








































Runninghead: SOCIAL SUPPORT  


Graduate Student Journal of Psychology                                                                             Copyright 2006 by the Department of Counseling & Clinical Psychology  
2006, Vol. 8                                                                                                                          Teachers College, Columbia University                          ISSN 1088-4661 
 
 
 

The Role of Social Support and Positive Affect During Conjugal Bereavement 
 

Brandon T. Tatum 
Teachers College, Columbia University 

 
Conjugal loss engenders a loss of connectedness that can lead to proliferated stress and the 
manifestation of depressive symptoms. However, these depressive symptoms and increased 
stress can be thwarted if one receives support from friends and family to compensate for the lost 
bond with one’s spouse. In addition, social contact and supportive relationships help to generate 
positive emotions, which are thought to increase well-being. The aim of this study was to 
investigate the relationship between social support from family and friends and positive affect on 
daily depression and stress after conjugal loss. The results indicate that family support acts as a 
buffer against daily stress and depressive symptoms. Further, the results suggest that family 
support augments the experience of higher daily positive affect. It is noteworthy that the 
influence of positive affect on depression was evident primarily on days of elevated stress. 

 

One of the most stressful life events that humans can 
experience is the death of a spouse (Amster & Krauss, 
1974; Holmes & Rohe, 1987; Lang & Stein, 2001). 
Typically, the loss of a spouse is followed by a period of 
bereavement, which is defined as the emotional and 
physiological response to such loss (Summers, 1998). 
During this period, many bereaved spouses experience 
negative emotions, a decrease in health, and an increase in 
depressive symptoms (Marz, 1997;Kendig & Wells, 1997). 
Conjugal loss often produces deleterious effects such as 
stress, depressive and anxious symptomatology, panic, and 
increased mortality (Summers, 1998). 

Though people take varying approaches to coping with 
these problems, studies show that across populations, the 
perceived amount of social support is an important factor in 
the coping process (Aldridge, 2003). A supportive 
relationship can activate adaptive coping strategies that 
initiate the process of remoralization, thereby resulting in 
an increased sense of hopefulness, well-being, and personal 
efficacy (Frank & Frank, 1991). Further, social support is 
essential in countering the bereaved individual’s often-held 
belief that others are hostile to the bereaved person’s 
continued symptoms and lack empathy. In general, social 
support and the opportunity to express one’s grief help 
mitigate the negative outcomes of bereavement.  

 
Types of Social Support 

 
Social support is a complex bi-directional construct 

 
The author was a student at the University of Notre Dame at the 
time he conducted the research.  

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed 
to Brandon T. Tatum, Box 102, Department of Counseling & 
Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 
West 120  Street, New York, NY 10024; email: 
btt2102@columbia.edu 

th

referring to interpersonal dynamics between the identified 
individual and one or more family members or friends. 
Measurements for social support generally fall into two 
categories: functional social support (FSS) and structural 
social support (SSS) (Trunzo & Pinto, 2003; Wills, 1985).  
SSS focuses on the presence of social support (e.g., friend, 
family), whereas FSS focuses on the quality of support 
(e.g., feeling cared for and loved, expressing feelings, and 
discussing fears). This study investigates the relative 
influence of quantity of family and friends’ support (ie. 
SSS) on daily stress and depressive symptoms.  

 
The Influence of Social Support on Stress & 
Depression 

 
In general, social support is associated with superior 

mental and physical health and can moderate the negative 
consequences of exposure to stressful life events such as 
loss of spouse (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Major, Zubek, 
Cooper, Cozzarelli, & Richards, 1997). Social support and 
involvement in social activities promote well-being by 
acting as psychological buffers against stress, anxiety and 
depression (Mayo, 2003). According to Linville’s buffering 
hypothesis, social support is important when one is exposed 
to life stress because it helps to reduce undesirable effects 
on health (Ystgaard, Tambs, & Dalgard, 1999). The 
theoretical underpinning for the buffering hypothesis is 
provided by the stress theory, which suggests that high 
levels of social support protect the individual against the 
deleterious impact of stress on emotional health (Stroebe, 
Stroebe, Abakoumkin, & Schut, 1996). Hence, social 
support has been found to act as a moderater between stress 
and related depressive symptoms (Chou & Chi, 2001).  

Typically, individuals who have greater amounts of 
social support experience lower levels of depression and 
psychological distress (Geckova, Van Dijk, Stewart, 

24 



TATUM 

 25

Groothoff, & Post, 2003). A paucity of family and friends 
after a stressful event can contribute to feelings of 
depression and undermine an individual’s self esteem and 
self-efficacy (Ornish, 1999). Schraedley, Gotlib, and 
Hayward’s (1999) study revealed that levels of depression 
were higher among individuals who had no one to talk after 
a stressful life event (e.g. death of a spouse, loss of a friend) 
compared to those who had a confidant.  

Among researchers who study the effects of stressful 
life events, a dominant perspective is that deficits in social 
support increase risk for depression (Monroe, 1983; Stice, 
Ragan, & Randall, 2004; Windle, 1992). Murphy and 
colleagues (2000) found that social support and adaptive 
coping methods were associated with both lower levels of 
depression and positive affect. In Bertera’s (2001) study, 
lack of social support was associated with negative 
emotions in participants. 

 
Positive Affect and Depression 

 
Interaction with others is one important route to 

experiencing positive emotions (King, 2000). Social 
contact, especially close and supportive relationships with 
friends and family, helps generate positive emotions 
(Bertera, 2001; Fredrickson, 2000). Positive emotions help 
individuals mature, take positive action, solve problems, 
improve the quality of relationships, and increase emotional 
well-being (Sharma, 2001). 

Durable social resources (e.g. family and friends) help 
build positive emotions during stressful life events 
(Fredrickson, 2001) and provide pathways out of traumas 
(Keltner & Haidt, 1999). For example, for a bereaved 
individual, positive emotions help develop meaning and 
lead to positive transformation (Keltner & Haidt, 1999). 
During bereavement, individuals with positive emotions 
tend to adapt more quick to loss, set new life goals, 
reconnect to survivors, and form new relationships 
(Sharma, 2001). 

As noted earlier, after the occurrence of a traumatic 
event, individuals often experience an increase in 
depressive symptoms. Positive emotions are particularly 
suited for preventing and treating problems rooted in 
negative emotions, such as depression and stress-related 
health problems (Fredrickson, 2000). Over time, positive 
emotions decrease depressive-related symptoms and trigger 
upward spirals to increase well-being (Fredrickson, 2001). 
During bereavement, an increased number of positive 
emotions coincide with lower levels of depression (Keltner 
and Haidt, 1999) and attenuate both daily stress and 
depressive symptoms (Ong, Bergeman, & Bisconti, in 
press). 

 
Overview of the research  

 
Previous research has found that social support and 

positive affect play strong roles in helping to determine, 
reduce, and alleviate stress and depression symptoms after a 
traumatic life event. However, there have been relatively 

few studies that have examined the link between these 
variables and their effect on individual levels of depression 
and stress after conjugal loss. Thus, the purpose of this 
study was to investigate the relationship between social 
support and positive affect on daily depression and stress 
after conjugal loss. It was hypothesized that greater quantity 
of social support (i.e. family and friends) immediately 
following conjugal loss would be associated with higher 
daily positive affect and lower daily stress and depressive 
symptoms. It was predicted that the “undoing effects” of 
positive emotions on depressive symptoms would be 
evident primarily on days of elevated stress. It was also 
predicted that positive affect would be especially important 
to the well-being of widows low in quantity of social ties. 

 
Method 

 
Participants  

 
Thirty-four elderly widows from the Northern 

Indiana/Southwestern Michigan area participated in the 
study. Participants ranged from 61 to 83 years of age 
(mean=71.9, SD=6.11). All participants were European 
American females. The majority of participants had at least 
a high school education  (41.2%).  Additionally, thirteen 
completed some vocational training or college courses 
(38.3%), four attained a college degree (11.8%), and two 
earned advanced degrees (5.8%). Most of the participants 
reported an income between $15,000 and $24,999 a year 
(46.2%). Five of the participants reported an income 
between $7,500 to $14,999 (19.2%), seven reported an 
income of $25,000 to $40,000 (26.9%), and two reported an 
income over $40,000 (7.7%). The vast majority of 
participants indicated that they lived alone (91. 2%), and 
three indicated that they lived with their children (8.8%).       

 
Measures 

 
The questionnaire assessed several demographic 

characteristics: Gender, Martial Status, Date of Birth, Level 
of Education, Race/Ethnicity, Household Income, and 
Living Arrangements. Social Support was measured using a 
subscale of the Interview Schedule for Social Interaction 
(Henderson, Duncan-Jones, & Bryne, 1980). The subscale 
consists of sixteen items that measure two constructs: 
family support and friend support. An equal number of 
items assessed both types of support. Examples of the items 
are “How many people do you meet or talk to on the 
telephone in a typical week?” and “How many people can 
you share your innermost feelings with and confide in?” 
Participants used a static checklist to indicate their answers 
(e.g. nobody, 1-2, 3-5, 6-10, and 11 or more). 

Perceived stress was assessed using the fourteen-item 
Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarch, & Mermelstein, 
1983). This scale is widely used in studies of both mental 
and physical health (Cohen, Doyle, & Skoner, 1999; Cohen, 
Tyrrell, & Smith, 1993; Ong, Bergeman, & Bisconti, in 



SOCIAL SUPPORT CONJUGAL BEREAVEMENT 
 

 26 

press). The Perceived Stress Scale was designed to assess 
the degree to which individuals appraise the situations in 
their lives as stressful and has a Cronbach’s α of .86. A 
sample item is,  “In the last month, how often have you 
been upset because of something that happened 
unexpectedly?”  Participants respond on a four-point scale 
(from 1, never to 4, always).  

The measure used to assess daily positive emotions, 
anxiety, and depressive symptoms was the Mental Health 
Inventory (MHI; Veit & Ware, 1983).  MHI is one of the 
most widely used mental health assessment inventories and 
is sensitive to intra-individual change (for reviews, see 
McHorney, Ware, Rogers, Anastasia, & Lu, 1992; Ong, 
Bergeman, & Bisconti, in press; Ware & Gandek, 1994).  
Participants were asked to indicate, on a four-point (from 1, 
not at all true to 4, completely true) scale, the extent to 
which they experienced positive emotions and 
depression/anxiety symptoms on a daily basis. Positive 
emotions were assessed using the eleven-item subscale of 
the MHI. A sample item is “Today I felt relaxed and free of 
tension.” Anxiety and depressive symptoms were measured 
using the nine-item anxiety and four-item depression 
subscales of the MHI (Veit & Ware, 1983). Sample items 
include the following: anxiety— “Today, I felt lonely,” and 
depression—“Today, I felt downhearted and blue. 

 
Procedure 

 
Initially, 266 recently widowed women were identified 

from the obituary sections of Northern Indiana and 
surrounding areas newspapers. The criterion for 
participation in the study was having recently lost a spouse 
who was at least sixty years of age. Approximately seven 
days following the death of their spouses, the women were 
sent a letter describing the purpose of the study. After the 
letter was sent the women received a telephone call from 
the research interviewer. Of the 266 women, 217 
responded. Seventy one widows expressed an interest in the 
study,  however, eleven cancelled before the initial 
interview. The remaining 60 women participated in the 
interview, 18 to 42 days following their spouse’s death 
(mean=28.6 days, SD=6.41). Of the 60 women, five had too 
much missing data for inclusion and 21 did not take part in 
the daily assessments; therefore, their data was not included 
in the present study. Data on the remaining 34 participants 
was analyzed.  

One month following the death of their spouses, 
participants received a battery of self-report questionnaires. 
Also, all kept a daily diary of their emotions and perceived 
stress. At the initial interview participants received a packet 
containing the measures and daily diaries, as well as a pre-
stamped envelope addressed to the research team. The 
participants received a phone call every three weeks as a 
reminder to mail the assessments. Each subsequent batch of 
daily diaries and measures was dated and mailed to the 
widows at bi-monthly intervals. In the event that a 
participant missed a day, they were instructed to leave the 

sheet for that day blank. Participants received an incentive 
of fifty dollars for participation.      

 
Results 

 
Overview of Analyses 

 
We tested our hypotheses using hierarchical linear 

modeling (HLM; Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992). The 
flexibility of multilevel modeling provided a number of 
advantages. First, HLM is appropriate for daily diary data. 
In the current study, the data had a hierarchical structure 
with 98 daily observations nested within each of 34 
participants. Second, HLM does not require that all 
individuals be measured at all occasions. Thus, we were 
able to use the responses from participants who had missing 
data for some of the time points. Finally, a multilevel 
modeling approach allowed us to estimate person- and day-
level effects simultaneously. For example, we examined the 
separate and independent day-level effects of daily stress 
and positive affect on depression and then tested whether 
person-level variables (e.g., family support) moderated 
these effects. 

We developed HLM equations predicting daily 
depression to test our hypotheses. There were several 
common elements in each of our HLM analyses.  First, 
following recommendations by Bryk and Raudenbush 
(1992), all day-level variables were centered on the 
individuals’ means, and all person-level variables were 
centered on sample means. Second, variables that did not 
include a meaningful zero in the original scaling (e.g., day 
of study) were rescaled to include zero.   

 
Predicting Daily Depression 

 
Day-level depression was estimated by the following 

equation:  
 

Depressiont = Stresst + Positive Affectt + 
(Stress x Positive Affectt) + Dayt + et 

 
The equation refers to the intercept (i.e., a widow’s 

depression level on an average day) and represents the 
maximum likelihood estimates of the population slopes 
estimating daily depression from daily stress, positive 
affect, the positive affect by stress interaction, and time (in 
days) from loss, respectively; et  is a random component of 
depression at time t.     

In the second portion of the model, person level effects 
were estimated as follows: 

= γ00 + γ01Familyi + γ02Friendi + u0
= γ10 + γ11Familyi + γ12Friendi + u0
= γ20 + γ21Familyi + γ22Friendi + u0 
= γ30 + γ31Familyi + γ32Friendi + u0 
= γ40 + γ41Familyi + γ42Friendi + u0 

 



TATUM 

 27

where each person’s level 1 intercept  and level 1 slopes 
were predicted by an intercept, family support, friend 
support, and a random error component.   

The results of the HLM analyses predicting daily 
depression indicate that compared to widows who reported 
relatively high levels of social support, widows with 
chronically low levels of family support had higher 
intercepts (b = -8.312, SE = .037, t = -11.021, p < .001), 
slopes for depressive symptoms (b = -.412, SE = .044, t = -
7.281, p < .01), and stronger daily stress-depression 
relationships (b = .405, SE = .030, t = 8.285, p < .05).   
A similar pattern, albeit weaker, emerged for support from 
friends. Importantly, higher levels of daily positive 
emotions were associated with lower symptom levels of 
depression (b = -.281, SE = .041, t = -12.394, p < .001).  
Further, the relationship was strongest among those low in 
family support (b = .284, SE = .104, t = 6.125, p < .05). 
This interaction is depicted in Figure 1.   
 

Daily Positive Emotions

HighMeanLow

D
ai

ly
 D

ep
re

ss
iv

e 
S

ym
pt

om
s

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

0.0

Family Support

Low

Mean

High

 
Figure 1 

 
For those high in family support, changes in positive 

emotions were not associated with changes in depressive 
symptoms.  In contrast, those low in family support showed 
a strong inverse relationship between changes in positive 
emotions and depression symptoms.  Finally, the interaction 
between daily stress and positive emotions indicated that in 
the presence of positive emotions, there was a weaker 
relationship between daily stress and depressive symptoms 
(b = -.445, SE = .028, t = -15.618, p < .001). This 
interaction is depicted in Figure 2.   

There was a less manifest increase in depressive 
symptoms on days marked by greater stress when positive 
emotions were also high. Notably, average positive 
emotions were not associated with daily depressive 
symptoms, suggesting that only elevations in positive 
emotions at the time of stress appear to reduce depression-
related symptoms.  

 

Daily Stress

HighMeanLow

D
ai

ly
 D

ep
re

ss
iv

e 
Sy

m
pt

om
s

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

0.0

Positive Emotions

Low

Mean

High

 
Figure 2 

 
Discussion 

 
The arc of positive and negative emotional states in 

later life is surprisingly complex, especially preceding the 
loss of a loved one. However, a significant proportion of the 
older adults in the present study managed to maintain 
positive affect, even through significant life challenge. 
Positive emotions had beneficial effects on well-being 
when present during times of stress and depression. The 
results of the present study indicate that positive emotions 
reduce both feelings of daily stress and depressive 
symptoms. For instance, intra-individual analyses revealed 
that, when positive emotions were high, there was a less 
apparent increase in depressive symptoms on days marked 
by greater stress. This result suggests that positive affect 
maximizes resistance to stress and depression. In general, 
the results underscore the importance of building positive 
emotional experiences into our daily lives (Frederickson, 
2001). 

Further, the results are consistent with the larger 
literature on positive and negative emotions (Ong, 
Bergeman, & Bisconti, in press; Watson et al., 1988; 
Watson & Tellegen, 1985), as well as tripartite models of 
depression (Clark & Watson, 1991; Watson, Clark, & 
Carey, 1988; Watson & Kendall, 1989), which suggest that 
low positive affect is analogous to depression, even though 
general negative emotionality encompasses both depression 
and anxiety (Ong, Bergeman, & Bisconti, in press). In the 
present study, discriminant validity of daily positive 
emotions is strongly supported. The HLM results indicate 
that the correlation between stress and depressive 
symptoms was significantly reduced on days in which 
positive emotions were high. Thus, positive emotions 
appear to play a particular role in the regulation of ongoing 
depression during conjugal bereavement (Ong, Bergeman, 
& Bisconti, in press). This test revealed that individuals 
who found a positive meaning during adversity and who 
ordinarily experienced positive affect may have had a 
greater ability to cope with adverse circumstances and 
bounce back quickly from them (Sharma, 2001). 



SOCIAL SUPPORT CONJUGAL BEREAVEMENT 
 

 28 

 
Consanguinity of Positive Affect and Social Support 

 
In general, bereavement is considered to be a time of 

instability in which individuals cope with significant life 
changes. Past research suggests that coping can either 
manifest in an adverse or positive manner contingent on the 
perceived amount of support and connectedness with others 
and the outside world (Gale, 2005). The results from this 
study suggested that family support contributed to the 
improved adjustment to conjugal loss. The results also 
indicated that greater family support helped to maintain an 
individual’s stability throughout the course of the 
bereavement period.  Specifically, the results of this study 
emphasized the importance of perceived support, especially 
from family members, in experiencing positive emotions 
and having a positive outlook on life preceding traumatic 
life events (Baarsen, 2002). Widows low in social support 
showed a strong inverse relationship between changes in 
positive emotions and depression.  

 
Limitations and Directions for Future Research 

 
Possible limitations of this study should be noted. 

Despite the confidence of the correlations between the 
variables provided to us by using the daily measurements, 
causal conclusions cannot be made. Also, since mood may 
vary during the course of an individual’s day, the time of 
day that the measurements were completed could have 
confounded the data. Since participants completed the self-
report measurement at the end of the day an array of 
circumstances could have led them to answer in a particular 
manner.   

Second, the participants of the study were all European 
American women. The findings of the study may not apply 
to bereaved men or individuals from different racial and age 
groups. Third, the survey included no filter questions or 
measures to control for  lying or providing answers that 
seemed to have greater social desirability.  

In addition, as implied in the literature, depression and 
anxiety often co-occur.  Thus, discriminating between the 
two constructs poses a problem (Murphy, Moscicki, 
Vermund, & Muenz, 2002). Also, clinical diagnoses of 
participants’ depression were not obtained and may have  
been valuable in this study. Finally, the quality of the social 
support received was not examined. Quality of support 
might be a better predictor than quantity as it may be more 
reflective of the received benefits from relationships with 
family and friends.  

 
References 

 
Aldridge. S. (2003). Health and Age: First year of 

widowhood most harmful to mental health. Health 
Psychology, 22(5), 470-486.   

Amster, L. E., & Krauss, H. H. (1974). The relationship 

between life crises and mental deterioration in old age. 
International Journal of Aging and Human 
Development, 5, 51–55. 

Antonucci T. C., & Akiyama, H. (2002). Aging and close 
relationships. International Society for the 
Development of Behavioral Development Newsletter. 
New York: Taylor & Francis Group. 

Baarsen, B. V. (2002). The Impact of Social Support and 
Self-Esteem on Adjustment to Emotional and Social 
Loneliness Following a Partner's Death in Later Life. 
The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological 
Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, S33-S42.  

Bertera, E. M. & Bailey-Etta, B. (2001). Social support and 
mental health in gender and racial-ethnic groups: 
Implications for social work. Social Thought, 20, 97-
115.  

Billings, A., Cronkite, R., & Moos, R. (1983). Social-
environmental factors in unipolar depression: 
Comparisons of depressed patients and nondepressed 
controls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 119-
133. 

Chou, K. L., & Chi, I., (2001). Stressful life events and 
depressive symptoms: social support and sense of 
control as mediators or moderators International 
Journal of Aging and Human Development, 52(2), 155-
171. 

Cutrona, C. E. (1996). Social support in couples: Marriage 
as a resource in times of stress. Thousand Oaks, CA: 
Sage.  

Fields, J. and L. Casper. 2001. America's Families and 
Living Arrangements: March 2000. Current 
Population Reports, 20, 537. Washington, DC: US 
Bureau of the Census. 

Frank, J. D., & Frank, J. R. (1991). Persuasion and healing: 
A comparative study of psychotherapy. Baltimore: 
Johns Hopkins University Press. 

Fredrickson, B. L., (2000). Cultivating Research on Positive 
Emotions. Prevention & Treatment, 3, 521-527.   

Fredrickson, B. L., (2001). Positive Emotions Transform 
Individuals and Organizations. American Psychologist, 
56, 218-226.    

Gale, T. (2005). Grief counseling and therapy. 
Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. Retrieved March 
27, 2006 from the world wide web: 
http://www.deathreference.com/Gi-Ho/Grief-
Counseling-and-Therapy.html. 

Geckova, A. G., Van Dijk, J. P., Stewart, R., Groothoff, J. 
W., & Post D. (2003). Influence of social support on 
health among gender and socioeconomic groups of 
adolescents. European Journal of Public Health, 13, 
44-50.  

Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (1999). Social functions of 
emotions at multiple levels of analysis. Cognition and 
Emotion, 13 (5), 505-522. 

Kendig, H. L., & Wells, Y.D. (1997). Health and well-
being of spouse caregivers and the widowed. The 
Gerontologist, 37 (5). 666-674 



TATUM 

 29

King, L. A. (2000). Why happiness is good for you: A 
commentary on Fredrickson. Prevention and 
Treatment, 3, Article 4. 

Lang, A. J., & Stein, M. B. (2001). Anxiety Disorders: 
Howto Recognize and Treat the Medical Symptoms of 
Emotional Illness. Geriatrics. 56 (5), 24-34. 

Lazarus, R.  S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, 
and coping. New York: Springer. 

MacArthur, J. D., & MacArthur, C. T. (1998). 
Socioeconomic status and health. Health Psychology, 
3(4), 451-463.  

Major, B., Zubek, J. M., Cooper, L. M., Cozzarelli, C., & 
Richards, C. (1997). Mixed Messages: Implications of 
Social Conflict and Social Support Within Close 
Relationships for Adjustment to a Stressful Life Event. 
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(6), 
1349-1363. 

Marz, P. (1997). The changes that may accompany 
widowhood. Recent Research on Adult Development. 
Retrieved on June 29, 2004 from the world wide web: 
http://www.hope.edu/academic/psychology/335/webre
p/widows.html. 

Mayo Clinic. (2003). Social support: A buffer against life's 
ills. Health Library. Retrieved on July 02, 2004 from 
the world wide web: 
http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/library/MH/00041.html 

Murphy, D. A., Moscicki, A. B., Vermund, S. H., & 
Muenz, L.R. (2000). Psychological distress among 
HIV(+) adolescents in the REACH study: effects of life 
stress, social support, and coping. Journal of 
Adolescent Health, 27(6), 391-398. 

Ong, A., Bergeman, C. S., & Bisconti, T. L. (in press). The 
role of daily positive emotion during conjugal 
bereavement. Journal of Gerontology. 

Ornish, D. (1999). Love and Survival. New York: Perennial 
Currents. 

Peirce, R. S., Frone, M. R., Russell, M., Cooper, M. L., & 
Mudar, P. (2000). A Longitudinal Model of Social 
Contact, Social Support, Depression, and Alcohol Use. 

Health Psychology, 19(1), 28-38.  
Schraedley, P. K., Gotlib, I. H., and Hayward C. H. (1999). 

Gender differences in correlations to symptoms in 
adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25, 98-108.  

Sharma, V. P. (2001). Positive Emotions Create an Upward 
Spiral. Mind Publications. Retrieved on June 21, 2004 
from the world wide web: 
http://www.mindpub.com/art39.htm. 

Stice, E., Ragan, J., & Randall, P. (2004). Prospective 
Relations Between Social Support and Depression: 
Differential Direction of Effects for Parent and Peer 
Support? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 
155-159. 

Summers, J. (1998). The Encyclopedia of AIDS: A Social, 
Political, Cultural, and Scientific Record of the HIV 
Epidemic. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn.  

Thoits, P. (1986) Social support as coping assistance. 
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 
416-423. 

Trunzo, J. J., & Pinto, B. M. (2003). Social Support as a 
Mediator of Optimism and Distress in Breast Cancer 
Survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical 
Psychology, 17 (4), 805-811.  

Wilcox, S., Evenson, K. R, Aragaki, A., M, Wassertheil-
Smoller, S., Mouton, C. P. & Loevinger, B. L. (2003). 
The Effects of Widowhood on Physical and Mental 
Health, Health Behaviors, and Health Outcomes: The 
Women’s Health Initiative. Health Psychology, 22(5), 
50-69.  

Yeh, S. C. J., &  Lo, S. K. (2004). Living alone, social 
support, and feeling lonely among the elderly. Social 
Behavior & Personality, 32(2), 129-138. 

Ystgaard, M., Tambs, K., and Dalgard, O. S. (1999). Life 
stress, social support and psychological distress in late 
adolescence: a longitudinal study. Social Psychiatry, 
34, 9-12. 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


