







































Global Sustainability Research                ISSN: 2833-986X   
https://doi.org/10.56556/gssr.v1i1.310 

                                                                  

 

www.jescae.com   41 
 

Slum Prevalence and Crime incidence in Calabar, Nigeria  

Simon K. Ajom1, Ndifreke M. Etim2, Salvation U. Eteng2 

 
1Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria 
2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria 
 
Corresponding author: Salvation U. Eteng, salvationeteng@gmail.com 
Received: 15 August, 2022, Accepted: 27 September, 2022, Published: 30 September, 2022 

 
Abstract 

The problems faced in slums go beyond defacing the city’s aesthetic quality and poor housing supply but extend to crime 

increase. In Calabar, the weaknesses of the government/development partners towards preparing and implementing urban 

renewal programmes/projects has resulted in sporadic increase in the prevalence of slums. Obviously, places of functional 

obsolescence with derelict features create breeding ground for crime to thrive. In Calabar, areas mainly in the city core are 

characterized with moribund environments, deteriorating/deteriorated housing units and poor sanitation systems all of which 

points to slum development. Crime is prevalent in such areas hence the need to carry out this study. The study focused on 

ascertaining slum prevalence and crime incidence. A sample of 400 respondents was taken using Taro Yamene formular. 

Data were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. Questionnaire and housing/environmental quality checklists 

were the major instrument for data collection. Data were analysed using relative index, frequencies and percentages. It was 

noted in the study that slums are prevalent in the study area and it prevalence contribute to increasing crime levels. This is 

because the absence of certain facilities constrain security operation in the slum prevalent area. The study recommended 

that there should be urgent urban renewal in the study area. Facilities and infrastructure that will increase security level 

should also be provided 

Keywords: Slum; crime; housing/environmental quality; urban renewal; sustainability  

 

Introduction 

On a general basis, slums are developments that show 

attributes/characteristics of overcrowding, dilapidation, 

deterioration and poor environmental conditions. 

Infrastructure, facilities and amenities are usually 

inadequate within such areas. In simple terms, slums are 

areas of severe deterioration and obsolescence. Instances 

of infrastructure and facilities that are usually lacking in 

such areas include potable water, electricity, good roads, 

recreational ground, schools, clinics and communication 

facilities. However, the absence of adequate infrastructure 

and facilities endanger the health, safety and general 

wellbeing of residents within such deteriorating 

neighbourhoods. In other words, slums are areas of serious 

environmental degradation that are characterized by 

absence of facilities and services that are required to make 

urban living meaningful (Ekundayo, Faringoro and Job, 

2019). Residents within slum areas are therefore subjected 

to inaccessibility to basic amenities and left to dwell in 

derelict and areas of functional obsolescence.  

Slums are caused by several factors. For instance, 

urbanization and population growth has been recognized as 

the leading cause of slums (Okafor and Onuoha, 2016; 

Yaode, 2019). The fact that urbanization and population 

growth contribute to slum prevalence suggest that slums 

can be described as areas that are heavily populated which 

shows attributes of substandard housing units and squalor. 

Therefore, the ever-increasing nature of human population 

has made it difficult to combat with the corresponding 

development of slums in our urban environment especially 

in developing countries of the world. Earlier, Roy, Lees, 

Palavalli, Pfeffer, and Sloot, (2014) established that over 

half of the population of the world are living in urban areas. 

They predicted that by 2050, at least 7 out of every 10 

human beings will be living in urban areas. While there are 

serious indications that urban population will increase 

sporadically, there appear to be no corresponding measures 

to provide housing units to accommodate the teeming and 

existing population. At present, most urban residents turn 

to informal housing and squatters for shelter due to issues 

relating to housing inaccessibility, increased house rent, 

acute contention for land/building use. Due to the 

foregoing reasons, the urban poor have limited chances in 

accessing housing units with necessary facilities and 

amenities. Specifically, the inability of the urban poor to 

comfortably afford housing with necessary facilities and in 

required standard is not unconnected to the increasing 

https://doi.org/10.56556/gssr.v1i1.310
http://www.jescae.com/
mailto:salvationeteng@gmail.com


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   42 
 

rental values which the urban poor and even the middle 

class in some areas are usually unable to afford. Although 

there is slum prevalence in both developed and developing 

nations, the level at which slums are prevalent in 

developing countries outweigh it availability in developed 

nations.  

Yaode (2019) reported that in 2001, there were 924 million 

globally. Specifically, the figure suggest that 32 percent of 

the world’s total urban population are residing in slum. 

This figure therefore attest to the prevalence of slums in 

town and cities. Equally in 2001, about 43 per cent of the 

combined urban populations of all developing regions and 

78.2 people of those in least developed countries were slum 

dwellers. The situation is not different in Nigeria. Although 

statistics are inexact, current realities suggest that over 45 

percent of urban residents in Nigeria are slum dwellers. 

The figure is likely to increase especially due to inadequate 

attention which the housing sector is receiving coupled 

with the increasing poverty level in Nigeria. Clearly, 

urbanization and slum prevalence in our towns and cities 

have serious implications on city sustainability through 

creating diverse problems. For instance, urbanization 

promote alienation, traffic congestion, pollution, 

vulnerability, criminality and slum growth/prevalence.  

Earlier studies (Agbola and Agunbiade, 2007; Ola-Adisa, 

Enwerekowe and Ella, 2015; Yaode, 2019) have shown 

that there is serious criminality in slum prevalent areas. The 

increased level of crime is not unconnected to the fact that 

the residents of slum areas are economically disadvantaged 

and socially relegated. Equally, slums are characterized 

with poor inhabitants that are delinquent in nature, hence 

crime is relatively on the increase in slums. Most 

importantly, residents within slum areas are disadvantaged 

in terms of security. For instance, they are deprived of 

street lights while police protection is very minimal. All of 

these give a thriving ground for criminality at various 

levels. 

In Calabar, evidences of slums abound in the city core. For 

instance, surveys within the study area has shown that 

residential districts such as Akim Neighbourhood, Ikot 

Ansa, Ikot Eneobong, Mbukpa, Henshaw Town, Cobham 

Town, Duke town and several other residential 

neighbourhoods are habouring slums. Further observations 

during pilot surveys in the study area explained that 

residents within this slum prevalent areas are exposed to 

serious crime levels. Therefore, criminal activities such as 

rape, robbery and stealing are increasingly high in the 

districts that have slums. From all indication, it is not out 

of place to recall that districts of poor housing 

environments are characterized with inadequate police 

protection, absence of street lights and other security 

gadgets which the residents of the slum prevalent areas are 

suffering tremendously from. From the foregoing, it is 

clear that slum prevalence has implications on crime 

incidences in Calabar, Nigeria. In spite of the fact that 

observations has made it clear that crime incidences 

abound in the study area specifically in slum prevalent 

areas, available studies have not been able to discuss the 

level of crime in slum areas, the specific causes and the 

effects that it has on residents of the area. Furthermore, an 

understanding of the level in which slum prevalence and 

crime incidences inter-relate will be useful in guiding 

policies that will be useful in guaranteeing urban 

sustainability. Although the term sustainability is highly 

contentious in it basic tenets, in this study, the term is used 

in understudying the level to which the environment can 

operate in such a way that slum prevalence will be 

minimized in spite of growing urbanization in the study 

area. most importantly, the study will contribute to existing 

knowledge as well as make policies that will stem the tide 

of slum prevalence and crime incidence in the Calabar, 

Nigeria. 

 

Conceptual Framework and Literature Review 

Concept of Sustainable Development 

Holistically, the concept of sustainable development of 

sustainability is very vital to the present study. The concept 

is underpinned in the use of available resources in such a 

way that the future would not be compromised. Therefore, 

the basic tenets of sustainable development is the use of the 

resources and environment in such a way that the gains of 

future generations or the possibilities of future generations 

to make use of the environment will not be traded off. This 

suffice that the environment has to be used in such a way 

that the needs of the present generations will be achieved 

and future aspirations of generations will not be 

compromised. Therefore, Nkwocha (2014) suggested that 

sustainable development is a process of change in which 

the exploitation of resources, the direction of investment, 

the orientation of technological development, and 

institutional changes are all in harmony and enhance both 

current and future potentials to meet human needs and 

aspiration. Sustainable development thus emphasis the 

activities channeled towards preserving the remaining 

resources and rehabilitating resources that have been 

treated carelessly in the past. 

In a broad sense, sustainable development emphasizes the 

provision of adequate and affordable basic needs of life 

such as water, forest and land for the present generation 

without jeopardizing the prospects of subsequent 

generations as well as the wise use of the environment to 

avoid deterioration. Sustainable development planning 

sense is approached as the development of the environment 

in such a way that different land uses such as residential, 

commercial, residential and industrial would operate in 

such a way that each would not affect the prospects of the 

other. Basically, the environment as an accommodating 

base is for facilities, infrastructure/utilities and municipal 

services as well as different land uses is expected to be 

managed in such a way that orderliness would be achieved. 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   43 
 

The goal of sustainable development is to ensure that the 

needs of the future are not traded off. This supports what 

Gbadegesin and Aluko, (2011) considered sustainable 

development as a movement, a notion and an approach 

which has developed into a global wave of concern, study, 

political mobilization and organization around the issues of 

environmental protection. This is because of the 

indispensability of the concept in ensuring orderly 

environmental development and protection. 

Sustainable development also reflects the attempt to 

achieve simultaneously the goals of an improved 

environment, better economy and a more just and 

participative society, rather than trading off any one of 

these against the others (Ilesanmi, 2010). In addition, 

sustainability issues are considered to ensure that the 

potential negative significant impacts of development are 

not allowed to dispute the existence of others having in 

mind that the environment as an accommodating base is 

designed to harbour different kinds of activities, 

infrastructures and so on which should all co – exist in 

harmony (Ogbazi, 2002; George, 2006).  

In his study, Bamidele, Bamidele and Obaseki (2016) sees 

sustainable development as a socio - ecological process 

characterized by the fulfillment of human needs while 

maintaining the quality of the natural environment 

indefinitely. He adds that if sustainable measures are not 

established, the environment would face drastic 

deterioration which would have several negative impacts 

on man’s health and well being.  The concept of sustainable 

development is aimed at preventing resource waste through 

conservation, maximization of product utility and 

availability, minimization of environmental degradation 

and deliberately steering and directing actions and attitudes 

of resource producers and users towards the maintenance 

of safe, resilient, clean and healthy environment. Nkwocha, 

(2014) further asserts that the achievement of the above 

and more sustainable strategies in the human landscape is 

‘sine qua non’ for the realization of development. In Town 

Planning, sustainable development is used to bring lasting 

improvements in the economic, physical, social and 

environmental conditions of an area. This corroborates the 

submission by Mbaiwa (2003) that economic viability, 

social acceptability, technical visibility and environmental 

compatibility are the key features of sustainable initiatives. 

In the light of the above, Ibem, Uwakonye and Aduwo 

(2013) concluded that the adoption of the concept of 

sustainability of programmes is to ensure that specific 

social, economic and environmental needs of the present 

generation are met without compromising the potential of 

the posterity to meet their needs. 

With sustainability as a concept, it is evidently easy to 

ensure the orderly organization and development of our 

cities and towns without necessarily causing harm. The 

reasoning in sustainable development is to ensure that our 

environment is safe for human habitation and to check the 

adverse effects of emerging environmental problems which 

may be caused by parasitic, uncomplimentary and 

incompatible activities.  

From all indication, urbanization and population growth 

cannot be completely discouraged hence, slum prevalence 

and criminality is always at the verge of occurrence unless 

sustainable approaches are adopted in the management of 

our cities and towns. This imply that adoption of 

sustainable development as a concept in managing slum 

prevalent areas will seek for ideas to build channels of 

crime incidence prevention/protection without necessarily 

discouraging population explosion in urban areas. This can 

be done through encouraging economic diversity such that 

job opportunities will be maximized in urban areas. As 

expected, one of the leading causes of crime incidence and 

habitation in slums remain urban poverty hence, giving the 

economic standard of living adequate attention and 

expanding sources of earning livelihoods can create a 

balance between crime, slum prevalence and population 

growth.  

 

Literature Review 

Slum development has become inevitable in urban areas 

due to the ever increasing number of persons that reside in 

cities together with the increasing demand for housing 

development and urban infrastructure/facilities. 

Holistically, humans have attendant needs for housing 

since it is a major need of man (Eteng, Mfon and Okoi, 

2022). Specifically, housing is ranked second only to 

housing in the daily needs of man sufficing that it is only 

food that tops in the chart of human needs (Eteng et al., 

2022). Against this backdrop, the increasing number of 

people suggest a corresponding housing demand. More so, 

population increases more in the urban areas when 

compared to rural areas thus, slum development remains 

inevitable in urban areas due to the foregoing. Although 

there exist several definitions of slums, salient features for 

defining slums include inadequate shelter, poor access to 

basic services, facilities and amenities and low quality of 

life (Eni and Abua, 2014). Yaode (2019) regard slums as 

byproduct of the social and economic impacts of rapid 

urbanization. What constitute slums, it effects and 

characteristics differ according to scholars.  For instance, 

Yaode (2019) noted that slums are aftermath of migration 

which is inhabited by the urban poor. He explained that 

occupants in slums are usually constrained to choose such 

housing facilities due to poverty, inaccessibility to good 

housing facilities among other reasons. In his study on the 

analysis of slums in Ilesa, Yaode obtained data using 

questionnaire. His respondents were basically slum 

occupants which he systematically selected. His study 

revealed that slums in the core area are the product of 

inadequate housing, lack of timely maintenance of 

infrastructure and structures, poor environmental quality, 

environmental degradation, insecurity, disappointment 

with the unmet need for housing and social amenities. He 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   44 
 

further showed that slums have negative implications on 

human health and comfort. With the observation that 

residents of the study area are faced with such menace, he 

suggested for urgent urban renewal in Ilesa. He equally 

recommended the adoption of an integrated planning 

approach that can reduce rural poverty and improve urban 

livelihoods since these appear to be the main causes of 

slum growth in developing nations. 

In Akure, Omole and Owoeye (2011) assessed slum 

characteristics of a deplorable residential district in Akure, 

Nigeria. Their study adopted the tenets Burgess’s planning 

model to describe the spatial distribution of land-use in 

Akure with reference to investigating the factors that are 

responsible for slum formation and city degradation. They 

further examined the existing environmental situation in 

Akure with reference to the housing system and the 

condition of infrastructure facilities. They further assessed 

the socioeconomic status residents of Akure, their 

perception of the living environments and problems 

experienced using questionnaires observation, housing 

demographic and facility survey as instruments for data 

collection. Their study showed a high degree of deplorable 

condition of living environments and the inadequacy of 

essential facilities for comfortable living. They also noted 

that the area was overcrowded with derelict buildings that 

lack basic household services. Due to this, residents lack 

access to certain facilities and services. They therefore 

recommended the upgrade of the residential area. 

Okafor and Onouha (2016) in Asaba, Delta State observed 

that urban degradation is caused principally by 

urbanization process. They claimed that most of the 

environmental problems in Asaba metropolis suburbs were 

due to unplanned land uses, swampy nature of built areas 

and weak development control.  Ekudayo et al., (2019) 

conceived that slums are heavily populated urban informal 

settlement characterised by substandard housing and 

squalor.  They noted that slums are unavoidable in districts 

that are thickly populated without corresponding supply of 

housing units. They showed that slums are characterized by 

absence of good drainage system, sanitary system, refuse 

disposal and waste management, sources of water, standard 

buildings which make living very difficult for the people 

and also have negative effects on the housing quality of the 

dwellers within the area. They revealed that slums dwellers 

are exposed to unhealthy and unsafe environments.  

Arimah (nd) opined that the proliferation of slums and 

informal settlements contribute to the enduring physical 

manifestations of social exclusion in African cities. Arimah 

observed that slum dwellers are experiencing deplorable 

living and poor environmental conditions. Due to the 

characteristic nature of slums, residents within such areas 

are excluded from participating in the economic social, 

political and cultural spheres of the city. This is due to the 

fact that basic facilities, services and amenities are lacking 

in such environs. Arimah also observed that slums in 

Africa are derived from low income level, no financial 

stability and absence of investment in infrastructure. 

However, he pointed out that the external debt burden of 

African countries, high levels of inequality, unplanned and 

unmanaged urban growth, and the exclusionary nature of 

the regulatory framework governing the provision of 

planned residential land are the indicators to slums and 

squatter settlements in Africa.  

From the literature, it is obvious that slums abound in major 

cities and towns of the world. The causes and effects of 

slums are multifaceted. However, literature agree to the 

fact that slums derive largely from urbanization and 

increasing population. Specifically, while people migrate, 

they do not move with houses implying that they demand 

housing units in their new areas of residence. Inadequacies 

in housing supply which is occasioned by increasing 

housing demand without corresponding supply therefore 

make the situation grave. The situation is not different in 

the study area as increase in housing demand without 

corresponding supply brings about congestion in existing 

housing properties and facilities further resulting in 

deterioration and dilapidation of facilities implying that 

slum development becomes inevitable. This study 

therefore seek to address the issue. 

Materials and Methods 

Study Area 

Calabar is the capital city of Cross River State in Nigeria. 

Calabar is located between latitude 4⁰50’ North and 5⁰67’ 

North of the Equator and at longitude  8 ⁰18` East and 8⁰26` 

East of the Greenwich Meridian. Between 1882 and 1906, 

Calabar served as the first administrative capital of Nigeria. 

The city has been growing astronomically over the years. 

Going by the population trend, the city had a total of 82,100 

in 1975 while in 1978, the population had increased to 

159,599. The total number of persons increase to 140,200 

in 1985 and by 1991, the population was 217,800 320,862. 

The 2006 population census results put the total number of 

humans at 375,196 (Agbor et al., 2022). The bulk of the 

population is made up of migrants from rural areas. 

Migration into the city has become inevitable due to 

disparity in the provision of facilities and services of the 

area when compared to the adjoining rural areas. The 

people are largely engaged in commercial, industrial, 

educational and small scale farming activities. Although 

urbanization is the main factor that trigger population 

growth in the study area, natural increase through birth rate 

also account for population growth. The increase in human 

population without corresponding provision of housing, 

infrastructure and facilities fast track the level of slum 

development in the study area.  

Methods 

In order to obtain data for the study, 20 residential 

neighbourhoods in the study area that require renewal due 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   45 
 

to slum prevalence were identified through reconnaissance 

surveys. From the 20 neighbourhoods, 10 residential 

neighbourhoods were randomly sampled out. The selection 

of 10 neighbourhoods represent 50 percent of the districts 

of serious slum prevalence in the city. In order to obtain 

relevant data from respondents. The population of the 

sampled 10 districts was obtained with reference to the 

1991 population census results of the study area. 

According to the 1991 population census results, the 

sample areas had a population of 85,715. Although the 

2006 population census tend to be more recent, the 1991 

population results were preferred. This is because in 1991, 

the population census was reported on the basis on 

neighbourhoods while the 2006 results were reported on 

the basis of Local Government Areas. Furthermore, the 

1991 population census of the 10 samples areas was 

projected to 2021 using a growth rate of 3 percent which is 

the acceptable growth rate for projections in urban areas in 

Cross River State (Bassey, Amba and Eteng, 2021). The 

formular is given as follows; 

Pn = po (1 + r
100⁄ )n

    

   Equation 1 

Where; pn = projected population, Po = existing 

population, 1 = constant, r = rate of growth (3%),  n = 

number of years projected (30). 

The results of the projection showed that a total of 208,288 

persons were residing in the study area by 2021. 

Specifically, data were collected at the household level 

hence, to have a knowledge of the total number of 

households in the study area, the average household size of 

6 persons was maintained which is the average household 

size in Calabar (Eteng and Ajom, 2021). The exercise 

showed that the area comprised of a total of 34,715 

households. Therefore, there population of the study 

comprised of the total household size in the study area. 

Obviously, the said population is too large and obtaining 

data from such a large population is unrealizable. 

Therefore, a minimum sample was drawn from the entire 

population. To draw an appropriate sample, the Taro 

Yamene formular was used. The formular for the 

calculation is as follows; 

 n =       N       

        1+N(e)²    

   Equation 2 

Where; n = Sample Size, N = Finite Population e = Level 

of Significance (Limit of tolerable error =0.05) 

Therefore,  n =                34,715         

   1+34,715 (0.05)² 

 n =          34,715     

  1 +34,715  X 0.0025 

 n =        34,715    

  86.79 

 n =400 

Therefore the sample size for the study was 400. 

 From the above calculations, 400 copies of questionnaire 

were administered to households in the study area. In order 

to deduce the sample from each neighboourhood that is, the 

number of questionnaire that were distributed in each 

neighbourhood, the number of households in each 

neighbourhood were divided by the total households and 

then, multiplied by the sampled household. Table 1 consist 

of the population and sample households/number of 

questionnaire that were distributed in the study area. 

Table 1: Population and Sample Size 

S/N Neighbourhood Population by 1991 Projected Population 

(2021) 

Households Sample size 

1 Ikot Ishie 5825 14,155 2,359 27 

2 Ikot Effanga 2747 6,675 1,113 13 

3 Ikot Ansa 12057 29,299 4,883 56 

4  Ikot Eneobong 1717 4,172 695 8 

5 Ikot Omin 7872 19,129 3,188 37 

6 Efut Uwanse 21090 51,249 8,542 98 

7 Duke Town 2972 7,222 1,204 14 

8 Mbukpa 15197 36,928 6,155 71 

9 Anantigha 12655 30,752 5,125 59 

10 Henshaw Town 3583 8,707 1,451 17 

 Total  82742 208,288 34,715 400 

Source: National Population Commission, 1991 and Feld Survey, 2022 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   46 
 

From Table 1, it is obvious that 400 copies of questionnaire 

were distributed at the household level in slum prevalent 

zones of the study area. Specifically, the copies of 

questionnaire were systematically distributed using 

appropriate skipping range.  Various statistical approaches 

were used in carrying out analysis. Specifically descriptive 

statistics such as frequencies and simple percentages. In 

order to establish the difference in the causes of slum 

development and it effect, the relative index (RI) was 

adopted. RI is mathematically represented as follows: RI = 

(5n5+4n4+3n3+2n2+1n1) /5N. The study adopted a five-

point likert scale. The grading of the likert scale is as 

follow; 5 = Very high, 4 = high, 3 = medium, 2 = low and 

1 = very low.  

Finally, slum prevalence was judged using certain criteria 

(variables) for housing quality. To this end, housing 

condition survey checklist was designed in order to 

understand the quality of the house and draw inferences on 

the level it is in the slum classification which was adopted 

in the study. A guide for scoring in order to determine slum 

prevalence in housing units was designed.  As shown in the 

scoring guide, values were assigned to each option 

depending on the state of the houses/environment. The 

highest number in each of the options shown in the scoring 

guide was used in capturing data for the most suitable 

element under investigation.  For instance, in appraising a 

house whose walls were intact/sound, 7 was recorded while 

a cracking wall had 2 and a dilapidating wall was given 1. 

This was replicated among all the options in the checklist. 

After each house survey, the outcomes averages were 

taken. Any house/environment that scored from 50 and 

above was considered sound, those houses/environment 

that scored between 40 and 49 were graded as dilapidating 

house/environments while those that had below 40 were 

accepted as dilapidated houses/environments.  The 

adoption of the scoring guide help a lot in deducing the 

prevalence of slums in the study area. The scoring guide is 

shown below; 

 

Scoring Guide 

(a) Condition of Wall 

(i) Sound/intact  = 7 

(ii) Cracking        = 2 

(iii) Dilapidating    = 1 

Total       =   10 

(b) Condition of Roof 

(i) Sound/intact     = 5 

(ii) Leaking  = 3 

(iii) Sagging  = 1 

(iv) Part missing  = 1 

                      Total    =   10 

(c) Toilet Facilities 

(i) Water closet = 6 

(ii) Pit latrine         = 3 

(iii) Nearby bush  = 1 

      Total = 10 

(d) Ventilation  

(i) Well ventilated  = 7 

(ii) Poorly ventilated = 3 

                             Total = 10 

 

(e) Environmental conditions 

(1) Drainage  

(i) Free       = 2 

(ii) Blocked    = 1 

(2) Erosion  

(i) Sheet     = 2 

(ii) Gully     = 1 

(3) Flood  

(i) Not flooded = 2 

(ii) Liable         = 1 

(iii) Flooded       = 1 

                 Total = 10 

The outcomes were summed to determine 

housing quality for instance, 7+5+6+7+6  

   =  
31

50
 = 62 

The qualities of the houses were determined as 

follows; 

Sound = 50 percent and above 

Dilapidating = 40 to 49 percent 

Dilapidated = 39 percent and below 

Results and Discussions 

 

Table 1 shows the prevalence of slums in the study area 

based on certain criteria. As discussed in the methodology, 

the approaches for deducing the prevalence of slums was 

the use of housing/environmental condition survey. 

Housing/environment that depicted dilapidating and 

dilapidation based on the scoring guide that was adopted 

were classed as slums. From the information as contained 

in Table 1, slum prevalence in the study area is high. The 

prevalence of slums based on spatial locations explained 

that Henshaw Town with 82 percent drawn from the 

sample consisted of the largest number of slums in the 

study area. This is due to the fact that the area is in the city 

core and most of the landlords that own properties do not 

pay interest to upgrading/improving the structure. Most of 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   47 
 

the roles in the area are inaccessible while there is serious 

absence of infrastructure/facilities which are expected to 

contribute meaningfully to urban living. Equally, the table 

showed that the prevalence of slums in Efut Uwanse and 

Duke Town is very high. The increasing slum prevalence 

in the area is not unconnected to poor city planning, 

absence of facilities to carter for the populace and 

associated issues. 

 The table further explained that Mbukpa and Ikot Ansa 

neighbourhoods constitute the least percentage of slums 

while slums are found at high levels in Ikot Ishie, Ikot 

Effanga, Ikot Eneobong, Ikot Omin and Anantigha. In all, 

the observations in the table suggest that slums are 

prevalent in the study area based on different levels. The 

prevalence of slums basically constitute serious threat to 

safety, health and convenience of the residents of the area 

and even adjoining neighbourhoods. For instance, most 

residents within the area are deprived of potable water, 

waste management services while housing units that they 

are occupying are fast depreciating and deteriorating.  

 

 

 

4.1 Level of Slum Prevalence/Housing Quality 

S/N Neighbourhood Sample  Level of Slum Prevalence Slum Prevalence Remark 

Sound Dilapidating Dilapidated Number Percent 

1 Ikot Ishie 27 9 8 10 18 66.7 High 

2 Ikot Effanga 13 5 5 3 8 61.5 High 

3 Ikot Ansa 56 26 13 17 30 53.6 Medium 

4  Ikot Eneobong 8 3 2 3 5 62.5 High 

5 Ikot Omin 37 14 19 4 23 62.1 High 

6 Efut Uwanse 98 27 46 25 71 72.4 Very High 

7 Duke Town 14 3 6 5 11 78.6 Very High 

8 Mbukpa 71 32 18 21 39 54.9 Medium 

9 Anantigha 59 23 17 19 36 61 High 

10 Henshaw Town 17 3 6 8 14 82 Very High 

 Total  400 144 140 115 255 100 400 

Source: Field Survey, 2022 

 

Level of Crime Incidence 

 

Level of crime in the study area was shown in Table 2. The 

table explained that crime incidences are occurring at 

various levels. Specifically, respondents revealed that only 

14 percent are not experiencing criminal activities.  

In most locations specifically in Duke Town, Henshaw 

Town and Efut Uwanse neighbourhoods, crime levels are 

increasingly very high. This is in line with the level of 

prevalence of slums in the area which is equally high. 

Increasing crime level is also associated with poor security 

architecture and lack of technologies for mapping out 

crime and managing criminal activities in the study area. In 

most locations within slum prevalent areas, the roads 

leading to residences are less accessible and as such, it is 

difficult for police and other security operatives to embark 

on patrol. Even more, streetlights in the metropolis are not 

functioning and there are no attempts by the government 

and it agencies to ensure repairs and maintenance of the 

streetlights.  

All these give rise to unwholesome incidences of criminal 

activities in derelict areas of functional obsolescence in the 

study area. It should be noted that one critical feature for 

defining slum is it lack of necessary facilities/amenities 

hence, criminal activities are likely to abound where the 

above and more facilities are lacking. 

 

Table 2: Level of Crime Incidence 

Crime Rate Frequency Percentage 

Very High 92 23 

High 57 14.3 

Medium 121 30.2 

Low 74 18.5 

No crime 56 14 

Total 400 100 

Source: Field Survey, 2022 

  

Slum Prevalence: It Causes 

 

Slums are prevalent in the study area due to certain factors. 

Table 3 provide detailed summary of causatives of slums 

in the study area based on ranks/levels. In order to 

understand vividly the variations in the levels/rank in terms 

of contribution to slum prevalence in the study area, the 

Relative Index (RI) was investigated using a 5-point likert 

scale indicating the levels. In all, it was observed that the 

major factor that promote slum development in the area 

was urbanization. Through the process of urbanization, 

people leave their original places of abode and relocate for 

reasons such as availability of opportunities, facilities and 

amenities. In this case, residents in adjoining rural areas 

migrate to Calabar. Among the indicators to urbanization 

include the presence of the University of Calabar, the Cross 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   48 
 

River University of Technology, Calabar, the School of 

Nursing, College of Technology and several government 

ministries and agencies all of which exert pull factors on 

rural residents. Equally, Calabar play host to the two 

largest markets (Marian and Watt markets) in Cross River 

State which attract people for commercial activities.  

The negligence of government towards development 

equally pose challenges and promote slum prevalence for 

instance, the government are largely unwilling to provide 

community development facilities/infrastructure which has 

adverse negative effects on survivability and general 

environmental conditions of certain districts fast-tracking 

slum development. Furthermore, poor funding for 

development of infrastructure, lack of partnerships and 

weak implementation of plans which all fall within the 

purview of poor funding contribute and stands as the 3rd 

causative factor for slums in Calabar. The public which are 

the project beneficiaries in most cases do not maintain the 

few available facilities. Sustainable approaches are not also 

adopted in tapping and harnessing resources which 

translate to unwise use of facilities that are made available 

for development in the study area. For instance, electricity 

supply materials such as cables and transformers 

experience loads that are above it carrying capacities based 

on the fact that the public continually mount pressure 

through extending the direction of electricity supply from 

such materials. The public do not also appear to be 

involved in adopting sustainable approaches to water 

supply systems, waste management systems, electricity 

supply systems and communication systems. Even in 

houses of abode, some tenants are not interested in 

maintaining the housing units that they are inhibiting being 

that they are not the real owners of the properties. The 

above instances were noted to be the major causes of slums 

in the study area. 

 

 

Table 3: Causes of Slums 

Variables Very High High Medium Low Very low RI Rank 

Urbanization 124 96 83 56 41 3.5 1st 

Government neglect 

Poor funding 

99 

111 

79 

62 

132 

71 

34 

99 

56 

57 

3.3 

3.2 

2nd 

3rd 

Public attitude 65 71 65 97 102 2.8 4th 

Poor planning 43 88 54 31 184 2.4 5th 

Source: Field Survey, 2022 

Effects of Slums on the Environment 

The effects of slums on the human environment are 

basically negative. For instance, Table 4 noted that the 

major effect of slum prevalence in the study area was that 

slums provide hideout and habitation to criminals and 

thieves. As expected, house rent in slum environments tend 

to be affordable due to the fact that necessary facilities are 

lacking while the near absence of security operatives only 

aggravate the issues pointing towards providing hideout to 

criminals to promote and heighten incidences of crime 

within the study area. In the order of ranking, the foregoing 

tend to be the first in the effects of slum while general 

insecurity and urban/environmental decay tend to rank 

second and third respectively. The fact that environmental 

decay is an implication that is caused by the prevalence of 

slum suffice that there is need to ensure that the tide in 

which slums are evolving in out towns and cities need to 

be stemmed to the lowest. Environmental/urban decay has 

serious implications on the general livability of residents 

within the area.  Housing shourtage which ranks fifth is 

also affected by the availability of slums and it prevalence 

within Calabar metropolis. 

 

Table 4: Effects of Slum on the Environment 

Variables Very High High Medium Low Very low RI Rank 

Hideout for criminals 201 98 51 21 29 4.1 1st 

Insecurity 151 95 91 17 46 3.7 2nd 

Environmental decay 132 87 78 91 90 3.5 3rd 

Threat to development 61 123 76 98 42 3.2 4th 

Housing shortage 89 56 87 86 82 3 5th 

Source: Field Survey, 2022 

Conclusion and Recommendations 

The study focused on analyzing slum prevalence and crime 

incidences in Calabar. It was observed that slums are 

prevalent and are found in alarming rate in the level. To 

deduce what constitute slums, both the environment and 

housing quality served as indicators. In all, it was observed 

that slums dominate in the core areas of the city due to 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   49 
 

reasons bordering around urbanization, public attitudes 

towards environmental/housing maintenance and 

government negligence on towards facilities, infrastructure 

and amenities provision account for slum prevalence. Poor 

planning and weak enforcements were also indicators to 

slum development and prevalence in the study area. 

The study further noted that due to the prevalence of slums, 

crime levels are high. In terms of spatial variations in 

crime, it was noted that slum prevalence and crime 

incidences were at par in neighbourhoods. This is due to 

the fact that when areas are deprived of certain amenities 

and infrastructure such as good roads and street lights, 

police patrol and other activities that can scare robbers 

become reduced to the minimum. Street lights which 

provide illuminations further scaring robbers and 

hoodlums are mostly absent and when found, are not 

functioning. All this culminate into alarming levels of 

crime incidences in slum prevalent areas. Based on the 

observations, urban regeneration measures were suggested. 

The best way to slow down the extent in which slums are 

evolving is the implementation of urban renewal 

programmes (Ibem et al., 2013). It is therefore inferred that 

urban renewal plans be prepared while 

facilities/infrastructure that will support urban living be 

provided. There should also be slum clearance while site 

and service schemes should be introduced. Furthermore, 

professionals should be involved in the planning, design 

and development of the area. These professionals should 

include Town Planners, Estate Valuers/Managers, 

Surveyors, Engineers and Architects. Security should also 

given priority in slum prevalent areas of the city core.  

 

References 

 

Agbola, T and Agunbiade, E. (2007). Urbanization, slum 

development and security of tenure: the challenges 

of meeting millennium development goal (MDG) 

7 in Metropolitan Lagos, Nigeria. Paper presented 

to the PRIPODE workshop on Urban Population, 

Development and Environment Dynamics in 

Developing Countries 

Agbor, E. A., Inah S. A and Eyo, E. I (2022). Comperative 

analysis of major crimes in Calabar Municipality 

and Calabar South Local Government Areas, Cross 

River State, Nigeria. International Journal of 

Innovative Research and Advanced Studies, 9(2): 

102-111 

Ajom, S. K (2011). Housing environment in Calabar South 

Local Government Area. Msc Thesis. University of 

Calabar 

Ajom, S. K., Mfon, I. E.,  Etim, M. E and Eteng, S. U. 

(2022). Residential housing satisfaction in public 

housing estates in Calabar, Cross River State, 

Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences and 

Management, 1(2): 77–84. 

Arimah, A. C (nd). Slums as expressions of social 

exclusion: explaining the prevalence of slums in 

African Countries. United Nations Human 

Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) Nairobi, 

Kenya 

Bamidele, B. B., Bamidele, O. B and Obaseki, S. J (2016). 

Assessment of the lack of sports equipment as 

constraint to the teaching and learning of physical 

Education in the Secondary Schools in Kogi state, 

Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific 

Research in Education, 9(2): 91-96. 

Bassey, S. I., Amba, N. E and Eteng, S. U (2020). 

Assessment of domestic solid waste transportation 

to approved dumpsite in Calabar, Nigeria. 

International Journal of Research and Sustainable 

Development, 7(3): 165 – 185 

Ekundayo, A., Faringoro, U. D and Job, O. D (2019). An 

evaluation of slum development and its effects on 

housing quality in Lafia Metropolis. African 

Journal of Economics and Sustainable 

Development, 2(2): 94-102 

Eni, D. D and Abua, C (2014). The impact of urban renewal 

on the quality of life (QOL) in Calabar. Research 

on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(17). 

Eteng, S. U and Simon Ajom, S. K (2021). Household 

characteristics and water consumption among 

residents of Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. 

International Journal of Scientific and 

Engineering Research, 12(3): 565 - 571 

Eteng, S. U, Mfon, I. E and Okoi, B. J (2022). Housing 

Satisfaction among students in tertiary institutions 

in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of 

Environmental Science and Economics, 1(3): 15–

22.   

Gbadegesin, J. and Aluko, B. (2011). The programme of 

urban renewal for sustainable urban development 

in Nigeria: Issues and challenges, Pakistan Journal 

of Social Sciences, 7(3): 244-253. 

George, C.K. (2006). Basic principles and methods of 

urban and regional planning, Lagos: Libro-Gem 

Books 

Ibem, E. and Azuh, D. (2011). Framework for evaluating 

the sustainability of public housing programmes in 

developing countries. Journal of Sustainable 

Development and Environmental Protection, 1(3): 

24-39. 

Ibem, E. O., Uwakonye, U and Aduwo, E. B (2013). An 

appraisal of urban renewal in Nigeria: A case study 

of the Nigerian Army Shopping Arena, Oshodi-

Lagos. Journal of Place Management and 

Development. 6(2):155-170 

Ilesanmi, A. O. (2010). Urban sustainability in the context 

of Lagos mega-city. Journal of Geography and 

Regional Planning,. 3(10): 240-252. 

Mbaiwa, J. E. (2003). The socio-economic and 

environmental impacts of tourism development on 

http://www.jescae.com/


Global Sustainability Research    

www.jescae.com   50 
 

the Okavango Delta North-Western Botswana. 

Arid Environments, 54(3): 447-467. 

Nkwocha, E. (2014). Environmental impact assessment: 

Principles and process. Owerri; Favoured House 

of Concept. 

Okafor B. N1 and Onuoha D. C (2016). The effect of slum 

on property. British Journal of Environmental 

Sciences, 4(3):17-33 

Ola-Adisa, E. O., Enwerekowe, E. O and Ella E. E. (2015). 

The development of a slum settlement: A study of 

Nyanya. Journal of Environmental Sciences and 

Resources Management, 7(2): 133 – 146. 

Omole, F. K and Owoeye, J. O (2011). Slum characteristics 

of a deplorable residential district  of Akure, 

Nigeria. FUTY Journal of the Environment, 6(2): 

94-103 

Roy, D., Lees, M.H., Palavalli, B., Pfeffer, F. and Peter 

Sloot, M.A. (2014). The emergence of Slums: A    

contemporary view on simulation models; 

Environmental Modelling & Software 59 (2014) 

76-90 

Yoade, A. O (2019). Analysis of Slum Formation in Core 

Area of Ilesa, Nigeria. Ghana Journal of 

Geography, 11(1): 20 – 32 

http://www.jescae.com/

