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https://doi.org/10.56556/gssr.v3i2.925 
                                                                  

 

           
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Indigenous Knowledge and Community Institutions' Role in Pashtun 

Pastoral Community Resilience to Climate Change  

Zafar Khan  

Department of Sociology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan  

Corresponding Author: Zafar Khan; drzafarkhan@uop.edu.pk; saafi5656@gmail.com  

Received: 10 June, 2024, Accepted: 21 June, 2024, Published: 23 June, 2024 

 

Abstract  

Indigenous knowledge and community institutions of pastoral communities play a pivotal role in resilience to 

climate change. This study aims to investigate the Pashtun pastoral community's culturally embedded 

indigenous knowledge, social structure, and social institutions' role in their resilience to climate change. It is 

revealed that climate change directly affects their natural resources, cultural traditions and livelihood, especially 

of the Pashtun pastoral community living in the mountainous region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is 

investigated that Pashtun pastoral community social structure (such as kinship bonds, brotherhood, and 

reciprocity) and cultural institutions strengthen their resilience to bounce back from the worst impact of climate 

change. It is revealed that the Pashtun pastoral communities’ indigenous knowledge is embedded in their folk 

literature, metaphors, poetry, and traditions. Their indigenous knowledge, and socio-cultural institutions, 

strengthen the Pashtun pastoral community's resilience to climate change.  

Keywords: Socio-cultural Institutions; Indigenous Knowledge; Indigenous Resilience; Pashtun Pastoral 

Community; Climate Change  

Introduction  

Climate change has significant effects on indigenous communities across the globe,Shaffril, Ahmad, 

Samsuddin, Samah, & Hamdan (2020). Indigenous communities’ dependency on natural resources makes them 

more vulnerable to climate change. Climate change directly affects their natural resources such as water, land, 

domesticated animals, crops, culture and traditions. Moreover, extreme weather, changes in the rain cycle and 

flooding displaced pastoral communities from their native towns, Figueroa, (2011). Indigenous communities 

lost their livelihood resources due to natural disasters that increased their vulnerability to climate-induced 

displacement in the different parts of the worldMullally, S., & Barry, K. (2024). However, changes in the rain 

cycle and ecosystems badly affected indigenous communities in different parts of the world including in the 

Hindu Kush region of northern Pakistan,Abate & Kronk (2013). Indigenous people historically faced the worst 

policies of the British colonial regime in this region, Ksenofontov, S. S., & Petrov, A. N. (2024). Along with 

other indigenous communities in this region, the Pashtun pastoral community (details are given below) in South 

Asia remained the colony of the British and faced their worst exploitative policies,Yousaf (2019). In the post-

colonial times, Pakistan continued the policies of its predecessor and exploited its natural resources such as 

mines and minerals which further `reinforced poverty in this region. The British in the colonial era adopted 

different administrative policies and presented them to the outside world as wild and uncivilized people. 



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Colonial history and Pakistan's exploitative policies in this region make these pastoral communities more 

vulnerable to climate change. Along with colonial history, the Soviet-Afghan war, and the war on terror in this 

region intersect their vulnerability to climate change. Hence, this research article explores the climate change 

impact on the Pashtun pastoral community. The article also explores the Pashtun pastoral community's 

traditionally entrenched indigenous knowledge, and community institutional role in strengthening their 

resilience to climate change. This study also focuses on how climate change intersects the Pashtun marginality 

to climate change.   

 

Pashtun Pastoral Community and Their Way of Living   

Pashtun pastoral communities live in Afghanistan and also inside Pakistan,Kreutzmann, H., (2000). They live in 

Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces, and in recently merged districts (previously called the Federal 

Administer Tribal Areas (FATA) inside Pakistan,Khan, & Ahmed (2013). In the northern Pakhtunkhwa 

province of Pakistan, Pashtun's indigenous pastoral community live in mountainous and difficult 

terrain,(Pelevin, (2021). Forest, domesticated animals and agriculture are the main sources of livelihood in this 

region. Pashtun pastoral community mainly earn their livelihood from domesticated animals or agriculture. 

Pashtun indigenous pastoral people are farmers or herdsmen, or combinations of both. Agriculture, primarily 

farming, and animal husbandry are the most important economic activities of Pashtun pastoral communities. 

The most common sources of livelihood in this region are agriculture, trade, minerals, and domesticated 

animals,Phillips, C. J. (2024).  In addition to raising stock, the Pashtun pastoral community as well as some 

farmers engage in the trade of local indigenous products,Advocate & Sajid (2013). Pashtun pastoral community 

live in a geographical location which connects Central Asia with the East and West. Historically, and also in the 

recent past many foreigners such as Cyrus, Darius, Genghis Khan, and Kushan, and also the British invaded this 

region in different epochs to achieve their own political goals. They used this region for trade between China, 

Western Asia, and Europe. Gandhari (present-day Pakistan) used this region to connect the city of Taxila with 

Afghanistan. However, the Pashtun region was invaded by many foreigners but the British ruled this region for 

decades. The British imposed different policies in this region as compared to settled parts of the sub-continent. 

British in 1849 came into direct contact with the Pashtun tribal people. Initially, the British adopted the policy 

of non-interference policy to avoid Pashtun indigenous resistance. However, later on, viceroy Lansdowne and 

Elgin (between 1887 and 1898), replaced the policy of non-interference with the ‘Forward Policy’. The forward 

policy of the colonial regime was resisted by the indigenous tribal Pashtun because of its exploitative nature. 

However, the British exploitative policies in this region significantly distorted their culture and exploited their 

natural resources in this region,Nichols 2010; Khan 2020; Tripodi (2016). 

Pakistan continued the same colonial policy in this region in post post-colonial period. British and Pakistan 

ignored economic development, therefore, they migrated to different countries such as the United States, 

Europe, and the Middle East in search of livelihood. The migrated Pastoral Pashtun community earns livelihood 

for the remaining family members who live in native towns. They are also internally migrated to urban centres 

of Pakistan such as Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad, and to other countries in search of livelihood. However, in 

the Middle East and also in Pakistan majority of migrated Pashtun are doing hard jobs because the ruling states 

British and Pakistan exploited their resources but they did not extend formal educational institutions to their 

homeland. In post post-colonial era, the Pashtun pastoral community has been facing security problems in this 

region. In the last four decades, this region has faced many conflicts which significantly affected their 

livelihood resources,Khan (2012). Along with violence, and wars in this region, climate change also affected 



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Pashtun indigenous pastoral communities. Climate change also fuels local disputes over natural resources but 

the state's least interest in their problems makes these pastoral communities self-reliant on their local resources.  

As mentioned above,  Pashtun's land is full of natural resources but their resources were exploited by the British 

in colonial and also by Pakistan in the post-colonial era. The federal government of Pakistan also exploited the 

natural resources of the Pashtun pastoral community and continued the British exploitative policy in this region. 

Moreover, changing socio-cultural dynamics, globalization and climate change created numerous challenges to 

these communities. However, they try to face these hardships created by geo-political conflicts and climate 

change with the help of their indigenous knowledge and socio-cultural institutions.   

Theoretical Framework  

This research article focuses on the impact of climate change on pastoral communities and how they respond to 

climate change. The indigenous standpoint theory allows researchers to adopt a subjective lens for conducting 

research,Nakata (2007). This theory emphasises the cultural knowledge and experiences of Indigenous scholars. 

Indigenous Standpoint Theory produces more in-depth, culturally inclusive knowledge,Nakata,(2007). The 

indigenous standpoint theory allows us to focus on the cultural interface, and indigenous agency for 

understanding the responses of indigenous people towards climate change. Hence, the indigenous standpoint 

theory provides theoretical insight into this study while this research article focuses on the traditions, indigenous 

knowledge, and resilience of the Pashtun Pastoral community to climate change.  

Methodology  

This study follows the methodological rules and technicality required to ensure reliability and validity. Keeping 

in view the nature of this research and expected data, the qualitative paradigm was adopted for the completion 

of this study. The purposive sampling technique was used to collect data from the relevant people who are 

suffering due to climate change and face natural disasters in their native towns. The data was collected from 

both men and women of the pastoral community. I conducted 6 months of fieldwork and identified different 

pastoral communities in northern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The data was collected through in-depth interviews to 

draw a clear picture of the research problem. Themes are carefully derived from the primary data and 

juxtaposed with the broader literature. 

Indigenous Knowledge Role in Pashtun Pastoral Community Resilience to Climate Change  

Climate change poses critical implications for indigenous cultures and livelihoods, including the transfer and 

use of Traditional Knowledge (TK), also known as Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Rehman, Ahmad, & Khan, 

(2021). Certain elements of Traditional Knowledge that are threatened by climate change may include, but are 

not limited to: weather and climate indicators (ability to predict weather or seasonal forecasts) and ways of 

learning. Climate change affects plants, herbs, biodiversity, and grazing land of animals in this region,Khurshid, 

M., Mohammad, N. and Somuncu, M., (2017). Intergenerational knowledge transfers can be disrupted by 

climate change in the event of an extreme or emergency, such as floods, fires, droughts, etc. that result in 

relocation, evacuation, or death of community members. The unpredictable change in weather change causes 

damage to the socio-cultural fabrics and it displaces the local community from their native town in this 

region,Rahman, Ullah, Ali, Aziz,  Alam,  Sher,  & Ali, (2022).  

Moreover, indigenous knowledge is embedded in the local culture and history of indigenous 

communities,Přívara, & Přívarová (2019). Pashtun indigenous knowledge is entrenched in their culture, social 

structure, and traditions. Indigenous knowledge evolves in light of their experiences with the local environment 



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and climate,Ullah, Nafees, Khurshid, & Nihei, (2019). They depend on indigenous knowledge in times of 

climate change-induced disaster. Indigenous knowledge enables them to face the worst impact of climate 

change (Khan, & Shah, (2021). In this regard, one of the elder community members stated that  

“We collectively come together before the beginning of monsoon season and clean the 

pathways of water. It is based on our indigenous knowledge to evacuate the pathways and 

prepare and alert our community members about the monsoon season” Gul (Individual 

interview, 23 Sep 2023).  

Indigenous communities support each other and give collective responses to natural disasters based on their 

indigenous knowledge. The Pashtun indigenous community preserves their indigenous knowledge they take 

protective measures in the light of their indigenous knowledge (Ullah, Nihei, Nafees, Zaman, & Ali 2018). 

They store food for their animal before extreme winter and they predict the extreme weather based on 

indigenous knowledge.  

Pashtun pastoral communities have limited financial resources and are also ill-equipped to deal with 

emergencies (such as flooding or forest fires),Bayer, (2017). Pashtun pastoral communities live in the 

mountainous region and they are at an even greater risk because external emergency responders may be too far 

to mitigate the impacts of dangerous situations. Winter season or monsoon rains damage their routes and 

grazing land. It also impacts the delivery of supplies like fruits to markets, timbers for buildings, and gasoline 

for vehicles. They made their roads with the help of their communities. However, they take protective measures 

in the light of their indigenous knowledge to protect themselves in extreme weather. Women of the Pashtun 

pastoral community store grass for domesticated animals especially for the winter season. In this regard, one of 

the elder female community members stated that 

“We made these roads with the help of our pastoral community and women also take part in 

community work to protect our animals and houses from flooding and heavy rain. We 

collectively came to build a route for our animals and try to avoid those routes which have a 

risk of land sliding”. Gul Bibi (Individual Interview, 29 August 2023). 

This indigenous knowledge is transmitted to the young generation from their ancestors,Rahman, S.U., Ullah, Z., 

Ali, A., Ahmad, M., Sher, H., Shinwari, Z.K. and Nazir, A., (2022). Through indigenous knowledge, they 

protect themselves and animals from landslides and extreme weather. Pashtun pastoral people have enough 

knowledge about the land sliding vanues and other environmental hazardsAlmedom, Brensinger, & 

Adam,(2016). They have enough experience to protect themselves from local environmental hazards. Moreover, 

they cultivate crops which are resilient to the local environment because climate change has also badly affected 

the local crops. In this regard, one of the community members stated that 

“Our people know about the local weather conditions and cultivate those plants and crops 

which are resilient.  They learn it from their ancestors. We know about the flood season and we 

try to avoid routes of land sliding” Gul (individual interview, 25 July, 2023).  

  Their culturally embedded indigenous knowledge guides them in agriculture activities and also in 

domesticated animals. They used their indigenous plants for the treatment of animals and also used these 

medicines for human treatment as well,Gioli, Khan  & Scheffran,(2013). These plants are also affected due to 

climate change and they use their indigenous knowledge to protect these culturally and spiritually valuable 

plants (Islam, Tamanna, Noman, Siemens, Islam, & Islam, (2022). Moreover, climate change affects the natural 

resources. The scarcity of resources due to climate change fuels conflicts among the local populations especially 

over grazing land and scarcity of water,Lieven. (2020). They used their indigenous knowledge to protect 



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grazing land and store water for themselves. Their indigenous knowledge evolves in the light of their local 

experiences.  

Pastoral communities are vulnerable across the world to the impacts of climate change because of their close 

dependency on and connection with the natural environment for their culture, health, indigenous knowledge and 

livelihoods,Matthew, Halle, & Switzer, (Eds.). (2002). Pashtun pastoral community has an emotional 

attachment to their land and their indigenous knowledge is connected with their natural environment. However, 

ignoring their indigenous knowledge of climate policy intersects with the Pashtun pastoral community's 

marginality to climate change,Ashraf, (2018). Their voices are missing in the policy of mitigating climate 

change's worst impact on their natural resources. The community member stated that  

“Historically and also in the present time state policies ignore the vices of local people and 

demeaned indigenous knowledge. They presented us as an uncivilized people and do not make 

policy to utilize our indigenous knowledge for mitigating climate change” Hina (Individual 

interview, 25 Sep 2023).   

The government of Pakistan has failed to initiate effective policies based on indigenous knowledge to counter 

the worst impact of climate change on the Pashtun pastoral community. The state policies do not properly 

address their problems and they seek solutions through their cultural institutions by utilizing indigenous 

knowledge,Rahman, S.U., Ullah, Z., Ali, A., Aziz, M.A., Alam, N., Sher, H. and Ali, I., (2022). These 

institutions have the potential to make them resilient to climate change. 

 

 Socio-cultural Institutions Role in Pashtun Pastoral Community Resilience to Climate Change  

As mentioned above, climate change impacts indigenous communities across the world. Rains have decreased 

by 40% in the country, and the World Food Programme classifies both rainfall-related drought and snowmelt-

related drought (owing to the same warming conditions in the Hindu Kush Mountains affecting Pakistan to the 

same effect) as current threats,Caney, (2015). Pashtun indigenous pastoral communities are more likely to 

experience the adverse effects of climate change in several ways: having their diets altered as a result of 

changing ecosystems and demographic changes; affecting the pathways of transportation; their cultural ways of 

life; and, their abilities to access essential resources and services such as clean drinking water, grazing land for 

domesticated animals,Norton-Smith, Lynn, Chief, Cozzetto, Donatuto, Redsteer, & Whyte, (2016). However, 

they face these challenges alone and the state does not provide any financial support to the Pashtun indigenous 

pastoral communities to face the adverse effects of climate change,Glatzer, B., (2021). They rely on their socio-

cultural institutions in the absence of effective state institutions. In this regard, one of the pastoral community 

members of Pashtun society states that 

“Changes in the rain cycle affect grazing land; we face problems in finding pasturage or our 

domesticated animals. Some of our pastoral people who are dependent on domesticated animals 

left this profession. However, we culturally support those who cannot economically survive due 

to climate change”  Kochay, (individual interview 9 Sep 2023).    

Pashtun pastoral communities live in joint or extended families, and they must help each other ,Kreutzmann, H. 

and Schütte, S., (2011). They collectively provide psychosocial support to each other in troublesome times 

,Tainter, & MacGregor, (2011). Pashtun tribal values reinforce this collectivist structure and discourage 

individual liberty. It is the responsibility of everyone in the family to economically support all members of the 

joint or extended family. They also support people outside the family or close kin, especially in times of need 

,Alam (2021). Expectations of reciprocity go beyond psycho-social and financial support. They also support 



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each other during disasters based on tribal loyalties. It causes social humiliation for them when they do not 

support members of their tribe. One of the young adult community members stated that 

“My home was destroyed in the recent monsoon flood and I do not receive any financial 

support from the government and my all relatives supported me and I built one room for my 

children” Gul (individual interview, 11 Sep 2023).   

Reciprocity, a major cultural value sustains them in times of socio-economic crisis. For this reason, despite 

being abandoned by the state, they are relying on their social structure. Mutual aid is essential after natural 

disasters to make bridges or supply lines. Individuals do not have sufficient resources to bear the financial 

burden that arises after climate change so they pool their resources. They give food, money, or cattle to each 

other to face the worst impact of climate change,Bustamante, Ramos, Jacoba, La Penia, & Gabriel,(2022).  

Reciprocity buffers economic vulnerabilities. It also helps them psychologically because they can face difficult 

situations with the collective support of their community. At the time of disasters such as floods due to climate 

change, they support each other. It is the responsibility of the elder women and men in every household to 

reciprocate when they receive gifts or money in difficult times from other families. They are socially bound by 

reciprocity and elder women try to remember the families from whom they got help. It is not necessary to return 

what they received, but they incur an obligation. They may support each other in any form, but they are bound 

to offer support in times of crisis. 

Climate change and temperature increases directly affect the livestock of the pastoral community,Kimaro, E.G., 

Mor, S.M. and Toribio, J.A.L., (2018). Harsh weather causes diseases in goats and sheep. These pastoral 

communities are dependent on agriculture or domesticated animals. Some of them are seasonally migrated from 

the northern mountainous region to the lowlands in the winter seasons. Climate change affects the migration 

pattern, especially of the pastoral Pashtun community who are dependent on the domesticated animal. The 

farmers do not have advanced farming technology to face the adverse effects of climate change. They work 

collectively in fields to assist each other in farming (Steele 2020). In Pashtun culture, the concept of Ashar 

(collective work) emphasizes mutuality, especially in the time of harvesting, building houses, and collective 

community work ,Mohyuddin, & Khan, (2015). The entire community spares one person from each family to 

help another community member harvest crops or build a house. Climate change affects their houses and roads 

and they collectively work to build those pathways for local transportation. The community member stated that; 

“The recent flood affected our roads and we all community collectively work on building it again 

without state help” Arshad (individual interview, 25 Sep 2023).  

They also come together to work collectively in times of natural or man-made disasters. Ashar gives them the 

strength to survive in difficult situations and is also a coping mechanism to deal with all kinds of adverse 

situations that occur due to climate change,Raziq, A., Tareen, A.M. and Verdier, K.D., (2011). For example, the 

Pashtun pastoral community works together to solve water shortages that often occur because of global 

warming or a shortage of rainfall. They work collectively to build bridges after the flood. The seasonally 

migrated Pashtun or other indigenous groups come together and start a journey towards low land and they come 

together to face hard situations on the way to low land. Climate change affects the grazing land and they face 

problems in getting pasture for their animals,Abdullah, Khan, Pieroni,  Haq,  Haq, Ahmad,  & Abd_Allah 2021; 

Hartung,(2017).  The scarcity of water and grazing land more often than not causes conflicts among the Pashtun 

pastoral community,Muhammad, K., Mohammad, N., Abdullah, K., Mehmet, S., Ashfaq, A.K. and Wajid, R., 

(2019). The Pashtun cultural institutions Jirga often resolve their conflicts and make them resilient to face the 

worst impact of climate change.  

 

 



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Climate Change Interface Pashtun Pastoral Community Marginality  

Pastoral communities’ vulnerability varies and is affected by interacting and complex historical, political, and 

social factors, such as differential access to resources, poverty, and different ways of accessing,Ali, (\2022). The 

existing historical context of colonial trauma, discrimination, neglect, and Pakistan's exploitative policies 

collectively intersect with Pashtun's marginality to climate change ,Ingalls, & Mansfield, (2017): (Lieven 2023). 

Pashtun Pastoral communities have experienced the impact of climate change and it has directly affected their 

socio-cultural values. Proverbs, literature, and social movements all reflect and reinforce Pashtun's resilience in 

culturally grounded ways. Their sociocultural values, social organization, and indigenous knowledge 

collectively help them to face the worst impact of climate change in the absence of welfare policies of the state. 

Conclusion  

This research essay focuses on the Pashtun pastoral community's resilience to climate change. It is revealed that 

Pashtun socio-cultural capital strengthens the Indigenous resilience of Pashtun pastoral people to face the 

adverse effects of climate change. Strong social bonds and kinship ties unite them to face difficult situations that 

arise due to climate change. This research uses examples grounded in a masculine worldview of the Pashtun 

pastoral community. However, their women face significant adversity and have the additional challenge of 

depending on their male family members due to climate change. It is also important that a focus on resilience 

not downplay significant, ongoing challenges. Indeed, the dependence of Pashtun people on their societal 

institutions could make them reluctant to develop more advanced, formal institutions to counter climate change. 

Activities that work to restore relations with the land, waters, and living world are necessary to restore balance 

in social systems (Adaptation planning is one type of actionable science that is improved through the use of 

locally relevant information derived from traditional knowledge. Hence, indigenous knowledge and local socio-

cultural institutions play a vital role in strengthening pastoral community resilience to climate change.  

Declaration  

 

Acknowledgment: None 

 

Funding: No funding 

 

Conflict of interest: None 

 

Authors contribution: Sole author  

 

Data availability: This is not applicable in my research article 

 

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