87 "Where Did All the Lesbians Go?" A Content Analysis of the Sense of Community within Lesbian Spaces on TikTok Danielle Shinbine1, Meredith R. Maroney2, Emily C. Coombs1&4, Douglas, R. Maisey1, and Alayna Fender3 1Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary, Canada 2Department of Counseling and School Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA 3University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC , Canada 4Faculty of Education Department of Educational Psychology, Canada As physical lesbian spaces continue to diminish, platforms like TikTok have become essential for queer women seeking community. This study uses deductive content analysis, guided by McMillan and Chavis’ (1986) sense of community framework, to examine how membership, influence, fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional con- nection are expressed in these digital spaces. By analyzing the top 100 comments on two videos from 11 popular lesbian TikTok creators, whose followers range from 340 thousand to 9 million, the research explores how a sense of community is fostered online. A total of 22 videos were analyzed, with comments coded into key themes. The findings reveal how users express solidarity through mutual support and validation, often rooted in shared lan- guage and collective experiences unique to lesbian identity. Commenters navigate issues such as relationships and societal marginalization, fostering a sense of belonging. However, tensions emerge as users grapple with inclusivity and representation, particularly around race, gender identity, and the evolving definition of lesbian identity. These discussions highlight both the unifying aspects of digital lesbian spaces and the challenges of ensuring diverse voices are heard. This research underscores TikTok’s evolving role in shaping lesbian identity and community, spotlight- ing both opportunities and challenges for fostering belonging. Keywords: Lesbian, TikTok, Social Media, Community Graduate Student Journal of Psychology Spring 2025 - Vol. 24 Copyright 2025 by the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology Teachers College, Columbia University A sense of community is a critical component in facilitating well-being in lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer + (LGBTQ+) individuals (McLaren., 2009; Meyer & Frost, 2013). Research in the past 20 years has highlighted the LGBTQ+ community's ability to create a sense of communi- ty in virtual spaces (Cavalcante, 2018; Gorkemli, 2012; Gross, 2003). Most recently, the social media platform “TikTok” has appeared to resonate with the LGBTQ+ community as a whole (Hiebert & Kortes-Miller, 2023; Simpson & Seeman, 2020), and subgroups within the larger community, including the lesbian community (Gray, 2018; Hanmer, 2013). However, research examining how this subset of the LGBTQ+ community uses social media to build a sense of community online is sparse and virtually nonexistent when examining TikTok. Due to previous research establishing the importance of a sense of com- munity for LGBTQ+ individuals, as well as research indicating that the community as a whole can bene- fit from virtual spaces that produce an online sense of community, the present study aimed to identify how a sense of community is created by lesbians on TikTok. It has been well documented that the LGBTQ+ community experiences higher frequencies of dis- crimination and victimization due to their LGBTQ+ identity, contributing to higher frequencies of mental health concerns (Hendricks & Testa, 2012; Meyer, 2003). Resilience factors, such as a sense of commu- nity, have been identified as a buffer against these out- comes for the community (Frost & Meyer, 2012; Mc- Laren et al., 2013) as well as enhance protective factors, such as social support and self-esteem (Doyle & Molix, 2014; Petruzzella et al., 2019). A sense of community has been defined as “a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one an- other and to the group, and a shared faith that mem- bers' needs will be met through their commitment to be together,” (McMillan & Chavis, 1986, p. 9). Fostering a sense of community is important for LGBTQ+ people, as it serves as an access point for both tangible and intangible resources (APA Task Force on Psychological Practice with Sexual Minority Persons, 2021; de Lira & de Morais, 2018). Connection to the LGBTQ+ community and its culture also serves as a mechanism to facilitate identity development, with individuals claiming that the community’s support re- sults in stronger identity development (Closson & Co- meau, 2021; Parmenter et al., 2020). However, the im- pact of a sense of community appears to vary depending on one’s sexual identity, with bisexual people report- ing feeling a reduced sense of belonging when com- pared to lesbian and gay individuals, which may speak to experiencing biphobia within the larger LGBTQ+ 88 WHERE DID ALL THE LESBIANS GO? community (Kertzner et al., 2009; Lambe et al., 2017), and suggests that the impact of a sense of community may vary across different sexual and gender identities. Lesbians have actively contributed to facilitating community connectedness in the larger LGBTQ+ community, specifically regarding their role in the contribution of blood donations amidst the HIV- AIDS epidemic during the 1980s (Hutchison, 2015). Although there is less research on lesbian and queer women, some research has found that a sense of com- munity provides a buffer against adverse mental health outcomes and enhances protective factors for the les- bian community (Busby et al., 2020; McLaren, 2009; McLaren & Castillo, 2021; Zimmerman et al., 2015). Spaces exclusive to lesbians have been valued by the community, with lesbian bars being a cornerstone of lesbian culture and a facilitator of community con- nectedness (Faderman, 1991). These spaces serve a dual purpose of being a place for in-person connection and the flourishing of lesbian identities while also pro- viding a safe environment against potential discrimi- nation from the larger community (Brown-Saracino, 2019; Corteen, 2002; Hankin, 2002; Hartless, 2018). There has been a concerning trend of a di- minishment of lesbian-specific spaces for the com- munity to meet. In 2021, almost 200 lesbian bars shut down, with 20 remaining (Compton, 2021). Reasoning for these closures may speak to various changes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Rieg- er, 2020) and the undermining of women-specific spaces in the interest of appearing non-trans-ex- clusionary (Stryker & Bettcher, 2016). This is con- cerning when considering that lesbian bars have historically had either the lowest or second-lowest prevalence rate of all LGBTQ+ bars, second only to bars catering to LGBTQ+ POC (Mattson, 2019). These closures leave the lesbian community to either gather in unwelcoming heterosexual spaces or try to integrate into LGBTQ+ spaces dominat- ed by white, cisgender gay men, with a recent study examining that the remaining 15 owners of lesbian or LGBTQ+ bar in the USA do not prioritize fe- male-only spaces (Mattson, 2020). There is a sense of loss associated with this decrease in lesbian-specif- ic spaces, with multiple documentaries and memo- rials being created by the community to represent this mourning (Brown-Saracino, 2020; Clements, 2019; Denny, 2015). Moreover, physical spaces that facilitate a sense of community, such as LGBTQ+ bars, have experienced high closure rates due to the COVID-19 shutdown of businesses (Mattson, 2023). The COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on LGBTQ+ spaces cannot be understated. Scrogg and colleagues' (2020) examination of the impact of social distanc- ing guidelines on LGBTQ+ emerging adults revealed that the guidelines resulted in lower levels of hope and community connectedness as well as higher al- cohol use. The pandemic also had a unique impact on LGBTQ+ youth, as many noted that they were restricted to staying in home environments deemed unsafe to express their LGBTQ+ identity (Fish et al., 2020). These numbers have started to rebound as more lesbian bars reopen (Glassman-Hughes, 2023; Hoeffer, 2023); however, they have not recovered to their numbers before the pandemic (Mattson, 2023). These reductions of spaces for lesbians are concerning, as this loss of a sense of community leads LGBTQ+ individuals to be more vulnerable to detrimental men- tal health outcomes as a result of minority stress due to being unable to benefit from the protective fac- tors and buffers that a sense of community provides. The need and benefit of establishing spaces that form a sense of community online has been an en- deavour that the LGBTQ+ community has histor- ically been invested in, with Gross (2003) noting LGBTQ+ individuals were pioneers in utilizing the internet to find community. For example, drag per- formers have utilized social media to replace in-per- son performances to combat isolation (Rieger, 2020). Virtual spaces which bring a sense of community have also been established in response to large-scale discrimination, as illustrated by one study which ex- amined the impact of a virtual forum facilitating open discussion for LGBTQ+ students following the 2016 Orlando mass shooting, an event that has been understood as an LGBTQ+ hate crime (Jackson, 2017). Students from this study noted that the form helped them receive support, disclose their distress as- sociated with the event, and emotionally process the event. These attempts to connect online speak to the resilience and adaptability of the community, as well as the inherent importance of a sense of community. Research indicates that LGBTQ+ individuals use social media in several ways, including obtain- ing romantic connections and friendships (Miller, 2015), accessing resources (McInroy et al., 2019), 89 SHINBINE ET AL. and existing in accepting spaces they may not have in their offline lives (Higa et al., 2014). In particular, online gay and lesbian associations have been cit- ed as a source of activism, support, and a way to fa- cilitate an online sense of community (Gorkemli, 2012). There is a small body of research examining this phenomenon of internet usage in lesbian com- munities. However, these findings are promising, as multiple studies state that lesbians also find this sense of community online (Gray, 2018; Hanmer, 2013). Burke’s (2000) study notes that personal advertise- ments online in the lesbian community facilitate con- nection and community engagement. Burke suggests that the internet may be unique for lesbian communi- ty engagement, as this space may feel safer than a tradi- tional lesbian bar. In recent research, lesbian social me- dia content creators note that their audiences feel more connected and represented when the creators discuss their lesbian identity in their content (Ladegaard, 2023). In recent years, “TikTok,” a social media applica- tion focused on video sharing, has gained increased us- age (Unni & Weinstein, 2020) and has been identified as a space for LGBTQ+ individuals to feel connected with their community (Simpson & Semaan, 2020). LGBTQ+ youth note that during the COVID-19 pandemic, TikTok was a powerful tool for manag- ing family relations, facilitating LGBTQ+ identity development and community belongingness, and sharing resources (Hiebert & Kortes-Miller, 2023). Similar to other online gay and lesbian communities, TikTok appears to have the potential to be a space for activism, possibly through its LGBTQ+ orient- ed content being an inspiration for users to consider a future where discrimination against the commu- nity is eliminated (Duguay, 2023). Explorations on how lesbian and queer women use the platform are minimal; however, there is a small body of research suggesting that the platform can be used for identity expression and activism for this group, particularly through the presence of “sapphic pop” on the plat- form (McEwan, 2023) and the community label of “Lesbian TikTok”. For the purposes of this study, "Lesbian TikTok" is operationally defined as content and interactions on TikTok that specifically focus on lesbian identities, experiences, and issues, including videos created by and for lesbian individuals that pro- mote community engagement, support, and activism. Methods Researcher Reflexivity Statement The research team was composed of several in- dividuals with various backgrounds and experienc- es with the study’s subject matter. The first author identifies as a white, pansexual demigirl who was a first-year Master’s student during the data collection process and served as a coder. The second author is a white, lesbian, cisgender woman who was an assis- tant professor and provided consultation and sup- port with the methods and writing process. The third author identifies as a lesbian autistic woman, was also a first-year Master’s student during the data col- lection and served as the first auditor of the project. The fourth author identifies as a queer Indige- nous person, was also a first-year Master’s student, and served as a second coder. The final author is a white queer woman who was a social media consultant at the time of data collection. Our team consisted of members with varying degrees of involvement with social media, with some members being frequent users of LGBTQ+ TikTok in particular and others being more passive consumers of LGBTQ+ social media in general. These varying engagement levels allowed the team to consult and review the data from multiple vantage points. We approached this study with a shared interest in the importance of a sense of community for lesbi- ans, specifically exploring how social media can play a role in facilitating this sense of community. The research team extensively discussed how our experi- ence with social media and the LGBTQ+ community would impact the study. Despite all researchers shar- ing an LGBTQ+ identity, their experience with social media varied, specifically with TikTok. Due to their first-hand experience of being LGBTQ+ and engag- ing in social media, as well as their previous work ex- amining the LGBTQ+ community’s experience with social media, the first author approached the study with the belief that social media can function as a way for lesbians to obtain a sense of community. Howev- er, they also acknowledged that social media can also be a space for LGBTQ+ content creators to experi- ence discrimination from other users, which they re- mained cognizant of throughout the coding process. Data Sources The research team collected the top 100 comments on two videos from 11 popular lesbian TikTok con- tent creators. These accounts predominantly featured 90 WHERE DID ALL THE LESBIANS GO? individual creators; however, two accounts featured lesbian couples who shared ownership of the account. During data collection, these videos had a subscrib- er range of 340 thousand to 9 million. There were no pre-established relationships between comment- ers, content creators, or the research team. However, one member was familiar with the content creators through their usage of TikTok, which helped inform the coding team of current events on the platform and provided context to certain comment sections. Procedure Prior to any data collection, the team received an exemption from the Research Ethics Board for analyzing the comments due to all data being pub- licly available. The team’s criteria for the video was that (1) the video was made within the last year prior to analysis (from February 2022 to February 2023), and (2) the video directly addressed lesbian/queer women's experiences. The third author (primary au- ditor) then selected fifteen lesbian TikTok content creators by cross-referencing four online articles that listed popular lesbian influencers for review. Then, the auditor looked up the creators to determine if their content met the aforementioned criteria. Four creators from the original list were excluded from the analyses because their content did not meet the criteria or their account was removed from the plat- form, resulting in a final list of eleven content creators who produced content that met the study’s criteria. Following this review, we identified a maximum of two videos from each content creator. In situations where more than two videos from the creator fit the criteria, the videos with the most comments were se- lected, based on rationale that these videos had the most user engagement. This resulted in a final 22 vid- eos being analyzed by the coding team. We then ex- tracted the top 100 comments pre-sorted by TikTok with comments with the most likes or responses using Apify's TikTok Comments Scraper software program. The program scraped comments from TikTok videos, including comment text, user ID, timestamp, num- ber of replies, replies content, and number of likes. In instances where videos had fewer than 100 com- ments, all comments were extracted and analyzed on NVivo, a qualitative data analysis software. Neither the content creators nor commenters were engaged at any point in the selection and collection process. Analysis Guiding Theory The purpose of this study was to better under- stand how a sense of community is demonstrated on Lesbian TikTok. While different theoretical mod- els exist for conceptualizing community, we selected McMillan and Chavis’ (1986) sense of community framework due to its longstanding application in both offline and digital spaces. Their model, which identi- fies four key components—membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and shared emo- tional connection—provided a structured foundation for analyzing community building in an online con- text. This framework has been widely applied to digital communities, including social media, online support groups, and virtual activism spaces, demonstrating its adaptability to non-traditional, technology-mediat- ed interactions (Blanchard, 2008; Obst et al., 2002). Prior research has shown that McMillan and Chavis’ model effectively captures how users express belonging and influence within online platforms, making it particularly relevant for examining Tik- Tok’s role in fostering community among lesbian users (Chen et al., 2013). The model's emphasis on shared emotional connection is especially applicable in digital spaces, where community members rely on text, video content, and interactive comment sec- tions to build social bonds and validate identities (Oh et al., 2014). Recognizing the unique affordances of TikTok, including its algorithm-driven engagement and participatory culture, we adapted McMillan and Chavis’ framework to analyze how community man- ifests in this dynamic online space. The coding team conducted a close reading of McMillan and Chavis’ original article (1989), carefully aligning its four core components with observable user behaviours on Tik- Tok. Through a series of three iterative discussions, the research team refined the codebook to ensure that the framework adequately captured the nuances of online interaction, identity expression, and commu- nity-building behaviours specific to Lesbian TikTok. Deductive Content Analysis Deductive content analysis (Neuendorf, 2017) is a type of content analysis in which the coding framework originates from a theory, operationalizing the theory within the coding process (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Deductive content analysis’ utility for the present study resides in its ability to analyze data on a previous- 91 SHINBINE ET AL. ly identified framework (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). Initial- ly, the first auditor created a codebook of 22 potential subthemes based on McMillan and Chavis’ (1986) sense of community framework and a preliminary re- view of the data. During the coding process, the first auditor and two coders engaged in discussions to re- fine the definitions and applicability of the subthemes. Through this iterative process, two addition- al subthemes emerged that were not fully captured by the original 22 subthemes. Specifically, the team identified a need to differentiate between explicit ex- pressions of identity affirmation and implicit forms of community validation, leading to the addition of the subthemes “Identity Affirmation” and “Com- munity Rituals.” The final codebook consisted of 24 subthemes, reflecting a more nuanced representation of how users engaged with the content. Additionally, comments where the intended meaning could not be determined—either due to language barriers or am- biguity in context—were categorized under a 25th code titled “Unknown.” This ensured that un-codable data was systematically accounted for without forcing interpretations that could misrepresent user intent. After establishing the codebook and coding the videos, it was decided that comments could be cod- ed two to five times to capture the nuances of the established subthemes. The two coders were then assigned different comment sections to code in- dependently. In this process, the coders also used memoing to document and reflect on the process during each coding session, which helped inform several discussion points. Upon finishing the coding, the auditor and two coders met to discuss the find- ings and the process, informing the initial results. Methodological Integrity Perspective management in data collection was established through ongoing discussions between the coding team about how their own identities and perspectives may influence the analysis, maintaining awareness of these perspectives throughout the pro- cess. As recommended by Levitt and colleagues (2018), we utilized memoing and engaged in extensive conver- sations before and during the analysis process. These conversations included establishing agreement on the codebook between the two coders and the auditor be- fore analysis and reviewing all coding by the first au- ditor to ensure the codes aligned with the subthemes. While a formal interrater reliability check (e.g., Cohen’s kappa) was not conducted, the research team took multiple steps to ensure coding consisten- cy through these discussions and ongoing reflection. The second author, who served as a consultant, also suggested restructuring the findings. Given the con- structivist paradigm of this study, which emphasiz- es the co-construction of knowledge and subjective meaning-making, these changes significantly modified the results section to reduce the emphasis on the fre- quency of each subtheme. Instead, they emphasized how the most common subthemes manifested in the comments. This restructuring was discussed exten- sively by the research team and was agreed upon as being best aligned with the study’s goal of better un- derstanding how a sense of community is presented in lesbian TikTok content creators’ comment sections. Results Through the results, we identified codes align- ing with each of the original four tenets established by McMillan and Chavis’ (1986) theory of a sense of community: membership, shared emotional con- nection, influence and integration, and fulfillment of needs. All subthemes in our codebook guided by this theory were identified in some capacity, with promi- nence varying greatly between subthemes. A total of 2,070 comments were coded. However, we elected to explain the most salient subthemes from each theme to illustrate better how commenters experienced more prominent subthemes of a sense of community. Membership Membership was exhibited through commenters' sense of belonging within the lesbian TikTok commu- nity and expressed feelings of belongingness. Specific methods that commenters expressed this theme in- cluded users disclosing their own experiences, their in- vestment in current events relevant to the lesbian com- munity, and noting that they felt accepted by content creators and fellow commenters. To illustrate this, we selected three of the most salient subthemes that arose through our analysis: an investment of the self, shared importance of events and tasks, and emotional safety. Investment The subtheme of investment of the self was pre- sented through users expressing personal sentiments regarding their lesbian identity and lived experiences. In comments with this subtheme, users often provid- ed insight into their own experiences of being a lesbian 92 WHERE DID ALL THE LESBIANS GO? and mentioned their struggles with coming out. These conversations were often extensions of the video con- tent itself, with users contributing their narratives and similarities to the lesbian experiences that the videos highlighted as well as their attraction to the content creators. For example, one user mentioned their pre- vious same-sex attraction before coming out with the comment, “haha! my friend and I would play house at 10yrs & my mom caught us kissing like parents do. she freaked! I didn’t get to play with her anymore after.” (AveryCyrusV1, reference 16). Overall, this sub-theme reflected the relationship between user and creator experiences and their vulnerability in express- ing these experiences online. This subtheme occurred 196 times and was found in 9.47% of all comments. Shared Importance of Events and Tasks The subtheme of shared importance of events and tasks was demonstrated through users expressing their sentiments regarding current topics of interest regard- ing popular topics amongst the lesbian community both on and off TikTok. Relationship speculation was highlighted as an important topic for users. In particu- lar, one creator, speculated to be in a relationship with another popular creator in the videos extracted during the analysis, resulted in many users discussing this ru- moured relationship in their comment sections. This discussion was also had on the other content creator’s videos, with one user stating “It’s my favourite drama show....Jojo, if u see this… we need u to stop for the sake of all lesbians...u know the lesbians are lesbianing too hard when king princess says so” (Kingprincessof- ficial69V1) on a video that referenced this situation. This overlap of discussion across videos demonstrates how prevalent the shared importance of events and tasks relevant to the community is expressed through- out multiple creators’ videos. In total, the shared im- portance of events and tasks was mentioned in com- ments 132 times, making up 6.38% of comments. Emotional Safety Emotional safety refers to the security that users felt and expressed within the comment sections explic- itly. Emotional safety consisted of the overt disclosure of the users in the comment sections feeling secure and a space for inclusion, which helped facilitate moments of investment by disclosing their personal experiences. One user expressed their adoration for a creator being a safe space for them by saying, “You’re such a safe person I love this.” Another comment also addressed how they appreciated that a creator made a video about going no contact with family due to their lesbian identity as the content itself became a space to alleviate their isolation in the matter. They expressed this gratitude with the following comment: “i always have felt so uncomfort- able about this topic and alone. this helps so much.” This sub-theme described the level of security that users felt when engaging with creators and oth- er users on the platform. This subtheme often over- lapped with the previous two subthemes, yet was dis- tinct in that it facilitated users expressing themselves. In particular, emotional safety was intertwined with the level of comfort and vulnerability users stated when expressing their connection with creators and their content on TikTok. This sub-theme occurred 130 times, accounting for 6.28% of all comments. Influence The key component of influence refers to the degree to which community members are able to im- pact and shape the community's decisions, activities, and outcomes. It reflects the extent of individual and collective power and control within the communi- ty. In the current dataset, influence was represented by members extrapolating their own lesbian/queer woman identity from the video content in the form of comments, expressing their own opinions and views within the context of the video, and meshing into the larger lesbian TikTok community by expressing the same sentiment as a larger theme of comments on the video. By doing this, users expressed personal sentiment and conformity to the video’s messages. The three most common themes identified included consensual validation, personal stake, and conformity. Consensual Validation The subtheme of consensual validation was dis- played through members expressing validation or approval of the creator, which was not predatory in nature. Some of these comments spoke to the phys- ical appearance of the creator, such as “You look so cute, Avery! Hope you are doing well,” and “You are like a female young Ralph Macchio in the best way possible.” Additionally, consensual validation was illustrated by the praise of users for the content cre- ators’ relationships, with some comments stating, “You are a stunning beautiful gorgeous couple and very jealous off you both ,” and “All my love to you, you’re a beautiful soul with a beau- tiful partner. .” Consensual validation in this 93 SHINBINE ET AL. context appeared to speak to approval of the “fit” of the couple, as well as their attractiveness to the commenters. Consensual validation was identified 290 times, encompassing 14.01% of all comments. Personal Stake Users depicted the subtheme of personal stake by expressing personal opinions of their investment and attraction to creators. One user expressed their attraction on a video with a creator mentioning that they would “spoil” the viewer if they were in a ro- mantic relationship with them by stating, “I’m not spoiled, but I’d definitely get spoiled by you.” Addi- tionally, the deep commitment to the TikTok cre- ators' lives was illustrated by the quote: “The cour- age you have shown has been such an inspiration to so many of us! Life after no contact can be beautiful! Thank you for proving that.” Personal stake was also illustrated by creators expressing their own opinions regarding lesbian TikTok creator “drama.” One spe- cific example of this iteration of personal stake was through the quote of one commenter who felt sympa- thy for one of the creators amidst the drama, stating: “it’s not funny she’s trying her best hopefully you don’t take this offensively but some things get hard so remember if you We’re in the situation and someone thought it was funny you wouldn’t be very thankful about that so just remember what you say can hurt someone but if they were to say to you you would really be hurt also don’t take this offensively I’m sorry just supporting” Another user retorted to this comment with their personal opinion, stating, “No. You don’t get out of a two year relationship and go date someone else the week after….. I don’t care if you’re hurting, you don’t do that.” Overall, users felt that they were valid in expressing their personal stake in the con- tent creators’ lives through the comment sections of their videos. This subtheme was enlightening, as it demonstrated the vulnerability the community held in expressing their opinions associated with content creators on a public platform. This subtheme was seen 175 times, which reflected 8.45% of all comments. Conformity The subtheme of conformity was often coded with the phenomenon of “atting(@)” oneself by saying, “This is totally me,” or “Me.” These comments would include commenters announcing their conformity with the video’s content, suggesting that the video was a representation of themselves and their views. Other comments would feature their conformity to the opin- ions within the comment section, with several members expressing similar sentiments. One example of this was a video containing a lesbian couple who falsely teased a pregnancy announcement to reaffirm their childfree status, with multiple commenters reaffirming the vid- eo by stating “you tell em!! your entitled your privacy and your own life outside of social media!” and “I un- derstand where you’re coming from in wanting to be apart of their journey and we’ve all come to enjoy that yes...but EVERYONE deserves privacy too.” Overall, conformity was illustrated through the consensus of opinion displayed in each comment section and oc- curred 196 times, representing 9.47% of all comments. Integration and Fulfillment of Needs The key component of integration and fulfill- ment of needs refers to the extent to which individ- uals feel a sense of belonging and connection within a community and the degree to which their social and psychological needs are met within that com- munity. Although the sub-themes of integration and fulfillment of needs were less prominent than the sub-themes exhibited throughout the other four themes, all sub-themes occurred at least once. This theme manifested through commenters expressing how the content has helped them become well-versed in topics relevant to the lesbian TikTok communi- ty and users expressing willingness to provide and accept support from other users or the creators in the comment sections. The three sub-themes that will be explained further include group and individ- ual competence, need fulfillment, and mutual aid. Group and Individual Competence This sub-theme encompasses commenters know- ing relevant community-specific information. In the comment sections, group and individual compe- tence were shown through users responding to cur- rent TikTok drama. For example, several users shared their knowledge and opinions associated with a rele- vant TikTok lesbian influencer couple who was ex- periencing controversy by saying “I mean the last 24 hours alone is enough to fill the 2022 drama quota. Period.” and “i think they lesbian’d a little too close to the sun.” Additionally, commenters also expressed that the content they consumed helped them main- tain their insight of relevant news for the community on TikTok, with another commenter saying, “This is 94 WHERE DID ALL THE LESBIANS GO? pretty accurate and needed because I am in my mid- 20s and so busy with work to get the TEA.” These comments highlight the inherent desire for users to stay connected to culturally relevant events, such as influencer drama, as well as express their opinions surrounding these recent events. This subtheme was identified 99 times, making up 4.78% of all comments. Need Fulfillment The sub-theme of need fulfillment was exhib- ited, with commenters expressing how the content consumed benefited them. Examples include ex- pressions of what content engagement means to the commenter, such as “I’m following u because Im inspired and that’s it.. Idc about your marriage or relationship.” Users also expressed gratitude for the content, as one user said, “I always have felt so un- comfortable about this topic and alone. this helps so much. thank you.” Lastly, some comments specifical- ly mentioned how the creators’ video will benefit the user in real life, with one comment stating, “Coming out soon and needed this reminder that it will get better .” This sub-theme helped demonstrate the utility of creator videos in validating and fulfilling emotional needs. Needs Fulfillment was coded in 33 comments, or 1.59% of the total comments analyzed. Mutual Aid Lastly, the sub-theme of mutual aid featured com- menters who were both willing to receive and provide help to other group members. Some of this aid mani- fested in the form of emotional support offered by oth- er members, with one commenter expressing, “I’m a 40-year-old mother with three kids. I have a grandchild on the way. I am a part of the community. Please do not hesitate to message me about anything.” A note- worthy interaction was when one creator voiced their desire to help a commenter when they requested a vid- eo on tips to come out, saying, “I would love to talk about this more, I’ll pin your comment in a video soon .” Other commenters expressed their need for aid, “I need tips. My whole biological and foster family are toxic, but I always end up talking to them again. But I can’t keep doing this to myself.” These comments highlighted the community’s ability to provide and accept support, as well as their comfort of doing so in the comment sections. Mutual aid was seen in 14 comments, equating to 0.68% of comments analyzed. Shared Emotional Connection The key component of shared emotional con- nection refers to the degree to which community members feel emotionally connected to one another. It reflects the extent to which community members experience a sense of empathy, caring, and support from others within the community. Commenters exhibited this theme through their investment in the lesbian TikTok community, connections with oth- ers in the community through comment sections, and the positivity expressed in their comments. The three most salient sub-themes that were iden- tified included personal investment in the shared lived experience, peer relations, and positive regard. Personal Investment in the Shared Lived Expe- rience This sub-theme refers to the shared lived experi- ence, referring to the commitment that the commu- nity has (and will continue to share) a history, com- mon places, shared events, time together, and similar experiences. Commenters expressed this sub-theme through their investment in both the content of the video and the creators' lesbian identity. On a video that spoke about familial rejection, users shared the commonalities in their experiences with the creator, saying “Yep felt this. Just hit my one year too. It gets better baby so proud of u,” and “You’re truly an inspi- ration, having gone through this myself it’s amazing to see the confidence once you start doing what’s best for YOU!” Another creator made a video which discussed the stigma associated with expressing their sexuality as fluid, with commenters noting their shared experience by saying “Agreed! I’m tired of explaining my $exuality and I just don’t want to have to explain myself if that makes sense ,” and “Thissss is why I’ve been us- ing queer, bc bisexual doesn’t feel right and I think it’s fluid/a spectrum.” Overall, it appears that commenters used the universality of the lesbian/queer experience to connect themselves closer to the content and content creators. Seven percent of the comments analyzed in- cluded this subtheme, with 145 occurrences in total. Positive Regard Positive regard refers to positive experiences among group members. Commenters expressed this positive regard through acceptance of creators and their appre- ciation for them. For example, commenters expressed this appreciation for two creators who announced their wedding by stating, “No matter what my mood is any video that you post showing how happy the two of you are together being married and happy just puts 95 SHINBINE ET AL. a smile on my face!” and “WOW. you both look spec- tacular in your wedding dresses! love your strength to live YOUR lives!” Other commenters expressed pos- itive sentiment for the creators by posting comments supporting their life, saying, “I hope life just keeps getting better for you ,” and using heart emojis ( ) to express this positivity. Positive regard appeared to encapsulate feelings of approval and acceptance from commenters to creators. This sub-theme, occurring 334 times, was coded in 16.14% of the total comments. Peer Relations This sub-theme encompasses the relationships and bonds between members of a group. This sub- theme appeared to emerge with commenters engaging with one another instead of directly with the content creator. This was achieved through commenters “at- ting” their friends or partners to share the content with them as a form of communication. Other times, commenters would have organic interactions with each other regarding the video topic. In particular, the aforementioned video with the fake pregnancy announcement included this interaction “damn not gonna lie they had me thinking they were gonna have a kid,” and “oh ya. lol totally thought they were an- nouncing.” In general, peer relations were driven by us- ers sharing the content to connect with others, as well as responding to already posted comments to form a connection. In total, 234 comments demonstrated peer relations, which was 11.30% of all comments. Discussion The objective of this study was to explore the sense of community experienced by lesbians within LGBTQ+ specific TikTok accounts. Results demon- strated that the four foundational components out- lined by McMillan and Chavis' sense of community theory (1986) were displayed through the various subthemes. These findings highlight TikTok's poten- tial as a platform for nurturing this sense of commu- nity, indicating that the "queer potential" suggested by Duguay (2023) regarding TikTok's role in social movements and the future of the LGBTQ+ commu- nity extends to the lesbian demographic as well. How- ever, this study also deepened our understanding of how a sense of community may vary in digital realms, suggesting that this piece of research is foundational in further expanding our understanding of this topic. The manner in which a sense of community was exhibited demonstrates the unique ways that com- menters on lesbian TikTok videos facilitate spaces of acceptance and belongingness, particularly with the platform and the content creators themselves being a conduit for certain subthemes to be expressed. For example, the subtheme of group and individual com- petence was established by users discussing relevant topics associated with lesbian TikTok content cre- ators. Similarly, a parasocial sort of connection with the content creators was found in the sub-themes of need fulfillment and a personal investment in the shared lived experience, as users would often praise cre- ators in their comments and express how the content made them feel less alone regarding their lesbian iden- tity. The relationship between isolation and parasocial relationships aligns with previous literature suggesting that parasocial relationships moderate loneliness and depressive symptoms (Woznicki et al., 2021). These findings demonstrate how TikTok, as a platform and its content creators themselves, appear to be a mecha- nism to facilitate a sense of community for its user base. In contrast, other sub-themes appeared to align more with traditional displays of a sense of communi- ty. In particular, mutual aid was expressed through in- dividuals offering assistance and support to other users through direct messaging, similar to what one may see in a physical space, which establishes a sense of com- munity (Baiocco et al., 2012). Similarly, peer relations were sustained through users' conversations through the “reply comment” function on the app and by tag- ging friends in the comments. It is important to note that although peer relations pertained to interactions between users, these conversations were related to the content creators and “atting” (the practice of tagging others to a piece of content for them to view) as a way to share these creators and their content with others. This newly identified space to facilitate a sense of com- munity may benefit lesbians who do not have access to traditional physical spaces, such as individuals who live in rural areas or do not feel comfortable visiting these spaces. These findings highlight how the content of the videos created on Lesbian TikTok interplays with how a sense of community presents on the platform. However, it is essential to recognize the role of Tik- Tok’s algorithm in shaping how a sense of community manifests within this space. The platform’s recommen- dation system curates content visibility based on en- gagement metrics such as likes, shares, and comments, 96 WHERE DID ALL THE LESBIANS GO? which may amplify dominant voices while depriori- tizing marginalized perspectives (Okoronkwo, 2024; Simpson & Semaan, 2021). This has implications for digital community-building, as highly engaged content may reinforce existing community norms while limit- ing the visibility of dissenting or less mainstream voices. Furthermore, TikTok’s algorithm is known to promote viral content over more niche or margin- alized narratives, meaning that certain perspectives within the lesbian community may be systematically underrepresented. Previous research suggests that al- gorithmic bias on social media platforms dispropor- tionately affects LGBTQ+ users, particularly those at the intersections of race, gender identity, and so- cioeconomic status (Simpson & Semaan, 2021). As a result, the representation of community interactions in this study may be influenced by the algorithm’s selection mechanisms rather than reflecting the full diversity of perspectives within Lesbian TikTok. Fu- ture research should investigate how algorithmic visi- bility structures shape online queer communities and whether alternative digital platforms offer different or more inclusive community-building experiences. In addition, users also expressed their gratitude and the positive impact of having these spaces on- line to express their lesbian identity, suggesting that these videos and comment sections may serve a role in facilitating well-being for users. These bolstering effects align with previous research suggesting that digital spaces play a role in minimizing stressors as- sociated with one’s LGBTQ+ identity and reaffirm- ing social identities (Lopez-Leon & Casanova, 2023; Wagaman et al., 2020). They also reaffirm Burke’s (2000) findings that lesbians may use the internet to feel a higher sense of engagement with the com- munity. This identification of TikTok as potentially bolstering for lesbian users’ well-being is promising, although future research is needed to examine the relationship between use and well-being outcomes. Limitations Turning attention to the limitations of the pres- ent study, they reside in the methodologies and con- text of the selected videos. The content in the select- ed videos varied between personal stories, humorous videos, and educational content, which impacted how a sense of community was expressed. Additionally, the significant variance in video views, ranging from 37.8 thousand to 3.3 million across all videos, sug- gests differing levels of video circulation and unequal exposure, which also may have limited certain com- ment sections from exhibiting a sense of community due to a lack of user engagement with these videos. Further, as we were unable to access demographic information on participants, findings may not reflect the diversity of community-related experiences for lesbians of different racial and socioeconomic back- grounds. Moreover, the context of when the videos selected were posted may have impacted how themes were expressed. In particular, we noticed that the vid- eos collected coincided with a period of TikTok "dra- ma" concerning the breakup of Jojo Siwa and Avery Cyrus (i.e., celebrities in the lesbian/queer commu- nity). As such, many comments were discussing this topic, and some of the examples in the results section referred to this specific event. This event was of im- portance to the community, with multiple videos and comment sections referring to it. This significant oc- currence in the lesbian TikTok community may have influenced the comment sections to express group and individual competence surrounding this matter. Another potential limitation of this study is the selection bias inherent in analyzing only the top 100 comments for each video. TikTok’s algorithm pri- oritizes comments with high engagement, such as those receiving the most likes or replies, potentially amplifying dominant voices while underrepresent- ing the perspectives of less engaged users. This may result in an overrepresentation of more dominant viewpoints within the community while minimizing the voices of those with less visibility, such as mar- ginalized users or those who engage with content in more passive ways (e.g., scrolling without comment- ing). As a research team, we prioritized collecting data from a range of influencers; however, future research could incorporate a broader sample of com- ments, including those with lower engagement or those posted across different timeframes, to capture a more diverse range of community interactions. Lastly, due to the study’s focus on publicly acces- sible comments on TikTok videos, additional areas of investigation remained unanswered. For instance, the tone and intent of comments could not be accu- rately inferred solely from their content, potentially leading to miscoding based on the comment's explicit content rather than the underlying intent of the cre- ator. Additionally, TikTok's "direct message" feature 97 SHINBINE ET AL. allows users to privately communicate with creators, which might produce different components of a sense of community. This is of particular interest due to examples of the mutual aid sub-theme, suggest- ing that users may privately message each other after an initial interaction on a public video. The lack of analysis of this feature on TikTok limits the study's capacity to comprehensively explore how a sense of community is nurtured for lesbians on the platform. Future Directions Results from the current study help establish a promising avenue of future research exploring the Lesbian TikTok community. Our suggestions for fu- ture research reflect the unexplored potential of this novel research topic. Firstly, future studies should aim to look at how a sense of community is longitu- dinally created on TikTok for the Lesbian commu- nity. This more widespread exploration may aid in the understanding of how a sense of community de- velops over time. Similarly, the exploration of how certain types of videos influence how sub-themes are expressed would be a valuable endeavor, particu- larly when comparing comedy versus more personal content. These future investigations would help bet- ter understand how context and content influence how users express a sense of community on TikTok. Alternatively, research exploring the perspectives and experiences of Lesbian TikTok members may help deepen our understanding of a sense of community in this realm. Qualitative interviews may assist in under- standing how consumers and creators of Lesbian Tik- Tok content experience a sense of community online. The benefits of qualitative interviews are twofold, as they would both deepen the understanding of how Lesbian TikTok content creators and commenters conceptualize a sense of community, as well as explore potential strengths and weaknesses that TikTok pos- sesses as a platform for this phenomenon. Such re- search may also inform the policies and procedures that TikTok employs to improve the well-being of its users. Due to the findings that, although a sense of com- munity can be created online, the manner in which it presents is unique, research exploring how these spaces are created and maintained is important. Gain- ing a more comprehensive understanding of Lesbi- an TikTok and how a sense of community is forged in this space requires further investigation into how relationships between creators and community are formed. Specifically, delving into the psychological as- pects of online engagement, including the formation of virtual identities and the dynamics of parasocial relationships, could provide a deeper comprehen- sion of why specific elements of a sense of commu- nity struggle to translate effectively within comment sections. Such explorations could be beneficial in establishing a newfound understanding of what a virtual sense of community looks like and the mech- anisms behind forging and maintaining these spaces. TikTok as a platform appeared to be a key piece of context in the expression of certain subthemes, and further research should encompass examining the experiences of lesbians on various social media platforms they currently engage with. This broader perspective could offer insights into how a sense of community is cultivated online within this commu- nity. Similarly, investigating the feedback received by content creators across different social media plat- forms could shed light on whether distinct platforms facilitate different facets of a sense of community. Lastly, conducting a comparative analysis between fostering a sense of community in public versus pri- vate communication settings could contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how this sense of community develops on the TikTok platform. Conclusion Studying online lesbian communities can inform our understanding of how LGBTQ+ individuals build a sense of community in a post-COVID soci- ety. It provides insights into how online platforms connect, share information, and provide support within the lesbian/queer women community at large. Further, understanding online communities helps researchers comprehend the factors that shape these communities and the experiences of LGBTQ+ indi- viduals within them. However, despite the decline of lesbian-centred spaces, there continues to be a need for safe and inclusive spaces for lesbian-identifying people to gather, connect, and develop a sense of community. 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