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Graduate Student Journal of Psychology (GSJP), Volume 18, Special Issue 2022 

Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior 
Problem: The Effect of Child Personality 

Lilian Ayiro 
Maseno University, Kenya 

This study examined the relation between maltreatment by fathers and externalizing 
behavior in children. It assessed the moderating role of child personality characteristics in 
this association. A totalof155 biological father-child dyads participated. Children were 7 
to 10 years old (M = 8.6, SD = 1.11) from Bungoma County in Kenya. The 
findings indicated that there was no significant difference in physical and 
psychological maltreatment, and neglect of boys and girls by fathers. There was also 
no significant difference between the Big Five Personality Factors: Agreeableness, 
Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Openness of boys and girls. 
In addition, no significant difference emerged in externalizing behavior between 
boys and girls. Maltreatment by fathers was associated with externalizing behavior 
problems in children. Openness and Extraversion moderated this association. Children 
who are more open and more extraverted were more susceptible to externalizing 
behavior when maltreated by fathers than those who were less open and less 
extraverted. This study adds to existing knowledge on child maltreatment and behavior 
problems and the role of fathers, an area that has least been explored in Kenyan research 
on parenting. It provides insight into the development of inclusive parent training 
programs on positive parenting that include fathers. The training should focus on 
promoting father-child relationship by equipping fathers with knowledge on how to 
respond to the needs of children with different personality traits and behavior. This 
study recommends that prevention and treatment programs should target both boys 
and girls. 

Keywords: behavior, father’s parenting, maltreatment, personality, moderating 

Research on fathers’ involvement in childrearing has increased substantially in Western 
industrialized countries (Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2019). Studies indicate that 
relationships with fathers affect children from childhood and into adulthood. High 
quality father involvement during childhood promotes healthier relationships and 
other favorable life qualities in adulthood (Jessee & Adamson, 2018). Paternal 
involvement in child-care is beneficial for positive social behavior, emotional 
regulation, and linguistic development in children (Cabrera et al., 2018).  In addition, 
children who enjoy a secure attachment with their fathers are less likely to exhibit anti-
social behavior than those with an insecure relationship with their fathers (Marcus & 
Betzer, 1996). It is commonly believed that father involvement is associated with 
positive outcomes for children (Schneider, 2014). This might not be the case at all times
– what matters is the quality of the relationship. Children with a strained relationship 
with their fathers may be better off if their fathers are less or uninvolved with them 
(Marcus & Betzer, 1996). This is attributed to the fact that stressful father-child 
associations may be more detrimental than not having a father figure.

It is worth pointing out that a lot has been documented on father’s influence on 
children’s development in Westernized, industrialized countries. Studies on the 

© 2022, Graduate Student Journal of Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University. ALL 
RIGHTS RESERVED. Graduate Journal of Psychology, 18, pp-pp. 



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Ayiro 

caregiving role of fathers in the African context remain scarce (Abubakar et al., 2013). 
This could be a contributing factor to less active involvement of fathers in training 
programs on positive parenting (Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2019). Studying the 
influence fathers have on children in African families is important because the families 
are undergoing rapid social changes which include increased numbers of single 
fatherhood, working mothers, and non-working fathers (Mwenda, 2012). The changes 
are likely to make fathers in these family settings take up more child caring roles than in 
the past. In Kenya, there has been an evolving construction of fatherhood due to 
western influence which has likely changed the role of contemporary Kenyan fathers 
from being somewhat distant and patriarchal to fathers who are actively involved in 
child socialization (Wandede et al., 2014). The current study addresses the paucity of 
research of paternal childcare and maltreatment in an African, non-industrialized 
country, where male dominance has been highly respected (Mulindi, 2015). This may 
add to existing and growing literature on fathers from industrialized countries 
(Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2019).  

As fathers get involved with their children, there is a likelihood of maltreatment. This is 
because maltreatment of children has been existing in almost every culture and society 
(Stoltenberg et al., 2013). Child maltreatment has been described as all forms of physical 
and emotional ill-treatment, or neglect, resulting in actual or potential harm to a child 
(Holden, 2010, p. 284). Globally, it has been estimated that over half of all children, 
equivalent to almost one billion children, aged 2-17 years, have experienced violence 
(Hillis et al., 2016). In the United States of America, 80% of child maltreatment cases 
have been caused by parents (World Health Organization [WHO], 2006). In Ireland, 67% 
of parents perceived smacking of their children aged 0-18 years as not being harmful, 
59.6% believed they had a right to smack if they wished and only (28.4%) felt that it was 
wrong to smack children (Halpenny et al., 2010). In Asia, Africa, and Northern 
America, it was estimated that at least 50% of children experienced past-year violence 
(Hillis et al., 2016).  

Mothers and fathers have been the most common perpetrators of child maltreatment in 
Kenya (United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF], 2010). Between 2014 and 2016, 54% 
of physical maltreatment, 47% of emotional maltreatment and 75% of child neglect were 
perpetuated by immediate family members. In Bungoma County, Kenya, 82% of 
children aged 1-14 years have been subjected to at least one form of psychological 
aggression or physical punishment by household members and 65% of the parents 
believe physical punishment is necessary part of child rearing in Bungoma County 
(Kenya National Bureau of Statistics [KNBS] and United Nation Children Education 
Fund [UNICEF], 2016). Notably, studies on child maltreatment have focused primarily 
on American and European societies, and much less on African societies (Stoltenberg et 
al., 2013). In addition, literature specifically on maltreatment by fathers is scarce 
worldwide as well as in developing countries. The current study explores maltreatment 
of children by fathers in an African culture and the findings may add to a scarce 
literature on this topic. 

Middle childhood is a developmental period of particular interest to understanding 
parenting, child behavior, and psychological adjustment (Lansford et al., 2010). This 
developmental stage may be a period of both opportunities and challenges to children 
(Charlesworth et al., 2007). Although a child’s social world expands as they enter 
school, they are likely to be exposed to maltreatment and behavior problems; especially 
due to decreases in parental monitoring, school inequalities, learning challenges, and 
common family violence (Cheevers et al., 2010; Yaros et al., 2016). 



Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

During middle childhood, there is considerable change in children’s physical, cognitive, 
social, and emotional development (Holden, 2010, p. 184). This change may make them 
to question adult guidelines and expectations as they strive to achieve autonomy 
(Charlesworth et al., 2007). The common externalizing behaviors during middle 
childhood are disobedience, anger, fighting, frustration, and screaming (Holden, 2010, 
p.193). Although there is likely to be confrontation in meeting the child’s needs and
parental demands in middle childhood, little is documented on the association between
harsh or maltreating parenting of children in middle childhood and their behavior
problems in Africa. This made it a developmental period of special interest for this
study.

Maltreatment, Externalizing Behavior and Personality Factors of Boys and Girls 
Cultural expectations related to gender and developmental stages could influence child 
maltreatment; at certain ages of growth and development, children are expected to have 
acquired certain socially acceptable competences and failure of which could lead to child 
maltreatment, such as ridicule or physical abuse by the parents (Kane, 2005). Unlike 
other developmental stages, during middle childhood, boys and girls seem to follow 
different gender role developments where boys’ identification with masculine roles 
attribute increases, while girls’ identification with feminine roles attribute decreases 
(Sravanti & Kommu, 2020). These can likely lead to cross gender behavior in girls and 
boys, which may be perceived differently in different cultural contexts. Externalizing 
behavior problems have also been reported to be common in boys and internalizing 
behaviors in girls (Slobodskaya & Akhmetova, 2010). 

Notably in Kenyan communities, social-cultural gender norms socialize girls and boys 
differently; thus, girls are generally expected to be submissive and more nurturing than 
boys who are expected to be aggressive, outgoing, and hardy (Namulundah, 2011). In 
addition, levels of control and demand of parents for girls and boys may differ due to 
different expectations and attitudes regarding behavior and discipline of boys and girls 
(Lansford & Deater-Deckard, 2012). This suggests that levels and types of maltreatment 
of boys and girls may differ too.  Nonetheless, a majority of previous researchers have 
used ex post facto designs in researching childhood maltreatment which may pose a 
challenge for memory of incidences of abuse by the respondents, hence, reducing 
reliability of the data. 

The Big Five Personality Factors (Barbaranelli et al., 2003) include Extraversion or 
surgency (talkative, assertive, energetic, sociable, assertive, forceful); Agreeableness or 
social adaptability (warm, good natured, kind, affectionate, cooperative, trustful, 
nurturance, and friendliness in order to avoid conflict); Conscientiousness or 
dependable (orderly, efficient, responsible, thorough); Neuroticism or emotional 
instability (easily upset, anxiety, depression, irritability, self-conscious and nervous); 
Openness or intellect was described as curiosity, appreciating other cultures, openness 
to experience-intellectual independence (Haslam et al., 2017). Studies in the United 
States of America and European individualistic culture samples suggest that women 
score higher on Neuroticism and Agreeableness than men and there are no gender 
differences in Openness and Conscientiousness. The gender differences in Neuroticism 
and Agreeableness were however not replicated in eastern and collective cultures 
(Weisberg et al., 2011). Here, we study the Big Five personality dimensions as 
moderators of the association between child maltreatment by fathers and externalizing 
behaviors of boys and girls in middle childhood, a topic that has least been studied in 
Africa. 

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Ayiro 

Relation Between Maltreatment, Child Personality and Externalizing Behavior 
There has been increasing number of studies conducted to explain the link between 
childhood maltreatment and behavior outcomes from childhood through adolescence 
to adulthood (Rodriguez & Eden, 2007; Smith & Thornberry, 1995). Maltreatment could 
be linked to psychopathology in youths (McGee et al., 1997). It may also be associated 
with anti-social, avoidant, and depressive behaviors in early adulthood (Johnson et al., 
1999). Maltreatment can also compromise personality development and heighten 
psychopathology thus influencing adjustment problems in adulthood (Higgins & 
McCabe, 2000). Nonetheless, most of the studies have assessed mother-child 
relationships which could be different from the father-child relationship. The current 
study explored the father-child relationship that has been interpreted as a more 
complex, dynamic, and more contextually sensitive than the mother-child relationship 
(Jessee & Adamson, 2018). The findings will add to existing literature on parenting in a 
non-western culture.  

Externalizing are behaviors that are directed outwards to other people while 
internalizing behaviors are directed inwards to the self (Tandon et al., 2009). It should 
be noted that fathers might be less important for the development of internalizing 
behaviors (Connell & Goodman, 2002). In addition, detecting externalizing behaviors in 
young children is easier compared to internalizing behavior problems, because 
internalizing behavior are characterized by quiet internal distress, and externalizing is 
portrayed as socially negative or disruptive behavior (Schneider, 2014). Notably, most 
studies have examined the link between childhood maltreatment and behavior 
outcomes in adolescents and adults and not children in middle childhood who are also 
at risk. The fact that symptoms of externalizing behavior can be easily detected made it 
possible for fathers to report on the externalizing behavior of their children in the 
current study.  

Studies in Kenya have indicated contradicting findings on the association between 
childhood maltreatment and behavior outcomes. One of the studies showed that more 
frequent use of physical discipline was normative and had less impact on children 
(Lansford et al., 2005). The other study that compared the association among adults in 
Kenya, Zambia, and the Netherlands, indicated a significant association between child 
neglect and negative psychological outcomes including externalizing behavior 
problems in the Kenyan sample (Mbagaya et al., 2013). The inconsistency in the findings 
and the fact that most parents in Bungoma believe physical punishment is necessary 
part of child rearing (KNBS & UNICEF, 2016), prompted the current study to 
interrogate further the association between child maltreatment and child behavior 
outcomes in Kenya. 

Research indicates that child personality characteristics may affect the association 
between parenting and child behavior (Higgins & McCabe, 2000; McGee et al., 1997). 
Some children’s temperamental or personality features, such as high irritability, might 
trigger maltreating behavior more easily (Lee et al., 2013; Warrier et al., 2021). Low 
Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism and high levels of Extraversion have 
been associated with high levels of externalizing behavior (Slobodskaya & Akmetova, 
2010). In addition, maltreatment may be linked to different personality traits and some 
genetic variations may be associated with different susceptibility to environmental 
influence (Rogosh & Cicchetti, 2012; Warrier et al., 2021). However, most studies 
assessing personality attributes in children have over relied on temperament as a 



Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

measure of personality in childhood, under the assumption that personality traits were 
not well developed in children (Oshri et al., 2013). 

The current study therefore used the Big Five Personality Factors, (Barbaranelli et al., 
2003) and the vulnerable population hypothesis (Zachar, 2009). According to the 
vulnerable population hypothesis, certain individuals may be particularly vulnerable to 
psychological problems, perhaps because of environmental and social conditions, 
perhaps because of their personality or temperamental problems, perhaps because of 
physiological factors or combination of all these risk factors. Using the two theories we 
assessed the moderating role of child personality in the association between 
maltreatment and externalizing behavior in children. We thus investigated whether 
some personality factors explain why some children were more vulnerable to develop 
externalizing behavior problems when maltreated by fathers than others.  
In the current study, fathers reported the day-to-day incidences of maltreatment of 
children in middle childhood. We assessed whether there were differences in 
maltreatment of boys and girls. We also examined the moderating role of the five 
personality traits in the association between maltreatment by fathers and child 
externalizing behavior to ascertain whether some personality factors made some 
children more susceptible to externalizing behavior when maltreated by their fathers. 
We expected that children who scored high on Neuroticism and on Extraversion scales 
would score high on maltreatment and high on the externalizing behavior scales. We 
also presumed that those who scored high on Conscientiousness, Agreeableness and 
Openness would score low on maltreatment and externalizing behavior scales.  

Method 
Procedure 
This study assessed the association between maltreatment by fathers and externalizing 
behavior problems among children in middle childhood. We also investigated whether 
there were significant differences in the Big Five Personality Factors, externalizing 
behavior, and maltreatment of boys and girls in middle childhood by their fathers. 
We targeted children and their biological fathers out of the total population of 226,165 
children aged 5-10 years who were residents of Bungoma County, Kenya in the year 
2016 (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics Economic Survey, 2016). Children in middle 
childhood were targeted because they were found to be most maltreated (Child Line 
Kenya, 2017). In addition, it has been estimated that 82% of children in Bungoma 
County are subjected to at least one form of psychological aggression or physical 
punishment by household members (KNBS & UNICEF, 2016). This gave the impetus to 
carry out the study on maltreatment of children in middle childhood in Bungoma 
County, Kenya.  

Sample and Sampling 
This was part of a larger study on fathers and mothers parenting style, child 
maltreatment and behavior problems. For this paper, the target sample was N = 384
father-child dyads and was deemed appropriate for a study population of 100,000 and 
above, at 95% confidence level, 5% margin error and 50% population percentage of 
variability (Tahredoost, 2017). Cluster sampling technique was used to select 
participants across 7 sub counties in Bungoma County. Given that most children in this 
age bracket were in primary schools, the schools formed primary cluster units. This 
method was most appropriate because the children covered a large geographical 
population. Two schools were randomly selected per sub-county from the 7 sub counties 
for equal representation in the County. Only children aged between 7-10 years were 
selected using information found in the class registers. Stratified and random sampling 
techniques were then used to select the participants. Admission numbers for the 

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children were written on equal sized cards. The cards were put in containers that were 
arranged based on gender (male and female) and age (7 years, 8 years, 9 years, and 10 
years old), respectively. The cards were shuffled in the containers and picked randomly 
until the target of 384 children was reached.  

Ethics Review Committee of Maseno University in Kenya evaluated and declared that 
the procedures had no potential risk or negative consequences or discomfort to 
children. After obtaining approval from the Committee, Maseno University School of 
Graduate Studies and Bungoma Education County Director permitted the data 
collection exercise. In this study, schools were the primary cluster, and the selection 
procedure of the children was done in the schools. There was the requirement for the 
children’s gatekeepers to consent. Visits were made to the sampled schools to meet the 
respective head teachers and class teachers of grades 1-3. The head teachers were 
important because they controlled the access to the schools. The class teachers played a 
key role in the recruitment of participants in this study by providing the information 
about the age of the children as documented in the class registers. The cooperation of 
the head teacher and class teachers was, therefore, important for the success of the 
study. 

Children who were above 10 years or not staying with their biological fathers were 
excluded from the study sample. The selected children were informed about the study 
and were given the opportunity to give or refuse to give verbal assent to participation. 
Those who gave verbal assent to participate in the study were asked to avail their 
parents’ telephone numbers to enable the researcher to seek the parents’ consent. The 
parents were given the required information and adequate time to help them 
understand the study and decide on the consent. Either mothers of the children in 
consultation with fathers, or fathers alone, gave the consent of participation and the 
most appropriate day and time for data collection. Decision of parents who were not 
willing to participate was respected unconditionally. In order to get reports of as many 
fathers of children in middle childhood, we targeted only one child per household 
participating as possible. A case where two children from the same family were 
selected, the father was given an opportunity to choose to report about only one of the 
children. 

Fathers who agreed to participate were assured that their identities, and that of their 
children, would be concealed and the information they would provide would be kept 
confidential and solely used for the study. They were also assigned alpha numeric 
codes as a way of protecting their identities. Participants were asked to provide true 
information and would not be victimized for the information they would provide. 
Fathers of the children responded to the questionnaires on agreed dates and time at a 
place convenient to them and the researcher, mostly at home of the children. The 
participants agreed on an incentive of 500 Kenya shillings (approximately $5) for their 
time upon responding to the questionnaires. Fathers who were not able to read and 
write were assisted by the researcher and research assistant. 

Measures 
It has been found that parents’ educational level, income and gender of child may affect 
quality of parenting and externalizing behavior in children. A study on mothers’ 
parenting showed that mothers with less education display more controlling and 
physical discipline and those with higher education knew about child development and 
used inductive reasoning with their children (Durgel et al., 2013). Mothers’ higher levels 
of income was associated with lower externalizing behavior in African American 
youths aged 11-17 years (Anton et al., 2015). In the current study, a background 
information 



Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

form was used to gather information about the age and gender of the children, fathers’ 
education level and monthly earnings from salaries, casual labor or self-employment.  

Maltreatment by fathers was assessed by Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (Merbert, & 
Straus, 2002). The scale was considered suitable because it measures parenting practices 
associated with physical assault (13 items), child neglect (4 items), and psychological 
maltreatment (5 items) and has been used in previous studies in a Kenyan sample 
(Mbagaya et al., 2013). Fathers responded how often they had used a certain disciplinary 
strategy when their children did something wrong. They indicated their responses on a 
5-point scale ranging from 1 = never to 5 = every time. Examples of the items included, 
“when my child does something wrong, I shake him/her” (physical maltreatment), 
“when my child does something wrong, I yell, scream or shout at him/her” 
(psychological maltreatment), and “I fail to ensure my child gets food” (neglect).

The Big Five Personality Traits were measured by the Big Five Personality Questionnaire 
for Children (Barbaranelli et al., 2003). The scale was appropriate for this study because 
it can be used as a self-report for children, and for ratings by teachers and parents of the 
children. In addition, there is satisfactory internal consistency reliability for each factor 
(Barbaranelli et al., 2003). Fathers evaluated how well the items fitted their children’s 
personality attributes related to the Big Five Personality factors: Openness, Extraversion, 
Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Agreeability on a 5-point scale ranging from 1= 
never to 5= always. Example of the items were, “make friends easily” (Extraversion), 
“trust others” (Agreeableness), “respect follow rules” (Conscientiousness), “nervous” 
(Neuroticism), and “like to learn new things” (Openness).  

The Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991) was used to assess child externalizing 
behavior. The instrument was appropriate because it has been found to be reliable and 
used in previous studies among Kenyans (Skinner et al., 2014). In addition, the 
questionnaire has also been translated into Kiswahili which is a national language of 
Kenya and is used by Kenyans across different social-economic and education 
backgrounds. The questionnaire consisted of 28 items on a 3-point scale. Fathers 
evaluated how well the descriptions fitted their children’s behavior ranging from 0 = not 
true to 2 = very true. The items consisted of the delinquent (11 items) and aggression (19 
items) subscales. The items on the delinquent subscale were: “not guilty when 
misbehave,” “hang with trouble people,” “lying, run away from home,” “set fires,” 
“steals at home,” “steals outside home,” “use obscene language,” “truancy,” “use 
drugs,” and “vandalism.” The aggression subscale had the following items: “argues,” 
“brags,” “cruel to others,” “demand a lot of attention,” “destroy own things,” “destroy 
others’ things,” “disobedient at home,” “disobedient at school,” “jealous,” “get into 
many fights,” “attack people,” “screams,” “shows off,” “stubborn,” “mood changes,” 
“talks too much,” “teases,” “temper tantrums,” “threaten people,” and “loud.”  

Apart from the Child Behavior Checklist, which is available in Kiswahili, the Parent-Child 
Conflict Tactics Scale and the Big Five Personality Questionnaire for children were forward 
and backward translated into Kiswahili language. Content and face validity of the 
instruments were determined before the start of the actual research. The systematic 
examination of contents of the instruments was done by experts and scholars with long 
term experience in the field of child research. The instruments were found to cover the 
behavior domains which they were supposed to measure. In addition, a pilot study was 
carried out to establish clarity and adaptability of instructions of the questionnaires to 
some of the fathers who were of low educational levels.  

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A small sample of in total 38 father-child dyads which represented 10% of the final 
sample participated in the pilot study. The internal consistency Cronbach’s alphas of the 
subscales were computed. The measures were found to have reliable internal 
consistency. For the Big Five Questionnaire for Children, the internal consistency alpha 
for the sub scales were: Extraversion (α =.79), Agreeableness (α =.79), Conscientiousness 
(α =.84), Neuroticism (α =.63) and Openness (α =.74).  The internal consistency alpha 
levels for the sub scales of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale were: physical 
assault/maltreatment (α =.74) psychological aggression subscale (α =.66) and neglect 
subscale (α =.52). Straus et al. (1998), also found low internal consistency for the neglect 
scale (α =.22) and attributed it to the diverse behavior included in the measure such that 
parents who engaged in one of the acts did not engage in the others. Low internal 
consistency for the neglect scale in the current study could have been attributed to the 
varied behaviors included in the measure. The externalizing behavior had internal 
consistency of α =.77. 

Analytic Strategy 
Data was coded and organized for analysis using IBM SPSS Version 25. 
Background information data was analyzed using Descriptive Statistics. A 
dimensional approach was used to classify subscales of maltreatment, personality 
factors and externalizing behavior variables in the study. Using this approach, 
the degree to which a characteristic is present was assessed and lower scores 
equated to lower levels and higher scores to higher levels (Hagan et al., 2014). In the 
current study, higher scores on maltreatment scales signified that the frequency of 
physical, psychological, and neglectful behavior by fathers was more prevalent, 
thus, higher level of maltreatment. Higher scores on a personality factor scale 
suggested higher levels of the personality attribute while higher scores on child 
externalizing behavior problems scale corresponded to greater symptoms of the 
behavior problems. The approach was suitable for this study because it indicated 
the degree of maltreatment, personality and behavior along continuous dimensions 
and enabled comparing the children along the different levels and to use correlational 
and regression analyses. 

Forms of child maltreatment, physical assault, psychological aggression, and neglect, 
were computed by summing up scores of individual items of the subscales and means 
derived for each type of maltreatment. Later, a composite score (total maltreatment) 
was computed by summing up the types of maltreatment. Scores of 30 items assessing 
externalizing behavior on the Child Behavior Checklist, assessing delinquent behavior 
(11 items) and aggression (19 items), were also summed to constitute the externalizing 
behavior scale. For the Big Five Personality Factors, scores of items assessing each 
personality factor were computed and summed to constitute the variables for the 
Agreeableness, Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism and Conscientiousness.  

Independent sample t-test was computed to determine mean differences in  
maltreatment, personality characteristics and externalizing behavior problems of boys 
and girls by fathers. This test was suitable for comparing means obtained from two 
groups (boys and girls) to ascertain whether there were significant differences in their 
levels of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness and Conscientiousness as 
well as maltreatment and externalizing behavior. Pearson’s correlation was used to 
determine whether there were significant linear bivariate relations between child 
maltreatment, the Big Five Factors in children, and externalizing behavior problems. 
This helped in understanding which variables were associated with lower or higher 
scores on externalizing behavior. The bivariate findings were complemented with a 
multivariate regression analysis.  



Graduate Student Journal of Psychology 

Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

Hierarchical regression analysis was computed to predict of child externalizing 
behavior from maltreatment. The method was used because it allowed for controlling 
potentially confounding factors such as gender of children, fathers’ monthly income, 
and education level that have been found in previous studies to have an effect on 
maltreatment and externalizing behavior problems. Controlling these variables was 
important in understanding the association between maltreatment by fathers and child 
externalizing behavior. We evaluated the effects of the personality characteristics as 
moderators using PROCESS tool (Hayes, 2018). To avoid potentially problematic high 
multicollinearity with the interaction terms and to ease the interpretation of the 
outcome, variables were centered (standardized) before conducting the regression 
analyses (Aiken & West, 1991). A moderating effect was detected when the relation 
between outcome variable and the interaction of predictor and moderator variables was 
significant (Baron & Kenny, 1986).  

In this study, moderation occurred when the interaction between maltreatment and 
personality characteristics was a significant predictor of externalizing behavior 
problems. This indicated that the level of the child personality factor influenced the 
relation between maltreatment by fathers and externalizing behavior problems in 
children by either strengthening or weakening the relation. The PROCESS tool plotted 
simple regression equations at 1 standard deviation below the mean to illustrate 
moderation at a low level of the moderator; at the mean to illustrate moderation at mean 
level of the moderator; and 1 standard deviation above the mean to illustrate 
moderation at high level of the moderator (Field, 2018). The level of significance for the  
statistical tests conducted in this study was set at α < 0.05. 

Results 
Descriptive Statistics of the Participants 
A total of 155 biological fathers of 155 children (boys, n = 85 and girls, n = 70), aged 7-10 
years (mean age, 8.5 years) participated in this study. A majority of the fathers had 
attended primary education, n = 84 (54%), a total of n = 57 (37%) had secondary and n = 
11 (7%) had college education. Only n = 3 (2%) had never attended school. Eight 
children (5%) were staying with single fathers. The rest, n = 147 (95%) were staying with 
both their fathers and mothers. 

Comparison of Maltreatment, Personality Factors, and Externalizing Behavior of Boys 
and Girls 
We computed an independent sample t-test to ascertain whether there were significant 
differences in maltreatment by fathers, personality factors, and externalizing behavior of 
boys and girls aged 7-10 years. Results indicated that there was no significant difference 
in mean in Extraversion personality factor between boys (M = 2.89, SD = .57) and girls 
(M = 2.72, SD = .76), t = 1.55, p > .05. There was also no significant difference in 
Agreeableness between boys (M = 2.79, SD = .56) and girls (M = 2.81, SD = .73), t = -.15, p 

> .05 and Conscientiousness between boys (M = 3.08, SD = .60) and girls (M = 3.04, SD 
= .79), t = .32, p > .05. Likewise, there was no significant differences in Neuroticism 
between boys (M = 1.23, SD = .77) and girls (M = 1.15, SD = .80), t = .64, p > .05. No 
significance differences were also found in Openness between boys (M = 2.91, SD = .66) 
and girls (M = 2.82, SD = .83), t = .79, p > .05. See Table 1.



Ayiro 

Graduate Student Journal of Psychology 

Table 1 
Independent Sample T-test for Maltreatment, Personality Characteristics, and Externalizing 
Behaviors of Boys and Girls 

Questionnaire Subscales Mean SD t df p 

Boys Girls Boys Girls 

Personality Factors Extroversion 2.89 2.72 .57 .76 1.55 153 .12 

Agreeableness 2.79 2.81 .56 .73 -.15 153 .89 

Conscientiousness 3.08 3.04 .60 .79 .32 153 .75 

Neuroticism 1.23 1.15 .77 .80 .64 153 .52 

Openness 2.91 2.82 .66 .83 .79 153 .43 

Problem Behavior Externalizing .30 .24 .20 .21 1.71 153 .09 

Child 

Maltreatment 

Physical Assault .57 .50 .39 .40 1.12 153 .27 

Psychological .92 .77 .80 .70 1.22 153 .23 

Neglect .34 .47 .33 .58 .16 153 .88 

We found that there was no significant difference in physical assault of boys (M = .57, 
SD = .39) and girls (M = .50, SD = .40), t = 1.12, p > .05, by fathers. There was also no
significant difference in psychological maltreatment of boys (M = .92, SD = .80) and girls 
(M = .77, SD = .70), t = 1.22, p > .05 and neglect of boys (M = .34, SD = .33) and girls (M
= .47, SD = .58), t = .16, p > .05) of boys and girls by their fathers. In addition, no
significant difference in externalizing behavior problems between boys (M = .30, SD 
= .20) and girls (M = .24, SD = .21) t = 1.71, p > .05. See Table 1. This suggested that boys
and girls did not differ significantly in their levels of externalizing behavior problems, 
nor personality factors, and were not maltreated differently by their fathers. 

Relation between Maltreatment, Child Personality Characteristics, and Behavior 
Problems 
As a preliminary step, bivariate correlations were conducted to examine whether 
significant linear relations existed between, child maltreatment, personality 
characteristics, and externalizing behavior. Findings indicated a positive, significant 
relation between maltreatment by fathers and child externalizing behavior problem (r
= .33, p < 0.01). There was a positive significant association between maltreatment and
neuroticism (r = .25, p < 0.01). We did not find significant association between
maltreatment and agreeableness (r = -.12, p = 0.135), Conscientiousness (r = -06, p
= .426), Extraversion (r = .01, p = .840) and Openness (r = -14, p = .088). There was
significant, negative association between externalizing behavior and Agreeableness (r =
-.18, p < 0.05), Conscientiousness (r = - 19, p < 0.05) and Openness personality
characteristics (r = -21, p < 0.05). The relation between externalizing behavior problems



Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

and neuroticism was positive and significant (r = .36, p < 0.01). However, the relation 
between extraversion and externalizing behavior was not significant (r = .06, p 
=.432). See Table 2. 

Table 2 
Relation Between Maltreatment by Fathers, Child Personality Characteristics, and Behavior 

Construct 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
Child malt - 
Extern behavior .33** - 
Extraversion .02 .06 - 
Agreeableness -.12 -.18* .69** - 
Conscientiousness -.06 -.19* .67** .77** - 
Neuroticism .36** .16* -.03 -.09 - 

Openness -.21* .69** .70** .76** -.02 - 
**p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05 

The findings implied that externalizing behavior problems increased with a decrease in 
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness. In contrast, there was a positive 
significant association between Neuroticism and externalizing behavior problems 
suggesting that an increase in Neuroticism was associated with an increase in 
externalizing behavior problems.  Given the statistically significant linear relation 
between the predictor variable (child maltreatment) and outcome variable (child 
externalizing behavior), we conducted linear regression analysis. As expected, the 
association between father’s reported maltreatment of children, and externalizing 
behavior problems, was statistically significant, even after controlling for gender of 
children and monthly income of fathers as possible covariates (β = .33, p < 0.01). The 
findings suggested that maltreatment by fathers was a risk factor to child externalizing 
behavior problems.  

Moderating Effects of the Big Five Personality Characteristics on the Relations 
Between Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Children 
We assessed whether child personality factors moderated the association between 
maltreatment by fathers and child externalizing behavior using PROCESS tool. Models 
for each personality factor were computed separately. The moderating effect was only 
ascertained when the interaction between maltreatment and level of personality factors 
(Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness or Extraversion) was a 
significant predictor of externalizing behavior. The results showed that interaction 
between maltreatment by fathers and Extraversion of the child was a positive significant 
predictor of child externalizing behavior (β = .175, 95% CI [.066, .283], t = 3.176, p <.001). 
In addition, interaction of maltreatment by fathers and openness was a positively 
associated with child externalizing behavior (β = .108, 95% CI [-.006, .210], t = 2.092, p 
= .038). The interaction between maltreatment and Neuroticism was not a significant 
predictor of externalizing behavior problems in children (β = -.066, 95% CI [-.010, -.141], 
t = 1.711, p = .081). 

The interaction between maltreatment by fathers and Conscientiousness was also not a 
significant predictor of child externalizing behavior (β = 0.078, 95% CI [-.044, .199], t = 
1.265, p = .208). Further, the interaction between Agreeableness and child maltreatment 
was not a significant predictor of externalizing behavior problems (β = 0.064, 95% CI 
[-.059, .187], t = 1.034, p = .303). Given that moderation occurs when the interaction 
between maltreatment and personality characteristics is a significant predictor of 

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Ayiro 

externalizing behavior problems, Openness and Extraversion characteristics in children 
were the only moderators of the association between maltreatment by fathers and child 
externalizing behavior.  

In light of the foregoing, we plotted regression lines using the PROCESS tool to assess 
how Openness and Extraversion affected the relation between maltreatment by fathers 
and child externalizing behavior. The regression lines represented three levels of 
Openness and Extraversion (high, mean, and low). We conducted slope analyses to 
examine how maltreatment of children and externalizing behavior changed at the three 
levels. Findings indicated that when Openness was low, there was a non-significant 
association between maltreatment by fathers and child externalizing behavior (β = 0.068, 
95% CI [-0.035, 0.171], t = 1.305, p = 0.193). At the mean value of Openness, there was a 
significant positive relation between maltreatment by fathers and child externalizing 
behavior (β = 0.165, 95% CI [0.091, 0.239], t = 4.393, p < 0.001). When Openness was high, 
there was a significant positive relationship between maltreatment by fathers and child 
externalizing behavior (β = 0.225, 95% CI [0.122, 0.328], t = 4.31, p < 0.001).  The 
significant association between externalizing behavior and the interaction between 
maltreatment by fathers at mean and high level of Openness and not at low level, 
suggested that the association was stronger in children with average and higher levels 
of Openness. See Figure 1. 

Figure 1 
Model Depicting the Moderating Role of the Openness Personality Factor in Children on the 
Relation between Child Maltreatment by Fathers and Child Externalizing Behavior Problems 

Regarding the moderating effect of Extraversion on the relation between maltreatment 
by fathers and child externalizing behavior, results indicated that when Extraversion 
was low, there was a non-significant association between maltreatment by fathers and 
child externalizing behavior (β = 0.023, 95% CI [-0.086, 0.133], t = 0.419, p = 0.66). At the 
mean value of Extraversion, there was a significant positive relationship between 
maltreatment by fathers and child externalizing behavior (β = 0.144, 95% CI [0.072, 
0.216], t = 3.976, p < .001). When Extraversion was high, there was a significant positive 



Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

relationship between maltreatment by fathers and child externalizing behavior   (β = 
0.252, 95% CI [0.160, 0.344], t = 5.395, p < 0.001). See Figure 2. 

Figure 2 
Model Depicting the Moderating Role of Extraversion Personality Factor on the Relation 
Between Child Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior 

Discussion 
The current study found no significant difference in maltreatment, externalizing 
behavior problems, nor personality characteristics of boys and girls aged 7-10 years. 
The finding that there was no difference in maltreatment of boys and girls is similar to a 
study among boys and girls in middle childhood in Cambodia, Kenya, Tanzania, and 
Swaziland. (Ravi & Ahluwalia, 2017). It seems likely that fathers perceived boys and 
girls in middle childhood as children who are yet to assume gender roles which brings 
about differences between boys and girls in African societies. This finding suggest that 
different treatment of boys and girls does not occur between age 7-10 years. In most 
societies in Kenya, boys are initiated into manhood and assigned to male related roles 
at 15 years (Mulindi, 2015). It is possible that before circumcision of boys, both boys and 
girls are regarded as children and therefore treated equally. The finding of no 
significant difference in externalizing behavior of boys and girls differs with a previous 
study which indicated that child maltreatment predicted juvenile delinquency in males 
and not females (Topitzes et al., 2011). The divergent findings could have been 
attributed to sample characteristics and measurements (Topitzes et al., 2011). Incidences 
of child maltreatment by fathers in this current study is a key contribution to data on 
cases of child maltreatment that has been predominantly derived from mother-child 
association. The study also offers valuable insight about prevention and treatment 
programs which should target both boys and girls. 

In this study, there was a positive association between maltreatment by fathers and 
externalizing behavior among children. This suggested that children who were 
maltreated by fathers were likely to exhibit externalizing behavior problems. Previous 
studies have reported similar associations using maternal data. A study among children 
in primary school in Tehran found significant association between child maltreatment 
by mothers and child externalizing behavior (Alizadeh et al., 2011). A different study 
among 88 emerging adults aged 18-22 years in South Western University in the United 
States, also found a positive significant relation between childhood maltreatment by 
mothers and externalizing behavior problems (Hagan et al., 2014). A study of 140 
children in elementary school children in Minnesota also showed that physical abuse 

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Ayiro 

predicted early onset of externalizing behavior (Egeland et al., 2002). Based on the 
previous findings on association between maltreatment by mothers and current study 
on fathers, it can be concluded that regardless of gender of the parent, maltreatment of 
children can have an effect on their externalizing behavior. The current study, therefore, 
supports the available literature on the association between child maltreatment and 
behavior problems by fathers that has been under-explored. In addition, this study is 
unlike previous research on maltreatment and behavior problems that have mainly 
evaluated documented files on incidences of childhood maltreatment, which are prone 
to under reporting of cases that have potential harm to the child (Johnson et al., 1999). 
This study provides valuable data on current situation of the association between 
fathers and children in middle childhood in Kenya.  

Concerning the moderating effect of the Big Five Child Personality Factors, this study 
found that the strength of the relation between maltreatment by fathers and child 
externalizing behavior weakened as the level of openness and extraversion decreased. 
The significant association at the mean and higher level on Openness and Extraversion 
suggested that the association was stronger externalizing behavior emerged in children 
with average or greater levels of Openness and Extraversion personality characteristics. 
Thus, children who are more open and are more extraverted are more susceptible to 
externalizing behavior when maltreated by fathers than those who are less open and 
less extraverted. The study findings suggest that the association between Big Five 
Personality Factors and maltreatment by mothers could be different from fathers. 
Whereas a previous study, see Rogosh & Cicchetti, 2004, indicated that children who are 
maltreated by mothers exhibited lower Openness to experience, the current study did 
not find such a significant association between maltreatment by fathers and Openness 
to experience of children. It rather showed that maltreatment by fathers and average to 
high Openness to experience put children at higher risk of exhibiting externalizing 
behavior problems. This is an essential refinement of findings in previous studies that 
maltreatment would predict externalizing in all children. 

Nonetheless, this study confirms the suggestion that child personality factors are likely 
to influence the parent-child relationship (Meunier et al., 2011). Specifically, the findings 
offer valuable insights about the underlying processes in father child relationship. The 
findings support the vulnerability hypothesis that some population can be more 
vulnerable than others because of factors such as their personality attributes. In the 
current study, it appears that child behaviors associated with high level of Extraversion 
(talkative, assertive, energetic, sociable, assertive, forceful) and high level of Openness 
(curiosity, intellect, and openness to experience) when maltreated by fathers, are likely 
to exhibit externalizing behavior than those who are less Extraverted and less Open to 
experience. 

This study indicates that maltreatment by fathers is a risk factor to externalizing 
behavior problems in children. The study provides knowledge on the importance of 
father-child relationship that is least documented in Kenyan literature on parenting and 
child behavior. The findings may be an eye opener on the neglected role played by 
fathers in behavior development of their children in Kenya. The study therefore forms a 
basis for further research on paternal influences on child development in addition to the 
almost exclusive focus on mothers in Kenya and Africa. The findings also add to 
literature on the Big Five Personality Factors. It shows that the Big Five Personality 
Factors of children may moderate the association between paternal parenting practices 
and child behavior problems. Specifically, the study highlights that children with high 
levels of Openness (curiosity, appreciating other cultures, openness to experience-



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Maltreatment by Fathers and Externalizing Behavior Problem 

intellectual independence) and Extraversion (talkative, assertive, energetic, sociable, 
forceful) are likely to be more vulnerable to externalizing behavior when maltreated by 
fathers. 

Limitations and Future Directions 
The present study has several limitations that should be addressed in future research. 
First, the cross-sectional design used did not explore causal relations between 
maltreatment by fathers, personality factors and behavior problems. Longitudinal 
studies should be conducted to explain the links. Second, we assumed that child 
personality factors would moderate the associations, yet it could be mediating, future 
studies should explore potential mediating role of the Big Five Personality characteristic 
in the association between child maltreatment by fathers and behavior problems. In 
addition, the findings are basically on fathers as they are the neglected parents in 
research, but future studies may add comparisons with mothers to create a more 
complete picture of the family. Lastly, given the sensitivity of data of this study, 
participants may have responded in a socially desirable manner to impress the 
researcher using the self-reports and the information they provided may not be 
perfectly reliable. Future studies could utilize multiple informants and add child’s or 
spouse’s reports on maltreatment practices. 

Implications 
This study suggests that father involvement is not always associated with positive 
outcomes in children and boys and girls are maltreated by fathers equally and are at 
equal risk of externalizing problem behaviors. The study confirms the vulnerability 
hypothesis that some people are more vulnerable to psychological problems due to 
factors such as personality problems. These findings may offer a valuable insight in 
developing an inclusive parenting program for both fathers and mothers, for boys and 
girls on sensitive parenting, and child personality factors in case of African parents. The 
programs need to factor in topics on child personality to enable fathers understand that 
parental practices, such as maltreatment and certain personality factors, may make 
children more vulnerable to externalizing behavior problems. Using this knowledge, 
fathers may be motivated to develop more sensitive parenting strategies to children, 
especially to those who perceive that their children are high on the Openness and 
Extraversion personality factors. This may help reduce the incidence of maltreatment by 
fathers and hence externalizing behavior among the children.  

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledge Dr. Catherine Mbagaya, Professor Lucas Othuon and 
Professor Marinus van Ijzendoorn for their assistance in designing and all other aspects 
of the study. Special thanks to Professor Marinus van Ijzendoorn for editing the 
manuscript. This work was supported by Lolle Nauta Foundation and ISSBD/Jacobs 
Foundation.

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