Choirilos of Samos Huxley, George Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Spring 1969; 10, 1; ProQuest pg. 12

Choirilos of Samos 
George Huxley 

CHOIRILOS THE SAMIAN deserves notice for two reasons: he is the 
earliest Greek poet known to have written a hexametric epic 
on a near-contemporary theme, the Persian wars, and the 

remaining fragments of his work are not so few as to conceal the 
originality of his manner. A conscious innovator, who attempted in 
epic the Panhellenic theme to which Phrynichos and Aeschylus had 
already addressed themselves in tragedy and which Herodotos had 
treated in his Histories, Choirilos was both praised and condemned by 
ancient critics. We do not have enough of his work to form a secure 
estimate ourselves; nor can we be sure how much he owed to Herod­
otos; but the remnants do show that the poet was well aware of his 
revolutionary task, and hence of his self-exposure to criticism. So his 
poetry is a tenuous, but, as I aim to show, not a tedious, topic. 

According to a chronologically inconsistent article in the Suda (s.v. 
XO£pLAOS) Choirilos lived in the time of Panyassis, was young at the time 
of the Persian wars and was junior to Herodotos. The amatory gossip 
in the Suda linking Herodotos and Choirilos rests on no more than the 
similar themes chosen by historian and poet, but it was made to look 
plaUSible by the fact of Herodotos' residence in Samos (7TCu8LKU here 
in the Suda means rather more than <favourite pupil' simply, because 
the comeliness of Choirilos has just been mentioned). Though 
Choirilos may have overlapped Panyassis (who died about 450 B.C.) 
in time-some even asserted that he was, like Panyassis, a Halikarnas­
sian (Suda, loc.cit.)-and could even have known Herodotos during 
the historian's exile in Sam os, there is no sound evidence for any 
dealings between them. Choirilos indeed may not have begun to 
write poetry earlier than the publication of the Histories: the two 

datable events in his life occurred at the end of the fifth century. We 
learn from Plutarch (Lysander 18) that Choirilos accompanied Ly­
sander after his victories in the Ionian war, when the Samians re­
named their festival of Hera the Lysandreia; and it is stated both 
in the Suda (s.v. XOLptAOS) and in the Vita Marcellina of Thucydides 

12 



GEORGE HUXLEY 13 

(29) that the poet visited the court of Archelaos in Macedon. Archelaos 
died in 400/399, and according to the Suda Choirilos died in Macedon; 
Lysander was in Samos in 404; so the main activity of Choirilos belongs 
to the last decade of the century. The Suda assign him as a VEaViaKO~ 
to the 75th Olympiad (i.e. 480/477), which if true would entail that he 
was a very old man by the end of the century; the further statement 
in the Suda that Choirilos was a contemporary of Panyassis is almost 
certainly an error.1 

Plutarch (Lys. 18.7-8) states that Lysander kept Choirilos by him in 
order that the Samian might adorn his achievements in poetry. No 
verse in praise of Lysander by Choirilos is extant, and when Jacoby 
declared that Choirilos "began an epic poem" about the exploits of 
the Spartan conqueror, I suspect that that great scholar advanced 
beyond the evidence.2 It was to Antilochos, Plutarch remarks, (not to 

Choirilos) that Lysander gave a cap full of silver in payment for lines 
in his honour; and Nikeratos of Herakleia was adjudged by the 
triumphant Spartan the victor in a poetical contest with Antimachos 
of Kolophon. So we cannot be quite certain that Choirilos competed, 
or even performed, at the Lysandreia, though Lysander eVidently 
hoped for something from him, not necessarily an epic. (Another poet 
eager to praise Lysander in that dismal epoch was Ion, the author 
of some ungainly elegiacs inscribed at Delphi; he too was a Samian.3 

What Plutarch means when he states that Antimachos as a result of his 
defeat by Nikeratos axlJEaOelS ~cpavtae TO 7TOLrIlLa "in anger caused 
his poem to disappear," is not obvious; did the disappointed Kolo­
phonian tear it up, or simply refuse to publish? Or did he rub out his 
wax tablet?) 

The Vita Marcellina states that Thucydides was a contemporary of 
the comic poet Plato, Agathon the tragedian, Nikeratos the epic poet 
(whom we have already met in Samos), Choirilos and Melanippides. 
Its authority for these names is the work On History of Praxiphanes of 
Mytilene, a scholar who flourished about 275 B.C.; his views on litera­
ture were criticised in a treatise flpo~ flpag,cpaVT/v by Kallimachos 
(fr.460 Pf.).' The writers here named in the Vita may all have appeared 

1 See H. F. Clinton, Fasti Hellenici II (Oxford 1834) 35. 
2 FGrHist III B Suppl. I Text, p.20. Similarly K. Ziegler, Das hellenistische EpOS2 (Leipzig 

1966) 16 and 25, ascribes Lysander epics, AvaaJJllp£ta, to Choirilos, Antimachos and Nikera­
tos without good reason. 

3 Diehl, Anth.Lyr.Graec. P, p.87. 
'See K. O. Brink, CQ 40 (1946) 22-24, and R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship 

(Oxford 1968) 95 nA. 



14 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

in the work of Praxiphanes, which discussed the nature of historical 
writing and was, it seems, presented in the form of a dialogue at the 
court of Archelaos. The inclusion of Choirilos as an interlocutor in a 
work on historiography is significant. He was perhaps regarded by 
Praxiphanes as an exponent of a branch of writing which became a 
battleground of Hellenistic literary criticism, the heroic (or heroic­
historical) epic. The battle later centred on Choirilos: thus Istros the 
Kallimachean (FGrHist 334 F 61) asserted that Choirilos was paid four 
minas a day by Archelaos and spent them all on playing the gourmet 
(difJocf)(xyla); this piece of gossip is part of the scholarly counterattack 
upon the book of Praxiphanes, who, as we learn from the Diegesis to 
the Aitia, had settled in Rhodes, thus becoming one of the Telchines 
whom Kallimachos so forcefully criticised.5 It seems that Kallimachos 
and the Kallimacheans regarded the hexametric Persika of Choirilos, 
no less than the elegiac Lyde of Antimachos, as 7TaxV Kat OU TOpbV 
(Kallimachos fr.398 Pf.). 

The principal poem of Choirilos seems not to have been given a 
title by its author. It is variously cited as The Victory of the Athenians 
over Xerxes,6 a Perseis7 and a Persika.8 If the poet emphasised the 
Athenian contribution to victory, following the example of Hero dot os , 
then Choirilos may well have composed it, or at least the part of it on 
the battle of Salamis, before the collapse of Athenian naval power and 
the coming of Lysander to Samos. (The Suda do in fact mention special 
public readings or recitations of the epic, together with Homer, at 
Athens). Writings by Choirilos are also noted in a papyrus 9 as follows: 
XOtplAOV 7Tot~fJ.aTa Bapf3aptKa· M7JOtKa· llEpa[tKa]. Koerte proposed to 
add a stop after 7TOt~/LaTa. The papyrus would then be ascribing to 
Choirilos three poems (or one poem on three subjects), not two poems 
on barbarian subjects, namely the Medika and the Persika. For a 
poem restricted to the period of Persian wars against Hellas a dis­
tinction between Medes and Persians would be hardly necessary; so 
there is a possibility that the interests of Choirilos extended into the 
early histories of both Media and Persia separately; but if so there are 
no matching fragments. Alternatively the Persika, for so we may call 
it, may have contained much background matter, just as Herodotos's 

5 Callimachus, ed. R. Pfeiffer, I (Oxford 1949) p.3 and fr.460. 
6 Suda s.v. XotptAos 1:&JUO'. 
7 Stob. Flor. 27.1 (Choirilos fr.? Kinkel). 
8 Hdn. ll£p2 p.ov. ).#£ws 2.919 Lentz (fr.2 Kinkel). 
9 POxy. 1399 (FGrHist 696 F 33d). 



GEORGE HUXLEY 15 

Histories did. Epic treatments of remote barbarian regions are singled 
out for attack by Kallimachos in the Aitia (fr.1.13-16Pf.): "Let others," 
he declares, "tell of the crane who (?) delights in Pygmy blood, flying 
to the Thracians, or of Massagetai shooting their arrows from afar at 
the Mede. Judge not skill with the Persian land-measure." The 
eITlphasis on size, Medes, Persians and remote barbarians is worthy of 
remark; indeed, may not Choirilos, the butt ofIstros the Kallimachean, 
be one of the poets whom Kallimachos himself attacks here ?lO 

Two fragments come from the beginning of the Persika of Choirilos. 
One is not ascribed to Choirilos by name, but Aristotle, who preserves 
it in his Rhetoric,n has just mentioned the poet, and Naeke12 was 
surely right, long ago, to claim the two verses for the prooimion of 
the Persika. 

tI, , I "\ \ r.I 'A I '\ I 
'TJy€O fLOt I\oyov aI\l\OV, 07TW~ ata~ a7TO yat'TJ~ 

-ryAO€v €~ Evpw7T'T)v 7T6'\€fLO~ fLEya~. 

The Muse is invoked to tell how war came from Asia to Europe. From 
these words alone we cannot assume that Choirilos treated only the 
campaign of Xerxes. The Marathon episode, the Ionian revolt, and 
even the Skythian campaign of Dareios could all have found a place 
in a Persika widely defined as the coming of war to Europe. &AAOV may 
mean a new poem on a new subject.13 But it could also signify a 
completely new subject for epic-that is to say, a recent historical 
event. The latter interpretation accords well with the fragment 
mentioned immediately before by Aristotle, who contrasts the 
Homeric directness of the invocation to the Muse with the apologetic 
and forensic pleading, addressed to the hearer, which follows it. Five 
lines are given by commentators on this passage in the Rhetoric:14 

1" ff " .... '''~, ~ ..... 
a fLaKap, oans eYJv K€LVOV XPOVOV LOP'S aoLO'TJS. 
116 I e I ., , 'I 'f''' \ I 
11'10VaaWV €pa7TWV, OT aK'TJpaTO~ 'TJV €n I\€LfLWV' 

10 In his article "Mimnermo e Filita, Antimaco e Cherilo nel Proemio degli Aitia di 
Callimaco," Hermes 84 (1956) 162-82, A. Barigazzi answers this question affirmatively (179), 
and thinks that Choirilos in particular is meant. Choirilos could well have described the 
campaign ofKyros against the Massagetai (Hdt. 1.204-16) and an exotic war between cranes 
and Pygmies. Barigazzi notes (p.179 and n.3) the Pygmies of the Skythian town Geraneia, 
who were put to flight by cranes (Pliny, NH 4.1l.4, whom Solinus 10.11 follows). 

11 3.14 p.14I5a Iff and I415a llff (FGrHist 696 F 33f [d]). 
12 A. F. Naeke, Choerili Samii quae supersunt (Diss. Leipzig 1817) 111ff. (See G. Kinkel, 

EGF I, p.267). 
13 Cf Barigazzi, op.cit. (supra n.lO) 178. 
14 Schol. Anon. et Steph. in Arist. Rhet. 3.14 (fr.1 Kinkel and FGrHist 696 F 34a). Cf Arist. 

Top. 8.1 (153a 14). 



16 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

~ ~." , ~ ,~ " ~ " , JlVJI 0 OT€ 7TCX)I'TCX O€OCXaTCXt, €xovat 01£ 7THPCXTCX TI£XJlCXt, 

., fi ~, \ I {}' '<:' I " 
vaTCXTOt WaT€ 0poJLov KCXTCXI\€t7TOJL€ , OVO€ 7T'[J €a'Tt 

I I r' It \1 
7TCXl"T'[} 7TCX7TTCXtJIOJlTCX JI€o,<>V')I€S' cxpJLcx 7T€I\CXaaat. 

The servant of the Muses may well be Homer, who had all heroic 
legend from which to choose; but, complains the poet, his own 
misfortune is to be born late in time when all the subjects had been 
portioned off.10 He gazes from side to side, uncertain whither to drive 
his newly yoked car, or indeed if he can move at all. There must 
have followed an apology for taking a new, but wide, road-a his­
torical epic about the vast subject of TO: M7]OtKa. In the Aitia (fr.1.27-28) 
Kallimachos implicitly attacks the decision of Choirilos and his succes­
sors in the genre: "urge not your car along the flat open road," Apollo 
the Lycian bade him, "but follow the untrodden ways, even if you 
drive along a narrower course." Kallimachos objects not to the new 
subject, but to the ponderous and massive treatment of it entailed by 
the vehicle of hexameter epic. "This too I command, that you travel 
not in the tracks of others but where the waggons tread not," says 
Apollo (fr.1.25-26): so the aJLcxta of epic, which would be as heavy as 
the V€O~V')IES' apJLa, the war chariot, of Choirilos, is neatly contrasted 
with the lighter carriage of Kallimachos himself, his 8lc/>poS'. It is im­
possible to be sure which of the two fragments from the poem came 
first, but at least one line before ijy€O JLOt would seem to be missing in 
the invocation to the Muse. Kleio would be an appropriate object of 
the prayer. 

Like the Iliad, the Persika had a catalogue of forces, to list which 
Choirilos had only to turn to the account of Xerxes' army in Herod­
otos,16 though other accounts may have been available to him, for 
example in the Persika of Hellanikos, which treated events as late as 
480 B.C. (FGrHist 4 F 183). One fragment of two-and-a-halflines quoted 
by Strabo (303) describes the Sakai, who are called Skythians in it, just 
as they are in the Herodotean catalogue (7.64.2): 

\ I 'P' ~ 'P '{} "" JL7]I\OJl0p.0£ T€ '::"CXKCXL, y€JI€C[- '::"KV CXL, CXVTCXP €JlCXLOJl 

16 Kallimachos perhaps had the words vVv 8' on mfJI'Ta 8e8arrrat in mind in the Hekale 
(fr.275 pf.), but, as Barigazzi (op.cit. [supra n.IO] 169 n.1) points out, the expression appears 
already in the Odyssey (15.412). The aJO]pa'To. Anp.cf)JI is reminiscent of Eur. Hipp. 73-74 and 
Soph. Trach. 200. Choirilos surely does not wish to imply that Homer violated the taboo on 
the Muses' temenos; the great poet gathered for them a garland there; similarly the reverent 
Hippolytos gathers a garland for Artemis herself in her precinct without infringement of 
the taboo-see W. S. Barrett on Eur. Hipp. in loco. 

18 7.61-80 (footsoldiers), 84fT (horse), 89fT (fleet). 



.. 

GEORGE HUXLEY 17 

'A 10:, ..l. 1 1<;:, ''i''' ULOa 7TVP0,/,0POV· V0ft(XOWV y€ (-t€V 1]uav a7TOtKOt , e I I (Xv pW7TWV V0ftL(-tWV. 

y€V€~ seems to be an Atticism: that is a significant detail in view of 
what the Suda has to say about the recitation of Choirilos' work in 
Athens, but it may be due to Attic transmission of the text, not to the 
author's pen. 'Aal8a 7Tvporp6pov may be contrasted with 'Aalas am) 

yat1]s in the invocation to the Muse. 7TVPOCPOpov deliberately opposes 
the settled agricultural life of Asia to the wandering livelihood of the 
Steppe, from which, Choirilos notes, the Skythians had migrated. 
Here too Herodotos may have been his informant.17 Strabo takes the 
quotation from Ephoros (FGrHist 70 F 42) and says that the verses 
come from a description of forces crossing the raft which Dareios 
constructed. The mention of Dareios could be an error, perhaps by 
Ephoros, not by Strabo, for Xerxes18 ; but not necessarily so, because 
the raft of Dareios on which his troops crossed the Bosphoros could 
well be meant. Since the pontoon was constructed by Mandrokles the 
Samian military engineer, it would have been of interest to Choirilos, 
who, like Herodotos (4.88), would have studied the painting of it in 
the Samian Heraion. Besides, we have no reason to believe that his 
Persika was confined to the events of 480 B.C. SO there is no compulsion 
to change or delete the words ~v €~€vg€ Llap€tos in the text of Strabo. 
It is true, however, that Herodotos does not mention Skythian Sakai 
from Asia with Dareios on his Skythian campaign.19 Ephoros quoted 
the verses because they allude to the innate justice and goodness of 
certain nomads, a Rousseauesque idea which goes back as far as 
Homer (Iliad 13.6) and found fullest expression in the Anacharsis 
legend. So Choirilos may have had Anacharsis in mind here; this was 
a topic much favoured by Ephoros, who seems to have found the 
Persika relevant to his enquiries. 20 

Somewhere in his catalogue Choirilos named as part of Xerxes' 
army troops who spoke a Phoenician tongue, wore outlandish dress, 
and dwelt amongst the Solyman mountains beside a broad lake. 

17 1.73.3: Naeke, op.cit. (supra n.12) 124. 
18 See Jacoby on Ephoros, FGrHist 70 F 42 with app.crit. 
19 Hdr. 4.88. 'Amyrgian Saka' were captured by Dareios soon after 520 in an eastern 

campaign beyond the Caspian (A. R. Bum, Persia and the Greeks [London 1962] 103-04); so 
Sakai could well have formed part of the imperial army in the Skythian campaign ca. 513. 
Sakai by 490 were prominent in the army, and distinguished themselves at Marathon 
(Hdt. 6.113). 

20 FGrHist 70 F 42 with F 158 and 182. 
2-C.R.B.S. 



18 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

Josephus,21 who quotes the five hexameters about them, claimed that 
they were his own people, the Jews, but his view rests on little sup­
port-the fortuitous similarity of Solymoi to 'I€pou6Avf.La, Jerusalem, 
and the alleged 'Phoenician' speech. There is no reason to accept the 
broad lake as the Asphaltitis, with which Josephus insists on identify­
ing it. If there were Hebrews in the army of Xerxes, they paraded with 
the Syrians of Palestine and the fleet (Hdt. 7.89), but these Syrians 
would include Canaanites and Philistines also. Josephus claims that 
the circumcised Syrians of Palestine were his countrymen and quotes 
Herodotos's remarks (2.104) on them just before he turns to Choirilos; 
but the verses of Choirilos are clearly concerned with footsoldiers 
crossing the bridge, not with sailors in the fleet. 

~ ~'" () ~ 'Q '() \,~, () TWV 0 01Tt €V ot€tAXW€ y€VOS aVf.LaUTOV to€U at, 
\~ \ If'. , '\ , ',I.. , 

Yl\wuuav f.L€V 'Potvtuuav a1TO UT0f.LaTWV a't't€VT€S, 

" ~" ~ \ , " \' \ \' 
~K€OV 0 €V ~OI\Vf.L0ts OP€Ut 1Tl\aT€y/ 1Tapa Atf.LVYJ, 

, \ , ,I.. , ,~, \ ., () 
CXVXfUXI\EOt KopV't'as, 'TPOXOKOVPCXOES, CXV'TCXP V7TEp EV 

., ~ \ , ",1.. , , \' ~ 

t1T1TWV oapTa 1TpOUW1T €'t'oPOVV €UKI\T)KOTa Ka1TVctJ. 

J4>opovv is here further evidence of Attic influence in the text of 
Choirilos. Of the contingents described by Herodotos none has pre­
cisely the outlandish gear given to them by the Samian poet­
"squalid their topknots, shaved around in a circle were they, and 
above they wore the flayed faces of horses that had been hardened 
with smoke." But the Milyans are said by Herodotos (7.77) to have 
helmets made of hide; they were once called Solymoi(1.173); and they 
dwelt in the lakeland on the borders of Pisidian territory in Asia 
Minor. Strabo (631) states that the Kabaleis of southwestern Asia 
Minor were considered Solymoi, and Stephanos of Byzantion (s.v. 
IItut8la) declares that the Pisidians were formerly Solymoi; hence 
Choirilos may even have called these inhabitants of the Solyman 
mountains Pisidians or Kabaleis. One possible explanation of these 
verses, then, is that they refer to Pisidians. Pisidians are nowhere 
mentioned in the Herodotean catalogue; but their name may well 
have fallen out in the lacuna at the beginning of 7.76.22 If Choirilos 
called the Pisidian and Milyan troops simply Solymoi from the Soly­
man mountains, Josephus could the more easily insist on the identi­
fication with Jerusalem, or Hierosolyma. 

21 C.Ap. 1.172 (Euseb. Praep.Evang. 9.9). 
22 See Stein and Macan in loco. 



~. 

GEORGE HUXLEY 19 

Strabo (631) places a mount Solymos near Termessos in Pisidia. If 
Choirilos has the same mountain in mind, then the broad lake he 
mentions would be the open water to the north of Termessos, in the 
Milyas south of Sagalassos. Strabo distinguished the speech of the 
Solymoi from that of the Pisidians and Lydians of the district, but as 
to why Choirilos could have thought that the men from the Solyman 
mountains spoke a specifically Phoenician tongue we can only guess. 
It is true that Phoenician or Aramaic may have been spoken in parts 
of southern Asia Minor in the fifth century, for already in the eighth 
Phoenician was known in Cilicia, as the great inscription from Kara­
tepe attests, and there were then Aramaic speakers in those parts.23 

Later under Persian imperial influence Aramaic spread westwards as 
far as Lydia24 ; but it is not obvious that Choirilos had Aramaic in 
mind when he wrote yAwaaav C/JOLVtaaav here. The allusion may be less 
specific: for Herodotos notes that some of the inhabitants of Lycia 
originated in Crete, to which the mother of Sarpedon, Europa 
daughter of Phoinix, had migrated; Sarpedon it was who led Cretans 
to the Milyas (1.173). Hence, somewhat pedantically perhaps, his­
torical descendants of Cretan immigrants to the Milyas could be 
called speakers of a Phoenician tongue. But the explanation is not 
simple, and cannot be correct if Pisidians or Milyans are not in fact 
referred to by the poet here. 

For the gear of the Solyman contingent Choirilos almost certainly 
drew upon Herodotos, whose Asiatic Aithiopians25 have their unique 
head-dress formed of the skin of the upper part of a horse's head with 
the ears and mane in place, the ears being fixed upright. The haircuts, 
TPOxoKovpaoES, recall the Arabs, of whom Herodotos26 states KElpoVTat 

S~ 7TEPLTpoXaAa, {J7TOtvPWVTES TOUS KPOTd.cP0VS. Choirilos evidently took 
delight in dressing this Phoenician-speaking contingent as out­
landishly as possible. Against the claim of Josephus that they are 
Hebrews, it must also be emphasised that the round tonsure was not 
a Jewish practice. 

One explanation of the verses is, as we have seen, that they describe 
Milyans or Pisidians. But a simpler and, I think, more cogent inter-

23 R. D. Barnett, CAH" II ch. 30 (1967) 27. 
24 A. Goetze, Kieinasien2 (Munich 1957) 207 and 212. 
'67.70. See also Naeke, op.cit. (supra n.12) 145. 
26 3.8. Cf Naeke, op.cit. (supra n.12) 140. Nonnos, Dion. 26.341-49, may well have these 

verses of Choirilos in mind when he describes the Aithiopian contingent's headgear. See 
also R. Dostalova, Acta Antiqua (Budapest) 15 (1967) 446. 



20 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

pretation is possible. The horses' heads worn by the troops point 
strongly to the Asiatic Aithiopians. In the Odyssey27 Poseidon on his 
way back from the Aithiopians to Greece rests on the Solyman moun­
tains, whence he spies Odysseus drawing nigh to Phaeada. Homer 
thinks of Poseidon as watching, in mid-journey, from Asia Minor, but 
Choirilos may have assumed the lines to mean that the Solyman 
mountains were amongst the eastern Aithiopians. If so, he would have 
brought his Aithiopians from the Solyman mountains. 

The <broad lake' beside which the Aithiopians lived must remain 
unidentified-the Persian gulf perhaps, or the Caspian? Such prob­
lems as this may well have been discussed by Aristotle in his 
, A7ToP-rJftaTa ' ApX£A6xov Evpm{8ov Xotp{Aov lJl {J£{JAto£s y, a lost work 
listed by Andronikos of Rhodes.28 (The names would appear to be in 
chronological order in the book's title; so our Choirilos, the Samian­
in whom Aristotle is known to have been interested-not the earlier 
Attic tragedian, is surely the poet mentioned in the index of Andro­
nikos.) 

What the Jewish scholar meant by calling Choirilos an "older 
poet"-&:pXa£OTEPOS is a well attested reading here29-is not clear; he 
may well have thought the Samian to be earlier than Herodotos, 
whom he has just mentioned. The high dating of Choirilos would thus 
seem to have originated far earlier than the Suda-perhaps with the 
literary chronography of Apollodoros. 

Herodian30 quotes two lines on massed troops drinking at a spring 
and ascribes them to the Persika of Choirilos. The words are part of a 
simile comparing the soldiery to bees. The quotation is fragmentary 
because Herodian is concerned only with the use of apEOovaa to mean 
a spring. (This generalised use of the particular is quite in the Panyas­
sian epic manner. Panyassis had used • AXEAwLOS" to mean the streams 
of Ocean in their entirety.)31 

,~, I '() I 7Tapa DE KPTJJlaS apE ovaas 
, ..LA" 'I:'''' " " ftvpLa 'f'V" EOOJlELTO 7TO"vaftTJJlo£a£ ftE,,£aaaLS 

<EiKEAa). 
E'KEAa: vel sim. suppl. Meineke. 

27 5.282-83: 7"OV o· £~ AUJ.01TWV av,&"v Kpetwv £voatx8wv I 7"'I]Ao8EV £K l:oMp.wv dplwv ZOEV. 
28 Aristotelis Fragmenta p.16, 144 ed. v. Rose. 
29 FGrHist 696 F 34e, app.crit.: apxa.'ios Euseb. 
80 IIEp~ p.ov. M~EWS 13.4 (2.919 Lentz) [Choirilos fr.2 Kinkel]. 
81 J. U. Powell, Col/ectanea Alexandrina (Oxford 1925) p.248. 



GEORGE HUXLEY 21 

The context is lost, but Duebner32 suggested that the gathering of the 
army at Kelainai is meant; here, Herodotos reports, are the sources 
of the Maiandros and of the Katarrhektes. The latter indeed flowed 
from the very market place of Kelainai, where the army passed after 
the Halys crossing (Herodotos 7.26). Another context, and a more 
likely one perhaps because the poet emphasises the busy thronging 
of the bee-like troops, is the arrival at the Skamandros on the way to the 
Hellespont from Sardes. Herodotos (7.43) tells how the stream failed 
to supply the army's needs, so great was the horde of men and beasts 
drinking from it in the summer heat. Xerxes struck through the Ida 
range after leaving Antandros, and so entered the land of !lios at or 
near the headwaters of the Skamandros.33 CArethusan springs' 
would therefore be an expression appropriate to the circumstances. 

~ Either in the context of Kelainai or of the Skamandros the narrative 
of Choirilos would be well advanced; Meineke's proposed change of 
Herodian's text from Eva' fl€PaLKWV to EV 0' fl€PaLKWV is attractive 
therefore. It would imply that there were at least four books in the 
edition known to Herodian. 

As the Persians' fleet rounded Cape Sepias the Athenians, lying in 
wait at Chalkis, prayed to Boreas that the enemy might be scattered, 
as indeed he was, but by the Apheliotes or Hellespontias.34 Prayers 
were also offered to the daughter of Erechtheus, Oreithyia, whom 
Boreas had stolen away from Attica. Choirilos, as we learn from a 
scholiast to Apollonius Rhodius,35 told the story of the rape of 
Oreithyia, almost certainly in connexion with the storm, but he may 
not have taken it from Herodotos, who himself insists that it was part 
of Athenian oral tradition: MY€TCt£ A.6yos-, ... cp&ms- 0Pfl/Y}TCtL, ... Ot 0' 
eLv 'A87]vCt'tOL... MyovaL. The scholiast states that according to 
Choirilos Oreithyia was seized while she was gathering flowers by the 
sources of the Kephisos stream-av87] ap..epyovaav36 lnro TeXS- TOU 

K7]cp£aou 7r7]yas-. Hermann proposed to reconstruct the words of 

32 See Kinkel, EGF, p.268. 
33 Hdt. 7.42 ... KUL "AVTavl':ipov T~V JIeAuaytl':iu 7Tupup.€£f36p.evos T~V "I87Jv 8~ AUf3WV €s aptaT€pTJV 

X€Lpa 1)t€ €S TT]V 'IAux8a y7jv. Auf3c1v. €s dist. Holder. On the problem of supplying the army 
with water see A. R. Burn, op.cit. (supra n.19) 328. The troops are unlikely to have found 
enough water for their needs until they had passed down the Skamandros valley as far 
as the springs of Burnabashi (F. Maurice,jHS 50 [1930] 22 n.35a). Another possible context 
for the fragment is the three-day stay at the sources of the river Tearos in Thrace by 
Dareios and his army (Hdt. 4.90-9l. See Barigazzi, op.cit. [supra n.lOJ 181). 

34 Macan on Hdr. 7.189. 
351.211 p.26 Wendel. 
36 ap.EAyovuav L. €KAE-yovaav Par. ap.EfYYovaav Pierson, Naeke. 



22 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

Choirilos as avO€' CtJL€pyovaav 7TYJyas Vl70 KYJ~taOLo, but, as Naeke 
pointed out, Herodotos (7.189) states that the Athenians set up a 
sanctuary to Boreas by the Ilisos in gratitude to the god; and in the 
Phaedrus it is assumed that Oreithyia was taken from the Ilis(s)os 
(229B). SO the scholiast may have written K'T]~taofJ in error. It is not 
surprising that Choirilos should tell this Athenian story, which is 
likely to have been well known outside Athens even before the 
publication of Herodotos' work, since it had been celebrated soon 
after the Persian defeat in a poem by Simonides on the battle of 
Artemision.37 Simonides seems to have declared Oreithyia to have 
been stolen away from Brilessos,38 but here too the place name is not 
quite certain in the scholium. In any case we cannot be sure that 
Choirilos placed the seizure by the Ilisos. Besides, Herodotos says that 
the shrine to Boreas was set up by that stream, but he does not also 
state that Oreithyia was stolen from there. 

There would have been many opportunities for Choirilos to men­
tion his fellow countrymen in his poetry. One fragment suggests that 
he in fact did so. Photios39 notes that according to Choirilos the ships 
of the Samians had prows shaped like boars' heads; and from 
Hesychios,40 who quotes Didymos, we learn that these broad-bellied 
ships were called Samainai. Hesychios quotes an anonymous hexa­
meter: 

~~, , , ~, <' .,.~ " vavs o€ TtS WKVl7OPOS """aJL,a, vos €toOS €Xovaa. 

This almost certainly comes from Choirilos, whose description of 
(what seems to be) a Samaina as swift is consistent with Plutarch's 
accounr41 of them as high-capacity fast-sailers, first introduced by the 
tyrant Polykrates. Such ships took part in the Persian wars, and, 
earlier, representations of their prows had been displayed by the 
Samians of Zankle on the reverse of their tetradrachms.42 Earlier 
still, Samainai had engaged in the battle of Kydonia (Hdt. 3.59.3). A 
possible context for the mention of a Samaina by Choirilos is the battle 
of Salamis, in which two Samian captains Theomestor and Phylakos 
specially distinguished themselves. For their bravery Theomestor was 

17 Fr.29 Page (schol. ad Ap.Rhod. 1.211). 
38 So Naeke. 
39 Lex. S.v. l:ap.taKOV Tp01TOV. 
40 s.v. l:afUaKos Tp01TOS. 
41 Perikles 26.4. See also Lysimachos, FGrHist 382 F 7. 
u ]. P. Barron, The Silver Coins of Samos (London 1966) 6. 



GEORGE HUXLEY 23 

made tyrant of Samos by the Persians and Phylakos was granted land 
by the Great King (Hdt. 8.85). Another context would be the Samian 
embassy to Leotychidas at Delos, when the Spartan king was urged to 
liberate Ionia (Hdt. 9.90). It is worth noting at this point that the 
patriotism of Choirilos may have prompted him to compose a poem 
on Samian matters. The Suda article on him states that .I1ap,LaKrX and 
other poems of Choirilos are handed down. Lamia did not have a 
large mythology; so Choirilos of Samos is unlikely to have written a 
special poem on the place. Some scholars43 have therefore supposed 
that Choirilos of Iasos wrote a poem devoted to the Lamian war, but 
there is no other evidence for such a work. I prefer to emend to 

Eap,LaKa and to suppose that Choirilos of Samos composed a work on 
his native island, but I readily admit that no fragments from the poem 

.. can be identified. 
A three-line fragment is ascribed by Athenaios (464A) simply to 

"Choirilos the epic poet." Our Samian poet, not the Iasian contem­
porary of Alexander the Great, is meant: that is clear from a remark 
of Ktesias44 prefixed by Athenaios himself: "He whom amongst the 
Persians the Great King dishonours makes use of pottery cups," that 
is to say, instead of metal ones. The speaker of the verses says, "I hold 
in my hands my wealth, a sherd of a broken cup, a shipwreck of 
feasting men, so many vessels has the wind cast out to the shores with 
the violence of Dionysos." 

, <~'> "\Q" 1\ 'A..' A.. , , , XEpmv 0 OllfJOV EXW KVIILKOS; TPV'f'0S; ap,'f'LS; Eay0S; 
, ~ - ~ , , ~, \\' 
avupwv oaLTVp,ovWV vavayLOv, OLa TE 7TOlllla 

- A' '''VQ " Q \ ' , 7TvEvp,a "-J LWVVGOLO 7TP0S; .1 fJPLOS; EKfJallEV aKTas;. 

I. (1vo"A{1ov Toup, unnecessarily. 

The language is rather forced perhaps, but striking. Hermann45 aptly 
suggested that the speaker was Xerxes after the defeat at Salamis. 
The wrecks of the ships are compared to the damaged vessels left 
after a violent drinking party. In Herodotos (8.96) the Zephyr 
drives a broken armada to the Kolias beach, where, as an oracle had 
predicted, the women used the driftwood for cooking-KwALaDES; DE 
yvvatKES' EpETp,otGL cppvgovm.46 To this context the words of Choirilos 

43 e.g. Naeke, op.cit. (supra n.ll) 10l. 
44 FGrHist 688 F 40. 
45 See Kinkel on Choerilus Samius fr.9. 
u cfopltovaL libri, corr. I. Kuhn. 



24 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

&v8pwJI 8a'TVp.oJlwJI Jlavay,oJl are appropriate, especially since 7TJlEvp.a •.• 

;K{laAEJI aKTas follows. 
Stobaios47 quotes a line from the Perseis of Choirilos without 

context: 
f:/ ~,,, , ,,~ ,,, J/ ~ I 

0PKOJI 0 OVT aotKOJl XpEWV Ep.JLEVat OVTE otKawv. 

Naeke4s imagined that a Persian was speaking or that the poet was 
referring to Persians, whose truth-telling had already been empha­
sised by Herodotos (1.138). The point of the remark would then be 
that no one should take an oath, not even a just one, because a man's 
reputation for truth should be so great that the oath is needless. 
Though a Persian may have argued thus in the poem, the thought is 
Pythagorean. Diogenes Laertius (8.22), for example, affirms that there 
was a precept of Pythagoras, p.YJo' oJLvvvat (}EOVS' aUKELJI yap aVTOV 8ELV 

agtomuToJ) 7Tap€XEw. "Call not the gods to witness, because a man must 
try to make himself carry conviction." A philosophical aside, particu­
larly one originating with the precepts of a Samian sage, would not 
have come unfitly in the Persika. Choirilos seems to have been in­
terested in early philosophers; according to Diogenes (1.1.24) "Choiri­
los the poet" declared that Thales was the first to call souls immortal. 
The context is 10st,49 but there is no reason to think that the Iasian 
poet is meant here, not the Samian. There would also seem to be no 
room for a remark of this kind in the work of the early Attic tragedian 
Choirilos. 

A few points of disconnected detail must now be discussed. There 
are some Choirilean dubia and eicienda included in Kinkel's collection 
of the fragments, and we must also consider some anonymous hexam­
eters which may well be the Samian's work. One dubium, about a 
cloud gathering over Mount Aigaleos (fr.8 K.), is part of the Hekale of 
Kallimachos and has nothing to do with the Persika.50 Another 
(fr.ll+ 12), belonging perhaps to Choirilos the Attic tragedian,51 

47 Flor. 3.27.1 (3.611 Hense). 
48 op.cit. (supra n.12) 160. 
49 Barigazzi (op.cit. [supra n.lO] 181) ingeniously suggests that the allusion is to the 

Thracian Salmoxis, because Thales was by some held to be a name of Salmoxis the Getan 
(Porphyry, Vit.Pyth. 14). Herodotos (4.93-96) dwells at length on the belief in immortality 
of the Getae and on the antiquity of Salmoxis; he also emphasises their justice. POSSibly 
therefore Choirilos alluded to Salmoxis as well as to Anacharsis (see text at n.20 supra) in 
connexion with the Skythian campaign of Dareios. The criticism of oath taking could also 
belong here. 

50 H. J. Mette, Der Kleine Pauly I (Stuttgart 1964) 1152-53. 
51 Fr.2 and fr.3 Nauckl • 



GEORGE HUXLEY 25 

describes stones as the bones, and rivers as the veins, of the earth. To 
the tragedian may also belong the statement in the scholia to the 
Georgics52 that according to Choirilos the Eridanos is a river of Ger­
mania in which Phaethon met his end; but the ascription of a Barbarika 
to the Samian Choirilos must cause us to hesitate before rejecting this 
story from the fragments of our Choirilos. The name Germania 
would be a gloss by the scholiast; it is most unlikely that either poet 
named Germania so early as the fifth century B.C. 

The pretty line 

, \,. '''~ , ~ \ ' 
7T'ETp7JV KOtl\CXWEt pCXVL!; VOCXTO!; EVOEI\EXHTJ, 

gutta cavat lapidem, consumitur anulus usu, could be the Samian's, as 
Kinkel thought ;53 but the context is lost. The use of the rare word 
€vDEMX€tcx is remarkable. Sometimes confused with EVT€MXELCX, it 
may well be cognate with DO'\tX0!;. 

In a fragment of the comic poet Alexis (CAF 2.345 Kock) we find 
Linos instructing a rather unwilling pupil, the glutton Herakles. 
Linos has a library at his disposal; it includes Hesiod, tragedy, Choiri­
los and Homer. Since Choirilos is distinguished from TPCXY4JDtcx, our 
Samian poet, not the Athenian, seems to be the author named here. 
The fragment suggests that the composer of the Persika was well 
known a generation or so after his death; he was so well known, 
indeed, that Plato, according to Herakleides Pontikos, was impelled 
to champion the merits of the rival Antimachos of Kolophon,54 and 
Aristotle (Topics 8.1) quietly pointed out that the similes and 
examples given by Choirilos were inferior to Homer's, because they 
were selected from things unfamiliar or little understood. Just such an 
obscure simile is to be found on a fragment of papyrus of the second 
or first century B.C. published by W. Aly in 1914.55 Reitzenstein56 

thought that the verses were by Antimachos or Choirilos; they 
compare, somewhat uneasily, a fisherman's rod, baited hook and line 
with the notch of a spear or arrow dragging out the thin thread from 
a helmet's plume through which it has passed. 

C' ~, r \ \ , ....., 4: \ , ,\ I 

w!; 0 CXI\LEV!; CXKTTJ EV CXI\LppCXVT4J E7T'L 7T'ETPTl 

, ( )' "" "\ <;' \ '''' ' ", cxy K LGTpOV 0 EI\LKO!; OEI\EOVXWCX fLCXG'TCXK CXELPf!,!;, 

52 1.482 (Schol.Bern.) [FGrHist 696 F 34f). 
53 Fr.IO (Simp!. in Arist. Phys. 429a 41). 
54 Proklos, in Plat. Tim. 1. p.90, 20 Diehl (FGrHist 696 F 33e). 
55 Mitteilungen aus der Freiburger Papyrussammlung I (Heidelberg 1914) p.9. 
56 See Powell, op.cit. (supra n.3I) p.25!. 



26 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

£La' •..• 
<?~[PJ~xos (?) ey >:'o[c/JLfjs a}7T~>:'nV Tp lXa [ -vvJ~0v. 
2. 'T€~toVx,Sa pap.: corr. J. U. Powell. 57 

ovpaxos for ovplaxos would be odd, but possible. A doubtful variant 
ovpaKos is also attested by Pollux (Onom. 1.90) as the name given to the 
shaft of an oar, between handle and blade. If that is the intended 
meaning here, then the lines presumably describe a sea fight; one 
thinks of Salamis; and Reitzenstein's ascription of the fragment to 

Choirilos is attractive. The confused fighting is reminiscent of the 
description of the Salamis battle in the Persae of Choirilos' contem­
porary, Timotheos. 

The dispute over the relative worth of Antimachos and Choirilos 
continued for long after their deaths; an epigram CAP 11.218), ascribed 
to a Crates, declares Antimachos the better poet, and ridicules with 
irrelevant obscenity Euphorion for preferring Choirilos. 

X '\'A ' \'"\' '\\"\ A OtptllOS VTtf..Laxov 170llV IlEL17tETat, allil tE17t 17aUtV 

X '\ E • ".1.,' .,. ~ \ , OtpLIlOV V'f'OpLWV tELXtE OLa UT0f..LaTOS, 
\ I \ " I \' \ 'm \ -. Kat KaTaYIlWUU tE170££ Ta 170'1Jf..LaTa, Kat Ta '.¥LIl'1JTa 

(x,.ptEK€WS ij8tE,· Kat yap ·Of..L'1JPtKOS -ryv. 

The poem is not likely to have been written long after Euphorion's 
death, if indeed it was not written during his lifetime. 58 The Choirilos 
is not identified therein, but our Samian rival of Antimachos, not the 
Iasian, is surely meant. Euphorion can hardly have praised Choirilos 
of Iasos, whose heroic verses were so poor that Alexander the Great, 
whom the poet accompanied, declared that he would rather be the 
Thersites of Homer than the Achilles of Choirilos.59 

57 See Powell, op.cit. (supra n.31) Epimetrum I 8. 
58 See A. S. F. Gow and D. L. Page, The Greek Anthology: Hellenistic Epigrams II (Cambridge 

1965) 222, and R. Pfeiffer, op.cit. (supra n.4) 243, who decisively reject the attribution of the 
epigram to Krates of Mallos. 

59 FGrHist 153 F lOa (Porphyrio ad Hor. AP 357). Alexander, if we may believe Horace 
(Ep. 2.1.232ff), did however find some of the Iasian's work pleasing: 

gratus Alexandra regi magno fuit ille, 
Choerilus incultis qUi versibus et male natis 
rettulit acceptos, regale nomisma, Philippos. 

It must have been the account of his military successes, not the (perhaps distinct) poem on 
Achilles, that gave the monarch pleasure; Choerilus Alexandrum secutus opera eius descripsit, 
says Porphyrio of this passage in Horace, adding that seven only of the verses of Choirilos 
were praised. These are the hexameters on the testament of Sardanapalos at Nineveh, 
which Choirilos adapted from what purported to be a translation of a Chaldaic inscription 
(Amyntas, FGrHist 122 F 2, ap. Athen. 529E-530A). Athenaios ascribes all seven verses to 

Chrysippos, but that seems to be a mistake Strabo (672) places the inscription at Anchiale 



GEORGE HUXLEY 27 

To return to the epigram of Crates: Why was Euphorion always 
talking about, or quoting, Choirilos the Samian-€iX€ Dux aTolWTOd 

One alleged reason is given in the next line: Euphorion made his own 
poems full of obscure or far-fetched words because he had studied 
Choirilos closely. The few fragments of the Samian are consistent 
with the charge of rare vocabulary; consider TpOxoKOVpaO€~ or the 
rare use of ap€8ovaas. An admirer of Choirilos could properly be 
called • Of1-TJPtKO~, no matter how inferior the Persika was to the Iliad, 
for had not Choirilos himself praised Homer in his invocation, and 
imagined himself to be continuing the great tradition of hexameter 
epic, a tradition carried on by Euphorion himself? But Euphorion, 
who in the Chiliades, for example, did not confine himself to themes 
of the remote heroic age, must also have approved the break with 
tradition made manifest in the recent historical theme of the Persika. 

Another possible set of fragments of Choirilos has been recognised 
by M. L. West.60 This is the group of hexameters published by 
E. Lobel as no. 2524 of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, eight pieces in all. 
The language is conventionally epic, but there are some Doridsms 
which, however, are not introduced consistently. Lobel notes the 
Attic late-fifth-century B.C. formation OVTWS and the learned variant 
of the Homeric KAOT07TEVELV, KAVT07TEVELV. West has compared the 
extravagant vDaToTpE1>EAwTo~ with the equally extravagant TPOXOKOV­

paD€~ of Choirilos. 
The fragments of the papyrus present a strange mixture of the 

historical and the legendary. Zeus and the vocative cfJoif3€ appear in 
fr.5. Neleidai are mentioned in a martial context in fr.l, and three 
lines later come Arimaspoi (1, line 7). In fr.8 the son of somebody 
whose name ends in JV«;lKOV is mentioned. Lobel suggests the Persian 
name cfJapJv0KoV here. Could we perhaps, as West suggests, have here 
part of the Persika of Choirilos ? The son of Pharnakos would then be 
Artabazos, the Neleidai ETT' ap{anpa Dai:oTaTo~ could be the Athenians 

(Zephyrion) in Cilicia, which was thought to have been a foundation of Sardanapalos, and 
ascribes two lines from a version of the poem to a Choirilos Ccf Steph.Byz. S.v. 'AYXtaA7J). 
The Nineveh tale comes from the Stathmoi of Asia by Amyntas, one of the Alexander 
historians, and eVidently refers to the Iasian retainer of the monarch. The testament of 
Sardanapalos therefore has nothing to do with Choirilos of Samos; see Naeke, op.cit. 
(supra n.12) 37ff. The Suda s.v. XOtp{)\O!; Cl:afLtO!;) state that Choirilos was given a gold stater 
for every line of his poem on the Athenian victory over Xerxes. The assertion about the 
Samian arises from abuse by Istros the Kallimachean and from a confusion with the pay­
ments to Choirilos of Iasos; it need not detain us. See Jacoby, FGrHist 696 F 33a app.crit. 

60 CR 16 (1966) 23. 



28 CHOIRILOS OF SAMOS 

at Plataea, and the Doridsms could be in honour of the triumphant 
Lysander. Plataea, after all, was conventionally regarded as a victory 
of <the Dorian spear' and could fitly be recalled in the years of Athen­
ian defeat. 

If POxy. 2524 was part of a revised version of the poem in honour 
of Lysander, not of the now defeated Athenians, the rivers in fr.! 
could be the Oeroe, Asopos and Molouros of the battlefield at 
plataea ;61 and the Arismaspoi could be in a simile rather than an 
exotic addition to the army. At the end of the last fragment (fr.8) 
appear the words 

J1nJr CtVCtKTL 

] ~pyOS' 01TCtUUOV 

Lobel notes that proper names (e.g. K7J<p€vS', 'OP<P€vS') in -<PEVS' tend 
to be heroic. Kepheus is most apt to the context, if" ApyoS' is to be 
read in the next line, because Kepheus is the father of Andromeda, 
who, according to the mythological propaganda of 480 B.C., became by 
Perseus of Argos mother of Perses, the eponymous ancestor of the 
Persian people.62 This Herodotean genealogy could well have been 
taken over by Choirilos. It strengthens slightly the case for ascribing 
the hexameter fragments in POxy. 2524, if not certainly to Choirilos, 
then at least to the context of the Persian Wars. 

The fashion for heroic and heroic-historical epics in the grand 
manner of Choirilos lasted, as can be seen from the traditionally 
heroic fHpaKA€tCt and the quasi-historical M€uU7JvLCtKa of Rhianos, for 
example. The onslaught of Kallimachos on big literary epics had no 
permanent effect on the poetical practice of his successors, except 
amongst the Kallimacheans of strict allegiance ;63 to Peisandros of 
Laranda, to Nonnos and beyond, learned, expansive, hexameter epic 
poetry about the recent or more remote past, about legend and about 

61 Their courses are plotted by W. K. Pritchett, Studies in Ancient Greek Topography I 
(Berkeley 1965) 117, fig. 7. 

62 Hdt. 7.61 and 7.150. The genealogy continued with Achaimenes son of Perses, whose 
name is evidently intended to be linked with the heroic Achaioi of Argos (Nicolas of 
Damascus, FGrHist 90 F 6). 

63 This matter is emphasised by K. Ziegler in his book on Hellenistic epic (supra n.3). 
though he perhaps underestimates the influence of the Kallimachean programme in the 
prologue to the Aitia upon that scholar-poet's close contemporaries. The problem of 
Kallimachos' relationship to Apollonios Rhodios cannot be discussed here (see now 
R. Pfeiffer, op.cit. [supra n.4] 142ff); it must in any case be kept distinct from the question 
of his attitude to, and criticisms of, Choirilos and Antimachos, which are linked to the 
attack on Praxiphanes and the Peripatetics. 



GEORGE HUXLEY 29 

myth prospered. Close to the source of one tributary of that tradition 
the author of the Persika can be seen; a mere shadow now, but a poet 
still worthy to be remembered.64 

THE QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY OF BELFAST 

December, 1968 

64 This paper was read at a meeting of the Hibernian Hellenists in Ballymascanlon on 
1 March 1968. I am grateful for comments made in the discussion at that gathering, 
especially to Professor W. B. Stanford and Mr A. E. Hinds. Dr John Barron kindly read the 
manuscript, which was much improved by his acute comments and criticisms.