





























18

Graduate Student Journal of  Psychology 
2018, Vol. 17

Copyright 2018 by the Department of  Counseling and Clinical Psychology 
Teachers College, Columbia University

The Process of  Valuing and Subjective Well-Being for Trainees
Robin Grumet, Marilyn Fitzpatrick, Lauren Yildirim, 

Bethsheba Ananng, and Megan Knoll
McGill University

The current qualitative research investigated the process of  valuing from an Acceptance and Commitment 
Therapy perspective, as well as the influence of  this process on subjective well-being in novice therapists. 
Sixteen MA Counseling Psychology students participated in a three-hour workshop that involved didactic 
and experiential components aimed at facilitating values clarity and values congruent living. A semi-structured 
interview explored values clarity, behavioral congruence, as well as well-being, including both mood and life 
satisfaction. Consensual Qualitative Research was used to analyze the interview data. Findings indicated that the 
values clarification process is complex and challenging, and that structured interventions support this process. 
Work demands were a particularly salient barrier to valued living for trainees. The valuing process influenced 
mood more than life satisfaction and was related to eudaimonic, but not hedonic pursuits. Implications for 
theory, practice, supervision, and future research are provided.

A central aim of  psychology is to alleviate psycho-
logical distress (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; 
Duckworth, Steen, & Seligman, 2005). The absence of  
distress however, is not synonymous with well-being 
(Ryan & Deci, 2001; Duckworth et al., 2005). Well-being 
can protect against the development of  clinical disorders 
(Joseph & Wood, 2010). The field of  Positive Psychology 
has begun to investigate the pathways to foster happi-
ness or subjective well-being (SWB) (Duckworth et al., 
2005; Seligman & Csikszentimihalyi, 2000; Schueller & 
Seligman, 2010). SWB is an individual’s perception of  
wellness and includes positive affect, minimal negative 
affect, and high levels of  life satisfaction (Diener, 2000).

Research suggests that SWB is associated with 
positive physical and psychological health outcomes. 
Findings from a recent meta-analysis of  randomized 
controlled studies in Positive Psychology interventions 
suggest that preventative interventions that foster 
SWB can also minimize depressive symptoms (Bolier, 
Haverman, Westerhof, Riper, Smit, & Bohlmeijer, 
2013). Research also suggests that using positive 

interventions to augment SWB can protect against the 
development of  depression and other psychological 
disorders including generalized anxiety disorder and 
panic disorder (Keyes, Dhingra, & Simoes, 2010; Joseph 
& Wood, 2010). There is also ample evidence that high 
SWB is related to good physical health and longevity 
(Diener & Chan, 2011). Although it is heritable to some 
degree, evidence from Positive Psychology suggests 
that SWB is malleable and can be augmented (Tay & 
Kuykendall, 2013). Determining ways to foster SWB 
is gaining empirical attention in the field of  Positive 
Psychology (Giannopoulos & Vella-Brodrick, 2011; Tay 
& Kuykendall, 2013).

Seligman has identified three distinct pathways to 
SWB (Duckworth et al., 2005; Schueller & Seligman, 
2010). The first, pleasure, consists of  experiencing plea-
sure and positive emotions (Duckworth et al., 2005). 
The second is engagement, which involves immersing 
oneself  in activities that are intrinsically rewarding 
(Duckworth et al., 2005; Schueller & Seligman, 2010); 
engaging fully can lead to the experience of  flow, which 
is a mental state characterized by total absorption in 
an enjoyable and rewarding activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 
1990). The third pathway, meaning, refers to belong-
ing to and contributing to causes that transcend the 
self  (Duckworth et al., 2005). A sense of  purpose and 

Override (Hidden running head text):
Grumet, Fitzpatrick, Yildirim, Ananng, Knoll
ACT Value Clarification

Keywords: Acceptance and Commitment Therapy; values 
clarification; values behavior congruence; subjective well-being; 
mood; life satisfaction

Please address correspondence regarding this article to: 
robin.grumet@mail.mcgill.ca



19

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

direction in life leads to the creation and pursuit of  
meaningful goals and results in well-being (Frankl, 1997). 
Although all three elements are associated with SWB, 
Positive Psychology research suggests that engage-
ment and meaning have more robust relationships with 
SWB than pleasure (Schueller & Seligman, 2010; Vella-
Brodrick, Park, & Peterson, 2009).

The underlying principle of  most positive psychol-
ogy interventions is that SWB is enhanced by positive 
goals and intentional activities (Tay & Kuykendall, 
2013) and that it is trainable (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, 
& Schkade, 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2007). 
Interventions targeting behavioral change are at the 
heart of  evidence-based approaches such as cognitive 
behavioral therapy (CBT). More recently, intervention 
research has focused on interventions linking behavioral 
change to meaning and purpose.

One example of  such an approach is Acceptance 
and Commitment Therapy (ACT), which is a recently 
developed third wave behavioral therapy (Hayes, 
Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999). ACT helps clients learn to 
accept and embrace difficult experiences in order to live 
a life in service of  their personal values (Hayes, Luoma, 
Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006). Values are “chosen quali-
ties of  purposive action that can never be obtained as 
an object but can be instantiated moment by moment” 
(Hayes et al., 2006, p. 9). Unlike goals, which can be 
achieved, values can never be fully attained but can be 
continuously expressed in moment-to-moment behav-
ior. Values are freely chosen and intrinsically motivating; 
they are not adopted from a desire to please others or 
avoid negative consequences (Ciarrochi, Fisher, & Lane, 
2010; Plumb, Stewart, Dahl, & Lundgren, 2009; Wilson, 
Sandoz, Kitchens, & Roberts, 2010).

ACT theory posits that value-based actions are 
associated with positive physical and psychological 
health outcomes and discrepancies between values and 
behavior have detrimental effects on health (Plumb 
et al., 2009). Research on ACT indicates that behaving 
consistently with values is associated with positive 
wellness outcomes including less psychological distress 
(Ciarrochi et al., 2010; McCracken & Yang, 2006), 
increased life satisfaction (Lundgren, Dahl & Hayes, 
2008), and increased self-reports of  quality of  life 
(Michelson, Lee, Orsillo, & Roemer, 2011; Lundgren 
et al., 2008). A commitment to intrinsically motivated 

social values has also been linked to positive affect 
(Ferssizidis, Adams, Kashdan, Plummer, Mishra, & 
Ciarrochi, 2010). In contrast, when their behaviors 
are incongruent with their personal values, individuals 
experience more psychological distress (Plumb & Hayes, 
2008; as cited in Plumb et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2010). 
Despite limited research on specific values interventions, 
preliminary evidence on ACT indicates that values 
intervention components serve as mediators to well-
being outcomes (Lundgren et al., 2008). However, 
the process of  valuing is not well understood. In 
particular, how individuals clarify personal values and 
the mechanisms of  values-behavior congruence, as well 
as the process through which values-congruent behavior 
influences SWB, require investigation.

Research suggests that novice therapists are vulnera-
ble to stress and burnout, which can affect both personal 
wellness and professional effectiveness (Skovholt & 
Jennings, 2004; Stafford-Brown & Pakenham, 2012). A 
non-randomized controlled trial of  a group ACT inter-
vention reduced stress in clinical psychology students 
in Australia (Stafford-Brown & Pakenham, 2012) and 
also enhanced positive therapist qualities such as self-
compassion. Two out of  the four sessions offered were 
devoted to values work (e.g., clarifying values, setting 
values-congruent goals). However, there are no stud-
ies that have examined the process of  developing values 
specifically.

The current study investigates the process of  values 
awareness development, values-behavior congruence, 
and the way that values-congruent behavior influences 
well-being in therapists-in-training. More specifically, 
the study investigated the following research questions 
about psychotherapist trainees: 1) Which processes 
facilitate values clarification? 2) Which processes hinder 
the values clarification process? 3) What processes are 
associated with values-congruent behavior? 4) Which 
processes hinder values-behavior congruence? 5) How 
does values work relate to SWB? A qualitative approach 
was utilized to allow for a rich and complex examina-
tion of  the valuing process, as research of  this nature 
is limited and much needed to elucidate the processes 
involved in values clarification and enacting values-
congruent behaviours, as well as the relationship 
between these processes and SWB.



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GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

Method

Participants
Sixteen female (13 Caucasian, 1 South East Asian, 

1 Jamaican, 1 Multiethnic) Master of  Arts (MA) students 
in Counseling Psychology at a Canadian university, 
completing their first year of  studies including a first 
practicum participated. Participant’s ages ranged from 
22 to 46 years old (M = 28.38, SD = 6.18).

Procedures
The current study received approval from the 

university’s research ethics board (REB). Informed 
consent was obtained prior to the start of  the study. 
Participants received a three-hour values clarifica-
tion workshop (conducted by a doctoral student and 
professor in the Counseling Psychology program) that 
included teaching of  the ACT approach to valuing, 
information about its efficacy, and experiential values 
clarification and committed action exercises. The values 
clarification exercises included: 1) A guided visualiza-
tion where participants imagined their convocation 
ceremony and envisioned what their ideal life would 
look like in the interim 2) An independent writing exer-
cise where participants listed things they wanted to stop, 
start, and continue doing 3) Discussion in dyads to iden-
tify themes and meaning among the three lists that could 
help to highlight a value(s). Committed action exercises 
included: 1) working in dyads to set values-congruent 
goals to be achieved in: 24 hours, 1 week, and 1 month, 
and 2) making a commitment with a partner and devis-
ing strategies to hold one another accountable to goals 
(e.g., check in emails).

Participants were interviewed two weeks after 
the workshop and asked to discuss their experiences 
during and after the workshop, their process of  values 
clarification and values-behavior congruence, and their 
sense of  well-being, including mood, life satisfaction, 
pleasure, engagement, and meaning. The interview was 
semi-structured such that there was a list of  open-ended 
questions referred to by all of  the interviewers (in order 
to ensure that all topics of  interest were covered, e.g., 
process of  values clarification); however, the questions 
were not asked verbatim nor in a particular order. The 
interview was guided primarily by the salient topics to 
the participant. The interviews, which ranged from 20 
to 45 minutes, were conducted by the first author and 

two doctoral students in Counseling Psychology and 
were transcribed for analysis.

Data Analysis
Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR; Hill, 2012; 

Hill et. al, 2005; Hill, Thompson, and Williams, 1997) 
was used to analyze the data. CQR is a qualitative 
method, which aims for an in-depth examination of  
individual experiences, as well as a cross-case analysis 
to identify themes that emerge across participants (Hill 
et al., 2005). It utilizes several coders in order to foster 
multiple perspectives throughout the process and to 
achieve consensus regarding the essence of  the data 
(Hill et al., 2005). An auditor reviews the work of  the 
primary coding team in order to minimize the possibility 
of  groupthink (Hill et al., 2005). There are three steps 
in this process, including the identification of  domains 
(topic areas), the construction of  core ideas (essence 
of  participant statements), and the cross-case analysis 
(discerning themes across participants). In the current 
study, the primary research team was made up of  one 
MA student studying counseling psychology (Caucasian, 
female, 26 years old) and two female undergraduate 
volunteers studying psychology (21 years old, Caucasian, 
and 22 years old, African Canadian). The auditor was a 
25-year-old, Caucasian, female MA student. Each team 
member analyzed the data independently and meet-
ings of  all team members were held to reach coding 
consensus.

The primary team generated a baseline domain 
list of  topic areas based on constructs of  interest (e.g., 
mood, life satisfaction, values clarity) prior to beginning 
analysis (Hill, 2012). The three primary team members 
coded independently to domains, arrived at consensus, 
and refined the domain list to the final seven domains. 
The primary coders formulated core ideas of  the partici-
pant statements for the first three transcripts to ensure 
consistency and then individual coders constructed 
core ideas independently and the other two members 
reviewed them at a consensus meeting. In CQR, core 
ideas refer to brief  phrases that abstract the essence 
of  participant’s statements (e.g., participant feels the 
workshop provided her with tools to articulate her 
values, participant uses values as compass for decision 
making). The consensus version for each participant was 
audited (to ensure the data was accurately represented 



21

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

and placed in the appropriate domains) and the primary 
team integrated the auditor’s feedback.

The primary team then examined the core ideas 
across cases and grouped core ideas into categories (e.g., 
positive mood change, enhanced life satisfaction, arrived 
at clear ACT value), which is the term for themes in 
CQR (Hill et al., 1997). Coders independently developed 
a category list for each domain and then synthesized 
their lists, following a consensus process. After an exter-
nal audit of  these lists, the primary team finalized the 
categories for each domain. The first author calculated 
if  the categories were general (15–16) typical (>9), variant 
(4–8), or rare (2–3) as per CQR guidelines (Hill, 2012; 
Hill et al., 2005; Hill et al., 1997).

Results

The results are presented by research question and 
domain. The process of  values clarification is eluci-
dated and participant’s experiences of  values-behavior 
congruence are discussed. Finally, the way that partici-
pating in this process influenced participant’s SWB is 
elaborated. Typical and variant categories are presented; 
rare cases are only discussed if  they inform the research 
question (see Table 1–3). Frequencies of  categories are 
indicated in parentheses.

Domain 1: Values Clarity
The processes that lead to and hinder values clari-

fication are presented first to provide context for other 
processes and supports.

Outcomes. Participants reported that the values 
clarification process was helpful (typical), however 
the depth of  the experiences ranged from glean-
ing subtle insights to making profound discoveries. 
Participants also varied regarding the degree of  clar-
ity some described arriving at a clear ACT value that 
was characterized by a quality of  action (variant). For 
example, one participant said: “I was sort of  surprised 
to arrive at a core value . . .  There was just one and it 
was actively authentic.” Similarly, another participant 
shared that behaving genuinely is deeply important to 
her and named this value “freely being.” Another partici-
pant described her ACT value as “living appreciatively” 
and explained it is important for her to consciously 
engage in gratitude. A couple of  participants reported 

furthering their understanding of  a value but had diffi-
culty articulating a clear value (rare). One participant 
described a process that:

Really feels like a shadow or like a cloud. You 
can see it, but as soon as you get to touch it, it 
kind of  disappears or it’s really hard to grasp. 
That’s what I feel like my values are like. I have 
the idea, I have the shape in my head, but I can’t 
really touch it or I can’t really put my finger on it.

Participants often reported that they had previously 
engaged in a personal values clarification (typical); 
learning about ACT in courses had inspired them to 
reflect on their values prior to the workshop. Others 
reported being engaged in the process because of  
personal circumstances (e.g., being older,). Participants 
also expressed new learning about values from the 
workshop (typical). One participant said:

I think the workshop helped in terms of  just 
increasing my awareness about it. I think they’re 
things that I started to think about . . .  learning 
about values and engaging in that continuous 
self-reflective process got me beginning to 
think about it and then this provided more of  
a streamlined framework for how to think about 
it instead of  just brainstorming on my own.

Process. Overall, participants described the values 
clarification process as one that is complex, difficult, and 
requires substantial reflection. For instance, participants 
found the values clarification process to be challenging 
at the cognitive level (variant): “It was difficult . . .  it took 
a lot of  focus, and thought, and reflection . . .  it was like 
whoaaa! I felt like I needed to get reoriented.” There 
were also emotional elements in participant reactions 
to the process:

I have that thought process where I’m like 
spinning out of  control and . . .  This is really 
resonating with me, and this is really salient. I 
know it’s important to me, like connecting with 
people, and I think that part gets overwhelming.

Sometimes participants felt frightened: “I think talk-
ing about values can be very scary, especially as we’re 
confused when we’re getting there.” One participant 
felt drained from the workshop by the process of  
being constantly engaged and genuine. In spite of  its 



22

GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

Table 1
Domains, Categories, Frequencies, and Illustrative Core Ideas for Values Clarification Outcomes and Process

Domains/Subdomains Categories/Subcategories Frequencya Core Ideas

Values Clarity

Outcome Workshop was somewhat 
helpful for advancing values 
clarity

T (n = 12) Gained awareness of values that mattered and 
was helped to build upon this awareness.

Arrived at clear ACT value V (n = 5) Discovered values gratitude in workshop and 
wants to live more appreciatively.

Further clarity, did not get 
to core value

R (n = 3) Was aware family domain was important and 
explored this in dyad, got to certain layers, but 
difficulty identifying core ACT value.

Previous values awareness T (n = 11) Has thought about values before and feels 
identifying values is an ongoing process.

Some new learning relative 
to values from workshop

T (n = 9) Aware of some values before, workshop helped 
her clarify more.

Minimal/no learning 
relative to values

R (n = 2) Well-developed values clarity prior to 
participating.

Process Inspired further reflection on 
values post workshop

V (n = 6) Continued reflecting on identifying her value 
post-workshop but not enough processing time 
and it eventually “faded away.”

Time as barrier to values 
clarification process, which is 
complex

V (n = 6) Clarified value was about connection with 
others but was unable to fully flesh it out due to 
time constraints.

Process was challenging and 
overwhelming

V (n = 5) Process was difficult and required a lot of focus 
and reflection. Felt overwhelmed and needed to 
“reorient.”

Helped articulate values R (n = 3) Workshop has given her tools to articulate her 
values.

Highlighted values conflict/ 
hierarchy

R (n = 3) Realized values social connection more than 
other things. Still wants to do well academically 
but feels like less of a perfectionist now.

Supports to process Working in dyads/verbalizing 
about values facilitated values 
clarification

V (n = 6) Aware of values related to wellness before 
workshop, was able to explore more by 
discussing it with partner.

Values conceptualization 
changed to ACT

V (n = 6) Workshop changed way thinks about values; 
found the adverb and quality of action element 
interesting and values made more sense to her 
after learning this.

Workshop exercise “start, 
stop, keep doing” was helpful 
for values clarification

V (n = 5) The “things I want to stop, start, keep doing” 
exercise was helpful; was able to see how these 
three things relate.

a T = Typical, V = Variant, R = Rare.



23

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

difficulties, it seemed worthwhile: a participant noted 
that she was “emotionally overwhelmed” during the 
session but also that it was “an amazing and enlighten-
ing experience.”

Participants explained that a lack of  sufficient time 
was a barrier to achieving values clarity, in this complex 
process (variant). Several participants were only able 
to clarify the domain of  their value and uncover some 
layers. One indicated that her value related to social 
connection, but explained: “The problem was that we 
didn’t have enough time in our dyad for me to really 
flesh mine out, which I think it’s why I’m in a weird head 
space about it.” Another reported being able to iden-
tify her value was related to family and she “uncovered 
some layers” but was unable to articulate related actions. 
Another participant noted: “ . . .  I would’ve been very 
surprised if  I had [achieved clarity]. . . .  I’m in therapy 
right now and I’m kind of  thinking, if  I get there it 
might be in a longer process.” Although they were not 
always successful in identifying core values, they indi-
cated that the workshop inspired immediate reflection 
on values (variant) however some noted that they soon 
became distracted by other responsibilities.

Supports to the process. Participants appreciated 
structured and concrete ways to think about values, and 
that these type of  activities support the values clarifi-
cation process. An activity enumerating the things “I 
want to start, stop, and keep doing” was nominated as 
helpful for values clarification (variant). One participant 
said that in looking at the things she wanted to stop 
doing she was able to realize that she had the tendency 
to be pessimistic and that considering values allowed 
her to recognize that she wants to be more apprecia-
tive. Working with a partner was useful in achieving 
clarity (variant): “I was able to identify it and to kind 
of  just talk about it. And I think the more you talk 
about it, the more it makes it concrete, and more attain-
able.” Participants also described how understanding 
the relationship of  values to action facilitated values 
clarification (variant). One participant noted:

to think about how its embodied or experienced 
in your life when maybe you haven’t acted in 
accordance with that value or the times that 
you have . . .  it made it more of  a concrete thing 
than just an abstract term that we throw around.

Domain 2: Values-Behavior Congruence
Participants described both cognitive and behavioral 

processes leading to values-based actions and the 
barriers and supports to this endeavor.

Cognitive processes. Participants began to 
engage in a number of  cognitive processes in which 
the importance of  the relationship between values and 
behavior became more salient. Half  of  the participants 
came to understand that congruence is beneficial or 
that incongruence is detrimental (variant). Some 
believed that acting congruently would make their 
lives “easier and less emotionally draining.” Others had 
already experienced positive outcomes of  congruence 
for example reductions in stress and burnout. One 
participant explained that although her behavior was not 
congruent at the time, “I think that if  I actually put my 
values into action, I would be less burned out.” Another 
participant believed that if  she were to act congruently 
in the future:

 . . .  then there will be that part of  me that’s more 
fulfilled, which will be more nourishing and 
hopefully give me the space to really manage all 
the other things better, instead of  feeling kind 
of  constantly drained and in need of  something 
that I’m not really getting.

One participant described how when she acts incongru-
ently, she feels a sense of  guilt or dissonance but when 
she acts congruently she feels “ . . .  whole, and more 
like herself.”

Participants reported gaining recognition of  values-
behavior incongruence as a result of  participating in the 
values clarification process (variant). More specifically, 
they reported becoming aware of  the areas of  their lives 
where their values and behaviors were incongruent. One 
participant said: “For me it really highlighted the voids 
in my life and the things I wanted to make more full and 
live more authentically.” Several of  these participants 
also reported that the recognition of  incongruence 
highlighted the need for behavioral change. For 
instance, one participant said: “I think for me was an 
eye opener because it was like yeah I really do need to 
start implementing these things in my life because there 
is not a balance.”

Participants also indicated that their sense of  mind-
fulness was enhanced as a result of  trying to enact 
values-congruent behaviors (variant). One participant 



24

GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

Table 2
Domains, Categories, Frequencies, and Illustrative Core Ideas for Values Behavior Congruence Outcomes and Process

Domains/Subdomains Categories/Subcategories Frequencya Core Ideas

Values

Behavior Congruence

Cognitive Insight congruence is 
beneficial and incongruence 
is detrimental

V (n = 8) Expresses insight that living in congruence with 
values makes life easier and less emotionally 
draining.

Recognition of incongruence V (n = 6) Areas of incongruence were bought to 
awareness and helped her realize desire to begin 
implementing values congruent behaviors.

Increase in mindfulness V (n = 5) More self-aware and has made conscious efforts 
to choose values-congruent behaviors when she 
becomes aware of a challenging choice in the 
moment.

Use of values in decision 
making

V (n = 5) Uses values as a compass, which guides her 
decision making.

Motivation for behavioral 
change

V (n = 4) Workshop gave motivational push towards 
achieving her goals.

Behavioral Effort/steps toward 
congruence

T (n = 10) In process of trying out different behaviors 
to see which make her feel better. Trying to 
implement more quality time with friends and 
see how that makes her feel.

Discussed successful 
efforts in congruence

V (n = 8) Feels successful in implementing values related 
to spending time with friends.

Difficulty implementation 
congruent behavior despite 
efforts/steps taken

R (n = 2) After workshop, has been taking steps to ensure 
she can adhere to her goal (e.g., setting up yoga 
things beforehand) but she is still struggling to 
adhere to her health rituals.

Engaged in values congruent 
behavior prior to workshop

V (n = 5) Had been making a conscious effort to behave 
according to values for several years. Was 
exposed to ACT valuing in the academic context 
too.

Barriers Work demands T (n = 11) Often behaves incongruently with values 
because in prioritizing school, her values are put 
on hold.

Lack of energy R (n = 3) Set goals after the workshop but did not achieve 
them or make an effort to, attributes this to 
burnout. Feels burnout is a barrier because 
when she feels burned out she does not want to 
do anything, which then contributes to further 
burnout in a “vicious cycle”.

Desire to look good/please 
others

R (n = 2) There are times where she has acted in a manner 
incongruent with her values due to a desire to 
please others.



25

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

explained: “I’ve been really trying to be more mindful 
when I do activities . . .  trying to be more in the room . . .  
more present in the moment.” Another described 
making an effort to stay present in leisure activities, 
despite her tendency to become consumed by her 
responsibilities:

when I catch myself  thinking, okay what do I 
have to do later I try to snap myself  out of  it 
and just go back to that moment and not think 
about all the other stuff. Because it’s going to 
be there regardless of  whether you think about 
it or not . . .  I think the workshop helped me do 
that . . .  just being more aware.

Another participant indicated that she is more conscious 
of  moments where her behavior and values are incon-
gruent leading her to question the purpose of  her 
behavior and try to reframe her thinking.

Participants also described motivation for behav-
ioral change as a result of  the values clarification process 
(variant). Regarding self-care, one participant stated:

I sit there and think about it all the time, but I 
don’t actually do anything about it and I think 

the workshop really made it real for me . . .  I 
should be starting to implement some things. 
And it’s funny because since the workshop I 
actually have.

Another described how she has struggled to implement 
values-congruent behaviors and continues to think 
about this: “Even though I haven’t done it, I’m still 
trying in my head to make more realistic goals.” Several 
participants also described using their values as a guide 
to making decisions (variant). One participant described 
values as a “guiding framework” to making big decisions.

Behavioral processes. Participants reported 
taking some steps—big or small—to implement values-
congruent behaviors (typical). Half  of  participants 
described successful efforts (variant), such as complet-
ing goals set in the workshop. Others discussed more 
general steps such as intentions, or plans devised with 
a therapist or spending more quality time with friends. 
Participants often reported having been intentionally 
engaged in values-congruent behavior before the work-
shop (typical). Some of  these individuals experienced 
less impact from participating in the workshop.

Domains/Subdomains Categories/Subcategories Frequencya Core Ideas

Conflicting values R (n = 2) Does not know how to live “everyday values”, 
as feels that bigger values conflict with 
“everyday values.

Supports Dyads helped congruence V (n = 8) Checking in with partner was helpful. Was 
thinking of not doing what she said she would 
but then realized she would have to tell her 
partner she did not do it.

Feelings of accountability V (n = 7) Saying her goal out loud to her dyad partner 
gave her a sense of accountability.

Help with ideas for 
implementation

R (n = 2) Talking with her partner helped her to come up 
with a successful solution to implement one of 
her goals.

Writing/verbalizing ideas 
about values related 
behaviors

R (n = 3) Writing down the things she wants to do/not 
do is helpful, as she feels more responsible for 
acting on it.

Breaking goals down in to 
smaller steps/shorter time 
frames

R (n = 3) Felt the short-time frame helped her achieve 
goal; long-term goals can be scary to implement 
due to the commitment required.

a T = Typical, V = Variant, R = Rare.



26

GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

Barriers to congruent behavior. Participants 
often reported barriers in one typical and three rare 
categories. Participants indicated that work demands 
were barriers (typical). Two participants explained that 
schoolwork and the pressure to be perfect served as 
barriers to values-congruent behaviour. Two partici-
pants explained that although they are in school for 
a values-related purpose, it interferes with their ability 
to engage in congruent behaviours: “I feel like I know 
there is a purpose here and I love being in school . . .  
But it also does take a lot away from other areas in 
your life.” Although work demands emerged as the most 
common barrier to values-behaviour congruence, some 
rare categories warrant discussion. Values conflict was 
nominated as a barrier to congruence (rare). For exam-
ple, one participant explained how her value of  self-care 
and caring for others can sometimes create a conflict. 
Some participants also discussed that a lack of  energy or 
feeling burned out served as a barrier to living out their 
values (rare). Finally, the desire to look good or please 
others was mentioned as a barrier to values-congruent 
behaving (rare):

I realized lately that I really tend to adapt to 
others and I feel like I kind of  lose myself  
sometimes too, like by trying to please others 
and trying to be kind of  a superwoman . . .  I find 
I don’t really stand my ground.

Supports for congruent behavior. Participants 
also discussed how exercises that involved articulating 
intended values congruent actions, and breaking actions 
in to manageable segments facilitated values-congruent 
behavior. The particular supports discussed emerged as 
several variant and several rare categories.

Participants highlighted how having a partner gave 
participants a sense of  accountability to the goals they 
set and supported values-congruent behaviors (vari-
ant). Occasionally a partner helped another to generate 
ideas for values-congruent action (rare). Verbalizing or 
writing about values made things seem more concrete 
and helped move some toward action or increased their 
commitment (rare): “I kind of  feel more responsible 
for acting on it, now that I wrote it down . . .  ” Lastly, 
participants explained that breaking their goals down 
in to smaller steps and shorter time frames was helpful 
(rare). For example, one participant attributed success in 

achieving a goal to the short-term time frame; long-term 
goals were scary because of  the commitment required.

Values and Subjective Well-Being (SWB)

Domain 3: Mood
Participants often reported a positive mood change 

following the workshop (typical), however, there was 
variability regarding the attributions for positive changes. 
Some nominated value-behavior congruence as respon-
sible for the change (variant): “I think it’s more the 
actions that I took according to the things that I real-
ized in the workshop.” One participant explained that 
exercising was a behavior related to her value of  “freely 
being” and had a positive impact on her mood: “It’s 
been consistent in terms of  the time that I put toward 
it, and it’s a huge influence on my mood . . .  I just feel 
like the energy and the positivity was just coming from 
that.” Another participant described values clarifica-
tion as a catalyst: “The workshop had an impact . . .  my 
other courses had an impact, my relationship with my 
boyfriend had an impact . . .  I think the workshop and 
this process have kind of  got the ball rolling for me.”

Domain 4: Life Satisfaction
Participants saw values-behavior congruence as 

increasing life satisfaction or incongruence as decreas-
ing it (variant):

I think it is enhancing it for sure . . .  one of  my 
values is family and sometimes when I am torn 
between homework or spending time with my 
kids for example, it helps me make that decision 
and I’ll spend time with my kids and in the end 
I am happy I did . . .  the fact that I am using my 
values as a sort of  compass enhances my life 
and my decision making.

Another participant explained that being in the 
Counseling Psychology program enhances her life satis-
faction because it is congruent with her values. Several 
individuals reported an enhanced sense of  life satisfac-
tion following the workshop (variant). Two of  these 
individuals explained that life satisfaction was enhanced 
due to an increased effort towards values-congruent 



27

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

behavior following the workshop. One of  these partici-
pants stated:

I’m more satisfied with my life right now . . .  I’ve 
been really focusing on my relationship with my 
partner and we’ve been having an amazing two 
weeks . . .  we’ve been really reconnecting, . . .  just 
talking about it made me realize my values were 
a little off  and that I want to be more present.

Several rare categories in the life satisfaction domain 
warrant mention. Participants discussed a relationship 
between gratitude, valuing, and life satisfaction (rare). 
For instance, one participant explained that the values 
clarification process had increased her sense of  grati-
tude and enhanced her life satisfaction:

 . . .  School can be miserable, but I’m here for a 
reason. I have made that choice, I think learning 
how to reframe the things in my life that are 
sometimes a bit negative, trying to see the silver 
lining or be more grateful for the things I do 
have has kind of  helped with my life satisfaction.

Additionally, three of  the participants explained that they 
were satisfied with their life on a broad scale, despite daily 
stressors that diminished immediate satisfactions (rare):

I know I want to be in school. I wanted to come 
to this program . . .  so that’s good, I got in, I’m 
here. But . . .  it takes away from all those little 
things that would probably make my everyday 
life a lot more satisfying. . . .  So the workshop was 
kind of  thinking about the things I can do while 
I’m in school to make things more enjoyable.

Domain 5: Pleasure
The only categories within the pleasure domain 

were rare (see Table 3).

Domain 6: Engagement
Participants reported seeing a relationship between 

flow and living out values (variant): “When I’m in those 
flow moments I’m not really, thinking of  my values. But 
I guess what I’m doing gives me satisfaction because it 
fulfills my values.” Another participant talked about the 
relationship between engaging and pleasurable activities: 

“It was helpful to think about the things that give me 
immediate gratification and made it less likely for me 

to do them . . .  engaging activities are more in line with 
values than pleasurable activities.” Another participant 
explained that she identifies one of  her values as “living 
passionately or taking the time to live.” When she is in 
the moment, she feels that she is nourishing this value 
like times when she and her children draw together.

Domain 7: Meaning
Half  of  the participants endorsed the idea that 

living out values contributes to a sense of  meaning 
(variant): “an inherent part of  valuing is the meaning it 
gives.” The fact of  being in a Counseling Psychology 
program was one expression of  values, for example 
contributing to the lives of  others brings meaning by 
enacting a value related to kindness.

Discussion

The Valuing Process
Although the participants of  the study typically 

experienced new learning about values, the results 
underline the idea that values clarification is a complex 
process, involving both cognitive and emotional chal-
lenges. The complexity of  the values clarification process 
(Rogers, 1964; Stewart, 1975) and the abstract nature of  
the construct (Hitlin & Piliavin, 2004; Maio, 2010; Eyal, 
Sagristano, Trope, Liberman, & Chaiken, 2009), have 
been well documented. These participants reported that 
exercises such as listing things they wanted to stop, start, 
and continue doing were helpful because they made 
the concept more concrete and tangible. Discussing 
values aloud with a partner also helped to structure the 
process and address the difficulties of  working with 
an abstract and vague construct. These findings are in 
line with Levitt and colleagues (2006) who found that 
clients found structured interventions in individual 
therapy productive for developing insights; unstruc-
tured interventions allowed them to avoid emotional 
topics. Similarly, research from group psychotherapy 
suggests that structured exercises can enhance engage-
ment, communication, and problem solving and lack 
of  structure can contribute to anxiety and hinder prog-
ress (Johnson, 2009). Given the emotional challenges 
of  the values clarification process, the help provided 
by structuring may have reduced the ambiguity of  the 
task and the anxiety associated with it. Lessening the 



28

GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

Table 3
Domains, Categories, Frequencies, and Illustrative Core Ideas for Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Outcome and Process

Domains/Subdomains Categories/Subcategories Frequencya Core Ideas

Mood

Positive mood change T (n = 9) Workshop had an impact on her mood through 
realizations that influenced her actions after the 
workshop.

Attributed to values-
behavior congruence

V (n = 6) Feeling better since workshop and attributes the 
difference in mood to changing her behavior to be 
more congruent with her values.

Attributed to other factors R (n = 3) Attributes positive mood to weather and 
academic session in the summer being less heavy.

Negative mood change R (n = 2) Mood was initially lowered, as a result of 
discovering incongruence between her values and 
behavior. Does not feel it had an impact on her 
mood in the long term because the incongruence 
realization inspired her to think of ways to 
change her behavior.
For unspecified reasons, participant 2 reports 
feeling more burnt-out, fatigued, a more negative 
mood and decreased concentration but does not 
feel that this is related to the workshop.

Emotional experience 
during/immediately after 
the workshop

R (n = 3) Felt very emotional, as a result of discovering 
incongruence during the workshop.

Life Satisfaction

Expressed insight values-
behavior congruence 
increases life satisfaction/
incongruence decreases life 
satisfaction

V (n = 6) Feels that when she lives out her values in the 
future she will have more life satisfaction.

Enhanced life satisfaction 
since workshop

V (n = 4) Since the workshop, her life satisfaction is 
“moderately higher,” although it is hard to 
quantify. She states that she has more stability 
across domains, as she is making a conscious 
effort not to let school override everything else in 
her life. She is trying to create more balance by 
working out and spending more time with family 
and friends.

Described relationship 
between life satisfaction, 
gratitude, and valuing

R (n = 3) Life satisfaction hasn’t changed dramatically 
since workshop. However, her increased sense of 
gratitude (e.g., appreciating her choice to be in 
graduate school even when things are difficult) 
since the workshop has helped with her life 
satisfaction.



29

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

Domains/Subdomains Categories/Subcategories Frequencya Core Ideas

Valuing helps create 
balance in life

R (n = 3) Made effort to “challenge” her current balance, 
as well as create more balance in life since 
workshop.

Broad life satisfaction 
despite daily stressors

R (n = 3) Expresses insight that when looking at her life 
broadly she is satisfied, as she is pursuing an 
educational path congruent with her values, but 
is not satisfied with her everyday life. Being 
in school interferes with her ability to do other 
things she values (e.g. working out, volunteering) 
but she would not change that because she is 
satisfied with her overall direction.

Pleasure No change in way thinks 
about or engages in 
pleasurable activities since 
workshop

R (n = 3) Pleasure seeking behaviors, or the way that she 
thinks about them have not changed much since 
workshop.

Increased frequency of 
pleasurable activities since 
workshop

R (n = 3) Does not think workshop changed the way 
she thinks about pleasure seeking activities 
consciously, but notices that she has been 
trying to create a better balance in her life and 
increasing the amount of hedonistic activities 
(e.g., TV, partying).

Less rigid/feels less guilty 
about doing pleasurable 
things since workshop

R (n = 2) Feels that workshop influenced her pleasure-
seeking behaviors in that she is less rigid and is 
taking time to do things she enjoys.

Pleasurable activities require 
less effort than meaningful 
ones and done more often

R (n = 2) Feels that hedonistic activities require less 
planning and effort than meaningful activities; 
she engages in them because they are less 
daunting than other things and she knows they 
feel good.

Engagement Sees relationship between 
flow and living out values

V (n = 6) Feels that engaging activities are more in line 
with values than pleasurable activities.

No change in way thinks 
of/experiences flow sine 
workshop

V (n = 6) Does not feel that the way she thinks about 
or experiences flow has changed since the 
workshop.

Rarely/never experience flow V (n = 5) Does not feel workshop had impact on 
engagement; does not recall flow moments since 
childhood.

Therefore does not see 
connection between values 
and flow

R (n = 3) Does not experience flow in her everyday life; 
therefore does not see a connection between 
valuing and engagement.

Meaning Living out values contributes 
to a sense of meaning

V (n = 8) Notes that for her, values and meaning go 
together; if she acts based on her values it adds 
meaning to her life.



30

GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

overwhelming nature of  a complex task can help to 
sustain engagement in the process.

When considering the process of  translating values 
to action, the results of  the current study indicate that 
both cognitive and behavioral processes are involved. 
This is consistent with the values literature, which 
suggests that values need to be cognitively activated 
in order to be enacted and to influence information 
processing and behavior (Higgins, 1996; Kruglanski, 
1996; as cited in Verplanken & Holland, 2002; Maio, 
2010). In the current study, participants reported that 
through the process of  trying to implement their values, 
they became more conscious of  their behavior and were 
better able to recognize incongruence. This provides 
support for the idea that values must be activated. 
Through this process, participants reported an enhanced 
sense of  mindfulness, or present moment focus, which 
might be an example of  this cognitive activation process. 
This particular finding is interesting because although 
mindfulness was not explicitly taught in the workshop, 
it is a fundamental component in the ACT model 
(Hayes et al., 2006). Research indicates that automatic 
processing tends to limit our ability to consciously 
choose values-congruent behaviors from moment to 
moment, however mindfulness can help us to intention-
ally choose values-congruent actions (Brown & Ryan, 
2003; Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006). In 
other words, mindfulness supports values-congruent 

behavior. The findings suggest, however, that values-
congruent behavior can support the development of  
mindfulness. Perhaps a bidirectional relationship exists 
such that values-behavior congruence enhances mind-
fulness, due to the cognitive activation required in this 
process, and in turn mindfulness further supports the 
activation of  values-congruent behaviors.

Despite indicating that values-behavior congruence 
was desirable, participants typically reported barriers to 
behavioral implementation. Frequently reported barriers 
were work demands and the time for values work. These 
findings echo the self-care research, in which time is the 
most frequent barrier to psychology graduate students’ 
practice of  wellness activities (El-Ghoroury, Galper, 
Sawaqdeh, & Bufka, 2012) or between workshop exer-
cises (Pakenham & Stafford-Brown, 2013). As values are 
intended to be expressed in moment-to-moment behav-
ior (Hayes, Pistorello, & Levin, 2012), trainees require 
more help to connect this process to their current day-
to-day life.

Also of  note, it was typical of  participants in the 
current study to report being previously engaged in a 
form of  valuing prior to participating in the workshop. 
This included reflection to clarify values, as well as an 
effort to implement values-congruent behaviors. Many 
of  these participants shared that this process began 
upon being exposed to ACT theory. The findings 
indicate that teaching ACT to trainees in an academic 

Domains/Subdomains Categories/Subcategories Frequencya Core Ideas

Workshop helped to envision 
what they want/would bring 
meaning in the future

R (n = 2) Workshop helped her think of what matters in a 
broadened way, and consider her future and “the 
grand scheme of things.”

Currently not engaging in 
much meaningful activities 
but have ideas about sources 
for meaning in future (related 
to values)

R (n = 2) The workshop impacted the way she wants her 
future life to be. Feels it is difficult to achieve a 
sense of meaning while in school and sees herself 
developing this sense more in the future. Sees her 
sense of meaning being related to her values in 
the future.

Sources Social connection V (n = 6) Workshop really resonated with her and made 
her aware that meaning and purpose comes from 
living out her value of social connection.

Helping others R (n = 3) Derives meaning from becoming a counselor and 
feels that through helping others in her work she 
can live out her values.

a T = Typical, V = Variant, R = Rare.



31

ACT VALUE CLARIFICATION

context might instigate a personal values clarification 
process. This experiential process might be beneficial 
both on an individual and professional level.

Values and Subjective Well-Being
Values clarification and values-behavior congruence 

was related to eudaimonic (meaning and growth-based) 
but not hedonic pursuits (pleasure-based) for partici-
pants; half  endorsed the idea that living out values 
contributes to a sense of  meaning in life. Kashdan and 
McKnight (2013) found that having purpose in life was 
positively associated with meaning in life and positive 
emotions. Though purpose in life is not synonymous 
with values, the authors indicate that the constructs 
are very closely related (Kashdan & McKnight, 2013). 
Living according to values may enhance a sense of  
meaning and this may be the mechanism through which 
valuing enhances SWB. ACT posits that living a values 
driven life can produce a sense of  meaning and purpose 
(Plumb et al., 2009) and the findings support this idea, 
however further investigation is needed to support the 
causal relationship between values and meaning.

In the current study, participants typically reported 
positive changes in mood that they attributed, partially 
or completely, to increased efforts toward values-behav-
ioral congruence. This relationship is consistent with 
the ACT literature; for instance, behavioral commit-
ment to intrinsically motivated social values has been 
associated with positive affect (Ferssizidis et al., 2010) 
and a perceived incongruence between behavior and 
personal values has been linked to negative mood states, 
such as dejection (Maio, 2010), agitation (Maio, 2010), 
anxiety and depression (Nordin, Wasteson, Hoffman, 
Glimelius, & Sjoden, 2001). Only a few (N = 4) partici-
pants reported enhanced life satisfaction. These findings 
are similar to Ly and colleagues (2012) who assessed the 
impact of  a mobile ACT intervention on life satisfaction 
among non-clinical participants after four weeks and 
found no significant changes. Life satisfaction is a more 
stable construct than mood (Kashdan & Nezlek, 2012; 
Nezlek, 2005; Laurenceau, Troy & Carver, 2005) so that 
the effect of  a single intervention was insufficient to 
create a level of  change to affect life satisfaction. Several 
participants indicated that although their life satisfaction 
did not change, they understood how values-congruent 
behavior congruence could ultimately enhance it.

The few participants who experienced enhanced life 
satisfaction attributed it to either increased efforts in 
values-behavior congruence or an increase in gratitude 
due to the values clarification process. Research suggests 
that gratitude has a robust, positive relationship with 
life satisfaction (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Park, 
Peterson, & Seligman, 2004; Wood, Joseph, & Maltby, 
2008). This area requires further investigation.

Limitations
Several limitations to the current study warrant 

discussion. First, two weeks is a brief  period for impor-
tant change. More extended follow-up over time is 
needed. Secondly, given that this was a pilot intervention 
study, the values intervention has not yet been empiri-
cally validated (e.g., by using a randomized controlled 
trial design). In addition, although the CQR method 
utilizes multiple coders and an external auditor to mini-
mize researcher bias, the first author is a Counseling 
Psychology graduate student and may have biases 
regarding the experience of  valuing and wellness in 
trainees. It is also important to acknowledge that some 
of  the researchers (including students and a professor in 
the department) and participants had previous interac-
tions being in the Counseling Psychology program. This 
might have created a sense of  demand for a particular 
experience in the study for some participants. Finally, it 
is important to note that the sample was self-selected; 
therefore, participants may share important characteris-
tics that are not well understood. Previous engagement 
in values clarification might therefore be an artifact 
of  our study, either because participants had previous 
exposure to ACT in the Counseling program or because 
they are innately reflective. Future studies should aim 
to examine whether the experience of  participating in 
this process is different for individuals without previous 
exposure to ACT.

Implications and Future Directions
Overall, the findings suggest that values clarification 

is a complex and challenging process, which requires 
much time and reflection. It might then be worthwhile 
to extend the workshop and offer it over a series of  
several sessions, as this format has been found to be 
effective for similar types of  interventions (Stafford-
Brown & Pakenham, 2012; Shapiro, Brown, & Biegel, 
2007). The findings suggest that it is essential to teach 



32

GRUMET, FITZPATRICK, YILDIRIM, ANANNG, KNOLL

individuals to express their values in their moment to 
moment behavior, even if  in small ways. Given the diffi-
culties involved in activating values-congruent behavior, 
values interventions could benefit from a greater empha-
sis on addressing barriers to valued living. With regards 
to SWB, the findings indicate that values congruent 
living might contribute to a sense of  meaning, which 
might in turn enhance SWB. Quantitative research is 
needed to examine causal mechanisms involved in the 
relationship between values-congruent behavior and 
SWB. ACT valuing interventions appear to be a prom-
ising avenue through which to foster well-being and 
growth in novice therapists. Such interventions might be 
useful in supervision contexts to enhance well-being and 
potentially protect against the development of  stress, 
burnout, and other forms of  psychological distress 
and to give trainees an experiential basis for using this 
powerful work in their sessions.

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