Ito ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 2016 Tadashi Ito Irrigation Holes in Ancient Greek Agriculture Tadashi Ito GRICULTURAL STEPPED TERRACES are a characteristic feature of the modern rural landscape of the Mediter- ranean.1 Nevertheless, it is unclear how extensively the ancient rural landscape was terraced. Some scholars have be- lieved that the past landscape was very like the modern one, in other words, that the terrace systems can be traced back to classical antiquity,2 while others have denied that agricultural terraces were much used in antiquity.3 The author has already written on agricultural terraces.4 In that paper he considered the question whether agricultural terraces can be projected back into classical antiquity. First, the article looked carefully at ancient terminology (αἱµασιά and τειχίον), using both literary texts and inscriptions (41–44). 1 On the types of terraces, O. Rackham and J. A. Moody, “Terraces,” in B. Wells (ed.), Agriculture in Ancient Greece (Stockholm 1992) 123. 2 Rackham and Moody, in Agriculture 129; H. Lohmann, “Agriculture and Country Life in Classical Attica,” in Agriculture 51; S. Isager and J. E. Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction (London/New York 1992) 81–82; A. Burford, Land and Labor in the Greek World (London 1993) 109, 111; S. Price and L. Nixon, “Ancient Greek Agricultural Terraces: Evidence from Texts and Archaeological Survey,” AJA 109 (2005) 665–694. 3 L. Foxhall, “Feeling the Earth Move: Cultivation Techniques on Steep Slopes in Classical Antiquity,” in G. Shipley and J. Salmon (eds.), Human Landscapes in Classical Antiquity: Environment and Culture (London 1996) 45–52, 60–65, and Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece: Seeking the Ancient Economy (Oxford 2007) 66–68. 4 T. Ito, “Ancient Greek Agriculture: Concerning Agricultural Terraces,” Jochi Shigaku (Sophia Historical Journal) 59 (2014) 41–57 (in Japanese). A TADASHI ITO 19 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 Second, it investigated the evidence from archaeological field- work (44–49). Through these examinations the author con- cluded that claims to have discovered ancient terracing systems in Greece are doubtful, and that there are no ancient written references to terrace walls (49–51). In this paper the author considers irrigation holes (i.e. the γῦρος)5 on sloping land, using the Geoponika6 compiled in the tenth century by the emperor Constantine VII, and demonstrates that there were holes, not terraces, on sloping land in antiquity. 1. First, let us consider the lie of the land. Whitelaw in a notable article has attempted to correlate the location of agri- cultural sites with the angle of slope on Keos:7 There is a clear relationship between site location and slope angle … The key distinctions are between slopes less than about 10° which could have been cultivated without terracing, slopes between about 10° and 15° which might have been cultivated without terracing, but which would probably have been subject to severe soil erosion, and slopes steeper than about 15°, which could not have been cultivated without agricultural terraces … Within the survey area overall, some 780 ha. (42%) have slopes lower than 15°, while within the catchments of the sites, 420 ha. (79%) are lower than 15°. If so, on Keos most of the small farmstead sites in the classical 5 So cited by L. Foxhall, in Agriculture 131. 6 Selections on Agriculture (Περὶ γεωργίας ἐκλογαί) compiled originally by one Cassianus Bassus in the sixth century are generally named Geoponika. Early editions are by Brassicanus, Basileae 1539, by Needham, Canta- brigiae 1704, and by Niclas, Lipsiae 1781, then H. Beckh, Geoponica sive Cas- siani Bassi scholastici de re rustica eclogae (Leipzig 1895); the most recent edition is E. Lelli, L’Agricoltura antica: I Geoponica di Cassiano Basso 1–2 (Perugia 2010). Translation and commentary: T. Owen, Γεωπονικά: Agricultural Pursuits (London 1805); E. Malainos, Τὰ Γεωπονικά (Athens 1930); A. Dalby, Geo- ponika: Farm Work (Devon 2011). 7 T. M. Whitelaw, “Colonization and Competition in the Polis of Kores- sos: The Development of Settlement in North-west Keos from the Archaic to the Late Roman Periods,” in L. G. Mendoni and A. Mazarakis Ainian (eds.), Kea-Kythnos: History and Archaeology (Athens 1998) 234. 20 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 period were situated on slopes of less than 15°, which might have been cultivated without terracing. It seems to me that ancient farmers preferred to avoid slopes that needed extensive terracing.8 Second, let us consider how sloping land is expressed in the Geoponika: 2.3.1 ἐν τοῖς ἀνακεκλιµένοις τόποις 5.2.13 ἐν ξηροῖς καὶ κεκλιµένοις τόποις 5.2.14 ἐν τοῖς πλαγίοις καὶ ἠρέµα ἀνακεκλιµένοις … τόποις 5.4.1 τὰ πρὸς ἄρκτον νεύοντα 9.3.2 τὰ τῆς γῆς σχήµατα προσκλινῆ καὶ ὑψηλά 9.3.7 τὰ προσκλινῆ καὶ ἀνάντη ‘Sloping’ is expressed by ἀνακεκλιµένος, κεκλιµένος, νεύων, πλάγιος, and προσκλινής. Three of these are participles, two are adjectives, and three modify τόπος (place). It is probable that the τόπος modified by these words is sloping land between about 10° and 15°, and that the τόπος further characterized by ἠρέµα (gentle) is sloping land of less than about 10°. Third, let us consider the agricultural use of sloping land. What kind of cultivation is sloping land suitable for? There are two important places concerning this in the Gp.:9 5.2.13–14: οἶνος δὲ κάλλιστός ἐστιν ὁ ἐν ξηροῖς καὶ κεκλιµέ- νοις τόποις, καὶ πρὸς ἀνατολὰς ἢ µεσηµβρίαν βλέπουσι φυτευ- θεισῶν ἀµπέλων. τὰς δὲ δενδρίτιδας ἀµπέλους ἐν τῇ πεδιάδι καὶ κοίλῃ καὶ ὁµαλῇ, ἐπιτηδειότερον φυτεύειν. µεµνῆσθαι γὰρ πανταχοῦ, καὶ ἰδικῶς παρατηρεῖν δεῖ, ὅτι γῆ πρὸς φυτείαν χαµαιζήλοις µὲν ἀµπέλοις ἐκείνη ἐστὶν ἐπιτηδειοτέρα, ἡ ἐν τοῖς πλαγίοις καὶ ἠρέµα ἀνακεκλιµένοις καὶ ὑψηλοτέροις καὶ ξηρο- τέροις τόποις, αὕτη γὰρ τὸ θέρος εὐµαρέστερον ἕξει, διαπνεο- µένη καλῶς. The finest wine is that made from vines grown on dry and slop- ing terrain facing east and south. It is better to plant tree-trained vines in plains, valleys and level terrain. In every case the rule must be remembered and observed that the more suitable 8 Cf. Foxhall, in Human Landscapes 64. 9 Dalby’s translation, with amendments italicized. TADASHI ITO 21 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 terrains for planting ground-trained vines are sloping lands, gentle slopes, relatively high and relatively dry sites, which will have a milder and well-aired summer. 9.3.7: διὰ τοῦτο γὰρ καὶ τὰ προσκλινῆ καὶ ἀνάντη σφόδρα πρὸς ἐλαίαν ἐπιτήδεια ὑπάρχειν εἰρήκαµεν, διότι δέχεται ἀεὶ εὔδιον ἄνεµον, ὡς µηδὲν διαπνεῦσαι, ἀλλὰ καθ’ ἕκαστον δένδρον ὁµα- λῶς διιέναι καὶ τρέφειν καὶ διεγείρειν τὴν αὔξησιν τοῦ φυτοῦ. This, then, is why we said that sloping and uphill sites are very suitable to olives; they welcome gentle winds, which do not go to waste but penetrate each tree alike, nourishing them and awakening the growth of the plant. Two kinds of vines appear in the Gp.: ἀναδενδράς = ἄµπελος δενδρῖτις (tree-trained vines) and χαµῖτις ἄµπελος (ground- trained vines).10 On the one hand tree-trained vines were planted in plains, hollow and even terrain; on the other hand the more suitable terrains for plantating ground-trained vines were sloping lands and gentle slopes, relatively high and dry sites, which make summer heat milder, and where fresh air blows. The mild air contributes to the thriving of all plants, and particularly to that of olives; warm and dry air is adapted to olives. A contribution to the suitableness of the air is made by the sloping and elevated configuration of the land. Olive trees in such locations make the best oil, while olives in the plains produce thick oil. Sloping and high sites are very adapted to olives, because they always receive temperate winds. Thus we conclude that sloping lands are suitable for vines and olives. 2. Next we consider the landscape of the lands of Dionysus and Athena Polias as attested in the Heraclean bronze Tabulae.11 The temple lands having been encroached on by private par- 10 On tree-trained vines see Gp. 3.1.1, 3.6.3, 5.20.2; Dem.53.15; Aesop Fab. 15 Perry; on ground-trained vines, Gp. 3.1.5. 11 Kaibel, IG XIV 645; Dareste/Haussoullier/Reinach, Recueil des inscrip- tions juridiques grecques 12; Arangio-Ruiz/Olivieri, Inscriptiones Graecae Siciliae et infimae Italiae ad ius pertinentes 1; F. Sartori, in Archäologische Forschungen in Lukanien II (Röm.Mitt. Ergänzungsh. 11 [1967]) 37–76. 22 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 ties, the commissioners restored them to Dionysus and Athena Polias; two commissions were appointed to define and mark their boundaries, survey them, and divide them into lots. Tabula I contains the report of the commission dealing with the lands of Dionysus, Tabula II contains their report on the lands of Athena Polias. A. On the lands of Dionysus What was the landscape of the lands of Dionysus as revealed by Tab. I? There were barren lands and arable lands. The ex- tent of barren land12 (line 19) is 2225 schoinoi, of arable land (36–37) 1095. It is notable that the percentage of thicket and forest, the barren land, was quite high compared with the per- centage of arable land, approximately 2 to 1. As to the geography (see Plan 1): located on the slope of the south side of the valley formed by the Akiris river which flows west to east, the lands face north,13 and are disadvantageous to cultivation.14 There is a spring at the top.15 There are wooded hills near no. 6 and no. 8,16 a trench and marshlands over- grown with papyri near no. 2,17 and a cheese press near no. 8.18 Downward near nos. 3, 4, and 10 oak forest and swamp spread along the Akiris.19 When we take into consideration these situations together, it is possible to say that the conditions of the land were quite bad, and that this area was unsuitable for cultivation, and in fact was suitable entirely for stock breed- 12 Barren lands consisted of σκῖρος (brushwood), ἄρρηκτος (unploughed land), and δρυµός (thicket). 13 See IG XIV 645 p.172. 14 W. Kamps, “L’emphytéose en droit grec et sa réception en droit romain,” in Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin III La tenure (Brussels 1938) 76; A. Uguzzoni and F. Ghinatti, Le tavole greche di Eraclea (Rome 1968) 204. 15 Tab. 1 lines 17, 21, 27, 32, 56, 87–88. 16 Line 65. 17 Lines 58–59, 92. 18 Line 71. 19 Lines 60–61, 72–73, 78–79. TADASHI ITO 23 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 ing.20 The lands that had been encroached on by private parties were restored to Dionysus, divided into four lots, and lent out to four persons (see Table 1). The fourth lot had 2.4 hectares of vineyard.21 A lessee had to plant vines in land over not less than 10 schoinoi,22 and also had to plant more than four olive trees per schoinos in land suitable for olive cultivation.23 When a lessee judged that land was unsuitable for olive cul- tivation, it was possible to make an objection to the state.24 Plan 1: Land of Dionysus (after Dareste et al. 222) 20 M. Guarducci, Epigrafia Greca II (Rome 1969) 278; Uguzzoni and Ghinatti, Le tavole 191. 21 Lines 169–171. On this vineyard see Uguzzoni and Ghinatti, Le tavole 95; Kamps, in Recueils 80. For the units of measurement used in the inscrip- tion see Dareste/Haussoullier/Reinach pp.227–228; Uguzzoni/Ghinatti 179–84; Sartori, in Archäologische Forschungen 41–45 nn.113–116, 51 n.122, 53 nn.124–125. 22 Lines 114–115. 23 Lines 115–116. 24 Lines 116–119. 24 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 Table 1: The lands of Dionysus Arable lands (schoinoi) Barren lands (schoinoi) Rents in barley Lots Total Temple Encroached Total Temple Encroached Total Temple Encroached Total 1 847 125 76 201 461 185 646.{5} 57 M. 1 k. 4 850 81 227.5 308.5 291.5 250 541.5 35 M. 1 k. 300 M. 278 M. 2 773 273 ー 273 500 ー 500 40 M. ー 40 M. 3 850 312.5 ー 312.5 537.5 ー 537.5 35 M. ー 35 M. Total 3320 791.5 303.5 1095 1790 435 2225 110 M. 1 k. 300 M. 410 M. 1 k. 10 σχοῖνοι = 10692.9 m2 (32.7 x 327 m) M.= µέδιµνος = 52.50 or 52.40 litres k.= κάδδιχος = 1/24 M. = 2.189 litres B. On the lands of Athena Polias The land consists of two districts. One district (A in Table 2) is the land that has not been encroached on and is not com- prehended in the new contract. There is a stream where cattle drink. The extent of this district is 35 guai (= 1750 schoinoi).25 The other district (B) is the lands that had been encroached on, were restored to Athena Polias by the commissioners, divided into 12 lots, and lent out to 12 persons. This district is located in the plain,26 is very good land suitable for cultivation,27 does not include barren lands, is mostly arable,28 and has vineyards of more than 102 schoinoi.29 On the one hand the lands of Dionysus are sloping, so the type of vine is ground-trained, and on the other hand the lands of Athena Polias are in plains, and so planted with tree-trained vines. 25 Tab. 2 lines 10–19. 26 Line 7. 27 Uguzzoni/Ghinatti, Le tavole 177. 28 Tab. 1 line 175, Tab. 2 line 33. Cf. LSJ s. v. ψιλός. 29 Cf. Kamps, in Recueils 76. TADASHI ITO 25 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 Plan 2: Land of Athena Polias (after Uguzzoni/Ghinatti 176) 26 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 Table 2: The lands of Athena Polias A 1750 schoinoi (35 x 50 s.) B Total (γῆ) ψιλή Vineyards Rents (for 5 years) 1 τρίγυον 138 s. 8 o. 133 s. 26 o. 1 p. 4 s. 11 o. 3 p. 269 M. 1 ch. 2 c. 2 τρίγυον 139 s. 123 s. 16 s. 695 M. I 59.5 s. 51 s. 7 o. 8 s. 8 o. 446 M. 4 k. II 72 s. 8 o. 2 p. 63 s. 12 o. 8 s. 26 o. 2 p. 632 M. 1 ch. III 74 s. 2 o. 66.5 s. 7 s. 17 o. 630 M. 2 k. 2 c. IV 83 s. 20 o. 68 s. 13 o. 15 s. 7 o. 630 M. A 68.5 s. 62 s. 6.5 s. 856 M. 4 k. B 66 s. 59.5 s. 6.5 s. 458 M. 14 k. 2 c. C 70 s. 63.5 s. 6.5 s. 306 M. 4 k. D 54.5 s. 48 s. 6.5 s. 235 M. 15 k. E 71 s. <1> 7 o. 2 p. 64 s. 7 s. 17 o. 2 p. 580 M. 15 k. F 38.5 s. 30 s. 8.5 s. Total 935 s. 26 o. 833 s. 13 o. 1 p. 102 s. 12 o. 3 p. 5739 M. 15 k.+ α g. = γύης (area) = 50 schoinoi = 53464.5 m2 (32.7 x 1635 m) o. = ὄρεγµα = 1.111 or 1.092 m p.= πούς = 0.2777 or 0.2736 m ch. = χοῦς = 1/16 M. = 3.283 litres c. = χοῖνιξ = 1/48 M. = 1.09 litres 3. It is clear that slopes between about 10° and 15°might have been cultivated without terracing, but would probably have been subject to severe soil erosion. If terrace farming was not done widely in ancient Greece, did any effective farming for it exist—through which soil erosion is reduced, water stays in the same place longer, and thus penetrates to deeper levels and is less likely to be lost through evaporation? We can see it in the Geoponika: it is the technique called γύρωσις.30 The repeated digging of fallow land was effective for weeding and reducing moisture loss through capillary action. In the same way, it was an important operation for arboriculture— olives, figs, and especially vines. It is evident from the Geoponika 30 Foxwall calls γύρωσις “trenching” in Human Landscapes 53–60, Olive Cultivation 121–124. TADASHI ITO 27 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 and inscriptions that the soil around each tree was dug several times a year. According to the Geoponika (4.3.1), mature vines were dug twice, and we can see from Geoponika 3 that the soil around vines was dug at several particular times a year. Table 3: Agricultural activities: dates and terminology Plant Months / Terms Geoponika March / περισκάπτω 3.3.6 May / σκάπτω＝σκάφος 3.5.4 July / σκάπτω 3.10.1 Vines October, after harvest / σκάπτω 3.13.7 First(?), December / περισκάπτω 3.15.4 Young vines Second, April / σκάφος 3.4.5 Cleft-grafted vines June / περισκάπτω 3.6.1 Mature vines December / περισκάπτω 3.15.4 Unripe vines August / περισκάπτω 3.11.1 An inscribed contract of the fourth century B.C. from Ar- cesine on Amorgos includes these details:31 ἀµπέλους δ[ὲ] [σκ]άψει δὶς τὸµ πρ[ῶ]το[ν µ]ηνὸς Ἀνθεστηρίῶνος, τ[ὸν] δεύτερον σκαφη[τ]ὸν [µηνὸς] Ταυρειῶνος πρὸ εἰκάδ[ος]· συκᾶς ἅπαξ. (the lessee) will dig round the vines twice, the first digging in Anthesterion (February), the second before the twentieth of Taureion (April); and round the fig trees once. A decree of an Athenian phratry of the end of the fourth cen- tury stipulates: κα[ὶ] σκάψει τὰς ἀµπέλους δὶς κατ[ὰ πα]σῶν τῶν ὠρῶν, the lessee “will dig round the vines twice every year (or season)” (IG II2 1241.20–21). Moreover, Hesiod recom- mends pruning vines before the swallow arrives, and advises not to dig round the vines after the house-carrier (the snail) 31 Syll.3 963.8–11 = Rhodes/Osborne 59. 28 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 climbs up from the ground.32 Perhaps digging and pruning were done at about the same time,33 probably just before the arrival of spring. The technical terms for “digging (round)” are σκάπτω, σκάφος, περισκάπτω. This last is identified with γυρόω at Gp. 4.3.1 (γυροῦν, τουτέστι περισκάπτειν); “digging” is part of γύρωσις: Table 4: Agricultural activities Month γύρωσις Reference October γυρόω Gp. 3.13.3 February First σκάπτω April Second σκαφητός Syll.3 963.8–11 According to LSJ, γύρωσις is “making of a γῦρος,” γυρόω is “make a γῦρος round a tree.” Thus it seems that γῦρος as a technical term is a round hole, “not a trench or ditch,”34 and that γύρωσις is the act of “digging a hole around a tree.” The γῦρος is different from the hole for plants. The latter is βόθυνος/βόθρος and τράφη, not γῦρος, and “to dig a hole” for plants is ὀρύσσω. Xenophon says that the hole for plants is less than 2.5 feet deep and less than 2 wide, and that the hole for olive-trees is deeper than that for vines.35 The Arcesine con- tract offers (27–32): τὰς τράφα[ς] ὀρύξει ἐµ µηνὶ Εἰραϕιῶνι (…) τετράποδας καὶ τρίποδας, καὶ τὰ φυτὰ ἐµβαλεῖ (…) ἀµ- πέλους εἴκοσιν (…) συκᾶς δέκα, καθ’ ἕκαστον τὸν ἐνιαυτόν, the lessee “will dig holes in the month Eiraphion36 (…) 4-foot ones and 3-foot ones, and will put in the plants (…) planting 32 Op. 570–572: τὴν φθάµενος οἴνας περιταµνέµεν· ὣς γὰρ ἄµεινον. / ἀλλ’ ὁπότ’ ἂν φερέοικος ἀπὸ χθονὸς ἂµ φυτὰ βαίνῃ / Πληιάδας φεύγων, τότε δὴ σκάφος οὐκέτι οἰνέων. 33 A. N. Athanassakis, Hesiod (Baltimore 1993) 102–103; M. L. West, Hesiod. Works and Days (Oxford 1978) 302. 34 Isager and Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture 29. 35 Xen. Oec. 19.3, 19.5, cf. Gp. 9.6.4. 36 November/December; cf. Gp. 3.14–15. TADASHI ITO 29 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 each year twenty vines (…) and ten fig trees.” The holes for vines and fig trees were in depth 4 feet and 3 feet respectively. These depths are also recommended for vine-plants in Gp. 5.12.1, 5. Table 5: Holes for plants Dimensions Vines Figs Olives Reference 4 feet 3 feet Syll.3 963.27–32 4 or 3 feet Gp. 5.12, 2.46.1 2.5–3 cubits Gp. 9.6.4 Depth less than 2.5 feet Diameter less than 2 feet Xen. 19.3 The Geoponika supplies important evidence for the use of γῦροι on sloping lands: 2.46.2: καὶ τὸ πλέθρον δὲ τῶν παλαιῶν ἀµπέλων, ἐν τῇ εὐέργῳ, καὶ βοτάνας µὴ ἐχούσῃ, καὶ πλαγίᾳ γῇ ὑπὸ τριῶν πολλάκις ἐργάζεσθαι, ἐν δὲ τῇ σκληροτέρᾳ καὶ βοτανώδει εʹ. A plethron of old vines, in easily worked ground, with no weeds, even on sloping land, is often worked by three people, or if more difficult and weedy by five. 2.46.4: γυροῦσθαι δὲ τὸ πλέθρον ὑπὸ τεσσάρων ἐργατῶν δύνασθαι, διαβεβαιοῦνται οἱ πείρᾳ παραλαβόντες, τῆς γυ- ρώσεως γινοµένης τὸ µὲν πλάτος ἐπὶ δύο ἥµισυ πόδας, τὸ δὲ βάθος ἄχρι ποδός. τοῦτο γὰρ αὐτῆς τὸ κάλλιστον εἶναι µέτρον παρατετήρηται. Four men can hole a plethron, so the experts assure us, if the width of the hole is two and a half feet, the depth one foot; this is prescribed as the best measure. There is no reference to terrace farming here; terrace walling is never mentioned as a measure for sloping lands. This means that γύρωσις, not terrace farming, was general on sloping land. Moreover, the chapter entitled Περὶ γυρώσεως (Gp. 5.20) begins: γυρώσοµεν δέ, τουτέστι περισκάψοµεν, διετεῖς ἤδη γενοµένας, εἰς βάθος δύο ποδῶν, πλάτος δὲ τριῶν. In 2.46.2 30 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 (above), old vines were the object of γύρωσις, but here it is two- year-old vines. As mentioned above, περισκάπτω has the same meaning as γυρόω; here is meant “digging a γῦρος round a vine,” not simply “digging round,” and the dimensions of the γῦρος are two feet deep and three wide. The dimensions differed depending on the degree of maturity of the vines. Table 6: The hole for γύρωσις Dimensions Old/mature vines Two-year-old vines Diameter 2.5 feet 3 feet Depth 1 feet 2 feet It is natural that the hole for trees is deeper: otherwise, the tree would be uprooted when disturbed.37 According to Gp. 5.26.1, in such waterless places as Libya and Anatolia they do not replace the soil immediately after digging holes all around vines, γυρώσαντες τὰς ἀµπέλους, but leave the holes (τοὺς γυρούς) during a whole winter.38 The γῦρος probably was a basin-like round hole. The soil was banked around the outer edges of the hole to hold water and to allow rain to penetrate to the roots.39 γύρωσις was done in October, at or just before the start of the autumn rains, the rainy season:40 τῷ αὐτῷ µηνὶ (viz. Ὀκτωβρίῳ) γυροῦν τὰς ἀµπέλους καλόν, καὶ περὶ τὰς ῥίζας στακτήν, ἢ κόνιν, ἢ τέφραν ξηράν, ἢ οὖρον ἀνθρώπειον πα- λαιόν, ἢ τρύγα οἴνου, ἢ ἄχυρα περιτιθέναι (Gp. 3.13.3). At this time vines were manured; lixivium, or dust, or dry ashes, or old human urine, or the lees of wine, or chaff were put about the roots. The title of Gp. 5.26 is Πῶς δεῖ ἐν τῷ καιρῷ τῆς γυρώσεως κοπρίζειν. We can see from Gp. 5.26.3 that mature vines are manured in the hole (πρὸς τῷ γυρῷ) with the dung of oxen or sheep or swine, or of other cattle. 37 Cf. Xen. Oec. 19.4. 38 On filling up with earth (προσχῶσαι, aggerari) see Gp. 3.6.5 and Colu- mella Rust. 11.2.46. 39 Foxhall, in Human Landscapes 56, Olive Cultivation 122. 40 Malainos, Τὰ Γεωπονικά 71, specifies 14 October to 13 November. TADASHI ITO 31 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 To return to the Heraclean inscription: the fourth lot had 2.4 hectares of vineyard. The lessee had to plant vines in lands of not less than 10 schoinoi, and at least four olive trees per schoinos in lands suitable for olive cultivation. He was ordered to dig round, pile up earth around,41 and prune olives, figs, and in- deed all fruit trees that were in this lot: τὰς δὲ ἐλαίας καὶ τὰς συκίας καὶ τὰ ἄλλα δένδρεα τὰ ἥµερα τὰ ὑπάρχοντα πάντα ἐν τᾶι µερίδι ταύται περισκαψεῖ καὶ ποτισκαψεῖ καὶ περικοψεῖ τὰ δεόµενα (Tab. l.172–173). The vineyard clearly was in- cluded in the “other fruit trees” in the lot. Dareste/ Haussoullier/Reinach (211) translate: “Quant aux oliviers, figuiers et autres arbres fruitiers qui se trouvent dans ce lot, le preneur y creusera les rigoles et les cuvettes nécessaires et pra- tiquera les ébranchages qu’il faudra.” Arangio-Ruiz/Olivieri (30) interpret the terms: “περισκάψει = effodiet circumcirca; προσσκάψει = accumulabit terram fodiendo, confirmabit terrae acervis; περικόψει circumcidet.” Sartori translates:42 “Quanto agli olivi e ai fichi e a tutti gli altri alberi da frutto che esistono in questo lotto, scaverà attorno le buche e i rincalzi di terra e praticherà le necessarie potature.” Three terms are crucial: περισκάψει, προσσκάψει, περι- κόψει. The meanings of περισκάψει and περικόψει are clear. As discussed above, the operations of digging and pruning are done at about the same time. The words used by Hesiod (570 ff.) for “dig round” and “prune” are σκάφος and περιτάµνω (Ion./Ep. for περιτέµνω). The word for pruning vines in Gp. 2.46.5 is κλαδεύω. According to Gp. 3.14, the operation of pruning vines was practiced two times a year: ἡ µετοπωρινὴ (autumn) κλαδεία and ἐαρινὴ (spring) κλαδεία. The pruning referred to by Hesiod is that in spring. The term περικόπτω in the Heraclean inscription is to be equated in meaning with Hesiod’s περιτάµνω. As to σκάφος, we have seen that σκάπτω in two inscriptions, σκάφος in Hesiod, and περισκάπτω in the 41 Cf. LSJ s.v. προσσκάπτω. 42 Archäologische Forschungen 49; cf. Uguzzoni/Ghinatti, Le tavole 71. 32 IRRIGATION HOLES IN ANCIENT GREEK AGRICULTURE ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 Heraclean inscription are synonymous: they have the same meaning as περισκάπτω in the Geoponika. Finally, προσσκάπτω: what kind of operation was this? As mentioned earlier, γυρόω is “make a γῦρος” round a tree; γῦρος is a basin-like round hole; and soil was banked around the outer edges of the hole. It is likely that προσσκάπτω means the same as γυρόω. These three operations were very important for viticulture. Conclusion To sum up, it seems that slopes between about 10° and 15° might have been cultivated without terracing, but would prob- ably have been subject to severe soil erosion. However, erosion was reduced by γῦροι on those slopes, but not on very steep slopes (steeper than about 15°). And γύρωσις also had the effect of slowing runoff. It is likely that γύρωσις was normal on slop- ing land, rather than terracing. In short, we can conclude from these considerations that there were γῦροι and not terraces on sloping land in classical antiquity. APPENDIX: Odyssey 24.220–227 οἱ µὲν ἔπειτα δόµονδε θοῶς κίον, αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεὺς ἆσσον ἴεν πολυκάρπου ἀλωῆς πειρητίζων. οὐδ’ εὗρεν Δολίον, µέγαν ὄρχατον ἐσκαταβαίνων, οὐδέ τινα δµώων οὐδ’ υἱῶν˙ ἀλλ’ ἄρα τοί γε αἱµασιὰς λέξοντες ἀλωῆς ἔµµεναι ἕρκος ᾤχοντ’, αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσι γέρων ὁδὸν ἡγεµόνευε. τὸν δ’ οἶον πατέρ’ εὗρεν ἐϋκτιµένῃ ἐν ἀλωῇ, λιστρεύοντα φυτόν˙ They thereafter went quickly to the house; but Odysseus drew near to the fruitful vineyard in his quest. Now he did not find Dolius as he went down into the great orchard, nor any of his slaves or of his sons, but as it chanced they had gone to gather stones for the vineyard wall, and the old man was their leader. But he found his father alone in the well-ordered vineyard, digging about a plant. (transl. Murray, Loeb 1919) In LSJ αἱµασιά is translated as “wall of dry stone” and αἱµασιάς τε λέγειν as “to lay walls”; ἕρκος is “fence, enclosure”; ἀλωή is “garden, orchard, vineyard, etc.”—particularly vineyard, because the vineyard of Alcinoos (Od. 7.122) and the vineyard represented in the shield of Achilleus (Il. 18.561) are so called. In this case, αἱµασιά seems to TADASHI ITO 33 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 56 (2016) 18–33 indicate a stone wall (= fence, enclosure) round the vineyard of Laertes. And also the great orchard of Alcinoos (7.113) and the vineyard on the shield of Achilleus (18.564) are each enclosed by a ἕρκος. We cannot see the extent of the vineyard of Laertes, but he has promised to give Odysseus fifty rows of vines (24.341–342). Odysseus found his father alone in the well-made vineyard, λιστρεύ- οντα φυτόν. λιστρεύω is hapax, from λίστρον (Od. 22.455, hapax), a tool for levelling or digging: spade, shovel. Thus it is clear that λιστρεύω means “dig.” φυτόν, in the lexica, is understood as “plant” in a broad sense. Nevertheless, we learn from several sources (Hes. Op. 570 ff.; Syll.3 963.27 ff.; Xen. Oec. 19.2 and 12) that φυτόν is typically a vine in a narrow sense. λιστρεύοντα φυτόν probably means the same as φυτὸν ἀµφελάχαινε (Od. 24.242, hapax). λαχαίνω is to “dig,” so ἀµφιλαχαίνω is “dig round.”43 Thus, it seems that λιστρεύω corresponds to σκάπτω and ἀµφιλαχαίνω to περισκάπτω.44 October, 2015 Kagoshima University 1-20-6 Korimoto Kagoshima 890-0065 Japan ito@edu.kagoshima-u.ac.jp 43 W. Richter, Die Landwirtschaft im homerischen Zeitalter, Archaeologia Homerica II H (Göttingen 1968) 126; J. Russo, M. Fernández-Galiano, and A. Heu- beck, A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey III (Oxford 1992) 386. 44 I am grateful to the editor of GRBS for helping me to improve an earlier draft of this paper, and to anonymous readers for their valuable comments. Remaining deficiencies are my responsibility alone.