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AFTER THE APOSTLES 
 
 

Mark Schuler 
(emeritus, Concordia University, Saint Paul) 

 
 
 

Abstract: In the post-apostolic period, a synthesis emerged so that ἀπόστολος from that 
point on referred to the Twelve and Paul. No other person carried that designation. The 
authority exercised by the apostles was transferred to the bishops through a process of 
succession that developed in response to false teaching and disunity in the church. This 
apostolic succession protected the teaching of the church and clarified authority within 
the church. Simultaneously but more gradually, the canonization of the New Testament 
came to preserve the content of apostolic witness and teaching about Jesus, his death and 
resurrection, and the theological implications of his person and work for the church. 
Forged by Trinitarian and Christological controversies, the church catholic emerged with 
a bi-polar structure that vested authority in a monarchical bishopric succeeding the 
apostolate and a canonical text preserving the teaching of the apostles. 

 
 
 

INTRODUCTION 
 

In the letter to the Ephesians, Paul asserted, “Each of us was given grace according to the measure of 
Christ’s gift” (Eph 4:7). Then he enumerated, “The gifts he gave were that some would be apostles…” 
(Eph 4:11). These verses set the itinerary for our time together. Who or what are these “apostles”? And 
what is the significance of this gift of Christ for the church today? 

Yesterday, we looked at Biblical materials to ascertain the origins of early Christian apostolicity. 
The most important conclusions of this initial study of apostolicity were twofold: 

1. that we must seek our understanding from the words of the New Testament and  
2. that various New Testament writers do not use ἀπόστολος in the same way.  

Paul uses ἀπόστολος as his primary self-designation and fills that word with his particular 
experience – his call from Jesus on the road to Damascus, his life-long mission to the Gentile world, his 
willingness to serve, his proclamation of the Gospel, and even his sufferings.  What God made of and did 
through Paul is the primary meaning that Paul gave to the term ἀπόστολος. But it was not the only 
meaning, for Paul could use the term as a designation for other fellow workers (without explaining 
exactly what he means by that) and could even use the term broadly when speaking of “apostles and 
prophets.” For Paul, the term is specific to himself but also applies to others. 

Luke has a narrower range of usage. For the most part, the ἀπόστολοι are the Twelve, especially 
in their roles as leaders of the community and authoritative witnesses to the words and deeds of Jesus. 
This usage also is replicated in most other occurrences of ἀπόστολος in the New Testament. 

Who or what is an apostle? And who were the first apostles?  The usage in the New Testament is 
not uniform. It depends on the writer and the situation being addressed by the writer. 

Today, we turn our attention to the time immediately after the first Apostles. We shall do so in 
three parts.  Firstly, we shall look at the use of ἀπόστολος in post apostolic writers. We shall discover in 
so doing that the Pauline usage disappears and the Lucan usage becomes an essential component of a new 
synthesis in Irenaeus and subsequent writers. Secondly, we shall trace two new developments in early 
Christianity as the first apostles passed from the scene: the concept of apostolic succession and the 
formation of the canon of the New Testament. These two trends were concurrent and competing. 

Let us begin in the name of Jesus. 



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Global South Theological Journal 2, no. 1 (2023):  12 

 
ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΟΣ IN POST-APOSTOLIC WRITERS1 

 
A more fluid definition of ἀπόστολος, as we saw in Paul, continues in some post-apostolic writers. 

In 1 Clement, from the end of the first century, the author states that God has sent Christ. Christ 
has entrusted the gospel to the apostles. The apostles installed bishops or presbyters and deacons, and at 
the same time gave command to them that after their death other approved people should be entrusted 
with these offices by the whole community.2 But Clement does not use the language of the Twelve. Two 
of the "good apostles" are named: Peter and Paul.3 Both qualify also in distinction from Apollos, as 
apostles.4 Elsewhere, Paul is called the "blessed apostle,"5 and the apostles are distinguished from the 
"pillars" as Paul distinguished himself in Galatians 2.6 These passages fit quite well into the picture of the 
apostle which was well known to Clement from the letters of Paul and which lay close at hand, a picture 
which is not limited to the Twelve.7 

Ignatius of Antioch, who died in the first third of the second century, mentions the apostles in his 
writings. The apostles are the guarantors of the true gospel, with whom one must be in agreement;8 for 
from them come the δόγματα9 and δαιτάγματα,10 which are in conformity with the will of God.11 The 
apostles are holy figures of the past whom one must honor.12 Ignatius cannot place himself on a par with 
them.13 But he often compares them with the πρεσβύτεροι: “Subject yourselves to the presbyters, as to the 
apostles of Christ, for the presbyters act in the place of the συνέδριον of the apostles.”14 Thus, Ignatius 
knows the apostles primarily as a group of several persons. From among their company only Paul and 
Peter are mentioned by name, and in fact jointly in the Epistle to the Romans.15 Paul, the chief apostle, is 
also mentioned explicitly if extravagantly in the Epistle to the Ephesians 12:2.16 

Polycarp was the Bishop of Smyrna. He died in 155 CE. Although he was a bishop, he never calls 
himself one. Instead, he places himself with the πρεσβύτεροι.17For him as for the Philippians, Paul is the 
true authority because he has perfectly taught the Word of truth.18 Polycarp does mention “the apostles 
who evangelized us” (οἱ εὐαγγελισάμενοι ἡμᾶς ἀπόστολοι),19 to whom the community is indebted. He 
also writes of the “other apostles” (λοιποὶ ἀπόστολοι) who appear alongside Paul.20 Paul, probably Peter, 
and then the λοιποὶ ἀπόστολοι of I Corinthians 9:5 most likely are the apostles whom Polycarp knows. 
There is no mention in Polycarp of the Twelve.21 

The Shepherd of Hermas from the mid-second century consistently places “the apostles” (οἱ 
ἀπόστολοι) together with “the teachers” (οἱ διδάσκοι) in a formal fashion, as distinct from the apostolate 

 
1 The primary source materials are conveniently gathered and summarized by Walter Schmithals, The Office of Apostle 

in the Early Church, ed. John E. Steely (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1969), 235–55, 278–86. 
2 Clement of Rome, 1 Clement, 42:1-5. 
3 5:3. 
4 47:4. 
5 47:1. 
6 5:2-6. 
7 Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 244–45. 
8 Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians, 11:2. 
9 Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Magnesians, 13:1-2. 
10 Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Trallians, 7:1. 
11 Epistle to the Magnesians, 7:1. 
12 Epistle to the Trallians, 12:2; Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Philadelphians, 9:1. 
13 Epistle to the Trallians, 3:3. 
14 2:2; 3:1; Epistle to the Philadelphians, 5:1; Epistle to the Magnesians, 6:1; Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the 

Smyrnaeans, 8:1. 
15 Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Romans, 4:3. 
16 Epistle to the Ephesians, 12:2; Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 239–40. 
17 Polycarp of Smyrna, Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, 1:1. 
18 3:2; 11:3. 
19 6:3. 
20 9:1. 
21 Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 241–42. 



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of the Twelve.22 Only once do the apostles appear without an explicit mention of the teachers. The 
number of the apostles and teachers is given as forty.23 There seems to be little to distinguish the two 
groups.  

In addition, some patristic sources name a range of individuals as apostles in a manner like Paul’s 
flexible use of the term. They include James,24 Stephen,25 Apollos,26 Timothy and Titus,27 Luke,28 
Mark,29 Thaddaeus,30 the Seventy,31 and Philip the deacon.32 

As stated in the previous lecture, the understanding of ἀπόστολοι is more restricted and rigid in 
Luke. 

[The] special task [of the apostles] is the mission, indeed the world mission (Acts 1 :8). The call 
to their ministry had already come during the lifetime of Jesus; even Judas had in fact been a called 
apostle (Acts 1:16 ff.). A precondition for their ministry was that they had been together with Jesus during 
the whole time in which Jesus was at work, thus from the baptism of John onward; and further, that they 
were witnesses of his resurrection (Luke 24:48; Acts 1 :21-22) . Therefore, they know everything which 
the Lord has proclaimed during his earthly activity and are likewise acquainted with the words of the 
resurrected One which he spoke to them about the kingdom of God during the forty days between the 
resurrection and the ascension (Luke 24:45 ff.; Acts 1:3). No one equals them in knowledge of these 
things. But they also have the gift of the Holy Spirit. The possession of the spirit is a precondition for the 
exercise of the apostolic ministry (Acts 1: 8). Thus, the twelve awaited in Jerusalem the reception of the 
Spirit, as they had been commanded to do (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:4-5). On Pentecost the promise is fulfilled. 
The Spirit sat upon the Twelve and they began to preach (Acts 2), "full of the Holy Spirit" (Acts 4: 8).33 

The Epistle of Barnabas (dated between 70 and 132 CE) finds the origin of the apostolate and the 
number of twelve predetermined in the Old Testament.34 It is the apostles who proclaimed the gospel 
upon the commission of Jesus Christ; they have τὴν ἐξουςίαν τοῦ εὐαγγελίου.35 

The Didache (dated 100-150 CE in Syria) is notably titled, διδαχὴ κυρίου διὰ τῶν δώδεκα 
ἀποστόλων τοῖς ἔθνεσιν. The terminology is that of Luke. 

The writings of Justin Martyr come from the middle of the second century (d. c. 165 CE). Justin 
also speaks of twelve apostles. Their authority is demonstrable since already the Old Testament, for 
example, established the number of twelve for the apostles, and since it had frequently been foretold that 
the twelve disciples would proclaim the gospel to all the world from Jerusalem.36 Peter,37 John, 38 and the 
Sons of Thunder39 are mentioned by name. The twelve apostles are the missionaries to all the world,40 

 
22 Hermas, The Shepherd, Vis. III, 5.1; Sim. IX, 15.4; 16.5; 25.2. 
23 Sim. IX, 15.4; 16.5. 
24 Johannes Malalas, Chronographia, 10 (Minge 97.392B). 
25 Didymus Alexandrinus, De Trinitate, 3.41 (Minge 39.988C). 
26 1 Clement, 47.4. 
27 Origen, Contra Celsum, 1.63 (Minge 11.777C); Philostorgius, Historica Ecclesiastica, 3.2 (Minge 65.481A); 

Theodoret of Cyrus, Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah, 11:14. 
28 Clement of Alexandria, Excerpta Ex Theodoto, n.d.74 (Minge 9.693A) [unless ὁ ἀπόστολος refers to the angel] ; 

Gregory of Nazianzus, Orations, 33.11(Minge 36.228C). 
29 Orations, 33.11 (Minge 36.228C). 
30 Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 1.13.11 (Minge 20.124B). 
31 Contra Celsum, 2.65 (Minge 11.897C); John Chrysostom, Homilies on First Corinthians, 38.4 (Minge 10.355D); 

Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, 4.17 (Minge 8.1312A). 
32 Ecclesiastical History, 5.24.2 (Minge 20.493B; Stromata, 3.6 (Minge 8.1156A); G. W. H. Lampe and Henry George 

Liddell, eds., “Ἀπόστολος,” in A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978), 211. 
33 Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 247–48. 
34 Epistle of Barnabas, 8:3. 
35 Epistle of Barnabas, 8:3; 5:9. 
36 Justin Martyr, First Apology, 31; 39; 40; 42; 45.5; 49.5; 50; 53. 
37 Justin Martyr, Dailogue with Trypho, 106.3. 
38 81. 
39 106.3. 
40 First Apology, 39; 50; 53.3. 



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thus particularly to the Gentiles.41 As apostles of Christ, they begin their world mission in Jerusalem. 42 
They are the first ones to have been convinced of the necessity of Christ's suffering,43  and this was done 
by the resurrected One, to whose resurrection they can bear witness.44 Through the Gospels,45 which are 
the ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν ἀποστόλων,46 they disseminate the knowledge of the prophecies of the Old 
Testament which are fulfilled in Christ, and of the proper use of the sacraments.47 The teachers of the 
church teach nothing other than what the apostles taught, the ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν ἀποστόλων· οἱ γὰρ 
ἀπόστολοι ἐν τοῖς γενουμένοις ὑπ´ αὐτῶν ἀπομνημονούμασιν, ἃ καλεῖται εὐαγγέλια, οὕτως παρέδωκαν.48 

The Twelve are “specially selected by Christ ὁ σωτὴρ … τοὺς δώδεκα ἀ. ἀνακαλεῖται, οὓς καὶ 
μόνους τῶν λοιπῶν αὐτοῦ μαθητῶν κατά τι γέρας ἐξαίρετον ἀ. ὠνόμασεν).”49 The Twelve are typified in 
the Old Testament by the twelve wells of Exodus 15:27,50 by twelve bells on high priest’s robe (Exodus 
28:29, perhaps confused with Exodus 28:9),51 by the twelve stones on high priest’s breast,52 by the twelve 
stones of altar (Exodus. 24:4),53 and by the twelve loaves of shewbread.54 The six loaves (1 King 9) 
symbolize sending out of apostles two by two. The twelve divisions of Canaan and the twelve stars of 
Revelation 12:1 are both types of apostles.55 A cluster of writers uses the Lucan terminology from about 
120 on including Quadratus, Aristides, Justin Martyr, and Tatian.56 

But a merging of ideas also appears, as the Twelve are regarded as thirteen when Paul is included: 
ἡμεῖς οἱ δεκατρεῖς ἀπόστολοι,57 although Paul is usually distinguished from the Twelve: ἀπόστολοι δὲ 
δέκα καὶ δύο καὶ ὁ Παῦλος.58 

A synthesis emerges in a five-volume work, “Against Heresies,” written in Greek in about 180 
CE by the Christian bishop Irenaeus of Lyon. In that work, Irenaeus describes Paul as an apostle in the 
same sense in which Paul had written about himself as an apostle. Paul preaches that which he himself 
received from the Lord.59 He is apostle to the Gentiles.60 Beside him stands only Peter as an apostle of 
equal weight.61 The two have shared in the founding of the community in Rome.62  

When, in more than fifty passages in his Against Heresies, Irenaeus introduces citations with "the 
apostle said" or something similar, this apostle is always Paul. Paul is also otherwise simply called "the 
apostle";63 he is the "blessed apostle"64 and naturally also the "apostle Paul."65 But the Twelve are also 
apostles in the way in which they are portrayed to us in the book of Acts. Thus, just as Paul is spoken of 
as the apostle without regard to the Twelve, the twelve apostles are mentioned without regard to Paul.66  

 
41 42.4; Dailogue with Trypho, 53.1; 109. 
42 First Apology, 45.5; 49.5; Dailogue with Trypho, 114.4; 119.6. 
43 Dailogue with Trypho, 76; 106. 
44 First Apology, 50.12. 
45 66.3; Dailogue with Trypho, 88.3. 
46 First Apology, 67.3; Dailogue with Trypho, 100.4; 101.3; 102.5; 103.6, 8; 104; 106.1, 4. 
47 First Apology, 61.9; 66.3. 
48 66.3; Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 250–51. 
49 Ecclesiastical History, 1.10.7 (Minge 20.113A); Lampe and Liddell, “Ἀπόστολος,” 211–12. 
50 Marcellus of Ancyra, Fragmenta, 20 quoted by Eusebius (Minge 24.988C). 
51 Dailogue with Trypho, 42.1 (Minge 6.565A). 
52 Cyris of Alexandria, Letters, 55. 
53 Cyril of Alexandria, Glaphyra on the Pentateuch, 1.330C. 
54 4.356A. 
55 Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lectures, 10.11; Lampe and Liddell, “Ἀπόστολος,” 212. 
56 Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 254. 
57 Apostolic Constitutions, 8.46.13. 
58 Athanasius, Three Orations against Arius, 2.27 (Minge 26.204B); Lampe and Liddell, “Ἀπόστολος,” 212. 
59 Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies, III, 13.2; 14.2. 
60 III, 13.1; IV, 24.1. 
61 I, 13.6; 25.2; IV, 35.2. 
62 III, 3.2. 
63 IV, 41.5. 
64 IV, 41.6. 
65 III, 15.1. 
66 III, 13.2. 



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Finally, the apostles are frequently spoken of in such a way that Paul and the Twelve are meant 
thereby.67 Once Paul is explicitly placed as an apostle with the Twelve;68 elsewhere mention is made of 
Peter, Paul, and the other apostles.69  

Thus in Irenaeus (and in all the ecclesiastical writers after him) we find precisely the concept of 
the apostle which dominates the unreflective thought of the Christian community, including her 
theologians, down to the present day. . . . "Apostolic" applies to the theology of Paul and to that of the 
Synoptics. Paul taught nothing other than what the other apostles taught.70 

By the time of Irenaeus, toward the end of the second century, the word ἀπόστολος includes Paul 
and the Twelve together. From that time on, early church writers did not apply the term ἀπόστολος to any 
other church leaders. It was reserved for the Twelve and Paul.  The modern practice of using ἀπόστολος 
as a title for a church leader would be inconceivable. This synthesis will be reinforced by two emerging 
concepts: apostolic succession and the fixing of the canon of the New Testament. To these we now turn. 
 
APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION 
 

Apostolic succession is a theological construct used to define the transmission of spiritual 
authority from the apostles to bishops and priests of subsequent generations. The practice developed in 
early Christianity as the apostles died off. “The church of the sub-apostolic age was witnessing a 
transition from the flexibility and fluidity of a missionary situation to that of ordered communities which 
needed leadership, pastoral care and teaching.”71 

The origin of apostolic succession is often traced back to the apostles themselves, to their actions 
by which they appointed additional leaders to expand on and continue their work. For example, in Acts, 
we read that after the death of Judas Iscariot, the apostles chose Matthias to take his place as one of the 
twelve apostles (Acts 1:15-26). Similarly, we see the apostle Paul appointing Timothy as a pastor and 
instructing him to appoint other bishops to continue his work (2 Timothy 2:2). In his letter to Titus, Paul 
also instructs him to appoint elders in every town to lead the church (Titus 1:5). 

Nonetheless, historic continuity and transmission does not seem to have been very much in the 
mind of the first and second Christian generation. It is only in the third generation that there was a clearly 
growing awareness of the need for historic continuity and transmission of the Christ event and, 
simultaneously, an awareness of the problems and dangers implied in this process of transmission. While, 
until then, it was considered sufficient to faithfully “guard what has been entrusted to you” (1 Tm 6:20; 2 
Tm 1:12,14)1 or to preserve “the faith once for all entrusted to the saints” (Jude 3), this idea of guarding 
and preserving shifted to the idea of faithfully “transmitting” and “handing down” the faith from 
generation to generation.72 

As Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, bishops were seen as the successors of the 
apostles, and apostolic succession became an important concept in the Church. It was the Jewish Christian 
Hegesippus who expressed early concerns about apostolic succession or at any rate brought it to an 
extensive recognition.73 Hegesippus’ work remains only in fragments quoted by Eusebius that primarily 
deal with early Palestinian Christianity. Hegesippus’ ὑπομνήματα (“memoirs”) does not appear to be a 
carefully edited volume, but rather a collection of narratives. A significant issue in the preserved 
fragments of Hegesippus is his discussion of heresy. Presumptive bishops and sects within Palestinian 
Christianity were destroying its unity, a crisis already raised by the concern with false teachers in later 

 
67 III, 1.1; 14.1-2; 15.1, 3; 24.1; V, 20.1. 
68 II, 21.2. 
69 IV, 35.2. 
70 Schmithals, The Office of Apostle in the Early Church, 279–80. 
71 George Leonard, “The Origins of the Threefold Christian Ministry,” Churchman 96, no. 1 (1982): 38–39. 
72 Harding Meyer, “Apostolic Continuity, Ministry and Apostolic Succession from a Reformation Perspective,” 

Louvain Studies 21, no. 2 (1996): 169. 
73 John-Christian Eurell, “The Hypomnemata of Hegesippus,” Scottish Journal of Theology 75, no. 2 (May 2022): 148–

57, https://doi.org/10.1017/s003693062200028x. 



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New Testament works. The passing of the apostles aggravated this problem according to Eusebius.74 The 
seeming purpose of Hegesippus’ work is not to account for the origin of heresy, but rather to plead for the 
doctrinal unity and orthodoxy in the church.  

“If heresy and ecclesial division can be regarded as central problems addressed in the surviving 
fragments of Hegesippus, the office of bishop is clearly Hegesippus’ proposed solution to these 
problems.”75 Hegesippus travelled around to leading bishops, examined their succession and produced not 
only lists but also biographic anecdotes concerning those bishops. His is not a fully formed doctrine of 
apostolic succession. Rather, by examining the practice and recording supporting stories, Hegesippus 
makes proper, that is, apostolic succession one of the keys to preserving the unity of the church and its 
teaching.  “To Hegesippus, it is the religious division present already in Judaism that is exported to the 
Jerusalem church and beyond. His solution is to consolidate the position of the bishops as legitimate heirs 
of apostolic teaching.”76 The significance of the bishops in Hegesippus is comparable to what can be 
found in the works of other early Church Fathers, such as Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, and 
Irenaeus of Lyons, all of whom wrote about the importance of apostolic succession and the role of 
bishops in continuing the work of the apostles. 

Clement of Rome, who served as bishop of Rome in the late first century, wrote a letter to the 
church in Corinth in which he emphasized the importance of orderly succession of bishops. He argued 
that the apostles had appointed bishops and that these bishops had appointed successors, creating a 
continuous line of authority that should be respected and followed by all Christians. He wrote, "Our 
apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be strife for the office of bishop. For this 
reason, therefore, having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed those who have already been 
mentioned and afterwards added the further provision that, if they should die, other approved leaders 
should succeed to their ministry."77  

Ignatius of Antioch, who served as bishop of Antioch in the early second century, also 
emphasized the importance of apostolic succession in his writings. In his letters to various churches, he 
urged Christians to follow the teachings of their bishops and to remain united in faith. He wrote, 

It is fitting, therefore, that you should keep aloof from such persons, and not to speak of them 
either in private or in public, but to give heed to the prophets, and above all, to the Gospel, in which the 
passion [of Christ] has been revealed to us, and the resurrection has been fully proved. But avoid all 
divisions, as the beginning of evils. Follow the bishop, all of you, as Jesus Christ followed the Father.78 

Irenaeus, who served as bishop of Lyons in the second century, wrote extensively about the 
importance of apostolic succession in his work "Against Heresies." He argued that the apostles had passed 
on the teachings of Christ to their successors, the bishops, who had in turn passed them on to subsequent 
generations of Christians. He wrote, "The apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, 
committed into the hands of their successors the office of the episcopate. . . . To these bishops the apostles 
delivered both the Church and the ministry of the preaching of the Gospel."79 

The process of succession was not always linear, nor was it consistent. “It must also be kept in 
mind that the succession here is not a succession of consecrations, as we today understand the successio 
apostólica, but rather a succession of incumbents of an episcopal see irrespective of how these 
incumbents were ordained and by whom.”80  

Overall, Hegesippus, Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, and Irenaeus of Lyons all 
emphasized the importance of apostolic succession in early Christianity, arguing that the apostles had 
appointed bishops and that these bishops had appointed successors, creating a continuous line of authority 

 
74 Ecclesiastical History, 3.32.8. 
75 Eurell, “The Hypomnemata of Hegesippus,” 155. 
76 Eurell, 157. 
77 1 Clement, 44:1-2. 
78 Epistle to the Philadelphians, 3. 
79 Against Heresies, III, 3.1. 
80 Hermann Sasse, “Apostles, Prophets, Teachers: Some Thoughts of the Origin of the Ministry of the Church,” The 

Reformed Theological Review 27, no. 1 (January 1968): 20. 



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and doctrine that should be respected and followed by all Christians. Successors are not called “apostles,” 
but they continue the apostolic work. 

The truth behind the … various ideas of an apostolic succession, be it a succession of persons 
who followed each other on a certain episcopal see, or of consecrations, is the continuation in the office of 
the bishop of the great offices of the apostles, prophets and teachers. It is the continuation of the Word of 
God in its various forms, in the oral proclamation, in the interpretation of the Scriptures, of the witness to 
Him who is the Word Incarnate.81 

To preserve the unity of the church and its orthodoxy, apostolic succession gave to bishops the 
authority note to become new apostles but to continue the work of the apostles. A second innovation, the 
canonization of the New Testament would preserve the words and teachings of the apostles. 
 
CANONIZATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

 
The canonization of the New Testament refers to the formation of collection of books that were 
considered authoritative and inspired by God and were accepted as scripture by early Christians. The 
process of forming the canon was a gradual and complex one, many specifics of which are lost to history. 
More than three centuries would pass until this first list of books would emerge that is identical to the 
twenty-seven in our New Testament. But it is possible, at least in retrospect, to identify various factors 
and key moments in the process. I suggest that there are at least eight points worthy of mention. 

1. The process begins in the New Testament itself. Paul wanted his letters read broadly. He 
addressed 2 Corinthians, “To the church of God that is in Corinth, including all the saints 
throughout Achaia” (2 Cor 1:1). Galatians has a regional address. Paul’s letter to Philemon is 
addressed also “to Apphia our sister, to Archippus our fellow soldier, and to the church in your 
house” (Philemon 2). The practice of circulating letters is demonstrated when Paul write to the 
Colossians, “And when this letter has been read among you, have it read also in the church of the 
Laodiceans; and see that you read also the letter from Laodicea” (Col 4:16). By the time of 2 
Peter, Paul’s works are treated as a group: “our beloved brother Paul wrote to you according to 
the wisdom given him, 16 speaking of this as he does in all his letters” (2 Peter 3:15). 

2. Seemingly, the first to coalesce as a group were Paul's Letters. The letters of Paul had been 
widely circulated and were accepted as authoritative by early Christians. These letters were 
written to various churches and individuals and dealt with a range of theological and ethical 
issues. Paul's letters were seen as providing guidance and instruction to the early Christian 
communities and were therefore highly valued. By the early part of the 2nd century, Paul letters 
were known as a group and quoted as such by Ignatius and Polycarp. However, when Gnostic 
writers embraced Paul as the only pure apostle, Paul’s works fell out of favor among orthodox 
believers and were rarely quoted in the middle of the second century. Tertullian, in his writing 
against the Gnostics, rehabilitated Paul.82 Subsequently, a thirteen-book collection of Paul’s 
works circulated, including Hebrews which was incorrectly attributed to Paul by such writers as 
Clement of Alexandria.83 

3. Next to emerge were the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John). Initially, these works 
were regionally affiliated. Matthew was first quoted by Ignatius of Antioch.84 John was 
associated with Ephesus. Mark, although written in Rome, came to be identified with Alexandria 
in Egypt.  Luke may have been affiliated with Rome. These Gospels were widely recognized as 
authoritative and were used for teaching, worship, and evangelism. In the second century, their 
usage became nearly universal. Tatian, a Syrian apologist and ascetic, tried to combine the textual 
material of the four gospels into a single coherent work call the Diatessaron. The Diatessaron 

 
81 Sasse, 20–21. 
82 Tertullian, Five Books against Marcion, 5.1. 
83 Ecclesiastical History, 6.14.2. 
84 Epistle to the Ephesians, 19:2-3; Epistle to the Smyrnaeans, 1:1. 



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was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of at least some sections of the Syrian Church 
for possibly up to two centuries, but no other traditions adopted it. Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus 
on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423 CE, suspecting Tatian of having been a heretic, sought out 
and found more than two hundred copies of the Diatessaron, which he "collected and put away, 
and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists."85 In the second and third 
centuries, other gospels appeared, such as Gospel of Marcion, Gospel of Mani, Gospel of Apelles, 
Gospel of Bardesanes, Gospel of Basilides, Gospel of Thomas, and many others. Most were 
associated with Gnosticism. 

4. In addition to the Gospels and Paul's letters, other writings began to circulate among early 
Christians, including Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, Revelation, the Didache, the Shepherd of Hermas, and 
the Epistle of Barnabas. These books were initially accepted by some Christian communities but 
not by others, and there was a great deal of debate and disagreement about which books should be 
included in the canon. 

5. There were no formally adopted criteria for determining which books should be included in the 
canon. Nor, as appears sometimes in the popular realm, there was no one meeting at which a 
formal decision was made about New Testament texts done so in part to suppress womanist 
perspectives. But some principles seem to emerge in the process. The most important criterion 
was apostolicity, which meant that a book had to be written by an apostle or someone closely 
associated with an apostle. Other criteria included orthodoxy (whether a book was consistent with 
accepted Christian teaching) and catholicity (whether a book was accepted by the broader 
Christian community). 

6. By the second century, various Christian leaders had compiled lists of books that they believed 
should be included in the canon. These lists varied in their contents, but they generally included 
the four Gospels and many of Paul's letters. Notable lists include the Muratorian Canon (c. 170 
CE) and the list published by Eusebius (c. 324 CE).86  But the Codex Sinaiticus from the 4th 
century included also the Epistle of Barnabas and part of the Shepherd of Hermas. The first to 
publish the list of twenty-seven books as we know it was Athanasius of Alexandria (367 CE).87 

7. In the fourth century, various councils and synods included in their decisions a list of books 
which were in the canon. These regional councils were not convened solely or primarily to 
address the content of the canon. Rather they affirmed for their jurisdictions the list of twenty-
seven books that make up the New Testament canon today.  These include the Council of Hippo 
(393 CE) and the Council of Carthage in 419 CE. 

8. Augustine (427 CE) supported this canonical list88 and Jerome’s translation of the Vulgate (383-
404 CE) would finalize the process. 
Ultimately, the canon was formed through a combination of factors, including catholicity, 

namely, the recognition and use of certain books by early Christian communities, apostolicity, and 
orthodoxy. This process was affirmed by the decisions of councils and synods. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
In the post-apostolic period, a synthesis emerged so that ἀπόστολος from that point on referred to the 
Twelve and Paul. No other person carried that designation. The authority exercised by the apostles was 
transferred to the bishops through a process of succession that developed in response to false teaching and 
disunity in the church. This apostolic succession protected the teaching of the church and clarified 
authority within the church. Simultaneously but more gradually, the canonization of the New Testament 
came to preserve the content of apostolic witness and teaching about Jesus, his death and resurrection, and 

 
85 F.L. Cross, ed., “Tatian,” in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 

2005). 
86 Ecclesiastical History, 3.25.1-7. 
87 Athanasius of Alexandria, Epistula Festalis Xxxix, n.d. 
88 Augustine of Hippo, On Christian Doctrine, 2.8. 



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the theological implications of his person and work for the church. Forged by Trinitarian and 
Christological controversies, the church catholic emerged with a bi-polar structure that vested authority in 
a monarchical bishopric succeeding the apostolate and a canonical text preserving the teaching of the 
apostles. 

Over the centuries the church would grow and spread and struggle about matters of apostolic 
authority and teaching and over the use of the term “apostle,” factors which continue to impact the church 
today. But that is the topic for tomorrow. 

 
SOURCES CITED 

 
Alexandrinus, Didymus. De Trinitate. 
Apostolic Constitutions. 
Athanasius. Three Orations against Arius. 
Athanasius of Alexandria. Epistula Festalis Xxxix. 
Augustine of Hippo. On Christian Doctrine. 
Chrysostom, John. Homilies on First Corinthians. 
Clement of Alexandria. Excerpta Ex Theodoto. 
———. Stromata. 
Clement of Rome. 1 Clement. 
Cross, F.L., ed. “Tatian.” In The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: Oxford University 

Press, 2005. 
Cyril of Alexandria. Glaphyra on the Pentateuch. 
Cyril of Jerusalem. Catechetical Lectures. 
Cyris of Alexandria. Letters. 
Epistle of Barnabas. 
Eurell, John-Christian. “The Hypomnemata of Hegesippus.” Scottish Journal of Theology 75, no. 2 (May 

2022): 148–57. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003693062200028x. 
Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History. 
Gregory of Nazianzus. Orations. 
Hermas. The Shepherd. 
Ignatius of Antioch. Epistle to the Ephesians. 
———. Epistle to the Magnesians. 
———. Epistle to the Philadelphians. 
———. Epistle to the Romans. 
———. Epistle to the Smyrnaeans. 
———. Epistle to the Trallians. 
Irenaeus of Lyon. Against Heresies. 
Justin Martyr. Dailogue with Trypho. 
———. First Apology. 
Lampe, G. W. H., and Henry George Liddell, eds. “Ἀπόστολος.” In A Patristic Greek Lexicon. Oxford: 

Clarendon, 1978. 
Leonard, George. “The Origins of the Threefold Christian Ministry.” Churchman 96, no. 1 (1982): 36–43. 
Malalas, Johannes. Chronographia. 
Marcellus of Ancyra. Fragmenta. 
Meyer, Harding. “Apostolic Continuity, Ministry and Apostolic Succession from a Reformation 

Perspective.” Louvain Studies 21, no. 2 (1996): 169–82. 
Origen. Contra Celsum. 
Philostorgius. Historica Ecclesiastica. 
Polycarp of Smyrna. Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians. 
Sasse, Hermann. “Apostles, Prophets, Teachers: Some Thoughts of the Origin of the Ministry of the 

Church.” The Reformed Theological Review 27, no. 1 (January 1968): 11–21. 



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Schmithals, Walter. The Office of Apostle in the Early Church. Edited by John E. Steely. Nashville: 
Abingdon Press, 1969. 

Tertullian. Five Books against Marcion. 
Theodoret of Cyrus. Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah. 
 


	Introduction
	ΑπΟστολος in Post-apostolic Writers0F
	Apostolic succession
	Canonization of the New Testament
	Conclusion
	Sources Cited

