










































Running head: VIOLENT MEDIA AND AGE


Graduate Student Journal of Psychology                                                                             Copyright 2009 by the Department of Counseling & Clinical Psychology  
2009, Vol. 11                                                                                                                        Teachers College, Columbia University                          
 
 

The Role of Self-Views in College Adjustment 
 

Alanna Joy Raines 
  Teachers College, Columbia University  

 

Gary Lewandowski, Jr. 
Monmouth University 

 
The transition to college presents a host of stressors for students to navigate in the novel environment. 
Previous research has shown that the transition to college and adaptation to new demands can be 
highly distressing for students. College adjustment has been shown to predict retention rates and 
uptake of risk behaviors such as alcohol use. It is likely that some students may be at greater risk for 
maladjustment based on their ability to adapt to the college environment. Thus, the current study 
examined how individual differences in self-views relate to college adjustment. Ninety-one 
participants (75 females and 16 males) completed measures of self-concept clarity, self-esteem, self-
acceptance, and college adjustment. College adjustment was significantly correlated with self-concept 
clarity (r = .29, p = .01), self-esteem (r = .39, p = .00) and self-acceptance (r = .36, p = .00). These 
results have important implications for university programs that focus on facilitating the transition to 
college, espousing the need for interventions that address promotion of acceptance of self and life 
events.  

 
There is a long research tradition that has endeavored to 

address the question: “What helps college students 
successfully adapt to their new environment?” During this 
shift to a novel environment, some individuals more readily 
orientate to the wealth of new experiences and adjust to life 
away from familiarity. However, it has been shown that 
others are not as able to identify with and feel comfort in 
their new environment (Cassidy & Trew, 2001). Research 
has shown that it is appropriate to look at the transition to 
college as a disturbing event in the lives of young adults 
(Choi, 2002; Naz & Weber, 2003; Paul & Brier, 2001). For 
many reasons, shifting from high school to a university 
setting can cause students to invoke self-views to help 
inform and guide academic and social behaviors in the new 
environment. 

The novel demands posed by autonomous living and the 
management of social freedom are daunting obstacles to be 
encountered in college. Yet, successfully overcoming the 
challenges can yield valuable and lasting benefits for those 
who navigate the transition. It has been shown that 
adjustment is closely related to academic success in terms of 
grade point average and retention rates (Gerdes & 
Mallinckrodt, 1994). In a recent meta-analysis conducted by 
Crede and Kunkel (2008), study skill inventories were found 
to be largely unrelated to college grades, but were 
moderately related to personality constructs (i.e., motivation 
to succeed). Furthermore, anxiety regarding academic 
performance was a strong negative predictor of grade point 
average. These results suggest that there are individual 
differences in personality that affect academic performance. 
Thus, it is likely that these factors also affect the college 
adjustment process as a whole. 1

The current study attempts to determine novel correlates 
that relate to successful college adjustment in order to 
facilitate intervention programs that focus on retention and 
                                                 
Correspondence: Alanna Joy Raines, ajr2153@columbia.edu 

risk behavior prevention. For the purposes of this paper, self-
views in evaluative and cognitive dimensions will be 
referred to as self-understanding, which is the compilation of 
three constructs: self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965), self-concept 
clarity (Campbell et al., 1996), and self-acceptance (Ryff, 
1989). As such, the combination of both evaluative and 
cognitive components of self-knowledge provides a broad 
conceptualization of traits, thoughts, and behaviors across 
situations.  

 
The Transition to College 
 

Students commonly question their new identity as 
autonomous adults, shedding familial dependencies upon 
entering college (Cassidy & Trew, 2001; Choi, 2002). 
Stemming from their newly-found independence, individuals 
must also properly manage their social freedom and find a 
personal balance between social interaction and personal 
space (Naz & Weber, 2003). Without the immediate 
presence of parents, the autonomous individual must develop 
self-soothing behaviors that can be enlisted in times of 
anxiety to quell fears and frustrations. The paucity of 
familiar others and the doubt that can arise from acquiring 
new affiliations and behaviors is compounded by 
“friendsickness.” Paul and Brier (2001) describe this feeling 
as a longing for friends previously held in secondary school 
and the personal identity once held among them. 
Reestablishing the former identity among new others is a 
task that can bring forth great anxiety when socially 
adjusting to a new environment.  

The duress placed on students during this time can 
jeopardize an individual’s physical and emotional health. For 
example, anxiety can manifest itself in a variety of ways, 
such as psychological and somatic distress, low self-esteem, 
and even depression (Giddan, 1988). Elevated levels of 
anxiety may also lead students to use alcohol and other 
substances to ease the tension and discomfort they 

 46



COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT 
 

 

 

47

experience in their unfamiliar environment. The use of 
addictive and illegal drugs can further compound the stress 
an individual feels, placing the student at higher risk for 
physical health and legal problems (Naz & Weber, 2003).  

 
Separation-Individuation 
 

 Erikson (1968) postulated that the most crucial 
developmental task an individual must face is separation 
from familial dependencies and achievement of self-
sufficiency as an autonomous adult. A refined notion of this 
developmental issue is separation-individuation (Mattanah, 
Hancock, & Brand, 2004). Healthy separation-individuation 
involves developing and maintaining an identity that 
conforms to one’s own personality, rather than that of the 
individual’s parents. Furthermore, early research in this area 
sought to determine if the successful independence from 
parents and other close relatives was related to college 
adjustment.  Rice (1992) espoused this notion, demonstrating 
that freshmen experience significant increases in 
individuation during each subsequent grade until graduation. 
Although necessary for independence of the self, this sense 
of autonomy requires individuals to separate themselves 
from immediate familial social supports (Choi, 2002). As a 
result, students must learn new coping methods to deal with 
stress, and must seek out new sources of social support. 

  
Self-Differentiation 
 

Similar to separation-individuation, self-differentiation 
refers to the establishment of a self separate from the identity 
of an individual’s parents (Skowron, Wester, & Azen, 2004). 
This concept broadens the definition of separation-
individuation to include both internal and external factors of 
successful independence from parents. Emotion regulation 
(i.e., coping with emotional experiences), examination of 
consequences and outcomes, and thoughtful deliberation of 
behavior make up the intrapsychic components of self-
differentiation. These are crucial issues to navigate, as young 
adults make decisions for themselves in the absence of 
parents. In the social context, one must establish working 
and supportive friendship networks that aid in emotional 
support. These close relationships, if successfully 
established, should be fulfilling and ultimately mirror the 
relationship with close family members (Wintre & Yaffe, 
2000). These resources aid in the establishment of social 
support, resembling the closeness of a family.  
 
Identity Commitment 
 

Cassidy and Trew (2001) investigated students’ 
commitment to maintaining their identity from secondary 
school to their first year at college. The researchers made a 
distinction between short and long-term identity change, 
positing that long-term personality change is difficult to 
evoke. Short-term change is characterized by the 
characteristics that are exhibited as individuals move in and 

out of social roles. A distinct relationship exists between 
environmental context and individuals’ self-views. This is 
similar to the conceptualization of the working self-concept 
proposed by Markus and Wurf (1987) which states that the 
multiple identities can overlap and be present at different 
times throughout social situations. Long-term change in 
identity, however, refers to a major life transition in which 
an individual experiences an enduring change in their 
identity patterns. Thus, Cassidy and Trew (2001) proposed 
that long-term change due to relocation and social 
environment for college students would elicit such change. 
However, results showed that the psychological centrality of 
identities participants cited in secondary school did not 
change one year after the college transition. This gives 
support to the notion that individuals seek to retain their pre-
college identity. It also shows commitment to establishing 
social networks in college that parallel their previous 
relationships with friends and family, while maintaining the 
identity that they exhibited in those relationships. 

 
Big Five Personality Traits 
 

Wintre and Sugar (2000) examined personality 
characteristics and their relationship to college adjustment. 
Specifically, they examined the Big Five personality traits 
outlined by McCrae and Costa (1992). The first component, 
neuroticism, is characteristic of those with high self-
consciousness and negative affect. Extraversion largely deals 
with social competence and warmth toward others. 
Receptivity to new ideas and activities is characterized by 
openness to experience. Those who are empathetic and 
generous are considered agreeable using this taxonomy. 
Lastly, conscientiousness describes those who strive for 
excellence and achievement, as well as display neatness and 
orderliness. Wintre and Sugar (2000) hypothesized that 
conscientiousness would predict academic and institutional 
college adjustment. Agreeableness and extraversion were 
hypothesized to predict social and institutional adjustment. 
Lastly, it was also hypothesized that neuroticism would be 
negatively correlated with institutional, social, personal, and 
emotional college adjustment. Results showed that 
conscientiousness was related to males’ academic and 
institutional college adjustment, yet the same pattern did not 
materialize for females. Agreeableness and extraversion 
predicted both genders’ social adjustment, yet only females’ 
institutional adjustment. Lastly, females who reported high 
neuroticism also reported lower institutional, social, 
personal, and emotional college adjustment. This study 
delineates the predictive power of personality characteristics 
and gender in determining college adjustment, as well as 
individual differences predictive of college adjustment in 
various dimensions. 

 
Self-views and College Adjustment 
  

Self-esteem. Self-concept is a cognitive schema 
comprised of an individual’s traits, values, and personal 



RAINES & LEWANDOWSKI 
 

 

 

48 

goals (Pelham & Swann, 1989). Self-esteem (Campbell et 
al., 1996) is the evaluative component of self-concept. Self-
esteem is an individual’s positive, neutral, or negative view 
of his or her own personality characteristics. When mentally 
aggregated, it results in a general satisfaction or 
dissatisfaction with the self. It is likely that a global positive 
or negative view of the self will similarly influence the 
global view of the college experience. 

Self-acceptance. Self-acceptance is an evaluative 
measure of one’s attitude toward the self within the context 
of past life events and accomplishments. Ryff (1989) 
describes self-acceptance as a measurement of healthy 
psychological functioning. High measures of self-acceptance 
relate to acceptance and comfort with previous positive or 
negative experiences. Further, self-acceptance yields a 
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a person’s past selves and 
life events, rather than a positive or negative view of the 
contents of the self-concept, measured by self-esteem 
(Campbell, 1990; Campbell et al., 1996). 

Self-concept clarity. Self-concept clarity is defined as 
the stability and consistency of the traits in the self-concept 
(Campbell et al., 1996). This is a cognitive component of 
self-knowledge which assembles personality traits into an 
organized structure. It works to incorporate new information 
into the existing organization. Individuals with high self-
concept clarity have a well-defined view of who they are, 
and derive high self-esteem from the strength and 
consistency of self-beliefs (Campbell & Lavallee, 1993). 
Previous work examining individual differences in the 
clarity of the self-concept have pointed to its relation to 
college adjustment. Crede and Kunkel (2008) propose that 
those with a clear knowledge of personal abilities and 
motivating factors tend to have greater academic success in 
college.  

Although previous studies have focused on personality 
characteristics’ relation to college adjustment, research has 
failed to properly address the role of self-views. Given the 
prominent role that self-concept and self-esteem play in 
everyday functioning, they are likely to affect how students 
acclimate to a novel environment such as college. Those who 
have high self-esteem possess a positive evaluation of the 
self (Rosenberg, 1965), which might lead to positive 
evaluations of their college experience. In addition, it is 
possible that those who have high self-concept clarity, which 
is characterized by a clear, stable, and defined view of their 
personal expectations, traits, and abilities (Campbell, 1990), 
will have better adjustment as they choose academic 
endeavors, goals, and affiliations in college that complement 
the existing self-concept. Lastly, it is plausible that those 
with high self-acceptance, characterized by having an 
accepting and approving view of personal accomplishments 
and life events (Ryff, 1989), will also have a favorable 
impression of their academic and social experience in 
college. Thus, it is hypothesized that those who report high 
self-esteem, self-concept clarity, self-acceptance, and self-
understanding, will also report higher overall college 
adjustment (Hypothesis 1). It is also hypothesized that the 

self-variables (i.e., self-esteem, self-acceptance, and self-
concept clarity) will be independently related to the four 
specific dimensions of college adjustment (i.e., social, 
academic, institutional, and personal).  

 
Method 

 
Participants 
 

Participants in this study were 91 undergraduate 
students (75 females and 16 males) enrolled at a private 
university in the Northeast. Participants’ ages ranged from 
18 to 28, with a mean age of 19.75. The sample was 
comprised of 82 participants of Eastern-European decent, 3 
African-Americans, 3 Hispanic-Americans, 2 Asian-
Americans, and 1 participant who identified their ethnicity as 
“other.” The sample included 39 freshmen, 15 sophomores, 
12 juniors, and 25 seniors. All participants were treated 
ethically throughout the course of the study according to 
American Psychological Association guidelines (APA, 
2002).  

 
Materials 
 

Materials used in the current study included a 
questionnaire packet that consisted of a measure of college 
adjustment (Naz & Weber, 2003), a self-acceptance scale 
(Ryff, 1989), a self-esteem measure (Rosenberg, 1965), a 
measure of self-concept clarity (Campbell et al., 1996), as 
well as a demographics sheet. The internal consistency 
(Chronbach’s alpha) for all measures ranged from .70 to .91, 
with exception of the Personal Adjustment scale which was 
.62.   

College adjustment. This measure is a 28-item scale that 
is designed to measure participants’ social, academic, 
institutional, and personal adjustment to college. Participants 
were asked to respond on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly 
disagree; 7 = strongly agree).  

Social adjustment. This subset of questions in Naz and 
Weber’s (2003) college adjustment scale determined 
participants’ level of social adjustment at the university. This 
was measured in terms of their development of meaningful 
and satisfying relationships with other students, as well as 
their likelihood to attend cultural events with friends at the 
university. A sample item includes: “Since coming to this 
university, I have developed close personal relationships 
with other students.”  

Academic adjustment. These questions measured 
participants’ level of academic adjustment in terms of their 
satisfaction with their intellectual development upon coming 
to the university, as well as their courses and grades. A 
sample item includes: “My academic experience has had a 
positive influence on my intellectual growth and interest in 
ideas.”  

Institutional adjustment. This subset of questions was 
designed to measure participants’ level of comfort with their 
current university and confidence in their decision to attend 



COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT 
 

 

 

49

the school. A sample item includes: “The likelihood that I 
will finish the present school year is almost certain.”  

Personal adjustment. The last subset of questions 
measured participants’ feelings that their current university 
fits their personality and the extent to which their university 
feels like home to them. A sample item includes: 
“Sometimes I get homesick.”  

Self-esteem. This measure assesses the degree to which 
participants take a positive attitude toward themselves 
(Rosenberg, 1965). Participants were asked to respond on a 
4-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 4 = strongly agree). 
Sample items include: “On the whole I am satisfied with 
myself” and “I feel I’m a person of worth, at least on an 
equal plane with others.”  

Self-acceptance. This measure of well-being assesses 
participants’ acceptance and comfort with their selves, 
accomplishments, and life events (Ryff, 1989). Participants 
were asked to respond on a 6-point scale (1 = strongly 
disagree; 6 = strongly agree). Sample items include: “In 
general, I feel confident and positive about myself” and “I 
like most aspects of my personality.”  

Self-concept clarity. This measure assesses the stability 
and coherence of participants’ perception of their personality 
characteristics (Campbell et al., 1996). Participants were 
asked to respond on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 
= strongly agree). Sample items include: “I seldom 
experience conflict between different aspects of my 
personality” and “In general, I have a clear sense of who I 
am and what I am.”  

Demographics. The demographics sheet asked 
participants to indicate their gender, ethnic background, age, 
and year in college. 
 
Procedure 

 
Participants signed up in advance for a time slot of 30 

minutes using a web-based participant pool. After arriving at 
the laboratory, participants were met by an experimenter 
who confirmed their attendance. They were then given an 
informed consent sheet and its contents were read aloud as 
participants followed along. Upon written consent, a 
questionnaire packet was distributed to participants, along 
with a demographics sheet. The completion of the two 
materials took approximately 15 minutes. When participants 
finished, they were orally debriefed and any remaining 

questions were answered by an experimenter. After they 
were asked to keep the details of the current study 
confidential, participants were released. 
 

Results 
 

Correlation between Overall College Adjustment and Self 
Variables  

Means and standard deviations for the key variables are 
shown in Table 1. Correlations between college adjustment 
and the various components of self-understanding are shown 
in Table 2. As predicted, self-esteem, self-concept clarity, 
and self-acceptance were all significantly positively related 
to overall college adjustment. This indicates that those who 
have generally positive self-views tend to display higher 
college adjustment. 

 
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations 

Variable M SD N
Self-esteem 3.43 .47 91 

Self-concept clarity            3.67 .65 91 

Self-acceptance 4.82 .74 91 

Overall college adjustment 5.34 .72 91 

Academic college adjustment      5.38 .77 91 

Personal college adjustment        5.23 .86 91 

Institutional college adjustment 5.95 .97 91 

Social college adjustment            4.82 1.11 91 

 
Correlations between College Adjustment Subscales and Self 
Variables (Hypothesis 2). 

Correlations between the college adjustment subscales 
and self-understanding (and its components) for all 
participants are also shown in Table 2. Self-esteem and self-
acceptance were positively correlated with academic college 
adjustment (r = .29, p < .01; r = .30, p < .01, respectively), 
whereas self-concept clarity approached significance (r = 
.20, p = .054). Self-acceptance was positively correlated with 
institutional college adjustment, whereas self-concept clarity 
(r = .18, p = .09) and self-esteem (r = .20, p = .06) 
approached significance.  

 

Table 2. Correlations between Self Variables, Overall College Adjustment, and College Adjustment Subscales 
Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
1. Self-esteem - .68** .87** .39** .29** .44** .20 .27** 
2. Self-concept clarity                   - .72** .29** .20 .31** .18 .21* 
3. Self-acceptance                                     - .36** .30** .34** .22* .25* 
4. Overall college adjustment    - .78** .77** .74* .80** 
5. Academic college adjustment                 - .42** .59** .52** 
6. Personal college adjustment                    - .37** .55** 
7. Institutional college adjustment               - .35** 
8. Social college adjustment        - 

 Note. *p < .05. **p < .01. 
  



RAINES & LEWANDOWSKI 
 

 

 

50 

Discussion 
 

Previous research has shown that the transition to 
college is distressing for students (Paul & Brier, 2001). It has 
also been shown that personality traits are more closely 
linked to academic performance than a range of academic 
factors (e.g., study skills) (Crede & Kunkel, 2008). Research 
in this area has pointed to, yet not fully determined the role 
of self-views in terms of college adjustment. The current 
study sought to isolate novel correlates of college 
adjustment, specifically self-esteem, self-concept clarity, and 
self-acceptance.    

Results demonstrated that overall college adjustment 
was significantly positively correlated with self-concept 
clarity, self-esteem, and self-acceptance. This illustrates that 
individuals who positively evaluate themselves, 
characterized by high self esteem (Rosenberg, 1965), are 
more likely to rate their college experience more positively. 
It also suggests that those who have high self-concept clarity 
(Campbell, 1990) are better adjusted due to an ability to 
choose academic endeavors that complement the existing 
self-concept. In addition, it is demonstrated that those with 
high self-acceptance, characterized by an accepting and 
approving view of personal accomplishments and life events 
(Ryff, 1989), are more likely to have a favorable impression 
of their academic and social experience in college. Results 
suggest that students with positive self-views are more 
comfortable with themselves, have a better idea of their 
strengths and weaknesses, possess the personal resources 
necessary to be successful, and ultimately have better overall 
college adjustment. 

As predicted, self-esteem, self-concept clarity, and self-
acceptance were positively significantly correlated with 
social and personal college adjustment. These findings 
indicate that those who have a greater awareness of who they 
are may be more likely to seek social support that adequately 
fulfills their emotional needs. They also appear more likely 
to be well-adjusted due to a better perceived “match” 
between their goals and the resources afforded to them at 
their university. Self-esteem and self-acceptance were 
positively correlated with academic college adjustment, 
whereas self-concept clarity only approached significance. 
This suggests that those who hold a positive evaluation of 
their personal characteristics and life achievements are more 
likely to be satisfied with their academic performance and 
intellectual growth when compared against their peers. Self-
acceptance was positively correlated with institutional 
college adjustment, whereas self-concept clarity and self-
esteem only approached significance. This shows that those 
who have a forgiving and tolerant view of past decisions are 
more likely to accept their choice to attend the college.  

Previous research has pointed to individual differences 
in college adjustment (Crede & Kunkel, 2008; Wintre & 
Sugar, 2000). However, this study was the first to assess the 
value of positive self-views with respect to college 
adjustment. Strengths of the present study include an 
analysis of different aspects of college adjustment. With use 

of Naz and Weber’s (2003) college adjustment scale, 
participants’ academic, social, institutional, and personal 
adjustment were measured. Each subscale was designed to 
measure a specific component of adjustment, yielding a 
more informative analysis of the sample.  

A limitation of the current study was that a majority of 
its sample were freshmen. Since their transition to college 
was fairly recent, the disturbances caused by being uprooting 
from their home and daily familial interaction were still very 
new. Compared to sophomores, juniors and seniors, 
freshmen’s issues related to separation-individuation were in 
the early stages of negotiation. It might have been too early 
for the freshmen to determine their comfort with their 
university and academic performance.  

Another limitation of this study is the inclusion of items 
on both the institutional and personal sections of the College 
Adjustment Scale (Naz & Weber, 2003) that did not apply to 
non-residents. Many participants commuted to school, and 
were unable to answer residential life questions on the 
subscales, such as “I like living in the residence hall” and “I 
feel like the residence hall is home now.”  This resulted in 
the relatively low-reliability of the institutional (α = .70) and 
personal (α = .62) college adjustment subscales, yielding 
inconclusive results for self-concept clarity and self-esteem’s 
relationship to institutional adjustment for all participants. 

Lastly, participants in this study were largely female. 
Previous research has shown that there are distinct gender 
differences in the adjustment patterns of males and females 
(Wintre & Sugar, 2000). This study was unable to address 
this issue due to a paucity of male participants. Future 
research should determine differences in college adjustment 
and self-views based on gender. 

Based on the results of this study, future research 
examining the benefit of increasing positive self-views in 
college students is warranted. This study shows that those 
who have high self-esteem, self-concept clarity, and self-
acceptance, report higher college adjustment.  As such, these 
results have important implications for university programs 
that focus on facilitating the transition to college. Possible 
university intervention programs could focus on inciting 
positive increases in students’ self-views. It is likely that this 
will allow students to learn about their traits and abilities and 
to better use them to adapt to their new environment. 
Techniques, such as writing about personal characteristics to 
identify and clarify them, could possibly aid in this process. 
Perhaps inciting such an increase will yield college 
adjustment benefits, such as improved academic grades and 
retention. 

In addition, future studies should address the question of 
whether positive self-views yield the same benefits in the 
workplace. This study demonstrated that college students 
with positive self-view were surer of their goals and viewed 
their personal endeavors more positively. Similarly, it is 
plausible that the same individuals would be happier and 
more satisfied with their jobs. This relationship might stem 
from the choice of work environment complimenting an 



COLLEGE ADJUSTMENT 
 

 

 

51

individual’s goals and personal characteristics, resulting in 
an easier transition to a new job. 

Previous research has shown that the transition to 
college can be distressing for students (Choi, 2002; Paul & 
Brier, 2001). College adjustment has also been shown to 
predict retention rates (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994). 
Wintre and Sugar (2000) have pointed to individual 
differences in college students’ ability to adjust to their new 
environment. The current study addressed the role of 
possible individual differences in personality by examining 
self-variables and their relationship to college adjustment. 
Self-esteem, self-concept clarity, and self-acceptance were 
examined within the context of college adjustment. Results 
showed that those who reported high self-esteem, self-
acceptance, and self-concept clarity also reported high 
overall college adjustment. Thus, novel correlates of college 
adjustment have been isolated by this study. Perhaps the 
employment of methods that assist in fostering positive self-
views might ease the transition to college, benefiting 
adjustment and, ultimately, retention.  

 
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