









































5

Graduate Student Journal of Psychology
2023, Vol. 20

Copyright 2023 by the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology
Teachers College, Columbia University

Prevalence, Comfort With, and Characteristics of Sex 
Toy Use in a US Convenience Sample using Reddit.com

Emily Fippen1 & George Gaither2

1 Teachers College, Columbia University; Department of Clinical & Counseling Psychology
2 Ball State University, Department of Psychological Science

 In 2020, the global sex toy market was valued at 
$33.64 billion, more than double compared to the 
2009 value of $15 billion (Grandview Research, 2021). 
With the sex toy industry growing at an exponential 
rate, more people throughout the world are having 
differential experiences with sexually-enhancing tech-
nology. Sex toys are now sold in several commercial 
grocery stores, such as Walmart and Target, and can 
also be found within sex shops, various stores at shop-
ping malls, and on countless websites. The proposed 
study aims to identify participants’ comfort levels and 
experiences with sex toys, as well as to identify levels of 
comfortability among participants who reported pre-
vious experiences with sexual assault, sexual dysfunc-
tion, and/or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). 
Understanding how and why American adults use sex 
toys and sexual “aids” can allow for a better analysis of 
why sex remains a taboo topic within the United States, 
and can inform clinicians on how to best incorporate 
sex toys and sexual “aids” into therapeutic practice. 
 Sex toys, as defined by Döring and Poeschl (2020), 
are sexual enhancement products with the intent of 
improving the nature and quality of sexual experi-
ences. Sex toys are material objects that are used di-
rectly on the body and include “sexual aids” such as 
lubrication, bondage, and lingerie. This operation-
alization of sex toys emphasizes pleasure and the en-

hancement of sexual experiences as it pertains to over-
all sexual health and satisfaction. Throughout this 
study, the terms “sex toys” and “sexual aids” may be 
used interchangeably, as the term “sexual aids” refers 
to “an object or device that is primarily used to facil-
itate human sexual pleasure” (Miranda et al., 2019,).
 In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Men-
tal Disorders (DSM-V), a sexual dysfunction can be 
defined as “a clinically significant disturbance in a 
person’s ability to respond sexually or to experience 
sexual pleasure” (American Psychiatric Association, 
p. 423). In the United States, sexual dysfunctions 
affect approximately 43% of women and 31% of 
men (Rosen, 2000), some of which include hypo-
active sexual desire disorder, erectile dysfunction, 
orgasmic disorder, and female sexual arousal disor-
der. It is noteworthy to mention that the diagno-
sis of hypoactive sexual desire disorder has changed 
with the newest edition of the DSM (DSM-V) and 
is now enveloped underneath an umbrella diagno-
sis titled ‘female sexual interest/arousal disorder’.
 Currently, little is known about comfortability 
with toys, especially among individuals with sexual 
assault or sexual dysfunction-related issues. The pres-
ent study aims to explore participants’ levels of com-
fortability with and use of various types of sex toys 
and sexual aids. Further, this study aims to identify 

Although Döring and Poeschl (2020) have presented findings on the use of a broader range of sex toys from a German 
national sample, little is known about the prevalence and characteristics of users of a broad range of sex toys in the 
United States. The present study aims to examine the prevalence, characteristics of, and comfort with sex toys among 
a sample of American adults (n = 231). Within this study, the term “sex toy” refers to any object used directly on the 
body (e.g., vibrator, dildo, handheld masturbator), while “sexual aids” refers to items that may enhance sexual plea-
sure or libido (e.g., lubrication, aphrodisiacs). We used survey data that was previously collected in 2020 using Red-
dit.com/r/SampleSize and Ball State University’s Communications Center to solicit participation. Using data from 
Döring & Poeschl (2020) to assess sex toy use, we added questions regarding participant comfortability using sex toys 
in the past. If the participant had never previously used sex toys but would be willing to do so in the future, we asked 
about the perceived comfort of using a sex toy. We also asked about the perceived positive and negative effects of toy 
use, as well as a number of possible predictors of use including personality, sexuality, mental health, and trauma-re-
lated experiences (sexual assault, sex problems/dysfunctions, being diagnosed with PTSD). Our findings revealed 
that a significant portion of Americans have previously used sex toys. Among our participants who have never used a 
sex toy, a significant portion said they would be willing to try doing so in the future. Future research could examine 
prevalence, comfort with, and characteristics of sex toy use among a more sexually and racially diverse sample. Im-
plications for sexual health will be discussed in terms of the Positive Sexuality and Positive Technology frameworks. 
 Keywords: Sex toys, sexual aids, sexual dysfunction, sexual assault, convenience sampling



6

FIPPEN & GAITHER

levels of comfortability with sexual aids among par-
ticipants who report having ever experienced a sexual 
assault, sexual dysfunction, and/or PTSD. In addi-
tion to past and present sex toy usage, we asked par-
ticipants about past experiences with sexual assault, 
PTSD, and religiosity, as well as perceived positive and 
negative effects of and comfortability with sex toys.

Literature Review
Sex Toys Trends
 A plethora of research regarding sex toys and 
their users is not currently available, due to a lack of 
empirical studies. This lack of research may be in-
formed by the consideration of many Americans that 
sex toys, and discussions of sex in general, are taboo. 
Many discussions about sexual behavior and sexual 
health are clouded by discomfort, awkwardness, 
and a negative stigma (Schwallie, 2020). However, a 
select few studies have been conducted, such as the 
research by Reece and his colleagues (2010), as well as 
by Döring and Poeschl (2020). These studies aimed 
to examine rates of sex toy and sexual aid use among 
singles and couples, what individual demographics 
influence people to consume these toys, and exactly 
what kinds of toys these groups are using. Further, 
these studies were conducted using nationally repre-
sentative samples, which implies that there is a high 
level of confidence that the data can be generalized to 
the larger population. 
 Throughout the existing literature, it has been 
repeatedly found that women are the largest consum-
ers of sex toys, especially vibrators, with queer women 
having the highest rates of use. It has been found in one 
sample that around 90% of women reported ever hav-
ing used sex toys during partnered sex, masturbation, 
or both (Fahs & Swank, 2013). Approximately 37.3% 
of women reported ever having used a vibrator during 
partnered sexual intercourse, while 46.3% reported 
ever having used a vibrator during foreplay (Herbenick 
et al., 2009). 85% of women (n = 889) reported feeling 
comfortable using a vibrator alone while 69.6% report-
ed that they feel comfortable using a vibrator with a 
partner (Herbenick et al., 2010). However, rates of sex 
toy use during solo masturbation vary by study, with 
Reece and his colleagues (2010) finding that 46.3% of 
women have ever used a vibrator alone during mas-
turbation. Comparatively, in Döring and Poeschl’s 
(2020) research, they found that 72% (n = 366) of 

women – almost three-fourths, reported ever having 
used a toy designed to stimulate the vagina or vulva 
during solo sex. Rates of reporting may vary due to 
fear of judgment, social stigma, or sampling methods, 
as was reported by participants in Fahs and Swank’s 
(2013) study. These studies indicate that many wom-
en, if not comfortable enough to incorporate sex toys 
into their solo and/or partnered activities, are at least 
familiar with different types of sex toys and their uses.
 An important note to make regarding women’s 
sex toy use is that attitudes and perceptions tend to 
vary based on sexual orientation, as demonstrated by 
the work of Fahs and Swank (2013). Their study exam-
ined rates of sex toy use by sexual orientation and found 
that nonheterosexual women reported less shame and 
expressed more desire to use toys with a partner, as 
these women tended not to place such an emphasis 
on phallocentrism and heteronormativity. Most of the 
heterosexual women, however, were more concerned 
about their partner’s attitudes and opinions on their 
use of sex toys, and feared that their partner would feel 
sexually inadequate, despite many of these participants 
reporting that their partner had never expressed these 
concerns. Because nonheterosexual women tend to 
not place as much, if any, emphasis on sexual phallo-
centrism and heteronormativity, these women were 
better able to adopt a more playful connotation sur-
rounding sex toys, both during solo and partnered sex. 
Both groups of women were found to vary in their 
expression of agency in reference to their relationship 
with and feelings about sex toys, particularly penetra-
tive toys, as heterosexual women were more likely to 
believe that masturbating without penetrative toys was 
abnormal and a cause for concern, while nonhetero-
sexual women did not hold this belief. The work of 
Fahs and Swank (2013) effectively distinguishes rates 
of sex toy use among American heterosexual and non-
heterosexual women, as well as discusses how sex toys 
often carry a negatative connotation when discussed 
within the confines of a heterosexual relationship.
 Contrary to the popular belief that women use sex 
toys and sexual aids at higher rates, it has been found 
that rates of sex toy usage among men and women 
are similar, with 43.8% of men (n = 423) reporting 
that they had ever used a vibrator, either during solo 
or partnered sex (Reece et al., 2010). Comparatively, 
it was found by Döring and Poeschl (2020) that 34% 
of men (n = 295) reported ever having used sexu-



7

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

al aids designed for the stimulation of the penis and 
testicles, while 44% had ever used aids designed for 
the stimulation of the vulva and vagina. Interesting-
ly, sex toy usage varies by partnership among men, as 
has been found in Reece’s and his colleagues’ (2010) 
research. Reece et al. (2010) found that men in part-
nerships were much more likely to report ever having 
used a vibrator during partnered sexual intercourse, 
with 43% of men in romantic partnerships and 38% 
of married men displaying this trend. Comparatively, 
only 21.3% of single men reported ever having used a 
vibrator during sexual intercourse with a partner. Ap-
proximately one-third of the sample (n = 985) report-
ed ever having used a vibrator during masturbation 
alone. The work of Döring and Poeschl (2020) and 
Reece et al. (2010) indicate that sex toy use, particular-
ly vibrator use, is common among heterosexual men, 
and is a phenomenon that should be studied further.
 Similar to “sexual aid” research as a whole, there 
exists a lack of current research examining the rates and 
types of sex toy use among gay and bisexually identify-
ing men. It has been found that, among gay and bisexu-
al men (n = 25,294), nearly 80% report ever having used 
at least one type of sex toy (Rosenberger et al., 2011), 
including dildos (62.1%), vibrators (49.6%), butt plugs 
(34.0%), masturbation sleeves (27.9%), and anal balls 
or beads (19.3%). A commonly reported phenomenon 
among gay and bisexual men is inserting a toy, such as 
a butt plug or dildo, into one’s own anus during mas-
turbation (95.7%) or into their partner’s anus (72.0%). 
Types of Toys
 Few existing studies have examined exactly what 
types of toys are being used by the overall popula-
tion. In a study that aimed to examine the most used 
sex toys, as well as hygienic behaviors following their 
use, it was found that the most popular sexual aid is 
the vibrator, with 54.53% of people (n = 1,435) with 
a vulva and vagina reporting that they had ever used 
any sort of store-bought or homemade vibrator (Wood 
et al., 2017). Similarly, 21.26% of these people report-
ed ever having used a dildo, and 9.26% reported using 
sexual toys related to BDSM (bondage, dominance, 
sadism, masochism), such as whips, anal beads, or 
devices used for restraint. Among heterosexual men, 
52% (n = 295) have reported using sex toys designed 
for the stimulation of the penis and testicles, such as 
cock rings or handheld masturbators, within the past 
year during solo sex (Döring & Poeschl, 2020). Com-

paratively, 31% of men from the same sample reported 
using toys designed for the vagina and/or vulva, such 
as a vibrator, during solo sex within the past year. 26% 
of men reported ever having used toys for bondage 
or S&M (sadism and masochism), such as whips or 
cuffs, and 46% reported ever having used arousal-en-
hancing remedies, such as ingesting food or substances 
that elicit sexual desire (i.e., aphrodisiacs), during solo 
sex within the past year (Döring & Poeschl, 2020).
Sexual Aids as Treatment
 Sexual aids are increasing in popularity as clini-
cian recommended treatments for sexual dysfunc-
tions, as well as for anxiety and fear following a sex-
ual assault. Nearly all the existing literature on sexual 
aid recommendation focuses on cancer-related sexual 
dysfunctions, which result from radiation targeted at 
the pelvis and surrounding areas. When radiation tar-
gets the pelvic area, it may damage nerves and arteries 
necessary for sexual functioning (American Cancer 
Society, 2020). Sexual aids have recently been uti-
lized for rehabilitation, as they may serve to increase 
sensitivity, functioning, and pleasure among cancer 
patients. However, as discovered by Bober and his 
colleagues (2019), the majority of cancer survivors do 
not receive adequate support or education about sex-
ual health. While exact statistics vary regarding sexual 
dysfunction as a side effect of cancer treatment, it has 
been found by Andersen (1985) that 20 to 90 percent 
of adult cancer patients suffer from significant sexu-
al dissatisfaction or dysfunction. However, among 
these various cancer-treatment centers, only 27% offer 
sexual aids and rehabilitation for women, while even 
fewer (13%) offer the same aids for men (Bober et al., 
2019). Sexual aids, while serving to increase pleasure 
and intimacy among couples, can also serve as a form 
of rehabilitation for individuals suffering from sexu-
al dysfunctions resulting from sexual assault, PTSD, 
and cancer-related treatments. Further, physicians 
and clinics should make sexual rehabilitation in these 
instances more accessible to increase sensitivity and 
functioning among those with sexual dysfunctions.
Sexual Dysfunction
 It has been found that sexual dysfunctions are 
common within the United States, affecting approx-
imately 43% of women and 31% of men (Rosen, 
2000). Among these sexual dysfunctions, hypoac-
tive sexual desire is most common among women, 
with about 30% of the female population meet-



8

FIPPEN & GAITHER

ing the diagnostic criteria. Erectile dysfunction is 
the most common sexual dysfunction among men, 
and rates vary due to the prevalence of this dysfunc-
tion growing exponentially with age (Rosen, 2000).
 Sexual dysfunctions have a variety of causes and 
may only arise during certain situations or circum-
stances. Common psychological causes for sexual 
dysfunction include stress, anxiety, and depression 
(Beaumont Health, 2023). It has been found that 
when performance-related demands were placed on 
both sexually functioning and sexually dysfunctional 
men, the sexually dysfunctional men had lower lev-
els of sexual arousal due to becoming distracted by 
the demand and the accompanying performance-re-
lated concerns (Barlow, 1986). Sexually dysfunction-
al men from the same study also reported that they 
perceived themselves as having less control over their 
sexual arousal than sexually functional men, even 
when levels of erectile response were the same. Cur-
rent literature outlines how sexual dysfunctions can 
have a strong influence on sexual confidence, anxiety, 
and the sense of control one feels over their sexuality. 
 Further, some common physiological causes for 
sexual dysfunction include neurological disorders, var-
ious prescription medications, alcohol and drug abuse, 
cancer and related treatments, and sexual assault (Beau-
mont Health, 2023). Selective serotonin reuptake in-
hibitors (SSRIs), a medication commonly prescribed 
for depression, are commonly known as having ad-
verse side effects, particularly in that they can contrib-
ute to the development of sexual dysfunction (Jing & 
Straw-Wilson, 2016). While the exact cause of sexual 
dysfunction as a side effect of SSRIs is not known, re-
searchers have identified that it is the reuptake process 
of particular neurotransmitters, such as serotonin or 
norepinephrine, that influence the emergence of sexu-
al dysfunctions (Prabhakar & Balon, 2017). The effects 
of SSRIs on sexual functioning have been researched, 
and it has been found that around 40 to 50 percent 
of both men and women experience reduced levels of 
sexual arousal when taking an SSRI (Balon, 2006). 
In relation to cancer, sexual dysfunctions arise when 
radiation targets areas surrounding the pelvis, such as 
the prostate, rectum, colon, or ovaries. Further, the 
psychological implications that may arise from endur-
ing cancer treatments may contribute to lasting sexual 
dysfunctions, such as body dysmorphia resulting from 
hair loss or a change in weight (Archangelo et al., 2019).

 The treatment of sexual dysfunctions today orig-
inates largely from the work of Masters and Johnson, 
who became pioneers of sex therapy after the creation 
and effective execution of sensate focus exercises in 1980 
(Auteri, 2014). Sensate focus is a technique used to 
improve communication between partners regarding 
sex, reduce sexual performance anxiety, and shift away 
from goal-oriented expectations toward a more inti-
mate and partner-focused experience (SMSNA, 2023). 
These sessions of non-demanding, sensual touching 
can increase comfortability with receiving touch from 
a partner. When exercised alone, this self-exploration 
can help an individual reclaim their sensuality and 
confidence. Sensate focus is commonly used for dys-
functional problems such as female sexual interest/
arousal disorder, erectile dysfunctions, and male hy-
poactive sexual desire disorder. Other commonly used 
treatments involve hormone therapy, cognitive-be-
havioral therapy (CBT), medications, and mechanical 
aids such as penile implants (Cleveland Clinic, 2020).
 One increasingly common treatment recom-
mendation by sex therapists involves the incorpora-
tion of sexual aids or sex toys into masturbatory and 
partnered sexual activities. Sex toys may increase sen-
sitivity and pleasure, and may also help to alleviate 
anxiety and fear among individuals who have been 
sexually assaulted (Rullo et al., 2020). However, in-
dividuals with dysfunction and/or sexual assault-re-
lated histories may be less inclined to use a sexual aid, 
either alone or with a partner, due to anxiety and fear 
surrounding sexual behaviors and sensual intimacy 
(Kaplan, 1974). Appropriate discussions between a 
client and their clinician are necessary to help deter-
mine what aids would be the most beneficial, as well 
as to determine how and when to use these particu-
lar aids. An increasing amount of literature is being 
made available to help guide the public in their sexu-
al-aid endeavors, especially regarding dysfunction and 
sexual assault. For example, Rullo et al. (2020) posit 
that “there is no wrong way to use a vibrator. Patients 
should be encouraged to explore vibrator use all over 
the body, not just the genitals, and be reminded that 
vibrator use is for both men and women” (p. 7). These 
guidelines, and others like them, may help to increase 
comfortability with the use of sex toys and sexual aids.
Sexual Assault
 According to the Rape, Abuse, and Incest Na-
tional Network (RAINN, n.d.), sexual assault can be 



9

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

defined as: 
sexual contact or behavior that occurs 
without explicit consent of the victim. 
Some forms of sexual assault include: at-
tempted rape, fondling or unwanted sex-
ual touching, forcing a victim to perform 
sexual acts, such as oral sex or penetrating 
the perpetrator’s body, [and] penetration 
of the victim’s body, also known as rape.

 Rates of sexual assault among women is a topic 
that has been highly researched, with previous find-
ings indicating that upwards of 20 to 30 percent of 
women have experienced rape or attempted rape at 
least once during their lifetime (Koss, 1993, as cit-
ed in Ullman & Brecklin, 2002). Sexual assault is the 
least reported violent crime, with less than one-third 
of sexual assaults being reported to law enforcement 
(RAINN, n.d.). Reasons for not reporting an assault 
may include fear of retaliation by the perpetrator, a be-
lief that law enforcement won’t succor the situation, 
or a belief that the incident wasn’t severe enough to 
report. The reporting of a sexual assault is less frequent 
among male victims, as men may be reluctant to report 
instances of sexual assault due to a widespread societal 
belief that men are perpetrators, not victims, or due 
to the belief by the victim that the incident was not 
actually assault (Ullman & Brecklin, 2002). Further, 
a common physiological response to anxiety or fear is 
sexual arousal, and many instances of sexual assault are 
discounted legally because the victim retained an erec-
tion and/or experienced ejaculation during the assault 
(Bullock & Beckson, 2011). Regardless of reporting 
status, experiencing a sexual assault has been found 
to be highly correlated with a decline in mental health 
(Ullman & Brecklin, 2002), as well as the development 
of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Sexual as-
sault may lead to serious mental and physical health 
complications and can contribute to the development 
of a sexual dysfunction. Further, various assault-re-
lated factors, such as the severity of the assault or per-
ceived level of social support, can influence the severity 
and duration of implications following the assault.
 According to the CDC (2021), nearly one in five 
American women are victims of attempted or com-
pleted rape, and one in three female rape victims first 
experienced an assault between the ages of 11 and 17. 
Additionally, it is estimated that around 30% of cur-
rent PTSD diagnoses were a direct result of sexual as-

sault or sexual violence (Texas A&M Health, 2019). 
Following an assault, common responses among 
women include panic attacks, flashbacks, depression, 
sexual dysfunctions, anxiety, and phobias, as well as an 
increase in overall anger, fear, guilt, and alcohol and 
drug abuse (US Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d.). 
Currently, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is the 
most common form of psychotherapy used to treat in-
dividuals dealing with psychological problems, such as 
dissociation or PTSD, following a sexual assault. Many 
treatments have been empirically proven to improve 
individual symptoms dependent from PTSD, such 
as anxiety and depression, these treatments are often 
incorporated into a multifaceted treatment plan. Re-
cently, treatment plans began recommending the use 
of sexual aids, as “vibratory stimulation of the genitals 
is an evidence-based treatment” (Rullo et al., 2020, p. 
2) for many sexual dysfunctions, including hypoactive 
sexual desire in men and female sexual interest/arous-
al disorder. Through the process of psychotherapy, 
victims of sexual assault are helped to recognize and 
target their feelings about the assault, and to increase 
their levels of self-confidence and comfortability. 
 Experiencing a sexual assault may result in sexual 
dysfunction or related issues, such as post-traumat-
ic stress disorder (PTSD). Current treatments for 
individuals suffering from psychological afflictions 
following a sexual assault include cognitive-behav-
ioral therapy (CBT), sensate focus exercises, the pre-
scription of SSRIs, and individual and/or couples’ 
therapy (Falsetti & Bernat, 2000). It has been de-
termined by previous research that psychotherapy 
is necessary to restore declining mental health fol-
lowing a sexual assault (Kaplan, 1974). Addition-
ally, research suggests that using sex toys or aids is 
beneficial in overcoming physiological implications 
following an assault, such as dysfunction issues and 
their accompanying psychological implications.

The Present Study
 Previous literature has briefly examined sex toy 
and sexual aid use, as well as explored demographic 
trends for each. However, the literature fails to ex-
amine levels of comfortability among individuals, 
as well as potential willingness regarding sex toy use. 
The present study aims to expand on the conversation 
held by Herbenick and her colleagues (2010) regard-
ing participant comfortability with sexual aids in solo



10

FIPPEN & GAITHER

and partnered sexual behaviors. Further, no current re-
search exists on the correlations among sexual assault, 
sexual dysfunction, PTSD, and sex toy and sexual aid 
use. The present study aims to fill these gaps by ask-
ing participants about their previous experiences using 
and researching sex toys, their levels of comfortability 
or willingness regarding these toys, and how levels of 
comfortability may be influenced by a previous history 
of sexual assault, dysfunction, and/or PTSD. Under-
standing American adults’ comfortability and will-
ingness to use sex toys can potentially provide insight 
into why sex remains a taboo topic within the Unit-
ed States, how to best introduce sex toys into one’s 
sexual practices, and how to incorporate sex toys and 
sexual aids most comfortably into sexual assault and 
dysfunction related treatments. The present study 
was influenced by the work of Döring and Poeschl 
(2020), as their study introduced an important aspect 
of participants’ sexual ideology by asking participants 
about their self-perceived positive and negative effects, 
giving valuable insight into rates and trends regarding 
sex toy usage. Data provided by the participants of this 
study will be analyzed in accordance with the Posi-
tive Sexuality and Positive Technology frameworks.
 The Positive Sexuality framework views sexu-
ality through a pragmatic yet multidisciplinary lens 
while addressing the full range of positive and nega-
tive implications that arise from engaging in sexual 
behavior. By analyzing sexuality through a positive 
framework, socially negative sexual stigmas can be 
avoided, and sexuality can be understood as a means 
of individuality, interrelationship strengthening, plea-
sure, and peacemaking (Williams, 2015). Further, this 
framework acknowledges the risks and negative con-
sequences that can accompany sexuality and sexual 
behavior. To combat these negative implications, the 
Positive Sexuality framework emphasizes education 
and communication as a means of understanding.
 The Positive Technology framework views tech-
nology as a means of “fostering personal growth and 
individual integration in the sociocultural environ-
ment, by promoting satisfaction, opportunities for 
action, and self-expression” (Riva et al., 2012, p. 69) 
Technology, in some capacity, can influence and en-
hance nearly every constituent of human experiences 
and overall functioning. Further, this framework con-
siders sexual aids to be not only devices used for plea-
sure, but also therapeutic aids that can help to reduce 

sexual anxieties, physical pain, sexual dysfunctions, 
and the accompanying implications that these factors 
may have on sexual functioning. In combination with 
the Positive Sexuality framework, sex toys and sexual 
aids can be viewed as a technological innovation that 
could potentially help millions of people become 
more comfortable with their bodies and sexualities. 
Purpose and Hypotheses 
 The purpose of this study is to better under-
stand the prevalence of Americans’ sex toy and 
“sexual aid” use through the lenses of the Pos-
itive Sexuality and Positive Technology frame-
works. The following hypotheses were generated:
Hypothesis 1: Women will report higher rates of sex 
toy and sexual aid usage than men, as found by Döring 
& Poeschl (2020). 
Hypothesis 2: Compared to men, women will report 
higher usage of sex toys designed to stimulate the vul-
va and vagina, and lower usage of sex toys designed to 
stimulate the penis and testicles, during only mastur-
batory behavior, as found by Döring & Poeschl (2020). 
Hypothesis 3: Among participants who report that 
they have never used a sex toy but would be willing to, 
there will be no significant difference between men 
and women in levels of willingness to use sex toys. 
Hypothesis 4: Women will report more comfort us-
ing and researching sex toys than men. 
Hypothesis 5: Among women, the most used sex toys 
will be toys designed for stimulation of the vagina and 
vulva, as found by Wood et al. (2017). 
Hypothesis 6: Among men, the most used “sexual 
aid” will be toys designed to stimulate the penis and 
testicles. 
Hypothesis 7: Participants with a history of sexual 
assault will be less likely to report using sex toys and 
sexual aids for both solo and partnered sexual activity. 
Hypothesis 8: Regarding sexual assault and sex toy 
use, there will be a gender effect such that women who 
report having experienced a sexual assault will be sig-
nificantly less likely to have used toys than those who 
haven’t. However, there will be no difference in sex toy 
usage between men who have and have not been sexu-
ally assaulted. 
Hypothesis 9: Regarding sexual dysfunction and 
sex toy use, there will be a gender effect such that 
men who report having experienced a sexual dys-
function will be significantly more likely to have used 
toys than those who haven’t. However, there will be 



11

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

no difference in sex toy usage among women who 
have and have not experienced a sexual dysfunction. 

Method
Participants 
 The data collected by Dr. Gaither and his students 
was obtained largely through Reddit, using conve-
nience sampling. A total of 311 participants entered 
the survey, while 231 fully completed the survey, as 
some participants exited the survey early. The only 
exclusion criterion for this study included being un-
der the age of 18. Participants of this study (n = 231) 
were between the ages of 18 and 71 (M = 24.89, SD 
= 8.59). Slightly over two-thirds of participants were 
women (68.3%, n = 224), compared to 26.5% of the 
participants being male (n = 87). For racial demo-
graphics, 82.9% of participants were Caucasian (n = 
272), 3.4% were Hispanic (n = 11), 3.0% were Asian (n 
= 10), 2.4% were African American (n = 8), 1.4% were 
Latinx (n = 4), 0.3% were Pacific Islander or Native 
Hawaiian (n = 1) and 4.9% reported being of another 
race not listed (n = 16). Most participants identified as 
heterosexual (63.7%, n = 209), while 18.0% identified 
as bisexual (n = 59), 3.7% identified as gay (n = 12), 
4.0% identified as lesbian (n = 13), 3.7% identified as 
pansexual (n = 12), 2.4% identified as asexual (n = 8), 
and 2.4% identified as another sexual orientation not 
listed (n = 8). When asked about levels of religiosity, 
48.5% of participants reported that they were not at 
all religious (n = 159). Similarly, 25.0% reported that 
they were slightly religious (n = 82), 15.9% reported 
that they were moderately religious (n = 52), 7.3% re-
ported that they were very religious (n = 24), and 1.2% 
reported that they were extremely religious (n = 4).
 When asked, “have you ever been sexually assault-
ed?” 34.5% of participants responded with yes (n = 
113). When participants were asked “have you ever 
been diagnosed with Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder 
(PTSD)?”, 9.5% of participants responded with yes (n 
= 31). When asked, “have you ever had problems func-
tioning sexually?”, 32.0% of participants responded 
with yes, I have had some problems with functioning 
sexually, but have never been officially diagnosed with 
a sexual dysfunction (n = 105), while 2.4% responded 
with yes, I have been diagnosed with at least 1 sexual 
dysfunction in my life (n = 8). There was no incentive 
provided to participants for completing the survey.

Measures/Materials
 Participants completed a survey that contained 
several subscales within it. As part of a larger study, 
participants completed several items that included 
demographics, comfort, use of toys, experiences with 
assault and dysfunction, and measures of personality. 
Questions regarding specific variables (e.g., previous 
experiences using sex toys, sexual assault, sexual dys-
function, etc.) were concise and straightforward to 
make sure participants fully understood each item. 
This study will not explain all variables utilized in the 
survey and will only explain relevant variables. Vari-
ables excluded from the analysis and discussion include 
satisfaction and personality. Self-perceived positive 
and negative effects, while not part of the initial anal-
ysis, will be explored more in the discussion section. 
Sociodemographic Characteristics
 The first set of items were demographic items includ-
ing age, race, gender, sexual orientation, birth country, 
and levels of religiosity. Experience with sexual assault 
was assessed with single item (“Have you ever been sex-
ually assaulted?”), with response options of yes and no.
Use & Comfort with Use of Sex Toys
 The next section of the survey asked participants 
about their previous experience with sex toys and sex-
ual aids. Items asked participants about their previous 
experience with sex toys, if they had ever researched a 
sex toy, what sex toys they had previously used, levels 
of comfortability with using and researching sex toys, 
comfortability with attending a sex toy party, and per-
ceived positive and negative effects of using a sex toy.
 Examples of survey items include “have you ever 
looked into, or researched sex toys?” and “have you 
ever used a sex toy for masturbation?” with response 
options of yes, no but I would be willing to do so in 
the future, and no and I cannot see myself ever doing 
so. If respondents answered yes, they were taken to a 
follow-up question that asked, “How comfortable 
were you when you researched sex toys (or when you 
used a sex toy for masturbation)?”. Response options 
for comfortability items utilized a 7-point Likert 
scale, which ranged from extremely comfortable (1) 
to extremely uncomfortable (7). If respondents an-
swered no but I would be willing to do so in the fu-
ture, they were taken to a follow-up question that 
asked, “How comfortable do you think you would 
be if you were to research sex toys (or if you were to 
use a sex toy for masturbation)?” Response options 



12

FIPPEN & GAITHER

for expected comfortability ranged from extreme-
ly comfortable (1) to extremely uncomfortable (7). 
If respondents answered no and I cannot see myself 
ever doing so, no item regarding comfortability was 
presented. For comfort items, higher numbers with-
in the data indicate lower levels of comfortability.
Sexual Dysfunction
 The next section of the survey, which had three 
items, asked about participants’ previous history with 
sexual dysfunction. Present survey items were based 
on items from the 1992 National Health and Social 
Life Survey, which aimed to better understand Amer-
icans’ various sexual practices, as well as the surround-
ing life circumstances and social contexts in which 
these practices occur. An example of one of the survey 
items includes “have you ever had problems function-
ing sexually or been diagnosed with a sexual dysfunc-
tion?” with response options including no I have never 
had any problems functioning sexually, yes I have had 
some problems with functioning sexually, but never 
been officially diagnosed with a sexual dysfunction, 
and yes, I have been diagnosed with at least 1 sexual 
dysfunction in my life. If respondents answered this 
item with anything other than no I have never had any 
problems functioning sexually, they were taken to a 
follow-up question, also modeled from the NHSLS, 
that asked about the specific sexual dysfunction that 
the respondent has experienced. Respondents were 
asked to report on whether they have experienced lack-
ing desire for sex, arousal difficulties, inability achiev-
ing climax or ejaculation, anxiety about sexual perfor-
mance, climaxing or ejaculating too rapidly, physical 
pain during intercourse, and not finding sex pleasur-
able. For each of these dysfunctions, respondents 
were presented with response options of yes and no. 
Procedure
 Recruitment ads for the study (i.e., convenience 
sampling) were posted on reddit.com/samplesize and 
on the Ball State University Communications Center 
during the Fall of 2020. People who were interested 
in participating clicked on a link to the anonymous 
survey which began with a study information and 
consent page. Those who did not click “I agree” were 
skipped to the end of the survey; otherwise, they en-
tered the survey. The first question asked for age; any-
one who typed in a number less than 18 was skipped 
to the end of the survey. Those who remained in the 
survey answered questions about demographics, ex-

periences and comfort with sex toys from a variety 
of perspectives (e.g., ever researched toys, used them, 
bought them, attended a party, etc.). Participants also 
completed items regarding whether they had ever been 
sexually assaulted, diagnosed with PTSD, experienced 
problems in sexual functioning, or been diagnosed 
with a sexual dysfunction. They completed short 
forms of the Openness and Extraversion subscales of 
the Big Five Inventory, the behavioral subscale of the 
SocioSexual Orientation Inventory, and the Sexual 
Esteem subscale of the Sexuality Scale. Finally, partic-
ipants completed items regarding their relationship 
and sexual satisfaction, as well as their perceived effects 
of sex toy use. Once participants reached the end of 
the survey, they were thanked for their participation. 
 The data was analyzed using SPSS software. A se-
ries of frequency tests, chi-square, one-way ANOVAs 
(cross tabulations), and independent samples t-tests 
were conducted to examine the data and to compare 
with the generated hypotheses. Frequency tests were 
used to analyze demographic information and to ob-
tain the frequencies of the number of participants for 
individual items. The chi-square crosstabs were used 
to better uncover the correlation between specific 
variables, such as sex toy use and previous experienc-
es with sexual assault. Crosstabs were used to analyze 
means between various groups of conditions, such as 
between male and female sex toy users who either have 
or have not been sexually assaulted. T-tests were used 
to measure the means between two groups regard-
ing various items, such as measuring the mean com-
fort level when using a sex toy during masturbation 
among individuals who report that they have or have 
not dealt with sexual functioning issues. Significance 
levels were adjusted using the Bonferroni correction 
method to attribute for running multiple analyses

Results
Acquisition of Sex Toys
 Both male and female participants of this sample 
(N = 231) were overall well acquainted with sex toys 
and sexual aids. A series of frequency tests were run, 
split by gender, to better understand the prevalence 
of participants’ acquisition on each item. 84.2% of all 
participants reported that they had ever researched 
or looked into sex toys, and 80.4% said that they had 
looked at sex toys in an online shop. 41.8% of par-
ticipants had ever spoken to someone else about sex 



13

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

toys, and 17.7% had ever received a sex toy as a gift. A 
majority of the sample (69.8%) had ever bought a sex 
toy themselves. A series of crosstabs were also run to 
determine statistical significance regarding the acqui-
sition of sex toys between the genders. Overall, there 
was no significant difference between men and women 
on measures of acquisition of sex toys, except for items 
that asked about sex toy parties. There were no men 
within the sample that reported ever being invited to 
a sex toy party or ever hosting a sex toy party. Because 
none of the men reported that they had ever been in-
vited to attend a sex toy party, they were not shown 
the follow-up question “Have you ever attended a sex 
toy party that someone else hosted?” However, 13.8% 
of male participants who reported that they had never 
hosted a sex toy party also reported that they would 
be willing to host a party in the future (p = .002, see 
Table 1). Among female participants (n = 224), 63.7% 
reported that they had ever attended a sex toy party, 
and 5.5% reported that they had hosted a sex toy party.
Sex Toy Use, Comfort, & Willingness in Solo Sex
 Sex toy use was analyzed by running a series of 
crosstabs to determine statistical significance during 
masturbation between the genders. All percentag-
es regarding sex toy use, comfort, and willingness in 
solo sex can be found within Table 1. Most partici-
pants (70.4%) reported that they had ever used a sex 
toy during solo sex, while 19% reported that they had 
not yet, but would be willing to do so in the future. 
Women reported using sex toys more than men during 
masturbation, with 76.1% of women reporting ever 
having used a sex toy during solo sex, compared to 
63.1% of men (p = .04, see Table 1). This finding pro-
vides support for the first hypothesis. Among women, 
the most used sex toys and sexual aids during mastur-
bation included toys designed for the stimulation of 
the vagina and vulva (69.2%), lubricants (42.9%), and 
erotic lingerie (22.8%). Among men, the most used 
sex toys and sexual aids during masturbation included 
lubricants (47.1%), toys designed for the stimulation 
of the penis and testicles (42.5%, p < .001, see Table 
2), and toys designed for the stimulation of the vagi-
na and vulva (26.4%). Although a notable number 
of men reported having used toys designed for the 
stimulation of the vagina and vulva, women were sig-
nificantly more likely to use these same toys during 
masturbation (p < .001, see Table 2), and this pro-
vides support for the second hypothesis.  Percentages 

regarding specific sex toys can be found in Table 2.
 An independent samples t-test, split by gender, 
was run to determine the means of comfortability re-
garding sex toy use during solo sex for each item, with 
lower means representing higher levels of comfortabil-
ity. Women largely reported being slightly more un-
comfortable (M = 1.70, SD = 1.17, d = -.05) when 
having used a sex toy during masturbation compared 
to men (M = 1.64, SD = 1.19; see Table 3). Overall, 
there were no significant differences between men and 
women on items of comfort, except that men report-
ed feeling significantly more comfortable, t (153) = 
-2.32, when researching a sex toy (M = 2.09, d = -.29, 
p = .022) compared to women (M = 2.51, see Table 3). 
These findings are directly contradictory to the fourth 
hypothesis. Overall, men reported higher comfort 
with all items relating to acquisition (e.g., research, 
talking to others, purchasing, receiving a toy as a gift), 
as well as use during masturbation and partnered sex-
ual activity. These data could be skewed by the dispro-
portionate number of women to men, but the women 
within this sample consistently reported slightly high-
er levels of discomfort than the men on all measures.
 A series of crosstabulations were run to determine 
statistical significance among participants who have 
never used a sex toy during masturbation but would 
be willing to do so in the future. Among individuals 
who have never used a sex toy but would be willing to, 
there were no significant differences between men and 
women on willingness to use sex toys during mastur-
bation, except that men reported significantly more 
willingness, X2(1) = 28.56, to try toys designed for the 
stimulation of the penis and testicles than women (p < 
.001; see Table 1). This finding is directly contradicto-
ry to hypothesis three, which predicted no difference 
in levels of willingness between the genders. Trends 
reflect that men within this sample are more willing 
to try lubricants, remedies for enhancing arousal, 
and toys designed for the stimulation of the penis 
and testicles, whereas women are more willing to try 
erotic lingerie, toys designed for the stimulation of 
the vagina and vulva, and toys for bondage and S&M.
Sex Toy Use, Comfort, & Willingness in 
Partnered Sex
 All percentages regarding sex toy use, comfort, 
and willingness in partnered sex can be found within 
Table 1. 46% of men and 55.4% of women reported 
ever having used a sex toy during partnered sexual ac-



14

FIPPEN & GAITHER

tivity, which was analyzed through a series of cross-
tabulations. Although there was no statistically sig-
nificant difference among men and women for types 
of toys used during partnered sex, trends indicate that 
women are more likely to have used erotic lingerie 
(33.5%) and toys for stimulation of the vagina and vul-
va (46.9%) during partnered sexual activity within the 
past 12 months. Men and women were about equally 
likely to have used lubricants (35.6% of men vs. 40.6% 
of women), remedies for enhancing arousal (4.6% vs. 
5.8%), toys designed for the stimulation of the penis 
and testicles (19.5% vs. 15.2%), and toys for bondage 
and S&M during partnered sexual activity (21.8% 
vs. 23.2%) within the same time frame. Percentages 
regarding specific sex toys can be found in Table 2.
 Interestingly, trends indicate that men reported 
being more willing to try every sex toy listed during 
intercourse with a partner than women, as analyzed 
through a series of crosstabulations. There was a sta-
tistically significant difference in that men reported 
being more willing to try toys designed for the penis 
and testicles during partnered intercourse than wom-
en (p < .001). This data reflects that men and women 
are about equally as likely to try various sexual aids and 
sex toys during masturbation, other than toys designed 
for the penis and testicles, but that men are more will-
ing than women to incorporate toys into partnered 
sexual activity. This finding challenges the dominant 
heteronormative belief that most men are against 
bringing sex toys into partnered sexual activities.
Sex Toy Use & Comfort Among Victims of
Sexual Assault
 All factors relating to the use and comfort of sex 
toys among victims of sexual assault were analyzed 
through a series of crosstabulations and independent 
samples t-tests. 13.8% of men within the sample report-
ed ever having experienced a sexual assault, compared 
to 41.7% of women, as shown through a frequency 
analysis. Among men who reported ever having experi-
enced a sexual assault, 81.8% reported ever having used 
a sex toy during masturbation, while 9.1% reported 
that they had not but would be willing to do so in the 
future. Among women who experienced an assault, 
81.5% had ever used a sex toy during masturbation, 
while 15.2% reported that they had not but that they 
would be willing to do so in the future. It is notewor-
thy to emphasize that nearly an identical percentage 
of men and women who have been sexually assaulted 

reported using a sex toy during masturbation (81.8% 
vs. 81.5%), and that men reported slightly higher rates 
of toy use during masturbation compared to women. 
 Among men who have been sexually assault-
ed, 63.6% reported ever having used a sex toy during 
partnered sex, while 36.4% reported that they had 
not but that they would be willing to do so in the 
future. None of the men who reported having been 
sexually assaulted reported that they would never be 
willing to try sex toys during partnered sex. Among 
women who have been sexually assaulted, 68.9% re-
ported that they had ever used a sex toy during part-
nered sex, while 21.1% reported that they had not 
but that they would be willing to do so in the future.
 Although not statistically significant, it is note-
worthy to mention that trends indicate that both men 
and women who have been sexually assaulted are more 
likely to have used toys than those who have never 
been sexually assaulted, both during masturbation and 
sex with a partner. This finding directly contradicts the 
seventh hypothesis and slightly contradicts the eighth 
hypothesis in that there was no gender effect for sex 
toy use among those who have been sexually assault-
ed. However, both men and women who have been 
sexually assaulted also reported lower levels of com-
fortability during their previous experiences using sex 
toys. Among participants who have never been sexual-
ly assaulted, men reported more comfortability on all 
items. The reverse effect was found among participants 
who reported ever having experienced a sexual assault 
in that men reported much lower levels of comfortabil-
ity than women who have been sexually assaulted. 
Among men who have ever used toys during mastur-
bation, those who have been sexually assaulted report-
ed much lower levels of comfortability (M = 2.33) 
than those who have never been assaulted (M = 1.64). 
Among women who have ever used sex toys during 
masturbation, those who have been assaulted reported 
only slightly lower levels of comfortability (M = 1.76) 
than those who have never been assaulted (M = 1.70). 
Among men who have ever used sex toys during part-
nered sex, those who reported ever having experienced 
a sexual assault reported much lower levels of com-
fortability (M = 2.71) than those who have never been 
assaulted (M = 1.75). Among women who have ever 
used a sex toy during partnered sex, those who reported 
ever having experienced a sexual assault reported only 
slightly lower levels of comfortability (M = 1.95) than 



15

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

those who have never experienced a sexual assault (M 
= 1.90). The potential factors contributing to this phe-
nomenon will be discussed in the discussion section.

Sex Toy Use & Comfort Among Those with 
Sexual Dysfunctions
 Toy use and comfort among participants who 
have at least one sexual dysfunction were analyzed 
through a series of crosstabulations. 32.2% of men 
and 35.7% of women reported ever having experi-
enced problems with sexual functioning, either with 
or without a formal diagnosis. Among men who re-
ported ever having experienced a sexual dysfunction, 
17% reported that they had ever used a sex toy during 
masturbation, while 5.0% reported that they had not 
but that they would be willing to do so in the future. 
Similarly, 17.5% of men in the same subsample re-
ported that they had ever used a sex toy during part-
nered sex, while 11.8% reported that they had not 
but that they would be willing to do so in the future. 
 Among women who reported ever having experi-
enced a sexual dysfunction, 45.2% reported that they 
had ever used a toy during masturbation, while 35.9% 
reported that they had not but that they would be will-
ing to do so in the future. Similarly, half of the women 
who reported ever having experienced a sexual dys-
function (50.0%) also reported that they had ever used 
a sex toy during partnered sex, while 27.9% reported 
that they had not but that they would be willing to 
do so in the future. Although not statistically signif-
icant, both men and women who reported having 
experienced a sexual dysfunction also reported using 
sex toys during both masturbation and partnered sex-
ual behavior at lower rates than those who have nev-
er experienced a sexual dysfunction. This finding re-
futes hypothesis nine, seeing as both men and women 
who have a sexual dysfunction reported lower rates of 
sex toy use than those without a sexual dysfunction. 
 Regarding comfortability using sex toys 
among those with sexual dysfunctions, women 
reported lower levels of comfortability on both items 
of masturbation (M = 1.84) and partnered sex (M = 
2.02) than those who have never experienced a sexual 
dysfunction. Among men, those who reported ever 
having experienced a sexual dysfunction reported 
feeling more comfortable when using a sex toy during 
masturbation (M = 1.37) compared to those who have 
never had a sexual dysfunction (M = 1.79). However, 

the reverse effect was found during partnered sex, in 
that men who reported having experienced a sexual 
dysfunction reported less comfortability when using a 
sex toy with a partner (M = 1.81) compared to those 
who have never had a sexual dysfunction (M = 1.71).

Discussion
  Sex toys and sexual “aids” have existed throughout 
history and all over the world to help promote sexual 
stimulation and physiological responses. Since the rise 
of modern technology, the sex toy market has blos-
somed into a multi-billion-dollar industry, primarily 
emphasizing sexual pleasure. However, sex toys can 
also harbor a therapeutic function, eliciting sexual re-
sponsiveness among those with sexual dysfunctions. 
Further, sex toys can be a means of regaining com-
fortability with sexuality and sexual intimacy among 
individuals who have experienced a sexual assault (Rul-
lo et al., 2020). The findings of this study correlate with 
the Positive Sexuality framework, seeing as participants 
acknowledged both the positive and negative effects of 
sex toy use, but also reported a significant level of will-
ingness to learn about and use sex toys in the future. 
The empirically proven benefits of sex toys and sexual 
aids for dysfunction and assault-related implications 
align with the Positive Technology framework in that 
sex toys and sexual aids, through means of increasing 
sensitivity and overall pleasure, serve to increase sexual 
functioning as well as the overall quality of life for users. 
 American participants within this sample have re-
ported considerate sex toy use, both during solo and 
partnered sex. Men and women reported similar rates 
of sex toy use, both during solo and partnered sex, al-
though women consistently reported higher usage of 
sex toys overall. Similarly, among those who reported 
that they have never used sex toys, a decent percentage 
reported that they would be willing to try incorporat-
ing them into their masturbatory or partnered sexual 
behavior. This data indicates that most American 
adults who have not experienced using sex toys would 
be willing to try one in the future. The sex toy indus-
try should consider this group of willing individuals 
as an entirely separate group of consumers and should 
market to this group accordingly. Sex toy shops and 
websites are often hypersexualized and intimidating 
environments. Further, sex toy shops can be very over-
stimulating, expensive, and confusing for first-time 
buyers, and perhaps a different approach to sex toy con



16

FIPPEN & GAITHER

sumerism would benefit those who are willing to try 
sex toys but have not yet been able to have that experi-
ence. This approach could include a less overtly sexual 
environment, as well as an emphasis on education and 
pleasure for all participating individuals, as opposed to 
some typical sex shops that advocate for the infantiliza-
tion, domination, and hypersexualization of women.
 When compared to the results of Döring & 
Poeschl’s (2020) study, participants in the present 
study reported higher rates of sex toy use during 
masturbation when compared to partnered sex. 
However, rates of sex toy use were similar between 
German and American participants among items 
of partnered sexual activity. The only item in which 
Germans scored higher than American participants 
was on measures of sex toy use during partnered sex, 
in which German men reported higher usage of sex 
toys than American male participants. This find-
ing indicates that perhaps Germany, and Europe at 
large, has a more relaxed and sex-positive stance on 
sex toys, and thus are used more during partnered sex.
Among participants of the present study, women re-
ported higher rates of sex toy use during both mastur-
bation and partnered sexual activity. Women reported 
higher usage of sex toys designed to stimulate the vagi-
na and vulva overall, while men reported higher usage 
of toys designed to stimulate the penis and testicles 
- which provides support for hypotheses five and six. 
Trends indicate that men are more willing to try all toys 
listed in the survey during partnered sex, with the only 
statistically significant finding being that men were 
significantly more willing to introduce toys designed 
for the penis and testicles into partnered sexual activity 
than women were?. This finding directly counters the 
assumption by many women that men are unwilling or 
uncomfortable with incorporating sex toys into part-
nered sexual activities (Fahs & Swank, 2013). Open 
communication between sexual partners is necessary 
to establish willingness and comfortability with in-
corporating sex toys into partnered sexual behaviors. 
There exists a toxic, heteronormative belief that most 
men are against the incorporation of sex toys into part-
nered sexual activity due to the accompanying belief 
that men should be able to completely satisfy their 
partner on their own, with their own bodies. However, 
the present data is directly contradictory to this harm-
ful belief, as it was found that many men are willing 
to incorporate sex toys into partnered sexual activity. 

Accompanying this willingness should be education. 
Sex toy parties are one safe environment to learn more 
about different kinds of sexual “aids”. Among the men 
in our sample, 13.8% reported that they would be will-
ing to host a sex toy party if given the opportunity, 
this was found to be statistically significant. Because 
various state laws (Alabama Anti-Obscenity Enforce-
ment Act, 1998; Texas Public Indecency Act, 1973) 
consider the sale of sex toys to be a form of solicitation, 
men are often not allowed at sex toy parties. Further, 
many sex toy companies, such as Pure Romance, claim 
that “having some men in attendance would make 
some women uncomfortable” (Sex Toys, 2021). Due 
to these hindrances in male attendance to toy parties, 
male participants within this study were not asked if 
they have ever been invited to attend a party, and were 
therefore not asked if they’ve ever attended one nor 
about their levels of willingness regarding attending a 
party. This data reveals that a decent portion of men 
want or are willing to attend a sex toy party to learn 
more about and potentially purchase toys for them-
selves and their partners. Male sex toy parties could 
be an effective way for more men to learn about and 
purchase sex toys within an educational environment. 
Further, all individuals should feel comfortable ex-
pressing their desires with their sexual partner and be 
receptive to their partner’s desires, because open com-
munication may reveal that they are more willing to 
try new sexual experiences than previously thought. 
 One of the most prevalent findings of this study is 
that, among participants who report ever having expe-
rienced a sexual assault, both men and women report 
higher rates of sex toy and sexual aid usage during mas-
turbation and partnered sexual activity, but also report 
lower levels of comfortability doing so. This finding is 
directly contrary to hypotheses seven and eight, as it was 
expected that the trauma of sexual assault would pro-
voke fear of sexual behavior among victims and would 
deter them from using sex toys. However, participants 
that have been sexually assaulted reported the highest 
rates of sex toy usage of all participants, this could be 
due to several factors. Victims of sexual assault have 
experienced a violation of bodily autonomy that may 
take a substantial amount of time to gain back, and sex 
toys may be one way for victims to reclaim their sex-
uality. Rather than placing sexual pleasure and other 
sexual expectations on another person, sex toys are an 
efficient way to gradually increase the intensity or fre-



17

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

quency of physiological sexual responses and can help 
to increase desire. Sexual aids, such as lubricants or 
vaginal dilators, could prove useful in increasing com-
fortability or eliciting a sexual response among individ-
uals who may or may not suffer from negative implica-
tions, such as trauma or a sexual dysfunction, following 
a sexual assault (Kaplan, 1974; Petrak & Hedge, 2002).
 However, the finding that those who have ever 
experienced a sexual assault, despite using toys at high-
er rates, also reported lower levels of comfortability 
during these experiences with toys was unexpected. 
Lower comfortability with sexual activity or material 
following a sexual assault is common and can be ex-
pected due to the high prevalence of trauma and PTSD 
development after an assault (Texas A&M Health, 
2019). Similarly, a common reaction to sexual assault is 
a change in sexual desire or activity, such as an increase 
in the amount of sexual or masturbatory behavior the 
victim engages in. Within this sample, a higher rate of 
sex toy usage and lower levels of comfortability were 
reported among those who have ever been sexually as-
saulted when compared to those who have never been 
sexually assaulted. Higher levels of toy use, despite 
lower levels of comfortability using these toys, may be 
reflective of an attempt to regain comfortability with 
sexual activities through the use of sex toys. Similarly, 
if the sexual assault resulted in a sexual dysfunction, 
the use of sex toys could be a means of sexual rehabili-
tation, despite conflicting levels of comfort. For exam-
ple, vibrators that are smooth and shorter in length and 
circumference may be beneficial for patients who deal 
with genital, anal, or pelvic pain, or pain during sexual 
activity (Rullo et al., 2018). Regardless of why these 
rates of toy use and comfort persist among those who 
have ever been sexually assaulted, clinicians should 
recommend sex toys to clients with caution and guid-
ance to help provide them with the necessary resourc-
es to regain sexual comfortability and confidence.
 Both men and women who suffer from at least 
one sexual dysfunction reported lower rates of sex 
toy usage during masturbation and partnered sexual 
behavior than those who do not suffer from a sexual 
dysfunction. Lower levels of comfortability were also 
reported by the same group of participants, this could 
be due to various factors. Individuals who suffer from 
sexual dysfunctions may feel a sense of embarrassment 
or incompetency due to not wanting or not being able 
to perform sexually, and this may contribute to lower 

levels of comfortability using toys. Participants who 
reported ever experiencing a sexual dysfunction may 
feel as though sex toys won’t work to increase their 
sexual desire or functioning, and some of these partic-
ipants may choose to abstain from any sexual behavior 
at all. Sensate focus and related treatments for sexual 
dysfunctions have been empirically proven to alleviate 
anxiety surrounding sexual activity and performance 
(Auteri, 2014; Masters & Johnson, 1980), which 
could prove useful among individuals who suffer from 
sexual dysfunctions that worsen with heightened anxi-
ety. Further, the incorporation of sex toys into sensate 
focus exercises could elicit a stronger sexual response 
or sexual arousal than normally experienced due to 
increased physiological sensitivity (Rullo et al., 2020). 
Sensate focus allows an individual to focus purely on 
the physiological sensations that make them feel good, 
by ridding sexual behavior of expectations of orgasm, 
ejaculation, and pressure to please a partner. Further, it 
can help those with sexual dysfunctions become more 
comfortable with their sexual identity and to better un-
derstand what types of sensations they enjoy the most.
 Although not part of our initial analysis, we did 
examine the self-perceived positive and negative effects 
of sex toy use among participants. There were sub-
stantially more positive effects reported compared to 
negative effects. Examples of some positive effects of 
sex toy use reported by participants include: “allow-
ing me to be kinky and really bond with my partner,” 
“butt plug helped me come out to my friends,” “rab-
bit vibrator allowed for my partner to climax multiple 
times after I climaxed,” and “couples vibrator (like we-
vibe), or bullet vibrator during intercourse, helped my 
partner to relax, and to climax, enhancing overall en-
joyment.” There were several repeated trends among 
self-perceived positive effects of sex toy use. Several 
men reported that the use of penetrative sex toys, 
such as butt plugs or dildos, helped them to become 
more comfortable with their sexuality. Both men and 
women reported that the use of couples’ toys, such as 
a joint vibrator, has helped to increase the desirability 
and frequency of orgasms and strengthened the bond 
between partners. Many women reported that the use 
of vibrators and/or dildos has helped them to become 
more familiar with their bodies and has improved their 
sex life by allowing them to better learn which types 
of touch they prefer where. Sex toy use can have great 
effects on sexual functioning and the strengthening 



18

FIPPEN & GAITHER

aspects of education, sexuality, consent, individual and 
interpersonal identity, and learning which techniques 
can help a client maximize comfortability and pleasure. 
This form of sex therapy may involve sex toys, which 
can be utilized at the client’s request to better under-
stand how these sexual aids can increase arousal, plea-
sure, and intimacy alone or between partners. “Most 
practitioners will say their client sessions are around 
30% touch and 70% non-touch - such as establishing 
boundaries, breathwork, nervous system regulation, 
embodiment techniques, and movement” (Rowett, 
2020). Although met with significant resistance, sexo-
logical bodywork is increasing in popularity among in-
dividuals who suffer from sexual dysfunction, trauma, 
or assault-related issues, and shows significant promise 
for the future of sex therapy. However, the ability for 
a clinician to touch a client’s body and manipulate 
their genitals for purposes of tension redistribution 
and sexual education is currently illegal in all states 
except California, where only a select few individuals 
are licensed to practice sexological bodywork (Rowett, 
2020). This is a recent modality of sex therapy and 
education, thus accounting for the lack of empirical 
research on its benefits. However, numerous female 
clients have been taking to the internet to blog about 
their positive experiences with the practice (Magner, 
2017; Dubofsky, 2018). Just as vibration techniques 
were used as a clinical means of treating hysteria 
among 20th-century women (Horowitz, 2020), sex 
toy use in sex therapy or sexological bodywork shows 
promise for the treatment of sexual dysfunctions 
or issues surrounding sex following a sexual assault.
Limitations
 This study had several limitations. Because data 
was collected in the form of an anonymous survey, 
the data relies on self-report measures of sexuality 
and sexual behavior. The survey link was posted on 
Reddit.com/samplesize, and thus relied on conve-
nience sampling. Actual rates of comfortability may 
vary from those that the participants self-reported, 
potentially due to a desire to provide socially desir-
able data or because those who use Reddit may have 
different inclinations to use toys. Further, there were 
many more women in the sample than men, and thus 
the data received from male participants may not be 
as representative of the general population. Most 
men within the sample (61%) reported ever having 
used a sex toy during masturbation, and this refutes 

of interpersonal relationships which is reflective of 
the Positive Sexuality and Positive Technology frame-
works. Sex toys have only increased in popularity and 
functionality since they became technologically inno-
vative. These toys have shown promise to increase var-
ious aspects of sexuality, such as sensitivity and overall 
pleasure, and can help to restructure an individual’s 
perception of their sexuality and sexual functioning.
 However, there were also a considerable amount 
of negative self-perceived effects of sex toy use report-
ed among participants. Examples of negative effects 
reported include “I feel that I may be more comfort-
able with toys [than] the real thing sometimes,” “when 
I’m with a partner that traditionally doesn’t use toys, 
I can feel judged a bit when suggesting them,” and 
“felt guilty about masturbating with a toy larger than 
my husband’s penis.” Negative experiences, however 
slight, with sex toys during an intimate and vulnera-
ble sexual encounter can significantly hinder one’s 
perception of and potential future use of sex toys 
and sexual behavior overall. Several women within 
this study reported that they felt judged or ashamed 
of their sex toy use, during masturbation or partnered 
sex, for various reasons including their partner’s per-
ception of toy use, and embarrassment of requiring 
toys to increase sensitivity or feeling like they depend 
on toys for pleasure during sexual activity. Thoughtful 
discussion is necessary between partners for the prop-
er acquisition and incorporation of sex toys into their 
individual or joint sex lives. Sex toys are not the main 
attraction of sexual activity, but are merely a means of 
increasing pleasure and sensitivity, and can even bring 
a sense of newness or excitement into partnered sex.
 The introduction of sex toys and sexual aids into 
sex therapy is both a controversial and ethical issue. 
An increasing number of clinicians are recommend-
ing sex toys and sexual aids for individuals who suffer 
from sexual dysfunctions relating to sexual assault 
or cancer-related treatments (Bober et al., 2019), as 
these tools can increase sensitivity and physiological 
response to sexual stimulation. Aside from merely rec-
ommending clients to use sex toys and sexual aids at 
their own discretion, many clinicians are advocating 
for the advancement of sex therapy to include sexolog-
ical bodywork, which is a form of educational sex ther-
apy that potentially allows for one-way sensual touch 
between the clinician and the client, although not al-
ways (Rowett, 2020). Sexological bodywork involves 



19

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

the assumed belief that men are more hesitant to 
use sex toys. However, due to the limited number 
of men within the sample, actual statistics may vary.
 The present study was forced to exclude partici-
pants from the analysis who identified as anything 
other than a man or woman. 3.7% of the sample (n = 
12) self-identified as an “other” gender, but because 
this sample was so small they were excluded from the 
study. Future research could focus on other-gendered 
participants to better understand the prevalence and 
characteristics of their sex toy use. As discussed by 
Fahs and Swank (2013), nonheterosexual and oth-
er-gendered individuals may not emphasize phallo-
centrism and male dominance during sexual activity 
with a partner, and may feel more inclined to use sex 
toys as a means of campy and subversive pleasure.
 Because this survey and individual items were 
created by the researchers, as well as borrowed from 
the work of Döring and Poeschl (2020), there are no 
psychometric properties to report. However, using 
standardized measures to assess prevalence, com-
fortability, and willingness regarding sex toys could 
have provided stronger research support for this study. 
 Finally, the participants of this study were large-
ly young white college students. Older individu-
als or individuals without technological access may 
not have been able to access the survey link because 
it was posted to Reddit and Ball State University’s 
Communication page. Our study’s lack of diver-
sity could be expanded upon in future research, 
emphasizing minority or older cohort sex toy use.
Implications for Future Research
 This study could be expanded to include a larg-
er minority sample, including sexual, gendered, and 
racial minorities, to better understand their sex toy 
use and how they became socialized to utilize these 
toys. Further, future research could focus on an old-
er cohort sample, as the rate of sexual dysfunctions 
tends to increase exponentially with age. Sex toys 
could elicit heightened sensitivity or arousal from 
individuals who suffer from age-related sexual dys-
functions and could further help connect partners.
 With respect to sexual dysfunctions, future re-
search could examine how sex toys and sexual aids 
can be incorporated into sex therapy to help increase 
physiological responses following a sexual assault. Sex 
toys could be incorporated into sensate focus exercises 
to increase sensitivity and pleasure for the individual, 

allowing them to focus solely on the pleasurable 
sensations. To combat the physiological complica-
tions of sexual dysfunction, clinical psychologists 
may recommend or prescribe various sexual aids 
to use either alone or with a partner. These sexu-
al aids may include vibrators, dilators, Kegel balls, 
and dildos, and successive approximations may be 
utilized until the client gradually becomes more 
comfortable with sensual touching, and eventual-
ly, sexual intercourse. However, the introduction 
of sex toys into sex therapy recommendations for 
victims of sexual assault should be predated with 
caution and a thoughtful discussion between the 
client and the clinician, as some of these individu-
als may suffer from PTSD (Yu Yip & Yuen, 2010).
Conclusion
 The findings of this study indicate that a sub-
stantial number of American adults have ever used 
a sex toy during solo or partnered sex. Among wom-
en, the most used sex toys during masturbation in-
cluded toys designed for the stimulation of the vagi-
na and vulva, lubricants, and erotic lingerie. Among 
men, the most used sex toys and sexual aids during 
masturbation included lubricants, toys designed for 
the stimulation of the penis and testicles (see Table 
2), and toys designed for the stimulation of the vagi-
na and vulva. Men and women were about equally 
likely to have used lubricants, remedies for enhanc-
ing arousal, toys designed for the stimulation of the 
penis and testicles, and toys for bondage and S&M 
during partnered sexual activity. Similarly, among 
participants who have never used a sex toy, a signif-
icant portion of this subsample would be willing 
to incorporate sexual aids into solo or partnered 
sexual behavior in the future. Nearly an identical 
percentage of men and women who have been sex-
ually assaulted reported using a sex toy during mas-
turbation, and men reported slightly higher rates of 
toy use during masturbation compared to women. 
However, both men and women who have been sex-
ually assaulted reported lower levels of comfortabil-
ity during their previous experiences using sex toys. 
Future research could explore how sex toys could 
be utilized as a method of treatment for sexual dys-
functions or implications following a sexual assault. 

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Table 1

Frequencies among Men and Women that Have or are Willing to Use Sex Toys 

Note. Bolded are significant at p = .002; dashes represent data that was not obtained or is not relevant to 
this study. 



24

FIPPEN & GAITHER

Table 2

Percentage of Participants Who Reported Using Each Type of Toy by Gender

Note. Bolded are significant at p < .001



25

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

Table 3

Means and Standard Deviations for Comfort Items Among Men and Women 

Note.  Bolded are significant at p < .001; lower means represent higher levels of comfortability.


