of learning about the cultures of people from other countries, through visitation has been 

around for a long time (Ghosh & Jing, 2020, p. 556 & 559). With this reality, higher education 

institutions in Tanzania should ensure that the issue of student exchange between one country and 

another is initiated and sustained because it helps students to excel in their global citizenship. 

International student exchange programs can also be conducted through international student 

organizations (Wang & Brckalorenz, 2018, p. 1006). This is a union of students from different countries 

that are formed to collaborate on various issues including academic support, visiting, and informing 

each other about the various cultural issues of students participating in the union. The union also aims 

to plan and develop various activities that help raise awareness about other countries and help maintain 

global friendships, which foster mutual collaboration in talking about different global issues (Luo & 

Jamieson-Drake, 2013, p. 87). International students’ union helps to promote global citizenship in a 

sense that it brings together students from different countries, who are also from different cultures and 

thus enables members of the union to learn different cultural activities from one another, thus raising 

more awareness about the various issues across the borders (Alajmi & Kalitay, 2019, p. 51). 

Educational Resources for Global Citizenship Education 

Implementation of a curriculum without the relevant resources to teach it would cause stress to 

implement the planned curriculum (Singh, 2012). In this way, resources seem to be important in the 

implementation of the school curriculum, this is because curriculum management depends largely on 

the availability of teaching and learning resources. The effective provision of quality and suitable 

educational resources to instructors is indispensable in developing a strong effort for enhancing GCE in 

a particular learning institution (Guo, 2014). Having quality, suitable and accessible educational 

resources in an educational institution is essential to be used in teaching and learning to expand 

students’ understanding of the various issues going on around the world (Swarts, 2020, p. 72; Atenas, 

Havemann, & Priego, 2015, p. 377). For instance, electronic materials, storybooks, journals, magazines, 

online resources, and videos have been identified as potential sources of information on international 

citizenship (IBE & UNESCO, 2018, p. 10, p. 144; Ordu, 2021). From this standing point, Tanzania’s 

educational stakeholders should introduce new teaching and learning resources that include the 

contents of global citizenship education. It’s sad to say that most of the teaching and learning resources 

in Tanzanian education are still not enough to be used in enhancing global citizenship education. The 

contents of the books that have been used since independence are still existing in the current books. 



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With this reality, the Tanzania Commission for universities should encourage the introduction of new 

textbooks that are used by other countries to enhance global citizenship education. The ministry of 

education science and technology in Tanzania should encourage educators and education policymakers 

to make policymakers revisit the teaching and learning materials to include suitable materials for global 

citizenship education. Furthermore, educators in higher education should be encouraged to choose the 

teaching and learning resources that are appropriate for enhancing the content and knowledge about 

GCE so that educators should use these resources to teach their students about global issues or they can 

direct them to download the materials and read for themselves. This will allow them to build the spirit 

of cooperation which is crucial in promoting international citizenship. However, educators in higher 

education should be able to select the suitable teaching and learning materials that are suitable and have 

contents of global citizenship education.  

 

4. Final Thoughts 

GCE is currently gaining prominence. It is viewed to be of a high significance due to the rapid 

dissemination of information, cultural diffusion, and the media, film and music industry. Immediately 

these changes are future online accepted globally without issues of ethics, conscience or culture and the 

decision of youth and adults are based on this online psychology and mind control system. If there is a 

sound international global citizenship education, it will reduce most misuse of information and internet 

facilities because global education prepares the mind to take the right decision and facilitate proper 

conduct. For Tanzanian higher education to effectively implement and integrate global citizenship 

education, educators are required to pay more attention and increase effort for cooperation, information 

sharing, and effective innovation from the primary level of education to higher education where learners 

are developing a basic attitude, skills and knowledge for effective changes in this the interconnected 

world. If higher education institutions in Tanzania wishes to attain their interested goal of developing 

global citizen, every educator must support the appropriate pedagogy that is vital in promoting GCE in 

every country of this globalized world. Furthermore, every educational stakeholder is needed to dedicate 

effort and time and other educational resources to global citizenship education. Moreover, to meet the 

intended goals of promoting GCE in Tanzania, active cooperation, coordination and networking among 

teachers, government and non-government organizations, colleges and universities is fundamental to 

engage effectively, productively and build support for collaboration on finding solutions to the national 

curriculum as well as on global issues. However, these suggestions need strong leadership that considers 

changes in the way that GCE is effectively implemented in Tanzanian higher education. 

 

 

 

 



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5. Recommendation 

However, this study proposes several recommendations for enhancing effective changes that 

individuals and both educational unions such as teachers' unions, universities, and governmental and 

non-governmental organizations throughout the country need to implement. These recommendations 

are the establishment of more training programmes for teachers to learn about international curricula, 

the government and all educational stakeholders should ensure collaboration by making sure that 

educational resources for global citizenship are available, accessible and have the quality to meet the 

goal of implementing GCE in the country. Finally, educational stakeholders should try to find possible 

measures to areas related to education by encouraging learners to think critically and be innovative. 

With this reality, if the recommended ideas are implemented effectively, they would help to develop 

global citizenship within the country. 

 

Acknowledgement 

I am indebted to all authors whose works in the form of articles, research investigation, and reports 

were referred in this study. Many thanks to all who read and gave invaluable comments towards 

improvement of this work. 

 

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