



































Interpreter-Mediated Therapy for Refugees:


Graduate Student Journal of Psychology          Copyright 2011 by the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology 

2011, Vol. 13               Teachers College, Columbia University 

39 

 

Who Are We? Social Identity and Psychological Well-Being 
 

Steven Pirutinsky and Alfred F. Mancuso 
Georgian Court University 

 

Social identification – the perception of the self as an exemplar of a social category – forms an 

essential part of an individual’s identity.  Previous studies have found a relationship between 

various forms of social identity (e.g., ethnic, religious, national) and psychological well-being.  The 

current research examines whether strength of social identification, regardless of specific identity 

and pattern of acquisition, correlates with life satisfaction, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and 

stress.  One hundred and two participants completed an internet survey including the Multi-

Component Social Identity Scale and multiple measures of psychological well-being.  Results 

indicated that the strength of social identification predicted life satisfaction and self-esteem, 

controlling for demographic and clinical (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress) variables.  Possessing 

a strong social identity of any type appears to be an important correlate of life satisfaction and self-

esteem. Potential implications for clinical work are discussed.  

  

 

Erikson (1975) defined identity as a subjective sense of 

personal sameness and continuity in which numerous given 

aspects of the self, such as appearance, temperament, and 

abilities, combine with chosen roles, occupations, and 

relationships.  Even casual observation of human behavior, 

however, reveals that beyond an individuated conception of 

personal identity, lays a collective or social identity to which 

individuals are emotionally committed and act to preserve 

(Brewer, 1991).  These social identities―whether ethnic, 

national, religious, or occupational―shift focus away from 

the characteristics that differentiate us from others, and 

―towards the perception of self as an interchangeable 

exemplar of some social category‖ (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, 

Riecher, & Wetherell, 1987, p.  50). 

 

Early social theorists explored these ideas empirically, 

finding that self-categorization accentuates perceived 

similarities between in-group members, exaggerates 

differences from out-group members, and encourages 

preference for the in-group (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Turner et 

al., 1987).  Thus, they concluded that social categorization 

forms an essential part of an individual’s identity.  This 

process appears to be so innate and fundamental that even 

arbitrary categorization of participants, an experimental 

procedure known as the minimal group paradigm, elicits 

these effects (Diehl, 1990).   

Despite focusing primarily on inter-group consequences, 

such as conflict, stereotyping, and preference (Brewer, 1991; 

Dosie, 1988; Hogg, 1996), many social theorists also 

endeavor to link social identity with psychological well-

being.  For instance, social identity theory initially proposed 

that in-group identification and preference results in 

enhanced self-esteem (Hogg & Abrams, 1988).  Others 

                                                 
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to 

Steven Pirutinsky, Teachers College, Columbia University, 

Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Box 303, 525 

West 120th Street, New York, NY 10027. Email: 

sp2813@columbia.edu. 

suggest that group identification reduces uncertainty by 

prescribing who individuals are, how they should behave, 

and how others may react to them (Hogg, Sherman, 

Dierselhuis, Maitner, & Graham, 2007).  Social identity has 

also been theorized to provide meaning (Abrams & Hogg, 

1988), a sense of belonging (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), 

increased self-regulation (Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, & 

Stucke, 2001), protection from death anxiety (Solomon, 

Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1998), and an optimal level of 

distinctness (Brewer, 1991). 

Taken in aggregate, these theories suggest that social 

identity may be related to overall psychological well-being, 

which has been generally defined as including increased 

positive-hedonic indicators, such as self-esteem and life 

satisfaction, and decreased negative indicators such as 

depression, anxiety, and stress (e.g., Ahren & Ryff, 2006; 

McDaniel & Grice, 2008).  However, prior empirical 

investigation primarily explored the basic mechanisms and 

motivations of social identity formation with limited 

consideration of the broader proposition that social identity 

enhances psychological well-being (Greenfield & Marks, 

2007).  Moreover, previous research has been limited to 

exploration of specific social identities in particular 

theoretical frameworks, such as ethnic identity 

(Mossakowski, 2003; Negy, Shreve, Jensen, & Uddin, 2003), 

religious identity (Greenfield & Marks, 2007; Keyes & 

Reitzes, 2007), national identity (Zheng, Sang, & Wang, 

2004), and athletic identity (Brewer, 1993).  Thus, the current 

research aims to integrate these perspectives and findings by 

examining if the strength of an individual’s social identity, 

regardless of type, is correlated with psychological well-

being, specifically life satisfaction, self-esteem, depression, 

anxiety, and stress.   

Previous research suggests that social identity is 

particularly related with the positive facets of psychological 

well-being (Ahren & Ryff, 2006).  The present study 

examined if social identity would correlate with life 

satisfaction and self-esteem beyond the influence of 



PIRUTINSKY & MANCUSO 

 

40 

 

depression, anxiety, and stress.  Specifically, we 

hypothesized that 1) the strength of an individual’s salient 

social identity would correlate positively with satisfaction 

with life and self-esteem (H1); 2) social identity would 

predict satisfaction with life and self-esteem above the effects 

of relevant background variables and depression, anxiety, and 

stress (H2); 3) social identity would predict satisfaction with 

life and self-esteem, regardless of whether an individual was 

born into their identity or chose it later in life (H3); 4) all 

types of social identities (e.g., religious, ethnic, occupational) 

would equally predict satisfaction with life and self-esteem 

(H4); and finally, 5) social identity would relate with 

satisfaction with life and self-esteem among those reporting 

high and low levels of depression, anxiety, and stress (H5). 

 

Method 

 

Participants 

One hundred and two participants were recruited for a 

study of ―social identity and psychological well-being‖ 

through a variety of internet sources including 17 randomly 

selected newsgroups and several websites listing online 

psychological research projects.  Participants ranged in age 

from 18 to 75 years (M = 35.65, SD = 14.92) with females 

representing 63% (n = 64) and males 37% (n = 38).  Fifty-

nine percent (n = 60) of participants were married and 41% 

(n = 42) were single.  Measurement of socio-economic status 

consisted of education, 46% (n = 58) of the sample reported 

having a bachelors degree, and income which had a median 

of $25,001 - $50,000 (IQR = less than $25,000 through 

$75,000).  The majority of participants self-reported their 

ethnicity as Caucasian (86%, n = 88), while others reported 

Hispanic (2%, n = 2), African-American (4%, n = 4), Native-

American (1%, n = 1), and Other (6%, n = 6).  The vast 

majority of participants reported residing in the U.S. (70%) 

with additional participants from a variety of countries 

including Indonesia, Uruguay, Russia, and Israel. 

 

Instruments 

To identify participants’ most salient social identity, 

participants were asked: 

People often define themselves by the different groups – 

gender, ethnic, religious, occupational, and social – that 

they belong to.  For example, some may say: ―I am an 

African-American‖, ―I am an accountant‖, ―I am 

Muslim‖, or ―I am a college student‖.  How would you 

complete the following sentence? ―I am a _________.‖  

Because individuals are often members of multiple social 

groups, participants were then asked to complete the 

statement ―I am a _______.‖ for as many groups as they 

could, and to select the particular social identity most 

important to them. 

Subsequently, to assess the strength of their chosen 

identity, participants completed the Multi-Component Social 

Identity Scale (MCSIS; Leach et al., 2008) referring to their 

self-selected most salient identity.  This 14-item scale draws 

extensively on previous research (e.g., Doosje, 1998; 

Ellemers, Kortekaas, & Ouwerkerk, 1999; Luhtanen & 

Crocker, 1992) and includes a variety of theoretically and 

empirically derived aspects of social identity, such as 

individual self-stereotyping, in-group homogeneity, self-

investment, solidarity, satisfaction, and centrality.  Items 

include, ―I think that [In-group] have a lot to be proud of.‖, ―I 

feel a bond with [In-group].‖, and ―[In-group] people are 

very similar to each other.‖ These items were rated on a 

Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) 

to 7 (strongly agree).  The MCSIS has shown both construct, 

predictive, and discriminant validity across diverse group 

identities (Leach et al., 2008) and was ideal for measuring the 

diversity of social identities examined in the current research.  

It was internally consistent (α = .91) in the current sample.  In 

addition, participants indicated if they were born into or 

chose their salient social identity. 

To assess psychological well-being, participants 

completed the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, 

Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; SWLS), the Rosenberg (1986) Self-

Esteem Scale (SES), and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress 

Scales short-form (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995; DASS).  

These measures are widely used, Likert-type scales, and have 

previously demonstrated reliability and validity (see citations 

above).  In the current sample, these scales were internally 

consistent with the following Cronbach alphas: SWLS (.91), 

SES, (.84), DASS-Depression (.79), DASS-Anxiety (.73), 

DASS-Stress (.76). 

 

Procedure 

Participants were directed to the survey website, which 

explained the nature of the study, and asked them to give 

informed consent in order to proceed.  After giving consent, 

participants were asked to provide demographic information 

such as age, gender, income (selected from a pre-defined 

list), occupation, ethnicity (selected from a pre-defined list), 

and religious affiliation (selected from a pre-defined list).  

Once complete, the participants were directed to choose a 

salient social identity and completed the MCSIS, SWLS, 

SES, and DASS.  Upon completion of all survey items, the 

participants were given contact information for the 

researchers and the Georgian Court University Institutional 

Research Review Board, which approved this study.  

Participants were not reimbursed. 

 

Results 

 

Social Identity Selected 

Participants chose a variety of social identities, however, 

several common themes emerged accounting for 76% of the 

salient identities.  These were family role (e.g., mother and 

father; 28%), occupation (18%), religion (16%), gender (8%), 

and nationality (6%).  Age was unrelated to choice between 

these categories (F(4, 72) = .10, p = .98), as was income 

(F(4, 69) = 1.20, p = .32), college degree (χ
2
(4, N = 77) = 

3.68, p = .45), gender (χ
2
(4, N = 77) = 6.96, p = .14), religion 

(χ
2
(12, N = 57) = 9.82, p = .63), and ethnicity (χ

2
(12, N = 73) 

= 11.56, p = .48).  Married individuals were significantly 



SOCIAL IDENTITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING 

 

41 

 

more likely to choose family role and less likely to choose 

occupational identity (χ
2
(4, N = 77) = 12.84, p = .01). 

 

Social Identity and Psychological Well-being 

This study assessed the strength of each participant’s 

most salient, self-selected social identity (using the MCSIS), 

as well as multiple aspects of psychological well-being.  To 

test our hypothesis that social identity would be related to 

these outcome variables (H1), we conducted a series of 

Pearson correlations.  Results indicate that while strength of 

social identity significantly correlated with SWLS and SES, 

it did not correlate with depression, anxiety, or stress (see 

Table 1).  Depression, anxiety, stress, SWLS, and SES were 

all significantly correlated with each other.   

 

Regressions on Satisfaction with Life and Self-Esteem 

 We further hypothesized (H2) that although previous 

research suggests that stress, anxiety, and depression are 

important correlates of SWL and SES, strength of social 

identity would positively predict SWLS and SES, beyond 

these effects, and beyond relevant background variables.  To  

test this hypothesis, a hierarchal regression analysis was 

conducted (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996) and results are 

presented in Table 2.  Model 1 included only background 

variables (i.e., age, gender, income, college degree, and 

married), which predicted a non-significant portion of the 

variance (SWLS, p = .22; SES, p = .19), suggesting that these 

variables were unrelated to SWLS and SES in our sample.  

Model 2 introduced the three DASS subscales―depression, 

anxiety, and stress―and the overall model significantly 

predicted both SWLS (p < 0.001) and SES (p < 0.001).  Due 

to a high degree of co-linearity, individual coefficients for 

depression, anxiety, and stress could not be interpreted.  

Model 3 added strength of social identity (MCSIS), and 

accounted for a significant amount of variance beyond 

Models 1 and 2 for both SWLS (p < 0.001) and SES (p = 

0.02).  These results support our hypothesis (H2) that social 

identity strength uniquely relates with both SWLS and SES, 

above the effects of background variables and negative 

affect. 

Additionally, H3 suggested that social identity would be 

an equally important predictor of SWLS and SES, for both 

Table 1 

 

Correlations between Social Identity, Satisfaction with Life (SWLS), Self-Esteem (SES), and DASS 

 1 2 3 4 5 6 

1. MCSIS —      

2. SWLS .28** —     

3. SES .20* .37*** —    

4. DASS Depression -.06 -.45*** -.47*** —   

5. DASS Anxiety .03 -.36*** -.48*** .76*** —  

6. DASS Stress .02 -.43*** -.45*** .79*** .77*** — 

Note. 
* 
p < .05, 

** 
p < .01, 

*** 
p < .001 

 

 

Table 2 

 

Hierarchical Regression on Satisfaction with Life and Self-Esteem 

 Satisfaction with Life  Self-Esteem 

Step/Predictor ΔR
2
 B SE B β  ΔR

2
 B SE B β 

Model 1:  

Background Variables 

.07     .07    

Age  -.02 -.07 -.03   .08 .06 .17 

Gender  

(1 = Male, 0 = Female)  

 -3.04 1.71 -.19   .24 1.50 .02 

College Degree  1.70 1.77 .11   1.19 1.56 .09 

Income  .52 .52 .11   .44 .46 .11 

Married  1.44 1.75 .09   -1.17 1.55 -.09 

Model 2: Negative Affect .21**     .20**    

Depression  -.91* .41 -.38   -.32 .37 -.15 

Anxiety  .17 .40 .07   -.46 .36 -.22 

Stress  -.50 .41 -.21   -.32 .37 -.16 

Model 3: Social Identity .10**     .05*    

MCSIS  .18** .05 .32   .11* .05 .24 

Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.001 



PIRUTINSKY & MANCUSO 

 

42 

 

those who chose their identity and those who were born into 

it. An additional regression analysis examining this 

interaction was conducted.  As per Aiken and West (1991), 

―born into‖ was dummy coded, (1 = born into, 0 = chosen), 

and then multiplied with the MCSIS (centered) to yield an 

interaction term.  Both ―born into‖ and the interaction term 

(―born into X social identity‖) were then entered into the 

regression equation described above (Model 3; Table 3).  

Results indicate that the addition of this interaction did not 

significantly increase the proportion of variance explained for 

SWLS (p = .15) or SES (p = .86), suggesting that social 

identities, both chosen and born into, equally relate with 

SWLS and SES.  

H4 stated that regardless of type (e.g., religious, ethnic, 

occupational), the strength of social identity would predict 

satisfaction with life and self-esteem.  To test this hypothesis, 

membership in each of the five identified social identity 

categories was dummy coded, and multiplied with the MCSIS 

(centered) yielding an interaction term for each identity type.  

We then added these interactions to the regression equation 

(Table 3).  Results indicated that adding the interaction of 

social identity type and strength of identity did not 

significantly increase the proportion of variance explained for 

SWLS (p = .13) or SES (p = .67), indicating that social 

identities of all types equally predicted SWLS and SES.  In 

regards to H5, social identity did not appear to interact with 

the level of depression, stress, and anxiety (Table 3) and was 

an equally important predictor among both those with high 

and low levels of distress (SWLS p = .24; SES p = .38). 

 

Discussion 

 

 Research suggests that social identity is an innate and 

fundamental psychological process with implications for 

psychological well-being. However, previous studies have 

focused primarily on inter-group processes and specific 

forms of identity (e.g., ethnic, religious, occupational).  

These findings can be integrated and suggest that social 

identities of any type are related to psychological well-being.  

Accordingly, the current study examined the relationship 

between social identity, social identity type, and negative 

(depression, anxiety, and stress) and positive indicators of 

psychological well-being (life satisfaction and self-esteem). 

Consistent with these ideas and the five specific hypotheses 

presented in this study, we found that individuals reporting 

strong social identities of any type (e.g., religious, 

occupational, gender), reported higher levels of both 

satisfaction with life and self-esteem (H1).  This relationship 

remained significant even when background and clinical (i.e., 

depression, anxiety, and stress) variables were controlled for 

(H2).  The relationship also held for both identities an 

individual was born into and those chosen later in life (H3), 

as well as for each of the diverse types of social identities 

selected (H4).  Social identity also equally predicted 

satisfaction with life and self-esteem for both individuals 

with high and low distress (H5).   

These results suggest that having a salient strong social 

identity significantly relates to both satisfaction with life and 

self-esteem independent of levels of depression, anxiety, and 

stress.  This finding has important implications for clinical 

work with individuals struggling with social identity 

transformations (e.g., acculturation, academic and 

occupational transitions, disability, religious change, and 

divorce), since beyond targeting specific symptoms (e.g., 

depression and anxiety), clients may also benefit from the 

reacquisition of a strong positive social identity.  Although 

psychotherapy increasingly focuses on symptom relief (e.g., 

Barlow, 2008), our results suggest that an additional 

consideration of identity and identity formation is relevant to 

improving positive-hedonic aspects of psychological well-

being. 

In general, most research studies and theoretical models 

have focused on one aspect of social identity (e.g., race, 

gender, religion).  While this approach highlights important 

 

Table 3 

 

Interaction of MCSIS with “Born into,” Social Identity Type, and Distress 

 Satisfaction with Life  Self-Esteem 

Step/Predictor ΔR
2
 B SE B β  ΔR

2
 B SE B β 

Adding “Born into” .01     .001    

Born into X MCSIS  -.16 .12 -.14   .03 .11 .03 

Adding Social Identity Type  .04     .05    

Family Role X MCSIS  -.08 .15 -.06   -.22 .14 -.21 

Occupation X MCSIS  .14 .15 .11   -.13 .14 -.12 

Religion X MCSIS  .15 .13 .16   -.20 .13 -.12 

Gender X MCSIS  .09 .28 .03   -.57 .27 -.22 

Nationality X MCSIS  -.50 .35 -.13   -.14 .33 -.04 

Adding Personal Distress .05     .01    

Depression X MCSIS  .06 .03 .35   -.02 .03 -.12 

Anxiety X MCSIS  -.05 .03 -.29   .02 .03 .12 

Stress X MCSIS  -.04 .03 -.24   -.01 .03 -.07 
Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.001 



SOCIAL IDENTITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING 

 

43 

 

issues that are often marginalized, our findings suggest that 

multiple forms of social identity factor into life satisfaction 

and self-esteem.  This is unsurprising, given that the 

psychological and neurological mechanisms underlying 

group affiliation and social identity are likely consistent 

across multiple forms of identity (Brewer, 1991).  Given 

these results, perhaps it is time to integrate the divergent 

lenses through which various aspects of human social 

identity have been considered and begin integrating these 

perspectives into a common conceptualization of social and 

group identity.  

 

Limitations 

This research was limited by use of a self-selected, 

Internet sample, which was necessary to obtain a broad and 

diverse assortment of social identities, but may limit the 

generalizability of the study findings.  Another limitation is 

that the DASS instrument appeared to be only moderately 

internally consistent; future research using a more reliable 

measure is needed.  Additionally, due to the correlational 

nature of this research, any causal interpretation of the link 

between social identity and psychological wellbeing should 

be cautiously viewed.  Further longitudinal or experimental 

research examining the process of social identity formation 

and disruption is necessary.   

Finally, the broad measure of identity used did not elicit 

the content – or diverse meanings, roles, and attitudes – 

implicit in a specific social identity.  These aspects of identity 

can be expected to differ, and thereby influence the 

relationship between social identity and psychological 

variables.  For example, an identity of ―criminal‖ or 

―mentally ill‖ would likely have very different consequences 

than the identity of ―student‖ or ―accountant.‖ Future 

research can also explore the extent to which socio-economic 

status influences the choice and importance of social 

identities.  Nevertheless, the current research sheds light on 

the link between social identity, satisfaction with life, and 

self-esteem demonstrating the utility to future research. 

In conclusion, although previous research consistently 

relates a variety of social identities with psychological 

outcomes, our results integrate these findings and suggest 

that possessing a strong social identity of any type is an 

important correlate of satisfaction with life and self-esteem.  

 

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