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https://doi.org/10.56556/gssr.v1i2.410 

                                                                  

 
 

Global Scientific Research               42 
 

Health Performance Empirical Evaluation on Urban Housing Floods in Odosida, Ondo 
city, Nigeria 

Ogundeji Peter Ayobami*1, Gabriel Fadairo1, Ogundeji Bolarinwa2, Ekundayo Julius2 

 
1Department of Architecture, Federal University of Tech., Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria 
2University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria 
 
Corresponding Author: Ogundeji Peter Ayobami; peter.ayobami.pa@gmail.com 
Received: 09 December, 2022, Accepted: 23 December, 2022, Published: 24 December, 2022 
        

 

Abstract 

Natural occurrence of streams, rivers and flowing water attract emergence of urban housing along river bank is to tap water 

for domestic, irrigation, industrial use; deposition of minerals and nutrients for agricultural purpose. Consequences caused 

by recent events of floods in the urban centers are not limited to socio-economic, environmental loss but also increase in 

health challenges with loss of life. Flood itself cannot be held responsible for the catastrophe but the activities of people, 

society and urban housing encroaching on natural space of lowland, wetland, prone areas, also; landscape reshape to reclaim 

beaches by cutting off hills fosters thereafter, destruction of life and property. The study therefore identified the 

consequences of urban housing flood in three areas. Quantitative method including frequency tables, histograms, pairwise 

ranking, chi-square and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were also used to interpret the data collected. The result shows that 

disease occurrence is significant to urban housing flood; correlation between flood and marginalization to adequate housing 

quality; and floods is significant to urban housing development. It is clear that vulnerable and flooded prone milieu is mostly 

occupied by urban poor because of inability to avoid good housing quality and there is high of cases of cholera, malarial, 

water-borne, measles among residents in the study area. Society is becoming more aware that floods can be controlled to a 

limited extent; hence, safety against floods must be sought for, to prevent loss of life, properties and socio-economic 

investment. This paper recommends absolute delineation from vulnerable area, government and property developers should 

ensure good housing quality, total relocation of urban housing from marginal land and compensation to victims. Studies on 

comparative evaluation of urban housing vulnerability to flood on highland and lowland; environmental disruption of urban 

housing in lowland require additional investigation. 

Keywords: health performance; safety; vulnerable milieu; urban housing floods; disasters; diseases 

 

 

Introduction 

 

Natural disasters have caused significant damages to both 

natural and man-made milieu in recent times. Hence, such 

hazards are caused majorly by natural forces which include 

earthquake, tsunami, tornado, landslide, wave and 

greenhouse effect, land submergence, 

typhoons/hurricanes/willy-willies, smog and among others 

(Ogunbodede and Sunmola, 2014). Not only but also flood 

which is surface water covering a previously dry area. 

Flood is a destructive water-related hazard and is mainly 

responsible for the loss of human lives, infrastructure 

damages and economic losses (Ogunbodede and Sunmola, 

2014; Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018; Fadairo and Ganiyi, 

2012). Urban flooding generation is caused by natural 

multifactorial mechanisms such as geomorphological (the 

formation and structure of the Earth surface such as texture 

and type of soil, rock), physiographic (the natural features 

of the earth's surface such as topography) and climatic 

conditions (rainfall, humidity, precipitation) all affecting 

the hydrological (the properties, distribution, use, and 

circulation of the water on Earth and in the atmosphere) 

processes, the generation of floods and in addition to 

negative impact of urbanization growth in recent time 

(Fadairo, 2013; Basorun and Fadairo, 2012; Amao, F. L., 

2012; Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018; Onibokun, 1972). 

Recently, there are numerous studies on mitigation to flood 

damage due to record of an increase in its frequency, 

magnitude, and intensity (Douglas et al., 2010; Pitt, 2008). 

mailto:peter.ayobami.pa@gmail.com


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Global Scientific Research    43 
 

Also, Studies have shown that natural causes of flood can 

only be reduced to minimal effect in as much as rainfall, 

coastal, low land or flooded prone area and other natural 

element would be difficult to adjure.  Aside the natural 

sources of flooding such as heavy, prolonged rainfalls and 

bank overflows, there are anthropogenic (relating to or 

resulting from the influence of humans on the natural 

world) causal factors of flooding (Taiwo, O. J., Agbola, B. 

S., Ajayi, O. and Wahab, B. W., 2012). This paper 

investigates the inevitable existences of lowland areas 

within the urban centres and health associated prevalent 

diseases. Aside intense rainfall events that generate flash 

floods, the man made effect and activities on the earth 

surface such as tillage and deforestation in the rural, also 

increase’s in concrete constructions and pavements in the 

urban centres. It is a clear statement that vulnerable and 

flooded prone milieu is mostly occupied by urban poor 

because of inability to avoid good housing quality, the 

study area shows that the features of prescience had made 

the occupier to abandoned and relocated to high or non-

prone area. 

At a time, dwellings were typically constructed on higher 

land, while lower grounds were used for farming. Riparian 

peoples benefited from floods sediment which enriched the 

soil with nutrient and irrigation for agriculture. Hence, 

people lived in harmony with floods (Kundzewicz et al., 

2014) in the past. The frequency and consequences of 

extreme flood events have increased worldwide. The key 

impetus for these increase are the world’s population 

growth, the increase in socioeconomic activities in flood-

prone areas and significant climate change, which occurred 

in almost all countries of the world (Ogundeji &Fadairo, 

2018; Bouwer et al., 2017). On the other hand, the steady 

growth of impervious surfaces and reduction of forestation 

increases floods. Moreover, the exponential increase in 

development, expansion of urban areas to nearby rivers 

and encroachment to river path or prone area exacerbate 

flooding and simultaneously increases the impact (Nardi, 

F., Annis, A., Biscarini, C., 2018; Samela, C., Albano, R., 

Sole, A. and Manfreda, S., 2018). 

Therefore, there is a need for strategic applications 

basically to “control human influences on floods 

occurrence” and also to evaluate the impact of such events. 

Hence, the research area is the human influences which are 

construction of housing and its subordinate amenities 

which covered suppose forested land usually through 

which amount of water percolate is disavowed in the urban 

centers. The accumulation of this water together with the 

sewage from these homes becomes a treat that yield to 

flooding. The activities of man on the natural surface that 

are attributed to flooding includes roofs, pavements, roads, 

concrete works, bridge constructions, dams, wastes, 

sidewalks, parking lots (Kundzewicz, 2004), extensive 

asphalted or concrete landscape, drainage, coastal or river 

path backfilling (beach reclaiming), irrigations and or 

rechanneling of river path, urban housing and building 

construction are among other influences. 

 

Statement of problems 

 

Flooding has become a common feature in Nigeria not 

only in the low-lying coastal areas but also in the 

hinterland as well as the wetland regions (Ogunbodede and 

Sunmola, 2014). The population growth and urbanization 

activities have exerted pressure on available marginal and 

flood prone lands to the extent that a larger proportion of 

lowland and river basins have been encroached by people 

(Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018). These activities on such 

encroachment include housing and its adjoining amenities 

which include poor drainage system, pavement that 

reduces infiltration, discriminative refuse disposal and with 

blockage of water path. The results of such man influence 

amount to surface water and floods effect. Water is 

universal solvent. Hence, floods deteriorate if not damage 

both man-made (bridge, roads, houses and other urban 

structures) and natural structures (loose soil, contaminate 

drinking water, destroy greenery). Man also extend 

marginal milieu to usable territories, Ogunbodede and 

Sunmola (2014) explain that urbanites reshaped both 

natural and cultural landscapes by leveling off hilly areas 

to fill valleys, reclaiming beaches, wetlands and hinterland 

(a case study of Leki community in Lagos, Nigeria) into 

usable business ventures; thus, making large areas of 

artificial land in the urban environment and simultaneously 

with erection of different magnitude of urban structures 

occupying this new land irrespective of whether such lands 

have the capacity to retard inflow of water or not. Aside 

recorded economic impact, Oriola (2000) and Sewel 

(1969) also confirmed the environmental damage induced 

by man’s exploitation. 

Research question 

 

From the foregoing objectives, these research questions are 

pertinent: 

1. What are the causes of urban housing flood in the 

area? 

2. Is marginalization to adequate housing quality 

also contributed to urban housing flood? 

3. Does impervious feature of urban housing have 

effect on flood intensity and magnitude? 

4. What are prevalent illness experiences by the 

respondents in urban housing flood milieu? 

Aim 

This paper aim at identifying health effect with level of 

productivity against urban housing floods in the lowland of 

Odosida in Ondo city. 

 



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Global Scientific Research    44 
 

Objectives 

The specific objectives are to; 

i. Examine the general causes of urban housing 

flood in Odosida area. 

ii. Assess lowland (prone) area within the urban 

centres and its vulnerability to floods 

iii. Evaluate the increase in development, expansion 

of urban areas and other anthropogenic (activity 

of man) factors and its significance to excessive 

floods. 

iv. Evaluate effect of floods on human health. 

Research hypothesis 

 

In line with the research question 3 and 4 of this work, the 

following hypotheses are postulated: 

H0: Disastrous Flood is significant to urban 

housing development 

H1: Flood disastrous is not significant to urban 

housing development 

 

H0: The average diseases occurrence (mean) is the 

same. That is, the disease occurrence is significant 

to urban housing flood within the study area. 

H1: The average diseases occurrence (mean) is not 

the same. That is, the disease occurrence is not 

significant to urban housing flood within the study 

area. 

Background to the study 

 

Urbanization is basically continued growth of urban centre, 

swelling and increase in population concentration in the 

city (Bakare, 2017). Urbanization is fast impacting its 

negative consequences on most of the cities as a result of 

rapid urban development/land use change in the form of 

massive road/building construction, removal of soil surface 

for infrastructure purposes, drainage/canal construction, 

deforestation and soil surface pavement (Ogundeji and 

Fadiro, 2018), altogether have increased the runoff in 

addition to rainfall and snowmelt, thereby increases the 

risk of flooding in the cities (USGS, 2011; Nirupama and 

Simonovic, 2006).  

As urban population comes to represent the larger 

proportion of the world population likewise urban floods 

will account for an increasing part of total flood impact 

(Jha, Robin and Jessica, 2012), hence the urgent need to 

examine the circumstances surrounding flood disaster 

cannot be over-emphasized. Bakare (2017) explained that 

devastating urban areas, unplanned development in 

floodplains, ageing drainage infrastructure, increased 

paving of soil surface and other impermeable surfaces, 

with lack of flood risk reduction activities contribute to 

flood disaster impacts (Jha, et al, 2012). 

Housing quality in the survey area  

Lowland area in Odosida is experiencing poor housing 

quality, deplorable basic facilities, high level of housing 

deterioration, as well as growing incidence of slum due to 

an increase in surface water for long period of time. The 

dwellers built home not only on the high land but also on 

the available low land as a result of urban expansion 

without a fore knowledge of the future treat. The study 

shows that low-income earners are the dominant and house 

owner of the environment. Most of the occupants narrated 

that the land were allocated to them in the period of dry 

season and only to discovered that the land is at the 

receiving end for surface and running water from the 

whole Odosida community. 

Housing problems in Nigeria 

 

Developing countries are characterized with an 

uncontrollable growth of the urban population often caused 

by lack or poor infrastructural amenities and poor 

economic conditions in the rural areas has opined by 

Ogundeji and Fadiro (2018). The proportion of the 

Nigerian population dwelling in urban centres has 

increased from 7% in 1930s, 10% in 1950, 20% in 1970, 

and 27% in 1980 to 35% in 1990 (Okupe, 2002). There is 

occurrence of overcrowding on existing housing, rural-

urban drift that has caused squatter settlements in cities 

with 60% of Nigerians houseless (Ogundeji and Fadiro, 

2018; Olayiwola, 2012; Federal Government of Nigeria, 

2004). Majority of the houses is also constructed with 

second-hand materials, build on illegal land (Adeyeni, 

2015), marginal or flood prone area (Ogundeji and Fadiro, 

2018). They are badly maintained and lack the basic 

necessities of life like sanitary facilities, light, air and 

privacy (Agbola, 1998). Researchers on housing studies 

conclude that urban centres in the country are characterized 

by high-density buildings, sanitary problems, air pollution, 

surface water, noise and solid wastes (Filani, 1987; 

Agbola, 1998). Olotuah (2002) estimate 2.3 million urban 

dwelling units to be substandard, 33% of urban houses 

considered to be physically sound while 44% and 19% 

require minor and major repairs respectively to bring them 

to normative. 

Thomas (2017) specifically discusses housing problems in 

Nigeria under the following sub-headings; Housing finance 

problem, Low housing investment, High cost of houses and 

rent, Inadequate access to buildable land, Mismatch in 

Housing Goal and Real Achievement, and Building 

materials problems. 

 

Housing Finance Problem - Nubi (2008) narrates the 

popular method of housing finances in Nigeria which are 

through personal savings, loans from friends, relatives, 

commercial banks and other mortgage institution.  These 

sources are no longer assuring and sustainable especially 



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for the low income earners and the inflation rate in Nigeria 

(Agbola, 1998) for procurement of land, material, wages 

and building services bills. 

 

Low Housing Investments -According to the 1996 

Nigerian national report of the Habitat II conference, the 

level of housing investment as a proportion of GDP in 

Ibadan and Kano was low as 5.9% and 28.41% 

respectively and resulted from housing being a long-term 

low profit yielding investment when compared to other 

short-term fast profit such as manufacturing and transport 

(Agbola, 1998). In addition, limited access with high-

interest rates on housing loan partly characterized the 

problem of low investment in Nigeria (Olayiwola, 2012). 

 

High Costs of Houses and Rent - The combined problems 

of finance, rising costs of building materials and low 

housing investment have brought about housing shortages. 

For instance, the unit price of a three-bedroom bungalow 

(Bakasi type) built by the Federal Housing Authority in 

Abuja increased from #l.65 million in 1998 to about 

#3.5million in the year 2003 and about 10.8million in year 

2012 (Thomas, 2017). 

 

Inadequate Access to Buildable Land - Lands in prime 

locations in the urban centres are beyond the reach of low 

and medium income households in Nigeria (Thomas, 2017) 

prior to the promulgation of the land Use Decree No.33 of 

1978 where land allocation was vested in the Governor or 

the local government Chairman (Okupe, 2002) compare to 

Adeleye (2012) enunciation on traditional land tenure 

system which was with ease. 

 

Mismatch in Housing Goal and Real Achievement - 

Thomas (2017) opined one major problem of adequate 

housing in Nigeria is the mismatch between housing goal 

and real achievement which were marred by low pace of 

construction, high costs of building materials, budgetary 

shortfalls, poor coordination, use of unrealistic standards 

and problems of land acquisition. 

 

Building Material Problem - Olotuah (2006) explained the 

efforts to boost local production by the Nigerian Building 

and Road Research Institute (NBRRI) established in 1978 

for that purpose has not achieved much. The high cost of 

foreign building materials is one of the major problems 

militating against adequate housing supply (Onibokun, 

1986; Agbola and Onibokun, 1990; Agbola, 1993; 1998). 

Characteristics of coastal areas housing 

Their local topography limited the amount of land suitable 

for development and as such put land prices at a premium 

(McLean and Shen, 2006). Physical isolation of wetland, 

lowland and coastal towns has been often a significant 

barrier to economic growth, development and regeneration 

(Thontteh, 2014). However, complete relocation could be 

the best solution as regeneration would not be enough to 

reduce effect of flooding. 

Floods growth and its effect 

Floods are the most common natural disasters and 

represent 40% of all natural disasters between years 1985-

2009 (Soukopová and Furová, 2012). Also, Kundzewicz 

(2004) affirmed that floods have killed annually on average 

more than 12,700 people worldwide, affected 60 million 

others and caused 3.2 million people to become homeless 

(Kundzewicz, 2004). UNICEF (2022) acknowledged that 

since September 2022, worst floods in a decade affected 

2.8 million people of which an estimated 60 percent are 

children across 34 of the 36 states in Nigeria with over 1.3 

million and 600 people displaced and have died 

respectively in relation to flooding. Thus, increases the 

attention of researchers to the consequences of floods and 

measures that could be developed to reduce economic 

effects (loss) of flood (Munich, 2005). Studies explained 

that flood-prone areas were initially attractive for 

socioeconomic activities through provision of water 

resources for domestic purpose, irrigation, industrial use, 

minerals and nutrients for agricultural production which 

also encourages urban development (Smith and Ward, 

1998). Increasingly number of housing in the urban 

vulnerable centers also increases the number of casualties. 

Aside the deduced socio-economic losses by many 

researchers (Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018), there is need to 

put an end to poor health and loss of lives which cannot be 

quantified. Bangladesh and China have recorded at least 

2,5 million fatalities in the last 100 years in major floods 

which has drastically reduces human production and 

inversely reduces the economic output of a country. The 

nature cannot be held responsible for floods and it harmful 

effect, but the people, society and the urban housing taken 

natural space from water and put themselves in her way 

(MŽP SR, 2010). The flood as a natural hazard has effect 

on the stability of society. If more urban housing, society 

and people are to dwell in vulnerable areas with more 

businesses to settle down in these areas, then the more 

intensive effect a flood event will have upon society 

(Seifert, 2012). Damage to infrastructural lifelines in the 

community includes water supply, sewerage and drainage, 

gas and power supply, telecommunication, roads and 

railways. Hospitals, schools and fire brigades are essential 

facilities that got damage too. However, direct damage 

(costs for repair, replacement of damage facilities, 

equipment) and indirect damage (loss of revenue by the 

network operator, delay costs) to the affected structures are 

the reciprocal loss. (Dutta et al., 2003; Scawthron et al., 

2006). 

 



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Background information about the study area 

The physical geography of the area, apart from 

communities located in the upland are plain, all other 

communities fall within the lowland because of its 

proximity to Core Business District (CBD) and its 

economic advantages. The lowland consists of rivers, 

creeks, estuaries and stagnant swamp covers. The region 

falls within the 'tropical wet and dry climate which range 

between March and October and dry season comes 

between November and February respectively with mean 

annual rainfall of about 1615mm. The annual mean 

temperature is 27°C, with a maximum of 30°C. Ondo  

town is the most populated city in Ondo state after Akure 

and with 113,900 during the 1991 population census, 

located on latitude 06°30'N and longitude 04°45'E. The 

town is bounded on the north by Ile-Oluji/Okeigbo local 

government area and on the east by Idanre local 

government area why on the south-west is Odigbo local 

government area (Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018). 

Identification of three different points after reconnaissance 

survey of Odosida area that are lowland are flooded, often 

resulted to disruption of transportation, communication, 

structural damage to buildings and loss of lives and 

properties.  

Research methodology 

Purposive sampling method was used to sample three areas 

namely Adeyemi College of Education (ACE), Christ 

Apostolic Church (CAC, Oke-Iye) and University of 

Medical Science (Unimed Campus) of Odosida 

Community in Ondo city for information collection. They 

were wetland and lowland regions that are vulnerable to 

flooding.  Administration of questionnaire to residents to 

deduct their socio-economic profile, sex, age, distribution,  

nature of the environment, waste disposal methods in the 

environment, causes of flood in the milieu, consequences 

of flood particularly reference to health challenges and 

solutions to floods in the environment. The interview was 

successful because of the help from the community 

chairman and the youth leader in the area. A total of one 

hundred and fifty (150) respondents were interviewed from 

the study area. Data collected were summarized and stored 

in statistical tables and charts. These also include 

frequency distribution tables and histogram. Relevant 

mathematical and statistical techniques were used where 

appropriate for the analysis. 

Results and discussions 

The physical environment suffers destruction of 

vegetation, washing away of top soil and water pollution, 

displacement of wildlife from their natural habitat due to 

activities that accompany urbanization in the recent times. 

One of this activities of urbanization is construction of 

housing and it amenities that has disrupted the natural 

surface of the earth crust through excavation, removal of 

surface soil, diversion of river path, filling up of beach, 

lowland and lagoon. The aftermath of such activities 

among others aided the magnitude, intensity and rate of 

water that ought to have found its way through natural 

means of “percolation, waterlogged and runoff” but 

interrupted. Hence, rapid urbanization increases number of 

roof, housing and pavement in the urban center and 

thereafter reduces rate or amount of water to be percolated. 

Also, an encroachment of structures in waterlogged area 

and obstruction of water runoff path amount to flooding. 

Fishing, irrigation, deposit of fertile soil for agriculture are 

among the positive effect associated with urban housing 

flood and the negative impact include dampness, 

destruction of properties, lives and land use changes which 

invariably affect socio-economic, health and environmental 

dilapidation respectively as a result of alterations to the 

natural environment. 

Socio-Economic characteristics of respondents 

The following indicators; income, health, education, 

occupation and buildings condition were considered to 

ascertain level of effect of urban housing floods in the 

environment. Table 1 and Figure 1 shows 62% males and 

38% females were interviewed thus; majority respondents 

are male over female which is a reflection of female 

marginalization to access housing facility and legal land 

(Bako, 2012). This experience is a violation of human right 

and contributes to women’s increasing poverty (UNCHS, 

1985).  

Table 1: Sex distribution of the respondents 
Sex Opp. 

ACE 

CAC 

Oke- Iye 

Unimed 

Campus 

Total (%) 

Male 30 37 26 93 62 

Female 20 13 24 57 38 

Total 50 50 50 150 100 

Source, Author’s archive 

 
Figure 1: Sex distributions of respondents 

Source: Author’s archive 

The age distribution of the respondents shows that large 

number of population comprises youth ranging from; less 

than 30 years to 40 years of age are residing in the study 

area as shown in the Table 2 and Figure 2. Hence, requires 

male
female0

20
40

male

female



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adequate accommodation to increase youth productivity 

being the active population and for economic growth in the 

urban center.  

Table 2: Age distribution of the respondents 

Age  Opp. 

ACE 

CAC 

Oke- Iye 

Unimed 

Campus 

Total (%) 

Below 

30 

21 4 18 43 29 

31-40 15 5 12 32 21 

41-50 11 24 10 45 30 

51-60 3 10 5 18 12 

Above 

61 

0 7 5 12 8 

Total  50 50 50 150 100 

Source: Author’s archive 

 
Figure 2: Age distribution of respondents 

Source: Author’s archive 

Data on respondents’ occupation shows that 40% are civil 

servants which means 60% of the respondents are not 

gainfully employed which is a major cause of poverty 

influence on the respondents to occupied available, 

avoidable urban lowland area and simultaneously prone to 

flood. Job opportunities at Unimed, ACE, Wesley 

University, General Hospital, and Trauma Centre among 

other Institutions have contributed to the increasing 

number of civil servant among other occupation in the 

study area. 

Furthermore, Ogundeji and Fadairo (2018) findings shows 

that about 38.1% of respondents are single while majority 

of respondents are 61.9% married, this will further 

increases existing overpopulation, thus compounding the 

problem and stressing existing housing and infrastructure 

that are not initially adequate (Olamiju, 2014). Table 4 also 

shows 59% of the total respondents earn maximum income 

of 40,000 naira (110 USD) monthly which fall below 

official poverty line. The income capacity of individual 

that lives in the urban centre determines the standard of 

living and the type of housing facility they occupied. It is a 

clear statement that vulnerable and flooded prone milieu is 

mostly occupied by urban poor because of inability to 

avoid good housing quality (Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018). 

Table 3: Socio-Economic activities of respondents 

Occupation Opp. 

ACE 

CAC 

Oke- 

Iye 

Unimed 

Campus 

Total (%) 

Civil servant 15 25 12 52 40 

Trader 8 10 6 24 16 

Student 20 6 18 44 29 

Farming 2 3 1 6 4 

Poultry 1 2 1 4 3 

Unemployed 4 4 12 20 8 

Total  50 50 50 150 100 

Source: Author’s archive 

 
Figure 3: Socio-Economic distribution of respondents 

Source: Author’s archive 

Table 4: Individual income of respondents 
Income Opp. 

ACE 

CAC Oke-

Iye 

Unimed 

Campus 

Total (%) 

0-40,000 32 20 36 88 59 

40,001-

80,000 

9 14 6 29 19 

80,001-

120,000 

6 7 3 16 11 

> 120,000 3 9 5 17 11 

Total  50 50 50` 150 100 

Source, Author’s archive 

4.2 Urban activities and urban developmental structures 

The feature of impervious material has increase at same 

rate with urban development. Different type and form of 

such activities in urban housing include, concrete work, 

pavement, interlocking, roofs, shed and housing which has 

reduced surfaces for percolation of runoff and surface 

water which then accumulated and degenerated to floods. 

Table 5 shows damage significance due to urban housing 

seasonal floods in the study area. Most of the house 

occupants that responded are male and this reflect female 

marginalization from accessing good housing qualities 

(Bako, 2012). This observation contributes to women’s 

increasing poverty (UNCHS, 1985). 

Below 30
31-40
41-50
51-60Above 60

0
5

10
15
20
25

Below 30

31-40

41-50

51-60

Above 60

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Opp.
ACE

CAC
Oke-Iye

Unimed
Campus

civil servant

trader

student

farmer

poultry

unemployed



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Table 5: Chi-Square table profiling the sex of respondents 

in the survey area 

Variable/House 

owners 

Property 

destructions 

Total  X2 – 

value 

Yes  No  

Male  74 19 93 0.351 

Female  43 14 57  

Total  117 33 150  

Source: Author’s archive 

Using chi-square to test statistic occurrence of one variable 

if it independence on the other or otherwise, let assume; 

H0 : 𝜋ij = : 𝜋i . : 𝜋j 

H1 : 𝜋ij ≠ : 𝜋i . : 𝜋j  

Where;  H0 : Disastrous Flood is significant to 

urban housing 

H1 : Flood disastrous is not significant to 

urban housing 

Where     X2 = ∑ (observed frequency – expected 

frequency)2 ~X2
(r-1) (c-1), α/2

 

Expected frequency  

Degrees of freedom = (c-1) (r-1) = 2(2) = 4 

X2
(r-1) (c-1), α/2 = X2

4, 0.05/2 

Hence, X2 = 0.351 < 9.47 

Decision rule 

The decision rule is to accept the null hypothesis if the 

computed Chi- Square value is 

Lesser than tabulated Chi-Square value otherwise reject the 

alternate hypothesis. 

Decision 

The Chi Square calculation was 0.351 which is less than 

the critical value of 9.47; so therefore, the null hypothesis 

cannot be rejected if calculated value is less than the table 

value. In other words, there appear to be a significant 

association between the two variables:  flood damages 

effect is significant to increasing numbers of urban 

housing. 

General physical condition of the respondents 

The general condition of the body, especially in terms of 

presence or absence of illnesses, injuries, or impairments 

of the respondents is explain in Table 6, the common 

ailments and disease experience by people. Malaria is the 

most infectious disease caused by parasite that can be 

transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes, very 

common in the tropical, characterized by recurring chills 

and fever. Other diseases associated with flooding include 

catarrh, cold, diarrhea, skin disease, typhoid, dysentery 

respectively. Aside the level of poverty, health challenge 

contributed to poor production of the urban economic 

value and loss of lives. Table 8 indicates the pair-wise 

ranking tools showing most prevalent diseases in 

hierarchical strength. There could be generally high 

increase in number of cases of cholera, malarial, water-

borne related, measles among residents in the study area. 

Prevalent disease within the study area is significant to 

urban housing floods. This is clearly shown in the analysis 

of variance (ANOVA) presented in Table 7. 

Table 6: Common diseases within the study area 

Diseases  Opp. 

ACE 

CAC 

Oke- Iye 

Unimed 

Campus 

Total 

Skin disease 6 8 7 21 

Dysentery 5 8 5 18 

Diarrhea 10 9 11 30 

Catarrh 15 11 13 39 

Asthma 2 3 4 9 

Cold 12 9 13 34 

Tuberculosis 4 7 6 17 

Typhoid 

fever 

6 6 7 19 

Malaria 17 16 18 51 

Total 77 77 84 238 

Source, Author’s archive 

Table 7: Variance ratio to test significance of mean square 

treatment 

Source of 

variation 

DF SS MS F 

Treatment on 

disease 

2 3.630 1.815 0.088 

Error  24 492.444 20.519  

Total  26 496.074   

Source: Author’s archive 

Where; DF= Degree of freedom 

SS= Sum of square 

MS=Mean of Square 

F= F-calculated (F-cal) 

HO : The average diseases occurrence (mean) is 

the same. 

H1 : The average diseases occurrence (mean) is 

not the same. 

However, F-crit is the table value of Fv1, v2, α/2 

Where; V1 is the freedom of degree treatment = 2 

 V2 is the degree of freedom error = 24 

 α is the level of significant = 0.05 

 F-crit = Fv1, v2, α/2 = F2, 24, 0.05/2 = F2, 24, 0.975. 

 

Decision rule 

 

Since F-cal <F-crit, decision rule is to accept null 

hypothesis and to reject alternate hypothesis.  

 

Decision 

 

Thus, F-cal (0.088) is less than that of the table value. 

Hence, the treatment is equal, therefore the hypotheses is 

hereby accepted. The disease occurrence is significant to 

urban housing flood within the study area. 



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Table 8: Pair-wise ranking of disease 

Flood 

problems 

1         

2 

3    

4 

         

5 

6 7 8 9 Ran

k 

1 Malaria X         1st  

2 Skin 

disease  

1 X        5th  

3 Dysentery 1 5 X       7th  

4 Diarrhea 1 5 3 X      3th  

5 Catarrh  1 5 7 5 x     2nd  

6 Asthma 1 5 7 6 5 x    9th  

7 Cold 1 3 7 7 6 4 x   4rd  

8 

Tuberculosi

s 

1 7 3 8 6 6 6 X  8th  

9 Typhoid 

fever 

1 7 3 9 4 2 2 2 X 6th  

Frequency  8 5 7 0 1 2 4 3 6  

Source, Author’s archive 

A study by Ogundeji and Fadairo (2018) shows large 

cumulative 77% of rooming and flat system are with no 

good toilets and kitchen when compare to cumulative of 

duplex, storey building thus, has further compounded the 

health condition of residents and are generally occupied by 

low income earners. Generally, people who build on 

marginal lands with no title document and infrastructure 

are considered poor (Nubi, 2008). It is therefore 

appropriate to state that occupants of flood prone area are 

the poor in the society (Ogundeji and Fadairo, 2018). 

Observation shows that 58 buildings (43.03%) have 

encroached within 30m setback to the river banks while 

number of buildings that encroached into the statutory 60m 

setback of seasonal river has increased. Also, the 

modalities of waste disposal shows 9.5% of respondents 

use dustbin, 19.9% use incinerator, 23.8% dispose their 

wastes in drainage and river channels, while over 50% use 

refuse dumps. This greatly contributes to water flows 

obstruction, flooding and environmental degradation 

(washing away of soil, destruction of agricultural land; 

plants, livestock and properties damage; houses, sheds, 

electricity) and consequently a health catastrophe in 

Odosida. 

Recommendations 

It was discovered that poor economic and income value 

has an influence on housing quality. This problem are to be 

solved majorly by the government through housing 

provision, government acquisition of land, provision of 

better income opportunity, incentive or relive materials to 

the affected flooded area among others. 

The ANOVA Table also shows that there is significant 

relationship between illness and flooding in the study area 

with serious adverse effects on environment and the health 

of city residents. Hence, total relocation of urban housing 

from vulnerable or prone area especially environment 

characterized with lowland and other delineated area by 

government for the purpose of safety of life. It is noted that 

reduction of flood impact is not enough for life safety. 

Hence, lifes has worth more than wealth (multiple 

properties) and demand relocation to high ground. 

The Land Use Act of 1978 which entrusted all land into the 

hand of Governor of states in Nigeria has also, 

automatically added to their responsibility the diligent to 

study the landmass in compass,  to mark out, delineate or 

restrict urban dwellers from occupying marginal, 

vulnerable and prone area within the urban centers.  

Urban housing flood education is essential, to increase 

individual interest and awareness of general information on 

flooding and mitigation devices. Society should have 

access to weather forecast, news, lowland or vulnerable 

restricted environment peradventure through different form 

of publicity. 

Absolute control of floods is impossible but partial control 

through “flood prevention, flood reduction and flood 

protection”. Therefore, flood protection includes 

construction of flood walls, dykes (flood embankment), 

dams and reservoirs to control flood and minimize it effect 

by regulating its flow or diverting it away from where it 

could damage properties (Oriola, 2000). 

Findings also shows that high proportions of urban 

dwellers dispose refuse into gutters and other natural water 

path especially when it is raining. Thus, aggravates 

flooding. Hence, appropriate mode of wastes disposal by 

public or government refuse collector should be 

encouraged. 

Free movement of water on channels will reduce flood 

occurrence during rainy season. The river valley, channels 

as well as gutters should be properly monitored during 

rainy seasons to avoid blockages. 

Set-back laws must be enforced by planning authorities 

and related agencies for all structures close to the rivers, 

valley and lowland in urban areas. A set back to streams 

for any structure is 30 meters and in a specified cases 

above 30 meters (Ogunbodede and Sunmola, 2014). 

Aside roofs of urban houses, the pavement, interlocking, 

concrete, asphalt on road and no room for landscape 

reduces rainfall percolation. This resulted water is added to 

surface run-off and flood the environment without 

adequate channel or drainage. Thus, a reduction in 

concretized surface of urban environment will reduce flood 

in the urban housing area as more of the surface run off 

will percolate to join underground water. 

Conclusion 

Urban housing flood disaster is one of the environmental 

problems in Nigeria, the impact got aggravated because of 

people, society and urban housing activities (Ogunbodede 

and Sunmola, 2014). The havoc in returns did not only 

include economic loss but also “health challenges and 

consequentially loss of life”. It is therefore a need for man 



Global Sustainability Research  

Global Scientific Research    50 
 

and urban housing activities to be harmonized in 

relationship to the environment so as to reduce flood and 

its effects on life which is more important to properties. It 

is a clear statement that vulnerable and flooded prone 

milieu is mostly occupied by urban poor because of 

inability to access quality housing. There could be 

generally increasingly cases of cholera, malarial, measles 

and water-borne diseases among residents in the study area 

if flood persist thus, among other recommendations, total 

relocation of urban housing from vulnerable or prone area 

especially environment characterized with lowland and 

other delineated area by government for the purpose of 

safety of life to higher ground. Researchers’ mitigations to 

the impact of flood would be adequate if in addition, total 

relocation of urban activities from prone, marginal and 

vulnerable area. Thereafter, there would be guarantee of 

safety of life and properties. Furthermore studies on 

comparative evaluation of urban housing vulnerability to 

flood on highland and lowland, environmental disruption 

of urban housing and also, urban housing poor 

telecommunication challenge on lowland will contribute to 

knowledge through additional investigation. Conclusively, 

result shows that there is correlation between flood; and 

marginalization to adequate housing quality, urban housing 

and disease occurrence within the study area. 

Acknowledgment: None 

Funding: None 

Conflict of Interest: None 

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