Global Research in Higher Education ISSN 2576-196X (Print) ISSN 2576-1951 (Online) Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe 24 Original Paper Integrating Global Citizenship Education in Higher Education in Tanzania: Lessons from the Literature Mahona J. Paschal 1* 1 Department of Educational Foundation, St. Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza, Tanzania * Mahona J. Paschal, E-mail: pajo.toronto@gmail.com Received: June 7, 2022 Accepted: June 18, 2022 Online Published: July 1, 2022 doi:10.22158/grhe.v5n2p24 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/grhe.v5n2p24 Abstract Global Citizenship Education (GCE) has become an essential aspect of international education. Although GCE has been emphasized to be applied by some nations around the world, a clear awareness of GCE and how to develop it and mainstream it into the national education system remains unclear in some developing countries like Tanzania. The issue of inadequate global citizenship skills among graduates from higher education is a serious concern to researchers and practitioners in awakening the current world realities. This study employs a literature review as a central method of studying the problem. For this purpose, the study reviewed the current literature on the concept of citizenship education and the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should use to implement global citizenship education. Based on the standing points of the review, the study concludes that GCE is currently inadequate in most African countries and there is a need to create awareness by both governmental and non-governmental associations. Therefore, if higher education institutions in Tanzania wish to attain their interested goal of developing global citizens, every educator must support the appropriate pedagogy that is vital in promoting GCE in every country of this globalized world. Furthermore, every educational stakeholder is needed to dedicate effort, time and other educational resources to GCE. Moreover, to meet the intended goals of promoting GCE in Tanzania, active cooperation, coordination and networking among teachers, governmental and non-governmental organizations, colleges and universities is fundamental to engage effectively, as well as productively to provide support for collaboration on finding solutions to the national curriculum as well as on global issues. However, these suggestions need strong leadership that considers changes in the way that GCE is effectively implemented in Tanzanian higher education. Keywords Global Citizenship Education (GCE), globalization, global learning approaches www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 25 Published by SCHOLINK INC. 1. Introduction and Background to the Study There is a concept in social science which says: ―today happened because of yesterday‖ (Wachuka, 2019). In an attempt to determine the usefulness of this notion in this study, I find it provides indispensable insight for continual learning to nurture critical thinking, deepen understanding, and promote active citizenship as a strategy for finding a solution to the complex causes of the social problems in this transforming world. Today, our graduates need to be more educated and enlightened in their roles and responsibilities as global citizens in every aspect of human living and interaction. The media has played a major role in shaping the global community, values were reshaped, consciences were moulded, and the world is reaping what we sow positively as well as the anti-social vices. Literature reveals that human beings have continued to find innovative ideas to solve existing problems occurring in society. For this purpose, Pacho (2013, p. 1, pp. 27-29) clearly outlines those educational stakeholders such as students, policymakers and educators should study to discover, assess, understand, synthesize, reflect, share, and apply critical and creative ideas to find solutions to overcome problems and challenges in the community. Therefore, the need for seeking and rebuilding new knowledge and applying the discoveries in bringing positive effects in the world has a significance to prove that education has a vital role to play in the development of intellectual abilities of an individual to be a valuable citizen in the society. Interestingly, the purpose of education according to Plato is to produce individuals to lead and be problem-solvers of the community (Lodge, 2000, pp. 12-14). Similarly, Dewey (1916/2011, p. 196), asserts that education institutions are responsible for producing active and responsible citizens with the skills and knowledge to support democracy, the idea of active learning, development and the ability to respond to complex issues and challenges facing the community. With this reality, education is viewed as a means of accessing skills and knowledge that an individual or society needs to shape and enhance changes and development. Keeping in view of the prominent educational idea of the former president of South Africa, Nelson Mandela as cited in (Edberg, 2020), states that ―Education is the most powerful weapon we can use to change the world‖. From this standing point, it’s crucial to value the significant role played by education in our society because education can empower people and nurture them to be responsible and active citizens of their society. Thus, according to UNESCO, education has always been a tool for responding towards the changes facing society, as a foundational part of society (UNESCO, 2010). In our present time, higher education remains to be an essential and influential force for the development of an individual’s mind (Mahona & Pacho, 2021, p. 13). This is due to the fact that, higher education plays a critical role in empowering students with skills and knowledge that help them to cope with issues, opportunities, and challenges by being critical thinkers, problem solvers as well as effective decision makers to enhance their development. However, presently, higher education is experiencing rapid changes both in the ethical, social, economic, and political spheres of life in this globalized or interconnected world (Paschal, Pacho, & Adewoyin, 2022). For higher education to remain competitive, current, and effective to the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 26 Published by SCHOLINK INC. impacts of globalization, the call for every higher education institution in developing countries and individuals is needed to implement and prioritize the use of GCE. This is because GCE highlights crucial functions of education which are human rights education, international education, peace education and sustainable development. During the launch of Global citizenship education first initiative (GEFI), on 26 September 2012, the United Nations Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, called leaders and every citizen of every nation to effectively participate in fostering GCE. He empathized that: “We must foster global citizenship. Education is more about the literacy and numeracy. It’s also about citizenry. Education must full assume its essential role in helping people to forge more just, peaceful and tolerant societies” UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (UNESCO 2014) Furthermore, GCE should be considered as an indispensable and inevitable tool that can foster both local and global essential skills, community responsibilities, and global real-life experiences to citizens of a particular society that need to deepen their understanding through global citizenship education, and become critically and socially responsible citizens in this complex and challenging globalized society filled the challenges of decision making between vice and virtue, good or evil, focus and distraction, destruction and healthy living, happy marriage or painful endurance. Despite the urgent need for GCE in Tanzania, however, currently, developing and implementing GCE is challenging because it is intriguing that there is a scarcity of research and official guidelines on the role of GCE in developing the society, and how GCE is implemented. Yet, the educational system in Tanzania has frequently failed to integrate global learning education into its education system which may be a way that could prepare students to find solutions to the issues and challenges facing people worldwide. Citizenship is a role that must be learnt. It requires deliberate effort to consciously give attention to the duties, roles, rights and responsibilities of each stratum of the population. Literature has shown that many graduates in Tanzania enter the workplace with inadequate baseline skills and knowledge about the issues and challenges facing the global society. For instance, Pacho, (2021, p. 177) noted that the value of GCE in Tanzanian higher education is complicated, yet the integrated aspects of GCE in some academic disciplines are not clear in both curriculum and instructive pedagogies. For that reason, the critical examination of the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should use to integrate GCE in Tanzania will provide significant insight and future directions to educational stakeholders such as administrators, policymakers, curriculum developers, teachers, governments and students to support the integration of GCE not only in Tanzania but also in other nations around the world. The study will fill the gaps between what learners know about in the present world and what they are supposed to learn to be successful and competent in solving the world’s issues and challenges. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 27 Published by SCHOLINK INC. 1.1 Objectives of the Study This review paper has one main objective. To explore the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions in Tanzania should implement for global citizenship education. 1.2 Significance of the Study Global citizenship education GCE is gaining prominence and significance in this interconnected world. However, the literature shows that a small number of studies have been conducted on GCE in Tanzania but concrete studies on the practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should use to implement GCE are missing. Thus, this study would shed a pioneering light on, curriculum experts, educational planners and policymakers on the significance and strategies for global citizenship in Tanzania because of this, and the significant need of reshaping the system of education to be more practical in producing active citizens with essential global citizenship skills. The findings from this study will be beneficial to all educational stakeholders such as educators, students in college, universities, government, and non-governmental organizations throughout Tanzania and beyond. This will provide practical and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions implement GCE to produce critical thinking as well as active citizenship. Moreover, the findings from this study would pave the way for other scholars to conduct additional studies on global learning and citizenship education. 1.3 The Concept of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) GCE is understood to be a complicating concept in intellectual dialogue. The first international education development programmes launched by the UN Secretary-General in 2012, made it clear that promoting international citizenship was one of the priorities of educational activities worldwide. Since then, GCE has been one of the programmes that the world education organization manages and puts into its daily activities to ensure that this education reaches more people in the world, where it will help to promote peace, love, and collective development (JET Education Services, 2016, p. 13). Although the world aims to ensure that by 2030 each nation will be able to provide quality education to all learners, promoting GCE has not been left behind. Some of the countries like Canada, United States of America and Australia have been making efforts to ensure that they develop global citizens, although these efforts vary from one country to another depending on the economic capacity of the specific country (UNESCO, 2018, p. 3). Although GCE has been slowly expanding globally, this education has begun to be a very good topic and seems to bring positive results in the development of society, the country, and the world at large. In recent years, citizens have been required to have a chance of being knowledgeable enough to fit in their home country and at the international level (Kopish, 2017, p. 21). GCE teaches learners the issues that are taking place in their country and other countries worldwide, as well as the need for respecting the culture of other people in different countries (Asia-Pacific Center of Educational for International www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 28 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Understanding (APCEIU), 2018, p. 14). GCE is education that focuses on instilling in citizens a sense of belonging to a global society and hence focus on achieving all global goals together ((Muwagga, Sekiwu, & Kiggundu-Musoke, 2016, p. 126). Globalization has made the world to be more connected and thus different challenges are hitting the world like poverty are being solved collectively (Mravcová, 2016). UNESCO use GCE to respond to different global challenges by empowering people to know that challenges that are happening daily, are not local, they are global issues, so the world should work together to solve them (JET Education Services, 2016, p. 13). The concept of GCE is still new and complicating to many people. Different education scholars from around the world have been trying to provide their definitions about GCE in order to find out a common concept (Monaghan & Spreen, 2016, p. 52; Mravcová, 2016, p. 57). Presently, many scholars are trying to explain it in the way they understand and perceive which in turn, gives us a variety of definitions (Heiser, 2021, p. 13). The definition which gives the general meaning of GCE defines GCE as the term that involves ability to understand things beyond the physical world. In education, students need to be taught different issues about their society, their country, and other things that are happening in other parts of the world so that they can act locally and internationally (Pacho, 2021, p. 278). According to Lane Perry, et al. (2013, p. 185), GCE means ―education‖ for international citizenship is an educational concept that aims to prepare students so that they can participate mentally and practically in coping with the challenges and opportunities of life in today’s changing world. This definition gives a wide clarity that teaching students about global citizenship helps to widen their minds so that they can think about how to deal with local and international challenges currently and in the future. UNESCO (2017) has pointed out that, although there are a variety meaning about global citizenship education, all the definitions fall under three spheres of learning which are, cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural; where cognitive means having knowledge and ability to think critically in analyzing global issues. Social-emotional means having communal skills and positive attitudes that help learners to respect and live with others accordingly. Behavioural means changes in learners' actions enough to act globally. According to Pacho (2021), all of these teaching areas are aimed at equipping students with the skills to participate and fulfil their responsibilities in their own country and other countries, so that the world can tackle and solve all challenges to foster peace, love, international tolerance and also building a world sustainable economy. GCE aims to introduce learners to the issues happening around the world including achievements and challenges so that students can work in collaboration with other people in other countries to solve the world problems (UNESCO, 2021). It also focuses to empower people to participate fully and contribute to international affairs wherever they are, to demonstrate their potential for international citizenship (Muwagga, Sekiwu, & Kiggundu-Musoke, 2016, p. 132). Most of the countries in the world are interdependent economically, politically, and socially; a situation that makes GCE world-famous for what it is alleged that this kind of education provides to students and the whole community with the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 29 Published by SCHOLINK INC. knowledge and techniques to deal with various economic, political and social challenges that are happening around the world (Yemini, Tibbitts, & Goren, 2019, p. 78). From this point of view, students to become ―global citizens‖, they are all encouraged to feel part of the international community, and thus take steps to seek to understand other nations in-depth, something they can achieve by reading different literature or by visiting other countries to learn about their cultures and also participate in various fields of development. 2. Methodology This study employs a critical literature review as a major method to study the problem. To achieve the purpose of this study, a thorough analysis and synthesis of the current literature on the origin, the concept of GCE and evidenced approaches that higher learning institutions should use to implement GCE needs to be adopted. 3. Literature Review 3.1 Approaches for Effective Implementation of GCE in Higher Learning Institutions The concept of global citizenship arose after the rise for the need of international education for global development. If higher learning institutions need to incorporate and develop the concept of international citizenship in their institutions, they need to make changes in their educational process. Tarozzi, and Inguaggiato (2018, p. 21). The following are the approaches that can be adopted in higher learning institutions to implement global citizenship education: Modifying the Curriculum The teaching of a new discipline in any educational programme needs the intended discipline to be incorporated into the curriculum that has already been prepared. In Tanzania and other countries around the world, there has been a significant interest in equipping students with 21st-century education as a problem-solving model in this most globalized world UNESCO (2017; Pacho, 2021, p. 177). The implication of 21st-century education has been stimulating the need of developing educational curriculums for global citizenship learning. UNESCO (2018, p. 5) demonstrated that intellectual ability alone cannot solve the challenges that are currently facing the world. Educational instructors must prepare students to be global citizens both emotionally and socially so that they can acquire the skills to live well and interact with people of different nationalities in solving problems effectively. However, Tanzania has been facing challenges to implement GCE because the learning is focused on banking learning, a core curriculum which emphasises learning for passing exams not for discovering and utilizing knowledge to find possible solutions to existing problems. In this reality, banking education in Tanzanian higher education has been a big problem and the educators, as well as the curriculum design at the college and university level, makes it viable. Curriculums in higher education in Tanzania have not been redesigned for a long period and educators in higher education are rarely allowed to attend www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 30 Published by SCHOLINK INC. professional development learning. This result is a low level of global participation, and a lack of competitiveness and productivity among graduates. It’s worth saying that modifying curriculums from lower level to higher education in Tanzania is highly needed to help students think critically about how to effectively solve the economic, social, political and environmental challenges of their communities and even of other countries. It should be noted that if the students will be developed to be global citizens, they will grow emotionally and socially to interact with people of different nationalities with love and peace and thus be able to gain more knowledge about the cultures of other nations. UNESCO (2017, p. 34) noted that to promote and develop global citizenship education, higher learning institutions should incorporate ―global learning‖ and GCE into the day-to-day teaching and learning process. Furthermore, higher education is encouraged to teach the GCE by introducing it as an additional topic in some subjects, or they can make it a self-contained subject, or they can teach GCE content after class lessons as extra-curricular activity; this will help in preparing effective global citizens Tarozzi, and Inguaggiato (2018, p. 21, p. 23). Hence, to reach the intended goal of developing GCE in Tanzania. Curriculum developers, decision and policymakers as well as higher education institutions in Tanzania should be encouraged to redesign and mandate the new syllabus and curriculum that integrates the discipline of GCE. Educational programmes for Teachers Guntars Catlaks, Senior Coordinator, Research Unit, Education international as cited in UNESCO (2014) noted that: “The quality of education will only be as good as the quality of the teacher”. From this standing point, scholars and leaders of the world should learn the value of education and be able to foster educational programmes for educators. Hence, initiating educational programmes for teachers is significant in building active efforts to promote GCE in any country. These learning programmes are required to train the varied teaching styles, backgrounds and professional experiences, of teachers (UNESCO 2018; Leighton, 2014). The essential component of the educational programmes for teachers is practices or strategies that can be used to equip teachers and educators with knowledge and skills on how to teach and manage students in their classroom and even outside the classroom (UNESCO 2018, p. 13; Osler, 2010). The training should be for effectiveness in issues related to global citizenship (UNESCO, 2016). Tarozzi, and Inguaggiato (2018, p. 23 & 31) have added that, there must be a teaching exchange programme between teachers of different countries which will help to promote the culture of other countries effectively. Thus, the ministry of education in Tanzania and the Commission for Universities in Tanzania should train both students—teachers, in-service teachers as well as lecturers in Tanzanian schools and higher education to participate in building learning programmes and participate in professional seminars, conferences and workshops. The government and all the stakeholders need to support the professional development activities for teachers. The support should be in terms of money, or other materials and educational resources to help in the effort of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 31 Published by SCHOLINK INC. implementing GCE in the country. Pedagogy for Global Citizenship Alicia Cabezudo, vice president, international Peace Bureau, Geneva Switzerland in her words noted that: “GCE needs not only new content but it needs new methodologies, particularly related to teacher training. It’s necessary to change the minds and train instructors” (UNESCO 2014). In this light, in order to enhance GCE in higher education; educators are required to identify the various content of GCE and consider the valid and appropriate pedagogy to teach GCE which can assist educators in better understanding values and assumptions that strengthen the particular type of GCE in their classroom contexts (UNESCO 2018, p. 3). In teaching GCE in a particular country, Bourn (2015) recommended that pedagogy for global social justice should be chosen to support the existing type of GCE. It is worth saying that when educators and teachers in universities, colleges and lower education apply the pedagogy for a global society, they need to integrate not only the content of subject and curriculum, styles and skills of teaching and learning but also reflecting band reflecting on the issues, contents values and the actual relevance inside and outside the teaching and learning context by considering greatly both social values and cultural factors (Bourn, 2014, p. 8). Another modern approach that has been identified in teaching GCE is the values-based pedagogy that has been practically used at one of the university’s in Newcastle (Reynolds et al., 2015). The approach has been applied during the preparation of pre-service teachers in Australia. This approach reflects the relevance of social justice, equality, cooperation, diversity, kindness, and respect for all people from different cultures. inclusion, caring and reliance (pp. 177-178). With the standing point from reflecting the values-based global education students, students in learning institutions learn several skills about global citizenship education. The pedagogy of teaching about global education involves, teaching the relevance of GCE due to its nature of using the critical approach in the classroom, providing information, application of technical strategies and knowledge to learning Blackmore (2016, p. 41). Interconnectedness is another approach that can be applied in fostering GCE (OXFAM, 2015, p. 9; Reynolds, 2015, p. 31) demonstrated that the best teachers in schools have been investing their efforts in teaching global issues, interconnectedness and global connections. IBE-UNESCO (2018, p. 10); Merryfield (2015; Zhao, Pandian, & Singh, 2016, p. 17) supported that the approach of Interconnectedness is significant because learners in school and outside schools need to better understand global issues based on their contexts and beyond. From the review of the literature, it is worth pinpointing that, to foster GCE in learning institutions a range of approaches to be adopted. Thus, this study is calling on all the educational stakeholders to develop and apply a variety of pedagogy as a tool for fostering global citizenship in Tanzania. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 32 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Contact with people from different cultures Contact with people from different societies is a vital strategy that increases and widens intercultural awareness globally. The professor Carlos Alberto Torres, Director, Paulo Freire institute at the UCLA Graduate School of education placed the great emphasis that “Global citizenship is marked by an understanding of global interconnectedness and a commitment to the collective good” (UNESCO 2014). Several programmes have been discovered to bring people together from around the world. Pacho (2021, p. 180) has recommended that internship, service learning, fieldwork, and corroborative learning are some of the approaches or strategies which can foster critical thinking and global learning. On the other hand, Zhou (2022, pp. 124-125) demonstrates the approach that can be applied to promote global learning for global citizenship at the school and programmes levels. For instance, international conferences, English language programmes, summer school programmes, service-learning and educational trips are some of the programmes that have been discovered to engage, inspire, and enrich people such as administrators, students, and educators from different parts of the world. Literature shows that promoting intellectual awareness and understanding through intercultural collaboration and travel is among the most effective strategies in developing common understanding, global citizens and promoting cooperation between people and nations (UNESCO, 2017; Zhou, 2016, 2017; Pacho, 2021). In reality, through international conferences, English language programmes, summer school programmes, service-learning and educational trips, educators can develop an understanding of the new purpose of teaching and learning, new methods and techniques of effective and responsive instruction as well as sharing education resources to maximize learning outcomes. Broadly speaking, programmes such as collaborative learning both virtual and physical participation, and participation in learning clubs can increase global and cultural understanding, widen multi-fasted cooperation, lasting friendship, foreign language skills, and connection opportunities among students, teachers and administrators. With this reality, Chernor Bah, Chairperson, Youth Advocacy Group, GEFI demonstrated that: “As a citizen you get your right through a passport national paper. As a global citizen, it’s guaranteed not by a State but through your humanity. This means you’re also responsible to the rest of humanity and not to state alone” (UNESCO 2014). Thus, programmes such as collaborative learning both virtual and physical participation, and participation in learning clubs can be considered to be in awakening the citizen of Tanzania as well as education stakeholders would consider them in the effort to foster global citizenship in their areas. Study abroad Nothing prepares learners’ minds for the globalized world like higher education. Students who are studying abroad have been proven to have much better outcomes. As we live in this globalized world, studying abroad has been proven to be among the fundamental strategies that prepare individuals across the world for active global citizenship. (Perry et al., 2013, p. 186) demonstrate that studying abroad is www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 33 Published by SCHOLINK INC. essential in instilling skills and potential experiences that should be applied in solving problems existing in this interconnected world. With this reality, studying abroad, and experiencing new cultures, places, and learning environments are the catalyst or driving force to enhance a transformative experience of a particular value in students’ minds that help them to be active citizens of the world. Marc (2019, p. 37) stated that studying abroad has inspired many international students to effectively develop new skills such as cultural understanding, international language skills, personal and career skills, as well as gaining experiences on academic perspectives, to be conscious of one’s interconnected world. Steves (2012) opined that studying abroad has significance for students to get a globalized education which can help them to fully participate in solving global issues as a global significance reality, one of the significances of studying abroad is to prepare learners to become active global citizens. It should be noted that students gain exposure to nationalities, cultures and different styles. Thus, the government of Tanzania through the ministry of education should increase support every year by offering scholarships to some students to study in the best universities in the world. Increasing use of “virtual” learning program In the 21st century, “virtual” learning programmes have a vital tool in promoting global citizenship education. Learners have been communicating and connecting with other students from other cultures through virtual learning programmes to learn and share experiences, cultural values and understanding of other perspectives. Popish & Marques (2020, p. 48), mentioned some of the tools which have been used in virtual learning to connect people of different cultures as citizens of a single community. Popish & Marques emphasize that virtual exchange programs are where people learn and exchange experiences using online learning platforms such as Google classrooms or Moodle and can also use social networks like Facebook and Instagram. With this standing point, virtual programmes for global learning inform students about the social, political and economic practices of other countries, which enable them to develop as global citizens (Ramirez, 2021, pp. 86-87). Although some literature encourages the use of mixed approaches to learning that involve both online and offline learning, online collaborative learning is viewed to smooth the progress of communication between people from one country and another (UNESCO, 2014, p. 29). Thus, the fast communication which is formed through virtual programmes of global learning is enlightening university students and other people to embrace the use of technology to communicate, explore and understand in-depth, learn, and validate their prior understanding of the culture of other countries and be able to work together as well as discuss issues and challenges to contribute positively as active citizens of the world community. With this reality, Tanzanian educational institutions should make an effort to develop a conductive environment for learning, such as improving learning facilities, internet connections and electrical installations in the areas where learning is taking place. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 34 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Integration of Service-Learning as a pedagogy of learning The idea of service-learning was coined from the pragmatist theory developed by John Dewey. He considered education as an experiential process that involves developing individuals and leaders to participate actively in solving the problems which exist in society. The idea integrates learning with work experience to prepare participants by acquiring skills and knowledge for change, effective social development and challenges existing in life (Pacho, 2018, pp. 1-4; Birdwell et al., 2013). Dewey’s thoughts became the solid foundation of service- learning which is based on educational principles that learners learn effectively and become active citizens of their society when they are actively involved in a particular service to the community and integrate the acquired experiences into their academic content (Pacho, 2018, p. 1; Metzger & Ferris, 2013). The benefits of service learning have been shown in many studies. A variety of studies indicate that service-learning is significant because it provides students with competencies including leadership skills, problem-solving skills, social and moral skills, teamwork skills, as well as a civic responsibility to the students, communities and faculty members (Pacho, 2018, p. 4; Zentner, 2011; Sheffield, 2011, p. 153). From the above standing point, the literature indicates that the current focus of service-learning is to promote global competence, civic growth, and transformational experience for students and the community to contribute positively as active citizens of modern and democratic society. In this way, global citizenship can be acquired through activities and practical corroboration in real-life situations. On the contrary, the teaching and learning process in Tanzania is based on the banking model of education, thus, it is not convincing because it encourages memorization of the contents given by a teacher. The system of education in Tanzania does not have a unique opportunity for students to participate in citizenship skills such as sharing their idea and experiences, critical thinking, decision making, communication as well as problem-solving skills. This study found service-learning to be among of effective strategies for developing global citizenship skills among learners. Based on the review of a variety of studies, this study suggests for Tanzania to achieve the goal of producing active and responsible citizens to work and foster the development of the country, it is better to integrate service-learning as a pedagogy of learning in its curriculum of education. International Sports Programmes Sports has been identified to be a critical tool for international education and global citizenship. Narin HajTass, educational and training manager, national Olympic committee of Jordan noted that ―Sports is a strong tool, it is an educational environment it taught me to accept defeat and still stand on my feet. It taught me how to walk to my opponent and shake hands and say congratulations, it taught me to respect my team, my family , my country , my environment and my society and everything in my life” (UNESCO 2014). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 35 Published by SCHOLINK INC. Sports help to promote and develop global citizenship because it serves as an identity of people from other countries who can learn a lot about the culture of a certain country by watching or by participating in sports. It helps to strengthen awareness about one’s own culture and of other nations in general; because players can use games to showcase and promote their culture on different international platforms (Malkinson & He, 2014, p. 1). Due to the advancement of science and technology, there has been a globalization of sports. From this reality, there is a great need to establish and strengthen the management of international sports competitions in various higher learning institutions around the world. This is because the quality of the games advertises a certain country and makes the country socially and economically develop since the best sports attract more tourists. More importantly, sports help to strengthen friendships and unite people of different nationalities and thus be able to be together in solving different global challenges (Blanco, 2017, p. 105). It should be noted that globally, sports have become part of some people's daily lives and although they use sports as a means of developing themselves physically, mentally, socially and healthily; the sport has gained an international status and thus helps to promote the culture of a particular country (Katirci, 2016, pp. 562-563). For example, Bradbury and O’Boyle (2017, p. 18) have stated that the government sponsors a variety of sports events that aim to promote their victory in sports. An obvious example is the FIFA World Cup which involves different countries and players often get the opportunity to participate in sports in other countries, where we find participants from other countries accompanying their players to celebrate and thus be able to see and learn many international things and easy to develop their global citizenship. Professor Fernando Reimers, Harvard University pointed out that ―Sports can be transformative if we are intentional about how we use them. Not as episodic events but clear about the competences” (UNESCO 2014). Therefore, higher learning institutions in Tanzania should focus on stabling and promoting international sports programs because this will expose students to different lifestyles of other countries and hence develop their global citizenship. Developing and Maintaining International Students’ Exchange Programs An international student exchange program is a program that allows students to travel from one country to another either for short-term studies at a particular college or for academic conferences. Students can spend one semester, several semesters or several weeks visiting their fellow students from other countries purposely to improve their international understandings by sharing their ideas and being open to learning from others (Atalar, 2020, p. 63). In this sense, higher learning institutions should create different international students exchange programs as they help students and instructors to have good relations between the participating countries and thus build and promotes cooperation, which will enable them to cooperate on various developmental issues between countries and hence promote their global citizenship (Kishino & Takahashi, 2019, p. 551). In normal life, there must be an exchange of ideas between individuals or between groups of people, so that learning can be strengthened and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 36 Published by SCHOLINK INC. maintained. Therefore, for students to learn, understand and adopt the lifestyles of people in other countries, there must be something we call ―visiting‖ where students visit other students abroad to teach and learn new cultural activities (Henry & Lima, 2012, p. 105). For example, history shows us that between 400-700 AD, scholars from China (Fa Hsien, Sung Yun, Hsuan Tsang & Tsing) visited India to learn the Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit. These Chinese scholars were able to teach the Indians some of their cultures, and they were also able to learn some of the Indian cultures. In general, the issue of learning about the cultures of people from other countries, through visitation has been around for a long time (Ghosh & Jing, 2020, p. 556 & 559). With this reality, higher education institutions in Tanzania should ensure that the issue of student exchange between one country and another is initiated and sustained because it helps students to excel in their global citizenship. International student exchange programs can also be conducted through international student organizations (Wang & Brckalorenz, 2018, p. 1006). This is a union of students from different countries that are formed to collaborate on various issues including academic support, visiting, and informing each other about the various cultural issues of students participating in the union. The union also aims to plan and develop various activities that help raise awareness about other countries and help maintain global friendships, which foster mutual collaboration in talking about different global issues (Luo & Jamieson-Drake, 2013, p. 87). International students’ union helps to promote global citizenship in a sense that it brings together students from different countries, who are also from different cultures and thus enables members of the union to learn different cultural activities from one another, thus raising more awareness about the various issues across the borders (Alajmi & Kalitay, 2019, p. 51). Educational Resources for Global Citizenship Education Implementation of a curriculum without the relevant resources to teach it would cause stress to implement the planned curriculum (Singh, 2012). In this way, resources seem to be important in the implementation of the school curriculum, this is because curriculum management depends largely on the availability of teaching and learning resources. The effective provision of quality and suitable educational resources to instructors is indispensable in developing a strong effort for enhancing GCE in a particular learning institution (Guo, 2014). Having quality, suitable and accessible educational resources in an educational institution is essential to be used in teaching and learning to expand students’ understanding of the various issues going on around the world (Swarts, 2020, p. 72; Atenas, Havemann, & Priego, 2015, p. 377). For instance, electronic materials, storybooks, journals, magazines, online resources, and videos have been identified as potential sources of information on international citizenship (IBE & UNESCO, 2018, p. 10, p. 144; Ordu, 2021). From this standing point, Tanzania’s educational stakeholders should introduce new teaching and learning resources that include the contents of global citizenship education. It’s sad to say that most of the teaching and learning resources in Tanzanian education are still not enough to be used in enhancing global citizenship education. The contents of the books that have been used since independence are still existing in the current books. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 37 Published by SCHOLINK INC. With this reality, the Tanzania Commission for universities should encourage the introduction of new textbooks that are used by other countries to enhance global citizenship education. The ministry of education science and technology in Tanzania should encourage educators and education policymakers to make policymakers revisit the teaching and learning materials to include suitable materials for global citizenship education. Furthermore, educators in higher education should be encouraged to choose the teaching and learning resources that are appropriate for enhancing the content and knowledge about GCE so that educators should use these resources to teach their students about global issues or they can direct them to download the materials and read for themselves. This will allow them to build the spirit of cooperation which is crucial in promoting international citizenship. However, educators in higher education should be able to select the suitable teaching and learning materials that are suitable and have contents of global citizenship education. 4. Final Thoughts GCE is currently gaining prominence. It is viewed to be of a high significance due to the rapid dissemination of information, cultural diffusion, and the media, film and music industry. Immediately these changes are future online accepted globally without issues of ethics, conscience or culture and the decision of youth and adults are based on this online psychology and mind control system. If there is a sound international global citizenship education, it will reduce most misuse of information and internet facilities because global education prepares the mind to take the right decision and facilitate proper conduct. For Tanzanian higher education to effectively implement and integrate global citizenship education, educators are required to pay more attention and increase effort for cooperation, information sharing, and effective innovation from the primary level of education to higher education where learners are developing a basic attitude, skills and knowledge for effective changes in this the interconnected world. If higher education institutions in Tanzania wishes to attain their interested goal of developing global citizen, every educator must support the appropriate pedagogy that is vital in promoting GCE in every country of this globalized world. Furthermore, every educational stakeholder is needed to dedicate effort and time and other educational resources to global citizenship education. Moreover, to meet the intended goals of promoting GCE in Tanzania, active cooperation, coordination and networking among teachers, government and non-government organizations, colleges and universities is fundamental to engage effectively, productively and build support for collaboration on finding solutions to the national curriculum as well as on global issues. However, these suggestions need strong leadership that considers changes in the way that GCE is effectively implemented in Tanzanian higher education. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/grhe Global Research in Higher Education Vol. 5, No. 2, 2022 38 Published by SCHOLINK INC. 5. Recommendation However, this study proposes several recommendations for enhancing effective changes that individuals and both educational unions such as teachers' unions, universities, and governmental and non-governmental organizations throughout the country need to implement. These recommendations are the establishment of more training programmes for teachers to learn about international curricula, the government and all educational stakeholders should ensure collaboration by making sure that educational resources for global citizenship are available, accessible and have the quality to meet the goal of implementing GCE in the country. Finally, educational stakeholders should try to find possible measures to areas related to education by encouraging learners to think critically and be innovative. With this reality, if the recommended ideas are implemented effectively, they would help to develop global citizenship within the country. Acknowledgement I am indebted to all authors whose works in the form of articles, research investigation, and reports were referred in this study. Many thanks to all who read and gave invaluable comments towards improvement of this work. References Alajmi, N., & Kalitay, M. (2019). Leadership Development in International Student Organization: Case Study on Erasmus Student Organization (Master thesis). Linnaeus University, Sweden. Andrews, K., & Aydin, H. (2020). Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Global Citizenship Education in the Social Studies Curriculum. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 11(4), 84-113. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3549266 Atalar, A. (2020). 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