98 Graduate Student Journal of Psychology 2022, Vol. 19 Copyright 2022 by the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology Teachers College, Columbia University �АǓljȠș�ȅǟ�ƺ�^ǩǿǠǹǓে^Ǔșșǩȅǿ�2ǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ� Targeting Perfectionism in College Students Haley E. Ward and Michael G. Wheaton, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Barnard College Perfectionism is a well-established transdiagnostic factor that contributes to the maintenance and exacerbation ȅǟ� ƺ�ΛǩǏǓ� ȖƺǿǠǓ�ȅǟ�ȒșΡljǦȅȒƺȠǦȅǹȅǠΡঀ��ǹȠǦȅȣǠǦ� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓॹ�ǾȅșȠ� ȠȖǓƺȠǾǓǿȠș� ǟȅȖ�ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ�ƺȖǓ� ǩǿƺljljǓșșǩLjǹǓ� Ƞȅ� ȠǦǓ� general population, and are time-, resource-, and cost-intensive. Online single-session interventions (SSIs) display promise in preventing and treating negative mental health symptoms; however, no studies have examined the ef- fectiveness of an online SSI targeting perfectionism. To address this, the present study sought to evaluate a novel computerized, self-guided SSI. The two primary aims of the study were: 1) to assess the intervention’s acceptabil- ity, likability, and utility, and 2) to examine whether the intervention reduces perfectionistic attitudes, depression, anxiety, and stress in a college student population. At baseline, students at a liberal arts college (N=79) were ran- domized to receive a 40-minute perfectionism SSI or a stress-management control. Participants rated the perfec- tionism intervention as highly helpful, acceptable, and likable. The perfectionism intervention was associated ΛǩȠǦ�ǠȖǓƺȠǓȖ� ǩǾȒȖȅΚǓǾǓǿȠș� ǩǿ�ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾॹ�ǏǓȒȖǓșșǩȅǿॹ�ƺǿΠǩǓȠΡॹ�ƺǿǏ�șȠȖǓșșআ�ǦȅΛǓΚǓȖॹ�ȠǦǓ�ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� ǩǿ�ȖǓǏȣljȠǩȅǿș� LjǓȠΛǓǓǿ� ȠǦǓ� ǠȖȅȣȒș�ΛǓȖǓ�ǿȅȠ� șȠƺȠǩșȠǩljƺǹǹΡ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠঀ�(ǩΚǓǿ� ȠǦǓ� șǾƺǹǹ� șƺǾȒǹǓ� șǩΦǓॹ� ȠǦǓ� șȠȣǏΡ�Λƺș� ǹǩǷǓǹΡ�ȣǿǏǓȖȒȅΛ- ǓȖǓǏ� Ƞȅ� ǏǓȠǓljȠ� ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� LjǓȠΛǓǓǿ� ljȅǿǏǩȠǩȅǿșঀ� 'ȣȠȣȖǓ� ȖǓșǓƺȖljǦ� ΛǩȠǦ� ǹƺȖǠǓȖ� șƺǾȒǹǓ� șǩΦǓșॹ� ƺ� ǹǓșș� ȒȅȠǓǿȠ� ljȅǿȠȖȅǹ� ǠȖȅȣȒॹ�ƺǿǏ�ljǹǩǿǩljƺǹ�ȒȅȒȣǹƺȠǩȅǿș�ǩș�ǿǓǓǏǓǏ�Ƞȅ�ȠǓșȠ�ȠǦǓ�ǓАǓljȠș�ȅǟ�ȠǦǓ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ�ǾȅȖǓ�ǓΠȠǓǿșǩΚǓǹΡঀ�FǓΚǓȖȠǦǓǹǓșșॹ�ȠǦǩș� study demonstrates that single-session perfectionism interventions hold promise and merit future investigation. Keywords: Perfectionism, Single-Session Interventions, Online Interventions, College Students XǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ�ǩș�ǏǓЙǿǓǏ�ƺș�ȠǦǓ�șȠȖȅǿǠ�ǿǓǓǏ�Ƞȅ�ȒǓȖ- ǟȅȖǾ� ƺȠ� ƺ� МƺΛǹǓșș� ǹǓΚǓǹ� ƺǿǏ� Ƞȅ�ǾǓǓȠ� ǓΠljǓșșǩΚǓǹΡ� ǦǩǠǦ� standards (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Although perfec- tionism is multidimensional and can have adaptive elements, it is considered a transdiagnostic factor as- sociated with many forms of psychopathology (Sha- fran & Mansell, 2001; Egan, Wade, & Shafran, 2011). The type of perfectionism that contributes to psycho- pathology is known as maladaptive perfectionism, which is characterized by the pursuit of personally demanding standards and the basing of self-worth on performance outcomes in one or more important life domains, despite negative consequences (Shafran, Cooper, & Fairburn, 2002). Maladaptive perfection- ism involves critical self-evaluations, concerns about making mistakes and being negatively evaluated by others, and fear of failure (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Egan, Wade, Shafran, & Antony, 2016). Many individuals with high levels of maladap- tive perfectionism have core beliefs that they are weak, МƺΛǓǏॹ�ƺǿǏ�ȣǿΛȅȖȠǦΡ�শ�ǓșșǓȖॹ�'ǹǓȠȠॹ�૭�/ǓΛǩȠȠॹࢵࢱࢱࢳ�ষঀ� Given these characteristics, it is unsurprising that per- fectionism is elevated across eating (Limburg, Wat- son, Hagger, & Egan, 2017), anxiety (Gnilka, Ashby, & Noble, 2012), depressive (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), and personality disorders (Overholser & Dimaggio, 2020). Perfectionism has particular relevance to obses- sive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), as one of the diagnostic criteria for OCPD involves perfec- tionism that interferes with normal task completion (American Psychological Association, 2013; Egan, Wade, & Shafran, 2011). Likewise, obsessive-com- pulsive disorder (OCD) often involves perfection- istic tendencies; the Obsessive-Compulsive Cogni- tions Working Group postulates that perfectionism is one of six central cognitive processes involved in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCCWG, 1997). In addition to the heightened perfectionism common among clinical populations, a substantial number of individuals who do not meet the diagnos- tic criteria for any given disorder have high levels of maladaptive perfectionism (Grzegorek et al., 2004). In nonclinical samples, perfectionism is highly cor- related with subthreshold symptoms of various forms of psychopathology (Kearns, Forbes, & Gardiner, 2007). For instance, Ferrari (1995) found that per- ǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ� șljȅȖǓș� ΛǓȖǓ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠǹΡ� ȖǓǹƺȠǓǏ� Ƞȅ� ȅLjșǓș- sional thoughts, compulsive acts, anger-suppression, anger expression, social desirability, and compulsive checking in a nonclinical college student population. Perfectionism levels are also associated with hopeless- ness, non-suicidal self-injury, and suicidal ideation and attempts (O’Connor, 2003; O’Connor, 2007). More broadly, perfectionism gives rise to high levels of stress and worry, behavioral impairments, physical health problems, impaired daily functioning, inferi- or academic performance, and interpersonal prob- lems (Shafran et al., 2002; Flett & Hewitt, 2002). 99 Treatments for Perfectionism Treatments for perfectionism are based on models that suggest cognitive and behavioral components may maintain the core biases and attitudes in perfectionism শ^ǦƺǟȖƺǿ� ǓȠ� ƺǹঀॹ� �ষঀ�EȅȖǓࢳࢱࢱࢳ șȒǓljǩЙljƺǹǹΡॹ�ǾƺǹƺǏƺȒȠǩΚǓ� thinking patterns and cognitive biases such as dichot- omous thinking, selective attention toward mistakes, rumination, self-criticism, self-blame, and overgeneral- ization play a role in maintaining perfectionism and its poor outcomes (Egan et al., 2016; Shafran et al., 2002). Such biases may contribute to procrastination behav- iors, higher standard-setting, and inability to complete tasks (Egan et al., 2016; Sirois, 2014). Perfectionism is also antithetical to self-compassion (Brown, 2008; Na- ǏǓƺȣॹࢱࢳࢱࢳ�ষॹ�ƺș�ǩǿȠǓȖǿƺǹ�șǓǹǟ৉ǏǩƺǹȅǠȣǓ�ǩș�ȕȣǩȠǓ�ǦƺȖșǦ�ƺǿǏ� ǩǿΚȅǹΚǓș� ƺȣȠȅǾƺȠǩlj� ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ৉ȠǦǓǾǓǏ� ȠǦȅȣǠǦȠș� ƺLjȅȣȠ�ȠǦǓ�șǓǹǟॹ�ǴȣǏǠǾǓǿȠșॹ�ƺǿǏ�ǓǹǓǾǓǿȠș�ȅǟ�șǓǹǟ৉ǿǓǠǹǓljȠ� (Ferrari, 1995; Hewitt, 2020). Self-criticism may even mediate the relationship between perfectionism, psy- chological distress (James et al., 2015), and depression (Ferrari, Yap, Scott, Einstein, & Ciarrochi, 2018). Be- cause of these cognitive and behavioral maintenance factors, a perfectionistic cycle is often quite resistant to change, thus some researchers suggest that perfection- ǩșǾ�ǩș�ƺ�ЙΠǓǏ�ȒƺȖȠ�ȅǟ�ȒǓȖșȅǿƺǹǩȠΡ�শ/ǓΛǩȠȠ�ǓȠ�ƺǹঀॹࢸࢲࢱࢳ�ষঀ� However, it might be more helpful to look at perfec- tionism as a cognitive vulnerability factor related to psychopathology that can change with targeted treat- ment (Egan et al., 2011). Indeed, perfectionistic beliefs can be changed through cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). Common elements of CBT target cognitive and behavioral processes in perfectionism via psycho- education, cognitive restructuring, and self-compas- sion techniques (Egan et al., 2016; Nadeau, 2020). A growing body of evidence shows that CBT for nonclinical and clinical populations reduces per- ǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾॹ�ΛǩȠǦ�ǾǓǏǩȣǾ�Ƞȅ�ǹƺȖǠǓ�ǓАǓljȠ�șǩΦǓș�শ?ǓƺȖǿș� et al., 2007; Lloyd, Schmidt, Khondoker, & Tchan- turia, 2015). Targeting perfectionism may also lead to a reduction in other psychological disturbances characteristic of mental disorders (Egan et al., 2011; Lloyd et al., 2015). In particular, studies have found that depression, anxiety, and eating problems are of- ȠǓǿ� ȖǓǏȣljǓǏ� ΛǩȠǦ� ǾǓǏǩȣǾ� ǓАǓljȠ� șǩΦǓș� ǩǿ� LjȅȠǦ� ljǹǩǿǩ- cal and nonclinical samples (e.g. Kearns, Forbes, & Gardiner, 2007; Steele & Wade, 2008; Shafran et al., 2017). There is also evidence supporting the utility of self-compassion interventions for perfectionism ǩǿ� ǿȅǿljǹǩǿǩljƺǹ� ȒȅȒȣǹƺȠǩȅǿșॹ� ƺǹȠǦȅȣǠǦ� ǓАǓljȠș� ȅǿ� ȖǓ- ducing secondary disorders are less consistent (Rose, McIntyre, & Rimes, 2018; Nadeau, 2020). There- fore, combining more traditional cognitive-behavioral components with self-compassion techniques may be LjǓǿǓЙljǩƺǹ�ǩǿ�ƺǹǹǓΚǩƺȠǩǿǠ�ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾॹ�ƺș�șȣǠǠǓșȠǓǏ�ǩǿ� prior research (Fairweather-Schmidt & Wade, 2015). Although there has been a recent surge in ran- domized controlled trials evaluating treatments for perfectionism (Lloyd et al., 2015), for many individ- ȣƺǹș� ȒșΡljǦȅȠǦǓȖƺȒΡ� ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿș� ȖǓǾƺǩǿ� ǏǩГljȣǹȠ� Ƞȅ� access given the face-to-face and individualized nature of treatment (Andersson, 2016). Cost, transporta- tion issues, waiting lists, lack of trained mental health professionals, and stigma—typical barriers in facing treatment—might limit access to perfectionism in- terventions. And such barriers may be particularly strong for under-resourced populations (Andrade et al., 2014). Further, those with subclinical problems (e.g. someone who is perfectionistic and anxious but doesn’t meet criteria for a disorder) would be unlikely to go to great lengths to seek out an intervention. This lack of access points to a clear need for more accessi- ble mental health programs targeting perfectionism. Internet-Based Interventions As a response to lack of access, internet-based interventions have been rapidly developed. Inter- ǿǓȠেLjƺșǓǏ� ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿș� ƺȖǓ� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ� ǟȅȖ� ƺ� ΚƺȖǩǓȠΡ� ȅǟ� mental health disorders and problems (e.g. Parks et al., 2018), including perfectionism (e.g. Rozental et al., 2017). Online interventions for perfection- ism utilize the same techniques present in in-person treatment (e.g. cognitive restructuring, self-compas- șǩȅǿষॹ�ƺȖǓ�ȠΡȒǩljƺǹǹΡ�șǓǹǟেǠȣǩǏǓǏॹ�ƺǿǏ�ȅǟȠǓǿ�ȖǓȒȅȖȠ�ǓАǓljȠ� sizes comparable to in-person treatments (Suh et al., 2019). For example, Suh and colleagues’ meta-anal- ysis on 10 face-to-face and online interventions for ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ�ȖǓȒȅȖȠǓǏ�ȠǦƺȠ�ȠǦǓȖǓ�ΛǓȖǓ�ǿȅ�șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� ǩǿ� ǏǓǹǩΚǓȖΡ� ǾȅǏƺǹǩȠΡ� ȅǿ� ǓАǓljȠ� șǩΦǓș� ǟȅȖ� perfectionism, depression, and anxiety (Suh et al., 2019). At present, there have been several randomized controlled trials evaluating online programs which have demonstrated great value in reducing the bur- den created by perfectionism (e.g. Egan et al., 2014). However, one potential problem with both face- to-face and online perfectionism interventions is their length Lloyd and colleagues’ (2015) meta-analysis of 8 SSI TARGETING PERFECTIONISM 100100 perfectionism interventions reported that the number of treatment sessions ranged from 8 to 14, resembling the typical length of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Non-completion rates were high in many of the stud- ǩǓșॹ�ΛǦǩljǦ�ƺȖǓ�ȖǓМǓljȠǩΚǓ�ȅǟ�ȠȖǓƺȠǾǓǿȠ�ƺǏǦǓȖǓǿljǓ�ǿȅȖǾșআ� ȅǿǓ�ǩǿ�ЙΚǓ�ƺǏȣǹȠș�Λǩǹǹ�ǏȖȅȒ�ȅȣȠ�ȅǟ�ȠȖǓƺȠǾǓǿȠ�LjǓǟȅȖǓ�ȠǦǓ� recommended dose is complete (Olfson et al., 2009). Poor retention is even more common among online interventions. For instance, in the study conducted by ^ǦƺǟȖƺǿ� ƺǿǏ� ljȅǹǹǓƺǠȣǓș� শࢸࢲࢱࢳষॹ� ȠǦǓȖǓ� Λƺș� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� non-engagement and non-completion of modules, with 71% of participants completing fewer than half ȠǦǓ�ǾȅǏȣǹǓș�ƺǿǏ�ȅǿǹΡࢵࢲ�ঀࢶઔ�ȒǓȅȒǹǓ�ljȅǾȒǹǓȠǩǿǠ�ЙΚǓ�ȅȖ� more modules. Strikingly, even participants who had high rates of non-completion and non-engagement had reduced perfectionism. Change in perfectionism was largest at the beginning of the intervention, indi- cating that potential may lie in briefer, more compact interventions. This is consistent with other research reporting that the number of sessions is often unrelat- ǓǏ�Ƞȅ�ȠǦǓ�ǾƺǠǿǩȠȣǏǓ�ȅǟ�ȠǦƺȠ�ȠȖǓƺȠǾǓǿȠঢ়ș�ǓАǓljȠ�শvǓǩșΦ�ǓȠ� al., 2017). Rozental and colleagues (2017) and Shafran ǓȠ�ƺǹ�শࢸࢲࢱࢳষ�ǿȅȠǩljǓǏ�ȠǦǓșǓ�ǓАǓljȠș�ǩǿ�ȠǦǓǩȖࢹ�েΛǓǓǷ�ǹȅǿǠ� online interventions for perfectionism, and they sug- gested that brief, online interventions may have posi- tive impacts on perfectionism and maximize scalability. One form of brief intervention that has been developed in response to the high likelihood that an individual will access a treatment only once is sin- ǠǹǓেșǓșșǩȅǿ� ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿș� শ^^2șষঀ� ^^2ș� ƺȖǓ� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ� ǟȅȖ� adults (Campbell, 2012), youths (Schleider & Weisz, 2017), and college students (Samson & Tanner-Smith, 2015) with diagnosed psychiatric disorders and sub- clinical issues. SSIs have been demonstrated to im- prove anxiety, depression, problematic drug and al- cohol use, and risk factors for mental health problems such as hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, physiological șȠȖǓșș� șǓǹǟেǦƺȠǓॹ� ȒǓȖljǓǩΚǓǏ� ljȅǿȠȖȅǹॹ� ЙΠǓǏ�ǾǩǿǏșǓȠॹ� ƺǿǏ� agency (Tanner-Smith et al., 2015; Schleider, Do- bias, Sung, Mumper, & Mullarkey, 2020; Schleider, Dobias, Sung, & Mullarkey, 2020). Gains are often maintained at follow-up, and participants typically rate single-session interventions as likable, acceptable, and useful (Duan & Bu, 2017; Wasil et al., 2021; Sam- son & Tanner-Smith et al., 2015; Schleider & Weisz, 2017). These interventions are particularly useful when delivered in an online, self-guided format be- cause they can be made widely accessible, reducing the barriers to mental health care (Schleider et al, 2020a). Although short-term therapies have been shown to reduce perfectionistic tendencies and related problems ƺǿǏ�ƺȖǓ�ljȅǾȒƺȖƺLjǹǓ�ǩǿ�ǓАǓljȠ�șǩΦǓș�শ�ȅǏǏ�ǓȠ�ƺǹঀॹࢺࢲࢱࢳ�আ� Lloyd et al., 2014; Fairweather-Schmidt & Wade, 2015), only one study has examined a single-session perfectionism intervention (LaSota, Ross, & Kearney, 2017), which lasted for several hours in-person and focused on psychoeducation, setting high standards, fear over mistakes, and reducing stress. To-date, no brief online perfectionism interventions have been ȠǓșȠǓǏঀ�(ǩΚǓǿ�ȠǦƺȠ�ȅǿǹǩǿǓ�^^2ș�ƺȖǓ�ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ�ǩǿ�ȖǓǏȣljǩǿǠ� mental health concerns (Schleider & Weisz, 2018b), ƺǿǏ�ȅȠǦǓȖ� ȠΡȒǓș�ȅǟ�LjȖǩǓǟ� ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿș�ƺȖǓ�ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ� ǩǿ� reducing perfectionism (e.g. Dodd et al., 2019; Fair- weather-Schmidt & Wade, 2015), an online SSI aim- ing to decrease perfectionism might be particularly useful. The brevity and accessibility of such an inter- vention may amplify its potential impact, decreasing costs, time, and other problems associated with receiv- ing a normal length and/or in-person intervention. � �ȅǹǹǓǠǓ�șȠȣǏǓǿȠș�ǾƺΡ�LjǓ�ƺ�ǠȅȅǏ�ЙȠ�ǟȅȖ�ƺ�șǩǿǠǹǓেșǓș- sion intervention targeting perfectionism, considering that many students have problems with perfection- ism, anxiety, and depression (LaSota et al., 2017), and mental health issues appear to be on the rise in college students (Curran & Hill, 2017). Perfectionism may be an etiological and maintenance factor of these mental health problems in college student populations for two primary reasons. First, work and studies are the two top domains of life in which people report being the most perfectionistic (Stoeber & Stoeber, 2009). Living in an academic environment could potential- ly lead to the exacerbation of perfectionistic tenden- cies. Second, college students are constantly evaluated based on their work and social skills and must meet certain self-presentation and performance-based stan- dards (Klibert et al., 2014), which may contribute to the stress surrounding academic performance and the pressure to succeed that college students often report as a top stressor (Bedewey & Gabriel, 2015). An en- ΚǩȖȅǿǾǓǿȠ� ЙǹǹǓǏ� ΛǩȠǦ� ǓΠljǓșșǩΚǓ� șȠȣǏΡǩǿǠॹ� ƺljƺǏǓǾǩlj� ȒȖǓșșȣȖǓॹ� ƺǿǏ� șȠȖǓșș� ΛȅȣǹǏ� ȣǿǏȅȣLjȠǓǏǹΡ� ǩǿМȣǓǿljǓ� perfectionism and may have particular relevance to highly competitive colleges that maintain a culture of perfectionism. Of relevance, Molnar and colleagues (2020) found that 14% of college students have ex- tremely elevated levels of perfectionism, while other WARD, WHEATION 101 SSI TARGETING PERFECTIONISM studies have found that two thirds can be categorized as perfectionists, with a quarter of those individu- als meeting criteria for maladaptive perfectionism (Grzegorek et al., 2004). These rates have increased over the past decade, concurrent with rates of oth- er mental health problems (Curran & Hill, 2017). The increasing rates of perfectionism in college students may be contributing to the increase in mental illness among college populations, treatment-seeking behaviors, and other stressors (Pacewicz, Gotwals, and Blanton, 2018). Considering this information, there is an urgent need for brief, online interventions that reduce perfectionism and protect against the develop- ment of anxiety and depression among college students (Klibert et al., 2014). Targeting perfectionism in an on- line single-session intervention might help reduce the burden placed on college counseling centers, reduce distress among students, and prevent future dysfunc- tion. Although traditional perfectionism programs are ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ�ǟȅȖ�ΚƺȖǩȅȣș�ljǹǩǿǩljƺǹ�ƺǿǏ�ǿȅǿljǹǩǿǩljƺǹ�ljȅǿljǓȖǿșॹ� no research to date has assessed the impact of a brief, online perfectionism program in a college population. The Present Study The present study extends prior research by con- ǏȣljȠǩǿǠ� ȠǦǓ� ЙȖșȠ� ȖƺǿǏȅǾǩΦǓǏ� ljȅǿȠȖȅǹǹǓǏ� ȠȖǩƺǹ� ȅǿ� ƺ� self-administered, online SSI designed to reduce per- fectionism in a college student population. To assess ȠǦǓ�ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓǿǓșș�ȅǟ�ȠǦǓ�ȒȖȅǠȖƺǾॹ�ΛǦǩljǦ�ǩș�LjƺșǓǏ�ȅǿ�ȒșΡ- choeducation, cognitive restructuring, and self-com- passion, a randomized controlled trial was conducted comparing the program with a stress-management control. It was hypothesized that the online single ses- sion intervention will decrease perfectionism in college șȠȣǏǓǿȠșॹ�ΛǩȠǦ�șǓljȅǿǏƺȖΡ�ǓАǓljȠș�ȅǿ�ǏǓȒȖǓșșǩȅǿॹ�ƺǿΠǩǓȠΡॹ� and stress. Participants were also asked to rate the inter- vention’s acceptability and utility and we hypothesized it would be rated as acceptable, likable, and useful. Methods Participants Participants were undergraduate liberal arts col- lege students who were enrolled in introductory psy- chology courses. Participants were recruited via an on- line platform (i.e. SONA) that allows students to sign up for studies in order to gain research credits. In total, 91 students participated in the present study; however, ЙΚǓ�ȒƺȖȠǩljǩȒƺǿȠș�ΛǓȖǓ�ȖǓǾȅΚǓǏ�ǟȅȖ�ǟƺǩǹǩǿǠ�LjȅȠǦ�ƺȠȠǓǿ- tion checks in each assessment or—admitting they did ǿȅȠ�ΛƺȠljǦ�ȠǦǓ�ΚǩǏǓȅș�ȅȖ�ǠǩΚǓ�ȠǦǓǩȖ�LjǓșȠ�ǓАȅȖȠ�ǩǿ�ljȅǾ- pleting the perfectionism intervention, leaving a total of 86 participants with usable pre-and post-data. Addi- tionally, only 79 participants completed and passed the follow-up assessment. Participants were randomized to either the perfectionism (N=45) or control interven- tion (N=41). In total, participants were 89.5% female ƺǿǏࢵ�ঀࢸઔ�ȅȠǦǓȖॹࢱࢹ�ઔ�ΛǓȖǓ�ǩǿ�ȠǦǓǩȖ�ЙȖșȠ�ƺǿǏ�șǓljȅǿǏ�ΡǓƺȖ� of college, 37.2% non-Hispanic White, 5.8% African �ǾǓȖǩljƺǿॹ� �ઔࢳঀࢸࢴ �șǩƺǿইXƺljǩЙlj� 2șǹƺǿǏǓȖॹ� ƺǿǏ� �ઔࢹঀࢺࢲ Other or Hispanic. As displayed in Table 1, the two ǠȖȅȣȒș� ǏǩǏ� ǿȅȠ� ǏǩАǓȖ� ȅǿ� ƺǿΡ� ǏǓǾȅǠȖƺȒǦǩlj� ΚƺȖǩƺLjǹǓșঀ Materials � �ΡșǟȣǿljȠǩȅǿƺǹ� �ȠȠǩȠȣǏǓș� ^ljƺǹǓেXǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿে ism (DAS-PA; Weissman & Beck, 1978). The DAS was originally developed to study depression and has several subscales, including perfectionism, which Λƺș� ǩǏǓǿȠǩЙǓǏ� ƺș� ƺ� șȣLjșljƺǹǓ� LjΡ� �ǓljǷ� ƺǿǏ� ljȅǹǹǓƺǠȣǓș� (1991). The subscale measures perfectionistic atti- tudes and has excellent internal consistency. Scores on the subscale are predictive of later depression and anxiety (Jacobs et al., 2009). The Likert Scale is a con- tinuum from 0 (Fully Disagree) to 6 (Fully Agree). Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS; Smith, Saklofske, Stoeber, & Sherry, 2016). The BTPS eval- uates three higher-order factors (rigid perfectionism, self-critical perfectionism, and narcissistic perfection- ism) through 10 lower-order perfectionism facets (self-oriented perfectionism, self-worth contingen- cies, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, self-criticism, socially prescribed perfectionism, oth- er-oriented perfectionism, hypercriticism, grandiosity, entitlement). This scale was selected over older, more traditional perfectionism measures (MPS and FMPS) due to accessibility and its assessment of the perfec- tionistic attitudes targeted more directly in the inter- vention. Other-oriented perfectionism, socially pre- scribed perfectionism, and parental standards, which are assessed in other common measures of perfection- ism, are not addressed in the intervention. Although the BTPS is new, it has strong psychometric properties (Smith et al., 2016). Participants respond on a Likert Scale from 0 (Disagree Strongly) to 4 (Agree Strongly). �ǓȒȖǓșșǩȅǿॹ� �ǿΠǩǓȠΡ� ƺǿǏ� ^ȠȖǓșș� ^ljƺǹǓșেࢲࢳ� (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). The DASS- 21 is a 21-item self-report questionnaire consisting of 102 WARD, WHEATION three subscales: depression, anxiety and stress. Rat- ings are provided using Likert Scales ranging from 0 (“Did not apply to me at all”) to 3 (``Applied to me very much or most of the time”). The instructions on the DASS-21 were aligned with the timeline of the study; participants were asked to rate their symp- toms ‘in the past week.’ The subscales and total score have good reliability and construct validity in both clinical and nonclinical samples (Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998; Henry & Crawford, 2005). DASS-21 scores are highly correlated with other measures of depression and anxiety (Osman et al., 2012) and perfectionism (Aldahadha, 2018). Additional Questions about Perfectionism and the Intervention. To assess the intervention’s ability to alter metacognitive self-appraisals about perfection- ism, the following three questions were asked at base- line: “Do you consider yourself to be a perfectionist?,” “Does perfectionism get in the way of your happi- ness,” and “Does perfectionism slow progress toward your goals?” Participants also completed several ques- tions about the acceptability, likability, and perceived helpfulness of the intervention, which were partially derived from the Program Feedback Scale (PFS), a valid and reliable measure used to assess acceptability and perceptions of internet based SSIs (Sung, Mump- er, & Schleider, 2021). They were asked, “How much did you like the intervention?,” “How much do you feel like the intervention helped you understand per- fectionism?,” and “How helpful do you think the intervention was in teaching you to combat your per- fectionism?” In addition, perceived changes in perfec- tionism were assessed at 1-week follow-up with the question: “Do you think that completing the program helped you with your perfectionism in the past week?” Procedure Approval for this study was received from the In- stitutional Review Board (IRB) at Barnard College. Upon signing up for the study, participants were direct- ed to a Qualtrics form, where they completed a consent form and agreed to study duties. Study duties required ȠǦǓ� ȒƺȖȠǩljǩȒƺǿȠ� Ƞȅ� Йǹǹ� ȅȣȠ� ȒȖǓॹ� ȒȅșȠॹ� ƺǿǏ� �েΛǓǓǷࢲ ǟȅǹ- low-up measures, in addition to actively engaging with the intervention. After providing consent, participants responded to a series of demographic questions and measures assessing perfectionism, depression, anxiety, and stress. Immediately following the completion of the measures, participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental or stress-management control condition through the Qualtrics randomizer element. The experimental intervention took approximately 40 minutes and required participants to maintain active participation through video and open-ended respond- ing, while the stress-management condition lasted for a similar amount of time and consisted of a video and articles about stress. Attention checks were included to ensure participants were paying attention, along with a direct question following the intervention which asks participants if they did their best. Follow- ing the completion of the intervention, participants ǩǾǾǓǏǩƺȠǓǹΡ�ЙǹǹǓǏ�ȅȣȠ�ȠǦǓ�ǾǓƺșȣȖǓș�ǟȅȖ�ƺ�șǓljȅǿǏ�ȠǩǾǓॹ� except for the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales. Participants had access to the follow-up assessment ��ǦȅȣȖș�শșǓΚǓǿ�ǏƺΡșষ�ƺǟȠǓȖ�ȠǦǓΡ�ljȅǾȒǹǓȠǓǏ�ȠǦǓǩȖ�ЙȖșȠࢹࢷࢲ assessment and received a reminder email to take the assessment. If they did not take the assessment within 24 hours of receiving the email, they were sent addi- tional reminders. The follow-up assessment consisted of questions about perceived changes in perfection- ism in addition to the same measures used at baseline. Participants were debriefed at the end of the study. Statistical analyses were conducted in SPSS. Indepen- ǏǓǿȠ�șƺǾȒǹǓș�ȠেȠǓșȠș�ΛǓȖǓ�Ȗȣǿ�Ƞȅ�ƺșșǓșș�ǟȅȖ�ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� between groups at baseline and a series of repeated measures, ANOVAs, were utilized to examine the ef- fect of the perfectionism intervention compared to the stress-management control on the various outcome measures. Descriptive statistics on the likability and acceptability of the intervention were also analyzed. Perfectionism Intervention: The intervention was based on a treatment guide for clinical perfection- ism (Egan et al., 2016), which has been used to develop prior perfectionism interventions (e.g. Rozental et al., 2017; Shafran et al., 2017). The intervention was de- livered through Qualtrics and consists of colorful text, images, and video clips. Participants can easily follow the intervention by clicking the arrows to the next page when they appear and writing in the text boxes ȒȖȅΚǩǏǓǏঀ�EȅȖǓ�șȒǓljǩЙljƺǹǹΡॹ�ȠǦǓ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ�ǩǿljǹȣǏǓǏ� 4 major modules that take around 40 minutes total to complete and last for approximately 10 minutes each: 1) psychoeducation about perfectionism and its negative consequences, 2) cognitive restructuring of self-critical perfectionistic thoughts, 3) self-com- passion techniques, and 4) generalization and mainte- 103 SSI TARGETING PERFECTIONISM nance of information learned in the intervention. Psychoeducation and Consequences of Perে fectionism: Given that perfectionism is considered ego-syntonic and perfectionists believe their high stan- dards improve their functioning, it is important edu- cate participants about the counterproductive nature ƺǿǏ� ǿǓǠƺȠǩΚǓ� ǓАǓljȠș� ȅǟ� ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ� শKΚǓȖǦȅǹșǓȖ� ૭� Dimaggio, 2020). By increasing awareness about the problems associated with perfectionism, clients may feel more motivated (Yeh et al., 2017) and be able to more easily change the thoughts and behaviors con- tributing to these outcomes (Kutlesa & Arthur, 2008). eǦǓȖǓǟȅȖǓॹ�ȠǦǓ�ȒȖȅǠȖƺǾ�ǏǓЙǿǓș�ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ�ƺǿǏ�Ǐǩș- ljȣșșǓș�ǩȠș�ljȅǿșǓȕȣǓǿljǓș�ǩǿ�ȠǦǓ�ǟȅȖǾ�ȅǟ�ȠǓǹǹǩǿǠ�ЙljȠǩȅǿƺǹ� stories about characters who are perfectionists. After learning what perfectionism is, participants learn the various ways perfectionism can manifest in life and its multidimensional nature. Throughout the psychoed- ucation module, they apply this information to their own lives. Cognitive Restructuring and Automatic Thoughts. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can reduce the tendency for unconstructive automatic thoughts about the self (Overholser & Dimaggio, 2020). Inter- ventions can help perfectionists become aware of, chal- lenge, and change their automatic self-critical thought processes (Besser et al., 2004; Overholser & Dimaggio, 2020). Therefore, this section of the intervention ex- plains how to combat the self-critical thoughts relat- ed to perfectionism through utilizing the three-step process (catch, challenge, and change) of CBT. Chal- lenging and changing is explained in the context of self-compassion. The primary way participants are instructed to challenge their thoughts is by thinking about what a loving friend would say about their thoughts. Participants will practice catching, chal- lenging, and changing self-critical thoughts that both ƺ� ЙljȠǩȅǿƺǹ� ljǦƺȖƺljȠǓȖ� ƺǿǏ� ȠǦǓΡ� ȠǦǓǾșǓǹΚǓș� ǓΠȒǓȖǩǓǿljǓঀ ^Ǔǹǟে�ȅǾȒƺșșǩȅǿॸ� Because low self-compas- sion is often characteristic of perfectionism (Brown, 2008), and interventions rooted in self-compassion ƺȖǓ� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ� ǩǿ� ȖǓǏȣljǩǿǠ� ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ� শFƺǏǓƺȣॹ� 2020), participants will be taught how to be more compassionate, forgiving, and kind to themselves. Self-compassion principles (Raes et al., 2011) are fused throughout the CBT section (e.g., mindful- ǿǓșș�ΚǓȖșȣș�ȅΚǓȖেǩǏǓǿȠǩЙljƺȠǩȅǿষ�ƺǿǏ�ƺȖǓ�ƺǹșȅ�ǓΠȒǹƺǩǿǓǏ� in the self-compassion module. Self-kindness over self-judgement is taught by explaining the tenden- cy to focus on mistakes in perfectionism, the im- ȒȅȖȠƺǿljǓ� ȅǟ� ǟȅȖǠǩΚǓǿǓșșॹ� ƺǿǏ� ƺГȖǾƺȠǩȅǿ� ǓΠǓȖljǩșǓșঀ� Next, common humanity versus isolation is taught through a discussion and exercise on how everybody ǾƺǷǓș�ǾǩșȠƺǷǓș�ƺǿǏ�ǿȅ�ȅǿǓ�ǩș�ƺǹȅǿǓ�ǩǿ�ȠǦǓǩȖ�șȣАǓȖǩǿǠঀ Concluding Components: The intervention ends by discussing how reducing perfectionism can improve one’s life. Neurogenesis is explained to show that change is possible, although change requires commitment. Participants are encouraged to apply the cognitive dis- tortion and self-compassion practices to everyday life. Stress Management Program: The stress-man- agement program was designed as an active control, for comparison with the perfectionism intervention, and did not contain any perfectionism components. �ǹȠǦȅȣǠǦ� ǏǩАǓȖǓǿȠ� ǩǿ� șȠȖȣljȠȣȖǓॹ� ȠǦǓ� ljȅȣȖșǓ� ljȅǿȠǓǿȠ� was similar to stress management conditions used in prior studies (Hoge et al., 2013). Like the perfection- ism intervention, the stress-management program last- ed for around 40 minutes and was delivered through Qualtrics. Participants were instructed to watch a ΚǩǏǓȅ�ƺǿǏ�ȖǓƺǏ�ǓΠljǓȖȒȠș�ǏǓșljȖǩLjǩǿǠ�ȠǦǓ�ǓАǓljȠș�ȅǟ�șȠȖǓșș� and the various ways to manage stress.. The content ǩǿljǹȣǏǓǏ�ǏǓȠƺǩǹș� ƺLjȅȣȠ�ǦȅΛ� ljǦȖȅǿǩlj� șȠȖǓșș� ƺАǓljȠș� ȠǦǓ� mind, body, and performance, and explored ways to re- duce stress, including exercise, nutrition, mindfulness, positive experiences, time management, and sleep. Results Baseline Scores and Group Comparisons Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics for each group and the group mean scores of each of the outcome measures. According to independent șƺǾȒǹǓș� ȠেȠǓșȠșॹ� ȠǦǓȖǓ� ΛǓȖǓ� ǿȅ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� between the groups on any demographic or clinical variables at baseline. Scores on the Big Three Perfec- tionism Scale and the Dysfunctional Attitudes Perfec- tionism Scale were elevated in both groups (M=55.7 on the DAS-PA; See Table 1) compared to previously studied populations, including a clinically depressed adolescent sample (M=53.7 on the DAS-PA; Jacobs et al., 2009). Total scores on the DASS-21 indicat- ed mild to moderate levels of depression, anxiety, and stress (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) (See Table 1). The majority of the sample (95.3%) considered themselves to be a perfectionist to some degree, to a considerable degree, or very much, while 74.7% ac- 104 WARD, WHEATION knowledged that perfectionism sometimes gets in the way of their happiness, and 72.9% said that per- fectionism sometimes slows progress towards goals. Intervention Acceptability and Likability Participants reported liking the intervention; 22.2% liked it “a little bit,” 42.2% liked it “somewhat.” and 35.6% liked it “very much,” while no one report- ed disliking the intervention. Participants also indi- cated that the intervention was helpful in increasing their understanding of perfectionism; in terms of how helpful it was, 2.2% said “not at all,” 6.7% said “a little bit,” 42.2% reported “somewhat,” and 48.9% selected “very.” Perceived helpfulness in teaching participants to combat their perfectionism was also assessed, with 4.4% of participants saying it was not at all helpful, 8.9% saying it was a little bit helpful, 60% saying it was somewhat helpful, and 26.7% say- ing it was very helpful. At the 1-week follow-up, par- ticipants were asked, “Do you think that completing the program helped you with your perfectionism in the past week?” and 18.2% said “not at all,” 25% se- lected “very little,” 52.3% said “somewhat,” and 4.5% said “very much.” When asked “How much did you try to implement the techniques learned into your ǏƺǩǹΡ�ǹǩǟǓঁॹ৛�ǾȅșȠ�ȒǓȅȒǹǓ�ȖǓȒȅȖȠǓǏ�ȒȣȠȠǩǿǠ�șȅǾǓ�ǓАȅȖȠ� in; 6.8% said “not at all,” 22.7% selected “very little,” 65.9% said “somewhat,” and 4.5% said “very much.” Twenty-two participants left open-ended feedback, and 19 of these comments were positive and empha- sized the utility or likable features of the intervention. Change in Outcome Measures Repeated measures ANOVAs were utilized to test the hypothesis that the perfectionism intervention would reduce perfectionistic attitudes and depres- sion, anxiety, and stress more than the stress-manage- ǾǓǿȠ� ljȅǿȠȖȅǹঀ� �ǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� ΛǓȖǓ� ƺșșǓșșǓǏ� ƺȠ� LjƺșǓǹǩǿǓॹ� immediate post-test, and 1-week follow-up, except for DASS-21, which was only assessed at baseline and �েΛǓǓǷࢲ ǟȅǹǹȅΛেȣȒঀ�eǦǓ�ЙȖșȠ��FKt��Λƺș� ljȅǿǏȣljȠǓǏ� on the Dysfunctional Attitudes Perfectionism Sub- scale, which violated Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity X2 (2)=25.924, p<.05, thus the degrees of freedom was adjusted for by reporting the Greenhouse-Geiss- ǓȖ�ȖǓșȣǹȠșঀ�eǦǓ�ǓАǓljȠ�ȅǟ�ȠǩǾǓ�Λƺș�șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ�শ'�শࢲঀࢵࢶॹ� 115.782) = 6.145, p<.05, n2= .076); however, the ȠǩǾǓॴljȅǿǏǩȠǩȅǿ� ǩǿȠǓȖƺljȠǩȅǿ� ǓАǓljȠ� Λƺș� ǿȅȠ� শ'ॹ� �ॹࢵࢶঀࢲ 115.782) = 1.935, p>.05, n2=.025) (See Figure 1). Similarly, Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity was violated for the changes in the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (X2 (2)=38.864, p<.05. After using the Greenhouse-Geiser ljȅȖȖǓljȠǩȅǿॹ�ȠǦǓ�ǓАǓljȠ�Λƺș�șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ�ǟȅȖ�ȠǩǾǓ�'শࢲঀࢸࢳࢴॹ� 74.335)=4.685, p<.05, n2=.077, but not for time*con- dition F(1.327, 74.335)=.072, p>.05, n2=.001) (See Figure 2). Finally a repeated measures ANOVA of DASS total scores at baseline and at the 1-week fol- ǹȅΛেȣȒ� ȖǓΚǓƺǹǓǏ� ȠǦƺȠ� ȠǦǓȖǓ�ΛǓȖǓ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ�ǏǩАǓȖǓǿlj- es for time (F (1, 74) =185.872, p<.05, n2=.715), LjȣȠ� ǿȅ� ǓАǓljȠ� ǟȅȖ� ljȅǿǏǩȠǩȅǿ� শ'� শࢲॹࢵࢸষ઀ࢹࢹࢲঀࢴࢵࢺॹ� p>.05, n2=.011). Subscale scores were not analyzed ǏȣǓ� Ƞȅ� ȠǦǓ� ǹƺljǷ� ȅǟ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� ǟȅȣǿǏ� ǟȅȖ� time and time*condition on the DASS total scores. Discussion The present study sought to examine the ef- fectiveness of a single-session intervention in im- proving perfectionism and associated mental health characteristics in a college-student pop- ulation. Although symptoms improved for all clinical measures following the perfectionism in- tervention, they similarly improved in the control con- ǏǩȠǩȅǿঀ� eǦǓșǓ� ЙǿǏǩǿǠș� ƺȖǓ� ǏǩșljȣșșǓǏ� ǩǿ� ǏǓȠƺǩǹ� LjǓǹȅΛঀ��� There are several potential reasons for the lack ȅǟ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ǏǩАǓȖǓǿljǓș� LjǓȠΛǓǓǿ� ȠǦǓ� ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ� and control conditions in the study. Small sample șǩΦǓ�ǾƺΡ� ǦƺΚǓ� ljȅǿȠȖǩLjȣȠǓǏ� Ƞȅ� ȠǦǓ� ǿȣǹǹ� ЙǿǏǩǿǠșঀ� eǦǓ� decreases were fairly large for some measures, yet sta- ȠǩșȠǩljƺǹ�șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿljǓ�Λƺș�ǿȅȠ�ƺljǦǩǓΚǓǏঀ�'ȅȖ�ǩǿșȠƺǿljǓॹ�ȠǦǓ� mean score dropped from 55.31 at baseline to 48.01 at 1-week follow-up on the Dysfunctional Attitudes Perfectionism Scale in the experimental group, which is almost a seven-point decrease and a decline of three points greater than the stress-management control. A post-hoc sensitivity analysis with the study’s sample size (N=79) suggested we had adequate power (.80) to ǏǓȠǓljȠ�ƺǿ�ǓАǓljȠ� șǩΦǓ�ȅǟ� ঀࢱࢲ�ȅȖ� ǹƺȖǠǓȖॹ�ΛǦǩljǦ� ǩș� șǹǩǠǦȠǹΡ� ǹƺȖǠǓȖ�ȠǦƺǿ�ƺ�ǾǓǏǩȣǾ�ǓАǓljȠ�শȒƺȖȠǩƺǹ�ǓȠƺ�șȕȣƺȖǓǏ�઀�ঀࢺষঀ� Therefore, our sample size was likely underpowered ǩǟ� ȠǦǓ� ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ�ǦƺǏ�ƺ� șǾƺǹǹ� Ƞȅ�ǾǓǏǩȣǾ�ǓАǓljȠঀ��ǹ- though traditional 8-week perfectionism interventions ǦƺΚǓ�ǾǓǏǩȣǾ�Ƞȅ� ǹƺȖǠǓ�ǓАǓljȠ�șǩΦǓșॹ� ȠǦǓ�ǓΠȠȖǓǾǓǹΡ�LjȖǩǓǟ� ǿƺȠȣȖǓ�ȅǟ�ȠǦǓ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ�ǾƺǷǓș�ƺ�ǹƺȖǠǓȖ�ǓАǓljȠ�șǩΦǓ�ǹǓșș� probable. Additionally, although there were 79 partici- pants who passed attention checks and submitted each assessment, many participants skipped questions. This led to fewer participants’ scores being analyzed in each 105 SSI TARGETING PERFECTIONISM ANOVA; for example, only 58 participants’ scores were analyzed for the repeated measures ANOVA for the BTPS. The majority of randomized controlled tri- als conducted on online single-session interventions have included hundreds of participants (e.g., Schleider & Weisz, 2017), and the in-person SSI conducted on perfectionism included 105 participants in their data analysis with no control group (LaSota et al., 2017). Future work with larger samples is needed to further compare these conditions. In addition, it is possible that the single dose of perfectionism intervention was ǿȅȠ� șȣГljǩǓǿȠ� Ƞȅ� ǏǓǾȅǿșȠȖƺȠǓ� șȣȒǓȖǩȅȖǩȠΡ� ȅΚǓȖ� șȠȖǓșș� management. Most trials conducted on treatments for perfectionism have ranged from 8-16 sessions in length (LaSota et al., 2017), thus more practice and intervention time may be necessary to create score decreases greater than what the stress-management control produced. Relatedly, although one-week fol- low-ups have been used in studies of single session interventions in the past (e.g., Davidson, Malloch, & Humphris, 2018; Duan & Bu, 2019), a longer fol- low-up after the intervention would have provided participants with more time to implement practices they learned in their lives and utilize strategies more frequently. Therefore, future studies could include 3-, 6-, or 12-month follow-ups and also explore whether repeated sessions and practice post-treatment con- tribute to reductions in perfectionism symptoms. Al- though there is nothing in the student timeline or a widespread stressful event that would have accounted for a decline in perfectionism, depression, anxiety, and stress from baseline to one-week follow-up, including follow-up assessments at various time points in fu- ture research would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of changes in perfectionism over time. It is also plausible that the stress-management control condition represented an active intervention, suggesting that it was not necessarily an appropriate placebo control, but may provide information about ȠǦǓ�ȖǓȕȣǩȖǓǏ�șȒǓljǩЙljǩȠΡ�ȅǟ�ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿșঀ� Perfectionistic behavior is thought to be associated with psychopathology, in part due to its association with stress.. Perfectionists have higher levels of stress exposure and stress reactivity (i.e.i.e., maladaptive ways of reacting to stressors), and they may gener- ate or exacerbate stress for themselves by engaging in self-critical thinking in response to daily stressors and failing to reach high standards. If stressful events are reduced, it is likely that perfectionistic behavior and automatic perfectionistic thoughts will subsequently decrease, and when perfectionistic attitudes decrease, stress levels will fall, indicating a bidirectional relation- ship (Hewitt & Flett, 2002). The results of the present study are similar to a study that had compared face- to-face CBT for perfectionism to a stress-management ljȅǿǏǩȠǩȅǿআ� ȠǦǩș� șȠȣǏΡ� ǩǿΚǓșȠǩǠƺȠǓǏ� ȠǦǓ� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓǿǓșș�ȅǟ� an online 10-week CBT intervention for perfection- ǩșǾ� ǩǿ� ЙȖșȠেΡǓƺȖ� ȒșΡljǦȅǹȅǠΡ� șȠȣǏǓǿȠș� ƺǿǏ� ȖƺǿǏȅǾǹΡ� assigned participants to either stress management, stress-management + CBT, or a control condition (Arpin-Cribbie et al., 2008). The techniques taught in their stress-management condition overlapped with some of the techniques presented in the stress-manage- ment control of the current intervention. In line with our results, participants in the stress-management ljȅǿǏǩȠǩȅǿ� ǦƺǏ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ǏǓljȖǓƺșǓș� ǩǿ� șǓǹǟেȅȖǩǓǿȠǓǏ� perfectionism and concern over mistakes, although the perfectionism intervention and stress-management combined led to greater decreases in the perfectionism construct. The results from Arpin-Cribbie (2008) and the present study may indicate that stress management represents an active treatment for perfectionism and works well in combination with more targeted con- tent. Thus, future research should further explore the complex relationship between perfectionism and stress, compare perfectionism interventions to other types of active controls, and work to elucidate the im- ȒȅȖȠƺǿljǓ�ȅǟ�șȒǓljǩЙljǩȠΡ�ǩǿ�ȒǓȖǟǓljȠǩȅǿǩșǾ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿșঀ � eǦǓ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿ�șǦȅȣǹǏ�ƺǹșȅ�LjǓ�ȠǓșȠǓǏ�ǩǿ�ǏǩАǓȖǓǿȠ� populations; one of the main limitations to the study is that the perfectionism intervention was designed for high levels of maladaptive perfectionism, yet it was tested in a typical nonclinical college-student popula- tion. Although participants had higher than average levels of perfectionism, prior research indicates that perfectionism interventions, including single-session ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿș�ǾƺΡ�ǿȅȠ�LjǓ�ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ�ǟȅȖ�ȠǦȅșǓ�ΛǩȠǦ�ǹȅΛ� perfectionism. LaSota and colleagues (2017) focused on psychoeducation, setting high standards, fear over mistakes, and reducing stress in their in-person sin- gle-session intervention, dividing participants into high, medium, and low perfectionists. They found that participants with low perfectionism showed ǿȅ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ljǦƺǿǠǓ�ȅΚǓȖ� ȠǩǾǓॹ�ΛǦǩǹǓ� ȠǦǓ�ȅȠǦǓȖ� ȠΛȅ� groups did. Many perfectionism treatment studies have also utilized clinical samples (e.g., eating disorder 106 WARD, WHEATION or depressed populations) with high levels of maladap- tive perfectionism (e.g., Kearns, Forbes, & Gardiner, 2007). Additionally, most single-session interven- tions have been tested in adolescents (Schleider et al., 2020) and previous experience with psychoeducation about perfectionism or CBT for perfectionism could ȒȅȠǓǿȠǩƺǹǹΡ� ǹǩǾǩȠ� ǩȠș� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓǿǓșșঀ�eǦǩș�Λƺș�ǦǩǠǦǹǩǠǦȠ- ed by one participant who wrote, “The intervention was likely not a good match for me as I have under- gone CBT in the past for anxiety and perfectionism and already knew a lot of these techniques;” thus, those who have not undergone therapy in the past are younger and more capable of change—potentially making themselves better candidates. In addition to age, other demographic factors, such as gender, may interact with perfectionism (Gnilka & Novakovic, 2017) and impact treatment response. Considering that the present sample was almost 90% female and previous literature on perfectionism consists of ma- jority female participants (Stoeber & Stoeber, 2009), future research could aim to recruit more males to LjǓȠȠǓȖ�ǓǹȣljǩǏƺȠǓ�ȠǦǓ�ǩǾȒƺljȠ�ȅǟ�ǠǓǿǏǓȖ�ȅǿ�ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓǿǓșș� of perfectionism treatments. Further research with larger sample sizes, especially research that includes populations with clinical perfectionism, is warranted. Despite the study’s limitations, many partici- ȒƺǿȠș�ƺȒȒǓƺȖ�Ƞȅ�ǦƺΚǓ�LjǓǿǓЙȠǓǏ�ǟȖȅǾ�ȠǦǓ�ǩǿȠǓȖΚǓǿȠǩȅǿॹ� as respondents reported that the intervention was highly acceptable, engaging, and useful. All partici- pants reported liking the intervention “at least a little bit” and 86.7% of participants thought the program was somewhat or very helpful. Additionally, 57% of students thought it was somewhat or very helpful in combating their perfectionism in the week following the intervention and 93% of respondents attempted to implement the learned skills into their daily lives. To ljȅǿljǹȣǏǓॹ� ȠǦǩș� șȠȣǏΡ� ǩș� ȠǦǓ�ЙȖșȠ� Ƞȅ� ǓΠƺǾǩǿǓ� ȠǦǓ� ǓАǓlj- tiveness of an online single-session intervention in re- ducing perfectionism, depression, anxiety, and stress. Although prior literature was utilized to formulate hypotheses that the perfectionism intervention would LjǓ�ǾȅȖǓ� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ� ȠǦƺǿ� ƺ� șȠȖǓșșেǾƺǿƺǠǓǾǓǿȠ� ljȅǿȠȖȅǹॹ� ȠǦǓ� ȖǓșȣǹȠș� ȅǿǹΡ� ȖǓΚǓƺǹǓǏ� ƺ� șǩǠǿǩЙljƺǿȠ� ǓАǓljȠ� ǟȅȖ� ȠǩǾǓঀ� eǦǓ� șȠȣǏΡ�Λƺș� ǹǩǷǓǹΡ� ȣǿǏǓȖȒȅΛǓȖǓǏ� Ƞȅ� ǏǓȠǓljȠ� ǏǩАǓȖ- ences between conditions, had limitations in that the sample contained many individuals with low perfec- tionism, and the stress-management condition was ȒǓȖǦƺȒș� ǓАǓljȠǩΚǓ� ƺȠ� ȖǓǏȣljǩǿǠ� șȠȖǓșșॹ� ȠǦȣș� ǩǿǏǩȖǓljȠǹΡ� impacting perfectionism. 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