Skalec ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 ISSN 2159-3159 Article copyright held by the author(s) and made available under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ XMΓ (ϘΘ) in Late Antique Documentary Papyri from the Hermopolites Aneta Skalec SEQUENCE of three Greek letters, ΧΜΓ, began to appear in Late Antiquity throughout the ancient Mediterranean world on a wide range of media, including papyri, amphora necks, door lintels, brick stamps, graffiti, funerary inscriptions, amulets, and more.1 The bibliography on this is extensive, but there is little consensus about the interpretation of the letters, and scholars continue to debate their origin and meaning. Over the past 150 years, many proposals have been put forward.2 The two leading interpretations regard the symbol as either an acrostic (the initial letters of three names or words) or an isopsephism (a numerical value that corresponds to another word or phrase with an equal numeric value). Proponents of the view that the letters are an acrostic have suggested several possible meanings, including Χριστὸς Μιχαὴλ 1 B. Nongbri, “The Lord’s Prayer and XΜΓ: Two Christian Papyrus Amulets,” HThR 104 (2011) 59–68, at 66. 2 For an overview of older interpretations see W. K. Prentice, “XΜΓ, A Symbol of Christ,” CP 9 (1914) 410–416; for the state of affairs in the mid twentieth century see J.-O. Tjäder, “Christ, Our Lord, Born of the Virgin Mary (XΜΓ and VDΝ),” Eranos 68 (1970) 148–190. Modern discussions with full bibliographies may be found in Nongbri, HThR 104 (2011) 66– 68; L. H. Blumell, Lettered Christians: Christians, Letters, and Late Antique Oxy- rhynchus (Leiden 2012) 46–48; G. Németh, “Jesus in Ancient Pagan Magic: The Anna Perenna Drawings,” in G. Bąkowska-Czerner et al. (eds.), The Wisdom of Thoth: Magical Texts in Ancient Mediterranean Civilisations (Oxford 2015) 43–48; T. de Bruyn, Making Amulets Christian: Artefacts, Scribes, and Contexts (Oxford 2017) 64–66. A ANETA SKALEC 411 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Γαβριήλ,3 Χριστὸς µάρτυς γένηται,4 Χριστὸν Μαρία γεννᾷ,5 and most recently Χριστὸς Μονογεννητός.6 Those who interpret the symbol as an isopsephism point out that the letters XΜΓ have a numeric value of 643 (600+40+3), which corresponds to the numeric value of several Greek phrases. The most widely accepted resolution of XΜΓ is θεὸϛ βοηθόϛ (9+5+70+200+2+70+8+9+70+200 = 643).7 As evi- dence supporting isopsephism, several scholars have noted that it is often paired with ϘΘ (90+9 = 99), a well-known isopsephism equivalent to ἀµήν (1+40+8+50 = 99).8 We appear still to be far from reaching a widely accepted interpretation of the meaning of XΜΓ, whichever precise signifi- cance is attributed to it. There is general agreement, however, that it served as a Christian catchword or marker. Furthermore, a growing number of scholars are open to the interpretation that XΜΓ may have held different meanings at different times, in 3 G. B. de Rossi, “D’un singolare bollo di mattone trovato nell’emporio romano,” BACrist SER. II 1 (1870) 7–32. 4 A. Gostoli, “Una nuova ipotesi interpretativa della sigla cristiana XΜΓ,” StPap 22 (1983) 9–14; G. Robinson, “ΚΜΓ and ΘΜΓ for XΜΓ,” Tyche 1 (1986) 175–177. 5 Prentice, CP 9 (1914) 410–416. 6 R. Tomlin, “The Dipinti and Graffiti,” in A. Poulter (ed.), The Transition to Late Antiquity on the Lower Danube: Excavations and Survey at Dichin (Oxford 2019) 444. 7 See e.g. S. R. Llewelyn, “The Christian Symbol XΜΓ, an Acrostic or an Isopsephism?” New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity 8 (1998) 156– 168; W. Tabbernee, “Epigraphy: Clandestine and Crypto-Christian,” in P. Corby Finney (ed.), The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology I (Grand Rapids 2017) 479. 8 On ϘΘ see e.g. H. Leclercq, “Isopséphie,” DACL 7.2 (1927) 1603–1606; L. Robert, “Épigrammes de Syrie,” Hellenica XI–XII (Paris 1960) 310–311; L. Vidman, “Koppa Theta = Amen in Athen,” ZPE 16 (1975) 215–216; T. C. Skeat, “A Table of Isopsephisms (P.Oxy. XLV.3239),” ZPE 31 (1978) 45–54; S. R. Llewelyn, “ΣΔ, a Christian Isopsephism?” ZPE 109 (1995) 125–127, and New Documents 8 (1998) 156–168; F. Bovon, “Names and Numbers in Early Christianity,” NTS 47 (2001) 267–288. 412 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 various geographical areas, or among different social groups.9 While the meaning of the XΜΓ letters has been widely dis- cussed, much less attention has been given to their diachronic and synchronic distribution across various media, including papyri. The present article aims to fill this research gap to a certain degree, by concentrating on the occurrences of XΜΓ in Hermopolite documentary papyri,10 which were the object of my research in the NOTAE project.11 This nome is particularly well-suited for conducting such an analysis. On the one hand, the papyri from this region are dated to all centuries of Late An- tiquity,12 allowing for a reliable reconstruction of the chronology of symbol use. On the other hand, it provides the largest number of documents with ΧΜΓ overall.13 Additionally, as will be demon- strated below, regional distinctions can be particularly well observed in the Hermopolites.14 9 E.g. P. Perdrizet, “Isopséphie,” REG 17 (1904) 359–360; Tjäder, Eranos 68 (1970) 148–150; T. Derda, “Some Remarks on the Christian Symbol XΜΓ,” JJurP 22 (1992) 27; Nongbri, HThR 104 (2011) 68; R. Ast and J. Lougovaya, “The Art of Isopsephism in the Greco-Roman World,” in A. Jördens (ed.), Ägyptische Magie und ihre Umwelt (Wiesbaden 2015) 90; Németh, in The Wisdom of Thoth 46–47; De Bruyn, Making Amulets Christian 66. 10 In the future I hope to extend in-depth research on XΜΓ group to other Egyptian regions as well. 11 See https://notae-project.digilab.uniroma1.it/. 12 Other regions with XΜΓ attestations, such as the Antinoopolites or Aphrodito—known primarily thanks to Dioskoros’ archive (TM Arch ID: 72, www.trismegistos.org/archive/72), dated to the 6th century, and, for Aphro- dito, also the archive of Phoibammon son of Triadelphos (TM Arch ID: 193, www.trismegistos.org/archive/193), dated to the late 6th–first half of the 7th century—lack this characteristic. This, in turn, makes it impossible to de- termine the presence of this symbol in earlier centuries there. 13 For details see below and Tables 1 and 2. The second region in terms of the number of XΜΓ attestations, spanning all centuries of Late Antiquity, is the Oxyrhynchites, with 59 Greek documents, 29 of which are securely dated. 14 In contrast e.g. to the Oxyrhynchites, where no chronological narrowing of XΜΓ use or specific accompanying symbols has been observed. ANETA SKALEC 413 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 The analysis presented below is based on both Greek and Coptic papyri from this nome, as both were produced in the same world, often by the same people.15 It should be noted that the research concentrates primarily on precisely dated docu- ments (mainly contracts, as well as a few receipts) that offer reliable data, which are far fewer in Coptic than in Greek,16 while account will also be taken of documents dated only to a specific century by palaeography17 or other internal evidence (e.g. letters, receipts, lists). The analysis is not limited solely to notarial deeds, which are generally dated, as this would have restricted the ability to compare the typology of Hermopolite papyri containing XΜΓ with those from other geographical con- texts, as well as to identify the particular ways in which this symbol was used in various types of documents.18 While this paper does not aim to provide an exhaustive analysis of the occurrences of XΜΓ in documentary papyri— 15 R. S. Bagnall, Everyday Writing in the Graeco-Roman East (Berkeley 2011) 75–93; J.-L. Fournet, The Rise of Coptic: Egyptian versus Greek in Late Antiquity (Princeton 2020) 20, 82–89. 16 The majority of published Coptic documents are letters, which are usually undated, whereas legal documents are far less common. Only a small number of the latter date to the second half of the 6th-early 7th cen- tury, while the majority originate from after the Arab conquest, specifically from the mid-7th to the end of the 8th century. See T. S. Richter, “Koptische Rechtsurkunden als Quellen der Rechtpraxis im byzan- tinischen und frühislamischen Ägypten,” in C. Gastgeber (ed.), Quellen zur byzantinischen Rechtspraxis (Vienna 2010) 43, 45; Bagnall, Everyday Writing 76–77; Fournet, The Rise of Coptic 20–21, 24, 40–42, 76–77. For a recent list of early Coptic legal documents see Fournet 162–171. 17 It is more difficult to place Coptic texts in a temporal framework than Greek ones, due to the challenges of dating based on palaeography. The dates proposed by editors are often very broad, with a range of two cen- turies. See Richter, in Quellen zur byzantinischen Rechtspraxis 43 n.24. 18 E.g. in the Patermouthis archive from Syene, the XΜΓ group appears among Greek papyri only on dialyseis, a practice not attested in other regions. See L. Briasco and A. Skalec, L’archivio di Patermouthis. Scrivere i documenti nella Syene tardoantica (Rome 2024) 127–131. 414 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 something difficult to achieve in a single article19—it does not shy away from references to practices in other regions.20 Diachronic analysis In the Greek documentary papyri from Egypt, XΜΓ appears in one of two contexts: either centered above the first line of documents and letters21 or as part of subscriptions (i.e. above, before, or after hypographai, witness subscriptions, and comple- tiones).22 Additionally, Coptic papyri have made it possible to ob- serve yet another location, namely, as the sole text on the verso of letters (see below). In the Hermopolites, except for one Greek document23 and Coptic letters, XΜΓ appears regularly at the top 19 Even a general analysis conducted for the purposes of this article has allowed for the observation of regional differences in the use of XΜΓ. For example, in the Oxyrhynchites it appears at the top of Greek documents from the early 5th century to the early 7th. In the Arsinoites, we do not have Greek notarial deeds that can be definitively attributed to this nome and feature XΜΓ at their opening, but XΜΓ does appear in this region in connection with completiones. 20 The author has reviewed all Greek attestations of XΜΓ available on the papyri.info website for comparative purposes. In the case of Coptic documen- tation, the analysis of the material—hindered by the lack of a database con- taining all published Coptic documents—was focused on papyri from the Hermopolites. However, for comparative purposes, all volumes of SB Kopt as well as a large portion of documents from Thebes were reviewed. 21 See e.g. J. Herrmann, Studien zur Bodenpacht im Recht der gräco-ägyptischen Papyri (Munich 1958) 46; F. Mitthof, CPR XXIII (Vienna 2002) p.217; Nongbri, HThR 104 (2011) 47–48; A. Benaissa, “A Lease of Crops by a Soldier of the Mauri Scrutarii,” Tyche 29 (2014) 17–22, at 19. 22 This issue itself deserves a more in-depth analysis. So far, only XΜΓ accompanying notarial completiones has been the subject of interest. Sophie Kovarik has demonstrated that this element typically appears in Arsinoite and Herakleopolite notarial subscriptions, while it is basically absent in Oxyrhynchite completiones: “The Evolution of the Notarial Signature in Late Antique Egypt: A Diachronic Comparison of the Middle Egyptian Evi- dence,” in A. Ghignoli et al. (eds.), Segni, sogni, materie e scrittura dall’Egitto tardo- antico all’Europa carolingia (Rome 2023) 71–118, at 91–92. 23 BGU XII 2194, a sixth-century receipt, features XΜΓ in line 5, placed ANETA SKALEC 415 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 of the documents, and it is on this position that this article will focus in the first place. In total, 68 Greek documentary papyri from the Hermopolites feature the letters XΜΓ at their top. Of these, 38 are precisely dated (contracts and a few receipts), while the remaining 30 lack exact dates (letters, accounts, lists, and receipts). To this list, five Coptic papyri can be added, of which only one is dated. A detailed division of these documents, categorized by the certainty of their dates, is provided in Table 1 (certainly dated) and Table 2 (not certainly dated). The instances of XΜΓ signifi- cantly outnumber other Christian symbols found at the top of precisely dated Hermopolite documents.24 This observation sup- ports the thesis that the XΜΓ symbol was a typical marker for the top of contracts and other documents in Late Antiquity, at least in the Hermopolite nome. Diachronic analysis suggests that XΜΓ began to appear in the Hermopolites in the early fifth century. Although two papyri featuring XΜΓ at the top have been dated by their editors to the fourth century—BGU XVII 2727, an order of payment, and SB XVI 12244, of uncertain nature25—palaeography points instead above the subscription of the issuer, lamprotates Anatolios, whose origins are not stated. However, since the rent payer was from Hermopolis, it is likely that Anatolios was from there as well. 24 Among certainly dated documents, we have only 3 with a staurogram at the top and 34 with a cross (see below). 25 Probably legal, sent by Flavius Demeas son of Heraklammon, town councilor and devotissimus tribunus, to the heirs of Sostratos. Valérie Schram suggests that this papyrus may have been a contract: “Artefact ID 1099,” 4CARE database - Fourth-Century Christian Archaeological Record of Egypt, 2001, https://4care-skos.mf.no/artefacts/1099. According to the editor, the Sostratos mentioned in SB XVI 12244 may be identified with Sostratos Ailianos, strategos and exactor of the Hermopolite nome, frequently found in the Vienna papyri: P. J. Sijpesteijn, “Vierzehn Wiener Papyri,” Aegyptus 61 [1981] 79. 416 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 to a (possibly early) fifth-century date.26 Despite the letter forms of both papyri, they originated in an official context, perhaps at a higher level, from where the practice of applying XΜΓ at the top might have spread.27 The earliest securely dated Hermopolite papyri featuring XΜΓ at the top date to the first half or mid-fifth century. In this period, we find the monogram on three Hermopolite cheirographa,28 dated to 439, 425–450, and 455 (see Table 1). In the case of all of them, we are dealing with fairly atypical content for the Hermopolites. Among them, we have: a land sale (SPP XX 121); a document in which some people from a village in the Her- mopolites confirm to a woman that they have received the tax amount that was levied on the land she owned in the village area (P.Münch. III 102); a surety deed issued by Aurelius Horos, com- mander of a private vessel, to two curatores of the grain to be sent to Alexandria (P.Strasb. VII 654). It is difficult to explain why the symbol is present in these three documents, while no Christian symbol is found in other, more common types of contracts, such 26 Valérie Schram has already suggested that the palaeography of SB XVI 12244 and the use of XΜΓ point to the late 4th or early 5th century (“Artefact ID 1099”), as well as the presence of XΜΓ on BGU XVII 2727 to the early fifth century (“Artefact ID 1194,” 4CARE database - Fourth- Century Christian Archaeological Record of Egypt, 2021, https://4care- skos.mf.no/artefacts/1194). The former document, written in a cursive minuscule with a clockwise ligature, should most likely be dated to the 5th century. For BGU XVII 2727, written in cursive majuscule, the 5th century also seems plausible. 27 I thank the anonymous reviewer for this suggestion. 28 On cheirographon see U. Yiftach-Firanko, “Cheirographon,” in The Encyclo- pedia of Ancient History (Malden 2013) 1446–1447, and “Evolution of Forms of Greek Documents of the Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine periods,” in J. G. Keenan et al. (eds.), Law and Legal Practice in Egypt from Alexander to the Arab Conquest (Cambridge 2014) 46–49; S. Richter, “Byzantine Sales: Some Aspects of the Development of Legal Instruments in the Later Roman and Byzantine Period,” in Law and Legal Practice 84–89; S. Kovarik, “Die byzan- tinischen Tabellionenurkunden in Ägypten,” in Quellen zur byzantinischen Rechtspraxis 27–37. ANETA SKALEC 417 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 as leases,29 from the same period. It seems, however, that the document type may play a role here as in CPR VI 6, which is a dialysis written by the same scribe as SPP XX 121 and stipulated between the same parties, without XΜΓ at the top.30 Dating the first certain attestation of XΜΓ in the Hermopolites to the 430s is consistent with other regions, such as the Oxyrhyn- chites or Herakleopolites, where the earliest securely dated oc- currences come from the same decade,31 indicating a general new practice in the redaction of notarial deeds. At this point, it should be noted that the first protokolla—small, separate first sheets of the papyrus roll bearing an inscription that includes the name and title of the official (κόµης) under whose department the papyrus roll monopoly fell32—featuring the XΜΓ group at the top33 are also dated to the 430s. The majority of these protokolla have been found in the Hermopo- lites34 and the Herakleopolites,35 although they do not reflect the 29 E.g. P.Berl.Zill. 5 (417), BGU XII 2137 (426), PSI III 245 (429), BGU XII 2138 (430), BGU XII 2141 (446), SB XVI 12948 (448). 30 Unfortunately, the upper fragments of other real estate sales contracts that date to the 5th century (SPP XX 110, P.Bad. IV 91a, P.Prag. II 156) and could confirm such a hypothesis have not survived. 31 Herakleopolites: JJP 38 (2008) 56 (439, land lease); Oxyrhynchites: P.Köln XI 459 (436, division contract), APF 56 (2010) 276 no. 2 (437/8, top of document), P.Harr. III 275 (437, settlement of dispute); however, a papyrus whose origin from Oxyrhynchus is uncertain features XΜΓ at the top as early as 415 (P.Oxy. LXXII 4902). 32 On protokolla and their evolution see J. M. Diethart, D. Feissel, and J. Gascou, “Les prôtokolla des papyrus byzantins du Ve au VIIe siècle. Édition, prosopographie, diplomatique,” Tyche 9 (1994) 9–40. 33 It was a general practice to place XΜΓ at the top of protokolla until 491/2. This custom fell into disuse during the 6th century, when the format of protokolla changed. See Diethart, Feissel, and Gascou, Tyche 9 (1994) 11– 17, 29–30. 34 CPR IX 41 (431–435 or 439–443), 42 (436–438), BGU XVII 2690 verso (436–438). 35 SB XX 15573 (ca. 429–431), 15574 (436–438), 15577 (436–438), 15578 (436–438), 15579 (433–546). 418 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 practices of these regions; rather, they represent those of the places where the scrolls were produced, which remain unknown. Furthermore, as use of the XΜΓ monogram reflects in this con- text a practice at a much higher administrative level than the nome, it cannot be ruled out that its placement at the top of pro- tokolla may have gradually filtered down into Egyptian notarial documents and beyond.36 Only starting with years 470s37 are the letters XΜΓ regularly found on various kinds of Hermopolite contracts (lease, sale on delivery, or loan), receipts, or accounts (see Table 1). This time- line coincides with the first evidence of a cross at the top of precisely dated Hermopolite documents,38 indicating a new con- vention in document redaction in this nome. In the first half of the 6th century, occurrences of XΜΓ in Her- mopolite documents written in Greek are frequent, but after the mid-6th century there are only four known instances, the latest dating to 562/3 (Table 1). There is, admittedly, one document,39 P.Köln XIV 591, featuring XΜΓ at the top and dating to 602, but its origin from Hermopolites is highly doubtful.40 36 I thank the anonymous reviewer for this suggestion. 37 The 460s cannot be excluded as a potential turning point. However, we lack documents from this decade with their upper margins fully preserved, as would be necessary for verification. 38 BGU XII 2151 (476), XII 2155 (481), XII 2163 (493/4), XVII 2709 (496/7), XII 2168 (497/8). 39 Additionally, Alia Hanafi reconstructs the sequence χ]µ̣[γ ἀµή]ν̣̣ at the top of Pap.Congr. XXVI (Geneva 2012) 315 no. 1, a sale on delivery from the monastery of Apa Apollos at Bawit, dated to 611. The suggested recon- struction appears highly implausible. Firstly, the word ἀµήν is never written in full at the top of documents but is consistently abbreviated as ϘΘ. Secondly, the traces visible on the upper margin look more like a cross, a symbol still found in this position on certain Hermopolite papyri from the 7th century. 40 While the editor of the papyrus, Sophie Kovarik, notes that the proven- ance is unknown, she suggests that several elements—such as the dating for- mula, the presence of certain signs and symbols (including two dashes, XΜΓ, and a chi-rho at the endorsement)—might indicate the Hermopolites as the ANETA SKALEC 419 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Consequently, based on the available sources, XΜΓ does not appear in any Hermopolite contract in Greek that can be dated with certainty after 563. This absence seems particularly notable given the presence of this group in Greek papyri from Aphro- dito,41 Antinoopolis,42 as well as Syene,43 the Herakleopolites,44 and the Oxyrhynchites,45 dating from the 570s onward, with some examples even from the 7th century.46 A chronological limit to the use of XΜΓ in Greek Hermopolite contracts does not, however, imply with absolute certainty that all undated documents from this nome bearing XΜΓ at the top must necessarily predate the 560s. While the analysis of con- tracts suggests a decline in the use of this symbol, it cannot be conclusively stated that it had been entirely abandoned in the Hermopolites. It remains plausible that XΜΓ was occasionally place of composition: P.Köln XIV (2015) pp.202–204. However, the circum- stantial evidence is not particularly strong, especially given that the double dash sign (//) does not appear in Hermopolite dating formulas after the 550s. The papyrus could just as likely have originated from nearby Antinoopolis, where XΜΓ frequently appears in contracts from the second half of the 6th century, and where the double dash sign in dates and a chi-rho monogram on endorsements are also attested. On the double dash see Briasco and Skalec, L’archivio di Patermouthis 130; L. Briasco, “Qualche riflessione sulla questione dell’identificazione grafica nei papiri documentari: il caso di Markos figlio di Apa Dios (Syene, VI secolo),” in L. Buzzegoli et al. (eds.), Testo, supporto, sistema comunicativo (Rome 2024) 179 and n.59. On chi-rho see A. Monte, “Le abbrevi- azioni monogrammatiche chi-iota e chi-rho per χειρόγραφον nei papiri greci di epoca bizantina,” in M. Bocuzzi (ed.), Mani e scritture, simboli e testi. Ricerche su testi documentari ed epigrafici tardoantichi (Rome 2024) 195–211, at 204–205. 41 P.Michael 47 (570), 48 (572), P.Cair.Masp. I 67096 (573). 42 P.Lond. V 1714 (570). In Antinoopolis, numerous documents dated to the years 568–570 also have XΜΓ at the top. 43 P.Münch. I 1 (574), 7 (583), 14 (594). See Briasco and Skalec, L’archivio di Patermouthis 127–131. 44 CPR VIII 62 (575), X 129 (594/5). 45 P.Oxy. LXXI 4835 (574), 4836 (578), XX 2283 (586). 46 P.Oxy. LVIII 3957 (611 or 612, Oxyrhynchos), P.Lond. II 483 (615/6, Apollonopolites Heptakomia), P.Naqlun II 22 (623, Naqlun). 420 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 still included at the top of letters or receipts, some of which edi- tors have dated as late as the 7th century. This persistence might reflect the personal preferences of the issuers or distinct conven- tions in the drafting of these types of documents. Unfortunately, the absence of precise dating for letters and receipts makes it unlikely that this issue will ever be resolved with certainty. The most plausible explanation for the disappearance of ΧΜΓ is a change in the convention for drafting documents (e.g. con- tracts) in the Hermopolites. This shift, of a distinctly regional character, could be connected to the introduction of a Christian symbol, such as a cross or staurogram, at the opening of the dating formula at the beginning of the document. While such symbols occasionally appear in Hermopolite material from the 470s onward, they become standard only in the 6th century. Their routine use may have rendered additional symbols at the top of documents unnecessary. The prominence of the cross as the most significant Christian symbol during the second half of the 6th century, both in the Hermopolites and elsewhere,47 may have played a pivotal role in this development.48 47 By the 6th century, the use of the cross had become increasingly prom- inent across various material artifacts, establishing itself as a defining feature of manuscript culture during this period. See I. Garipzanov, Graphic Signs of Authority in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (Oxford 2018) 95–96. On Christian symbols in the Hermopolites see e.g. A. Skalec, “Witness Sub- scriptions in the Late Antique Hermopolite Papyri,” in Mani e scritture 90–92, and “Monogram and Compendium Form of the µίσθωσις Abbreviation in the Endorsements of the Late Antique Papyri,” Pylon (forthcoming); Briasco and Skalec, L’archivio di Patermouthis 209, 214, 244–245. 48 Among the Hermopolite documents dated with certainty to the first half of the 6th century, we find XΜΓ attested 18 times (see Table 1), alongside three instances of a staurogram (P.Lond. III 1313 [p.256] [507], P.Coll.Youtie II 90 [513], P.Sta.Xyla I 10 [543]), and six instances of a cross (P.Vind.Sal. 9 [509], SB XVI 12488 [538], P.Lond. III 1001 [pp.270–271] [539], P.Strasb. VI 597 [541], P.Lond. III 1319 [pp.271–272] [544], SB XVIII 13583 [547]). In the second half of the century, however, the landscape shifts markedly: only 4 occurrences of XΜΓ (all from the 550s–560s), no staurograms, and 13 ANETA SKALEC 421 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Moreover, it is worth noting that while Greek Hermopolite documents from the first half of the 6th century more often feature some form of Christian symbol at the top, the opposite is observed in the second half of the century. A similar pattern is evident in the 7th century, where a cross appears at the top of only ten securely dated papyri, most of which pertain to taxes.49 The remaining documents lack any Christian symbols in this position. The disappearance of XΜΓ from the top of Hermopolite docu- ments in Greek thus aligns with broader shifts in the use of Christian symbols in this position and a general decline in their use over time. This picture is well complemented by Coptic papyri, a large number of which originate from the Hermopolites.50 Among the hundreds, only five have XΜΓ at the top (see Tables 1 and 2). As with Greek papyri, imprecisely dated documents do not allow for far-reaching conclusions regarding the chronology of XΜΓ use in Coptic papyri. This makes the only securely dated in- stance all the more interesting. instances of a cross in the securely dated papyri: CPR XXIII 33 (550), P.Strasb. VI 580 (553), P.Lond. V 1765 (554), BGU XVII 2684 (555), P.Lond. V 1766 (559), P.Strasb. IV 248 (561); P.Lond. V 1774 (570); SB VI 9085 inv. 16050 (579), P.Lond. V 1755 (584/5), BGU XVII 2685 (585), P.Lond. V 1756 (585/6), P.Herm. 29 (586), P.Lond. V 1757 (586/7), P.Sorb. II pp.49–50 (594/5 or 609/10). 49 P.Lond. V 1899 descr. (600), P.Laur. III 77 (603), P.Bodl. I 41 (604), P.Amh. II 151 (610–619 or 629–641), SB XVI 12999 (611 or 626), P.Lond. V 1758 (612/3), P.Lond. III 996 (p.248) (622/3 or 637/8 or 652/3), SPP XX 216 (624), P.Lond. III 995 (p.248) (626/7 or 641/2 or 656/7), CPR XXII 2 (628/9 or 643/4). 50 Three Egyptian locations, in particular, have yielded substantial dos- siers of Coptic documents: Thebes, the Hermopolites, and Aphrodito: see Richter, in Quellen zur byzantinischen Rechtspraxis 44–45. 422 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Figure 1: CPR IV 90 recto: ΧΜΓ at top © Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Papyrussammlung, K 03021 CPR IV 90 (596) is one of the oldest dated Coptic legal docu- ments.51 XΜΓ, placed at its top, is written cursively and appears squished ( fig. 1), suggesting that it was added later,52 possibly to comply with the Greek model, which generally is followed by Coptic documents.53 In his act, Joseph appears to recall an earlier practice evident in Hermopolite contracts featuring XΜΓ —a model that, as we have seen, was abandoned in Greek 51 This bilingual document has been identified as a notarial deed (R. S. Bagnall and K. A. Worp, “Dating the Coptic Legal Documents from Aphrodite,” ZPE 148 [2004] 248 n.7; J.-L. Fournet, “Sur les premiers documents juridiques coptes,” in A. Boud’hors et al. (eds.), Études coptes XI [Paris 2010] 125–137, at 133) or most recently by Fournet (The Rise of Coptic 79, 164) as “pseudonotarial private acts” or “nonnotarized cheirographon with pseudo-completio,” as according to Fournet it bears the writer’s subscription modelled on a notarial completio, not however being signed by the notary stricto sensu. In my opinion, the first interpretation seems more accurate. It is true that Joseph does not state his function in the writer's subscription. However, acting as hypographeus in this document is Joseph nomikos (notary), who should most likely be identified as the author of the completio. This is supported by palaeographic analysis, particularly of the term ἐγρ(άφη). 52 This hypothesis is further supported by the fact that the letters of the monogram do not overlap in any way with the text below, including the diacritical marks in line 1. 53 Fournet, The Rise of Coptic 78; J.-L. Fournet, H. Förster, and T. S. Richter, “Une misthôsis copte d’Aphrodité (P.Lond. inv. 2849): le plus ancien acte notarié copte?” ArchPF 58 (2012) 345 n.2. ANETA SKALEC 423 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 documents in the 560s.54 However, it should be emphasized that in all published Coptic legal documents that date to the 6th century and have a fully preserved upper margin, XΜΓ appears at top.55 This may point to a broader trend in the redaction of Coptic legal documents in the second half of this century.56 Besides five Coptic papyri with XΜΓ, a cross is found at the top of a small number of Coptic documents,57 while the remaining hundreds lack any symbol in this position. The Coptic material from the Hermopolites thus aligns with the Greek papyri in its discontinuation of XΜΓ and the very limited placement of the cross at the top of documents. Figure 2: JJP 32 (2002) 21 verso line 1: ΧΜΓ Ϙϴ [ ] † ΧΜΓ Ϙϴ † † © Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Papyrussammlung, K 01223 Furthermore, in Coptic letters from the Hermopolites we ob- serve a particular use of XΜΓ:58 it appears on their verso ( fig. 2), 54 Indeed, in 23 Greek contracts with a preserved upper margin, dated between 563 and 596, XΜΓ is never found. 55 XΜΓ ϘΘ appears in P.Lond. V 1709 (566/7) and P.CairoMasp. III 67353 recto (569), both from Dioskoros’ archive, as well as in ZPE 216 (2020) 243, from Patermouthis’ archive, with an uncertain date—possibly 584, 599, or 614. It should be noted that, as we have seen, XΜΓ is also attested in Greek documents from the second half of the 6th century originating from these geographical contexts. 56 In the 7th century this is no longer the case, as XΜΓ is not attested in any securely dated Coptic legal document. 57 Only one of the Coptic papyri, P.Heid.Kopt. 17, has a certain date (645). 58 P.Ryl.Copt. 305 (6–7 cent.), 308 (6–7 cent.), P.Sorb.Copt. 28 (6–7 cent.), JJP 32 (2002) 21 (7 cent.), BKU III.1 335 (6–8 cent., Hermopolites?), 336 (6–8 cent.), O.Crum ST 172 (4–8 cent.), P.Moscow Copt. 13 (8 cent.). Since all 424 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 which, according to Hans Förster, serves “as support for a posi- tive response to the letter.”59 This convention is not attested in Greek letters from this region, nor, based on my analysis, in Coptic ones from other Egyptian nomes. This suggests, on the one hand, a distinctly Coptic epistolographic practice and, on the other, its regional character. The latter implies that other letters of unknown provenance bearing the XΜΓ group on the verso most likely also originate from the Hermopolites.60 ΧΜΓ in combination with other symbols A closer examination of the XΜΓ monogram form and its accompanying symbols is now in order. When not followed by any additional signs, the XΜΓ found at the top of Hermopolite documents is typically written in cursive letters, with the gamma featuring a distinctly long horizontal stroke ( fig. 3). This symbol is generally centered at the top of the document, though ex- ceptions exist. Notably, in the earliest known contract containing this monogram, SPP XX 121, the three letters are not centered at the top but instead are aligned with the left margin, consistent with the alignment of the rest of the text ( fig. 4). By the final years of the 5th century, the XΜΓ symbol typically appears alone on Hermopolite papyri, with only a few excep- tions where it is combined with other signs or symbols. In two documents, a horizontal superlinear stroke accompanies the group. In P.Münch. III 102 (dated to 455), the stroke extends above all three letters, whereas in SB XVI 12486 (470), it is placed solely above the gamma ( fig. 5). As suggested by Hermann Harrauer, 61 the presence of this stroke might be linked to its use are undated, it is not possible to determine when this practice emerged; however, it seems likely that it may have replaced writing ΧΜΓ at the top of letters—a position attested in two letters from the Hermopolite region. 59 H. Förster, “Dringliche Bitte um Steuerzahlung in Geld statt in Natura- lien. Edition von P. Vindob. K. 1223,” JJurP 32 (2002) 27. 60 P.Ryl.Copt. 329 and 297 (6–7 cent.). 61 H. Harrauer, “Sechs byzantinische Weinkaufverträge aus dem Her- ANETA SKALEC 425 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Figure 3: BGU XII 2156 recto: ΧΜΓ at top Reproduced with permission. Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung – Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Scan: Berliner Papyrusdatenbank, P. 21807 Figure 4: SPP XX 121 recto: ΧΜΓ at top © Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Papyrussammlung, G 2120 Figure 5: SB XVI 12486 recto, ΧΜΓ at top © Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Papyrussammlung, G 13239 + G 17808 + G 20703 + G 29647 mupolites,” in R. Pintaudi (ed.), Miscellanea Papyrologica = Papyrologica Floren- tina VII (Florence 1980) 111. Nomina sacra are contractions of certain words consisting, in most cases, of the first and last letter of a word with a supralinear stroke above them: see e.g. L. W. Hurtado, “The Origin of the Nomina Sacra: A Proposal,” JBL 117 (1998) 655–673; AnneMarie Luijen- dijk, Greetings in the Lord: Early Christians and the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Cambridge [Mass.] 2008) 57–62. On numbers and names as theological tools see Bovon, NTS 47 (2001) 267–288. 426 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Figure 6: BGU XIX 2818 recto: ΧΜΓ at top Reproduced with permission. Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung – Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Scan: Berliner Papyrusdatenbank, P. 21955 above nomina sacra or numbers. Indeed, such strokes are fre- quently observed in amulets featuring the XΜΓ monogram.62 In the first half of the 6th century, XΜΓ occasionally appears alongside a cross or staurogram in the Hermopolite papyri. Among the documents with precise dates, a staurogram with its horizontal stroke extending from the gamma appears only once, in BGU XIX 2818 from 511 ( fig. 6). Though still limited in num- ber, a few additional instances of XΜΓ accompanied by a cross or staurogram are found in documents that lack precise dating (see Table 2).63 Relatively often the cross or staurogram accom- 62 See e.g. J. Franek and D. Corral Varela, “Apotropaic Amulet from the Collection of Gustave Schlumberger with a Bilingual Inscription in Greek and Samaritan Hebrew,” ZPE 216 (2020) 156–166. 63 However, it is important to note that among these, the only document almost certainly originating from the Hermopolites is SPP X 102, a 6th- century account of payments from various Hermopolite villages. The provenance of the other three documents in which XΜΓ is combined with a cross or staurogram remains uncertain: ⳨ XΜΓ †ϘΘ in CPR XXIII 34 (6 cent.), receipt for the loading of wheat for the annona civica, with uncertain provenience from the Hermopolites or Antinoopolites, though the pres- ence of ϘΘ suggests a connection to the first region; XΜΓ ⳨ in P.Rainer Cent. 80 (6 cent.), letter, found in Hermopolis, but it is not known whether it was also written there (Nikolaos Gonis pointed out that the addressee, comes Serenus, had not been attested in Hermopolis, while it is possible that there was a comes Serenus in Antinoopolis around 567: “Prosopographica IV,” ArchPF 67 [2021] 95); †ΧΜΓ in SPP VIII 964 (6 cent.), receipt with an un- certain provenance from Hermopolites. ANETA SKALEC 427 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 panies this monogram in Coptic letters.64 The small number of instances where XΜΓ is combined with a cross or staurogram may at first glance seem surprising. But as Fritz Mitthof has pointed out, in most Late Antique documents this monogram appears alone65 and combinations with other Christian symbols are much rarer. A survey of instances of XΜΓ from other Egyptian nomes reveals that its association with a cross or staurogram was quite typical in the second half of the 6th century, a period during which, as we have already noted, XΜΓ seems to disappear from the top of Greek Hermopolite con- tracts. This might help explain the small number of such com- binations in Hermopolite documents. Alternatively, regional differences in this practice could be a factor. However, this does not mean that no other symbols accom- pany XΜΓ. On the contrary, it should be emphasized that from the late 5th century onward, XΜΓ was frequently combined in the Hermopolites with another two letters: ϘΘ, the well-known isopsephism for ἀµήν.66 It appears that the sequence XΜΓ ϘΘ be- gan to be used in the 5th century, both in the Hermopolites and elsewhere.67 The first two examples of XΜΓ ϘΘ in certainly dated Her- 64 JJP 32 (2002) 21 (XΜΓ ϘΘ [ ] †XΜΓ ϘΘ ††), BKU III.1 336 († XΜΓ), O.Crum ST 172 ([ ] XΜΓ [ ] XΜΓ ⳨ ⳨ ⳨). 65 Mitthof, CPR XXIII p.218. 66 For this see n.8 above and Kovarik, in Segni, sogni 92. Instances where crosses, XΜΓ, and ϘΘ appear together are discussed in Mitthof, CPR XXIII p.218. 67 This sequence of letters is present in the Oxyrhynchite letter P.Oxy. LVI 3862, assigned to the late 4th or 5th century in the editio princeps, whereas A. Papaconstantinou, Le culte des saints en Egypte (Paris 2001) 149, assigns it to the 5th century, as well as at the top of two papyri from Karanis, P.Mich. VI 378 (an account of tax payments in kind) and SB VI 9436j (a receipt for payment in kind): both are assigned to the 4th century in the editio princeps, but a date in the 5th century is now preferred, cf. J. Gascou, Papyrus de la Sorbonne II (Atlanta 1994) 46, and P. Sijpesteijn, “Ναυλεπλοῖον: A Ghost Word?” ZPE 64 (1986) 117–118. 428 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 mopolite documents date to the last years of the 5th century (see Table 2). Notably, in both this is written in a peculiar manner. In SB V 7758 (497), it appears that ϘΘ is placed between µ and γ (χµϙθγ),68 although the published facsimile is not of the highest quality. In Tyche 29 (2014) 18 (498), ϘΘ is written beneath the vertical stroke of the gamma ( fig. 7). Between 500 and the 530s, XΜΓ combined with ϘΘ is almost as common in the Hermopo- lites as XΜΓ alone. After the 540s, XΜΓ ϘΘ is attested only once more, in P.Lond. III 1003 (p.259), dated to 562/3, while in the years 540–560 XΜΓ alone still appears in a few Greek documents (see Table 1). Figure 7: Tyche 29 (2014) 18 recto: ΧΜΓ at top © Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Papyrussammlung, G 13263 + G 13376 + G 14694 Given the chronological distribution of instances of XΜΓ ϘΘ, the presence of this sequence in two tax registers, dated by the editors to the second half of the 5th century (P.Flor. I 78,69 CPR V 26),70 suggests that they may actually belong to the end of the 68 Alain Blanchard suggests reading χµϙγ: “Sur quelques interpretations de XΜΓ,” in Pap.Congr. XIV (London 1975) 20; but in my opinion traces of a theta are distinctly visible. 69 In this document XΜΓ ϘΘ occurs twice, whereas XΜΓ only once. See R. Pintaudi and A. Soldati, “P.Flor. I 78: una riedizione,” Aegyptus 95 (2015) 45. 70 J. R. Rea and P. J. Sijpesteijn, CPR V (Vienna 1976) p.115. Except for pp.24, 43, 47, and fr.2 the XΜΓ ϘΘ or XΜΓ symbol was placed at the top of each written page of the codex. The reason for choosing the one or the other is not clear. ANETA SKALEC 429 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 century. This hypothesis is supported by the unusual form of XΜΓ ϘΘ on the recto of P.Flor. I 78, where ϘΘ is placed beneath the long, wavy horizontal stroke of the gamma, similar to the placement seen in Tyche 29 (2014) 18 ( fig. 7), which is dated to 498. The presence of the XΜΓ ϘΘ group on other Hermopolite papyri that are not precisely dated may also provide a clue to their date, allowing it to be narrowed down with a high degree of probability to the years 490–560s. This chronological refine- ment applies to two Greek sales on delivery: SB XXII 15595, which the editor assigns to the 6th–7th century, and SB XXII 15596, dated to the 6th century. It should also be noted that the XΜΓ ϘΘ combination appears in Greek papyri exclusively on various types of contracts (e.g. leases, loans, sales, work contracts) or accounts. In contrast, with the exception of CPR XXIII 34 (provenance from the Hermopo- lites uncertain),71 it is absent from Greek receipts and letters, where XΜΓ alone was present. This suggests a differentiation in the grouping of symbols with XΜΓ, depending on the type of document. The situation is different for Coptic documents from the Her- mopolites, where XΜΓ ϘΘ is attested exclusively in letters—once at the top72 and more frequently on the verso73—suggesting a distinct epistolographic practice. Despite Mitthof ’s assertion that the XΜΓ ϘΘ sequence is a com- 71 The presence of XΜΓ may provide additional support for the docu- ment’s origin in Hermopolites or Antinoopolites. The appearance of ⳨ and † in this context might indicate that the document should be dated to the sec- ond half of the 6th century. If this is the case, an Antinoopolite origin would seem more likely. 72 P.Heid.Kopt. 7 (7–8 cent.). 73 P.Ryl.Copt. 305 (6–7 cent.), 308 (6–7 century), P.Sorb.Copt. 28 (6–7 cent.), JJP 32 (2002) 21 (7 cent.). 430 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 mon feature in Late Antique papyri,74 the situation appears to be significantly more regionally restricted. In fact, the instances from the Hermopolites clearly outnumber those from other regions. We do not find this group in Greek papyri from the Oxyrchynchites,75 Herakleopolites, or Aphrodito, while it ap- pears three times on papyri from Antinoopolis,76 twice from Naqlun,77 and once from the Apollonopolites Heptakomias.78 Among Coptic papyri, it is attested once in Syene,79 in Thebes,80 and in an unknown locality.81 Only three of these documents, in both languages, are securely dated, all from the second half of the 6th century to early 7th. These spatial and chronological distribution patterns point to the regional character of the XΜΓ ϘΘ sequence, with its use, par- ticularly in the first half of the 6th century, appearing to be con- fined primarily to the Hermopolites, as a local scribal practice. The presence of the XΜΓ ϘΘ group can, therefore, with a high degree of probability, indicate that a given document originates specifically from the Hermopolites. Such a provenience can thus be suggested for the account P.Eirene II 12 (5th–6th cent.) or the list CPR VII 23 (mid 5th–6th cent.). 74 Mitthof, CPR XXIII p.217. The same statement can be found, e.g., in J. H. F. Dijkstra, “A Coptic Papyrus from the Patermouthis Archive in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek at Munich,” ZPE 216 (2020) 243–250, at 248. 75 Besides the aforementioned letter, which most likely dates to the 5th century. 76 PSI XIII 1342 (5 cent.); P.Flor. I 93 with BL I 147 (569), and possibly the same sequence was present at the top of its duplicate P.Lond. V 1713, as suggested by Bell, though, as he himself admits, the traces are too small for any certain reading; P.Lond. V 1714 (570, lease). 77 P.Gascou 29 (6–7 cent.); an inverted order, θϘ, and [ – ] θ? ΧΜΓ is attested also in P.Naqlun I 9 (6 cent.). Here the sequence has been found also on amphora stamps: P.Naqlun I 14 = SB XX 15196 (6 cent.), 15197 (6 cent.). 78 P.Lond. II 483 (p.323) (615 or 616). 79 ZPE 216 (2020) 243. 80 P.Mon.Epiph. 140 (7 cent.). 81 BKU III.2 400 (6–8 cent.). ANETA SKALEC 431 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 Conclusions A diachronic and synchronic analysis of the instances of the XΜΓ group in Hermopolite material has allowed for a clear identification of the temporal limits of its use, particularly in the case of precisely dated papyri. The group appears at the top of Greek Hermopolite documents from the early to mid-5th century but rapidly disappears after the 560s. In Coptic documents from the Hermopolites, it is rarely present at the top but is more com- monly found on the verso of letters. The analysis has also established that the attestations of the XΜΓ ϘΘ combination are primarily limited to the Hermopolite nome, pointing to a regional scribal practice. The presence of this symbol, as an expression of a local habit, may thus help, together with other criteria, in the localization and dating of the papyri. TABLE 1: ΧΜΓ atop certainly dated Hermopolite documents82 Document Date Type Symbol SPP XX 121 439, July. 6 land sale χ̣µγ P.Strasb. VII 654 425–450 surety deed for grain delivery χ̣µγ P.Münch. III 102 455, Sept. 20 acknowledgment of receipt of taxes χ̣µγ BGU XII 2149 470, Sept. 19 lease χ̣µγ SB XVI 12486 470, Sept. 30 sale of wine χ̣µγ P.Lond. V 1793 471 or 472 surety χ̣µ̣γ̣ P.Jena II 6 477 lease χ̣µ̣γ̣ PSI VI 703 480 loan [χ]µ̣γ CPR X 118 482, Oct. 13? (unknown) χ̣µγ 82 In both tables, documents whose origin from the Hermopolites is un- certain are underlined, Coptic papyri are in bold. 432 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 BGU XII 2156 483, Aug. 27 lease χ̣µγ CPR V 16 486, Sept. 16 lease χ̣µγ P.Lond. V 1794 488, June 21 contract of partnership χ̣µ̣γ̣ SB V 7758 497, Aug. 20 loan χµ̣γ Tyche 29 (2014) p. 18 498 lease [χ]µγ ϙθ P.Herm. 79 500, Jan. 14 receipt annona militaris χ̣µγ P.Amst. I 45 501, July 7 loan χ̣µ̣γ̣ ZPE 209 (2019) p.237 502–503? account χµγ̣ SB XVI 12378 504, Oct. 12 lease χ̣µγ ϙθ BGU XVII 2688 = SB XXVIII 16858 507, Nov. 25 (?) loan χ̣µγ ϙθ ZPE 215 (2020) p. 260 no. 2 509 lease of land χ̣µγ BGU XVII 2680 510, Aug. 23 receipt for a house rent [χµ]γ̣ BGU XIX 2818 511, May 6 contract χ̣µγ ⳨ SB IV 7369 512 lease χ̣µγ P.Scholl 8 515, Sept. 18 lease χ̣µγ ϙθ P.Lond. III 994 (p.259) 517, Feb. 24 lease χ̣µγ CPR XIX 10 522 loan [χ]µγ ϙθ BGU XIX 2783 = SB XIV 11377 523, Mar. 9 tax receipt annona and kanonika χ̣µγ P.Gen. IV 190 523, Oct. 24? sale of wine χ̣µγ ϙθ SB XXIV 16284 533, Oct. 28– Nov. 26 work contract [χ]µγ ϙθ ANETA SKALEC 433 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 P.Strasb. V 472 534, Dec. 16? lease χ̣µγ SB XXII 15322 535, Mar. 19 loan χ̣µγ PSI III 188 540, Jan. 1– Apr. 30 lease χ̣µγ P.Sta.Xyla I 9 544, Jan. 19 contract χ̣µγ P.Lond. V 1872 descr. 548 lease χ̣µγ P.Herm. 65 553 or 554 loan χµ̣γ̣ ZPE 219 (2021) p.188 no. 8 554 acknowledgment of debt χ̣µγ SB XX 15136 558/9 lease χ̣µγ P.Lond. III 1003 (p.259) Ca. 562–563 lease χ̣µγ ϙθ CPR II 6 = CPR IV 90 596 sale of land χ̣µγ TABLE 2: ΧΜΓ atop uncertainly dated Hermopolite documents Document Date Type Symbol SB XVI 12244 4th cent.? contract or letter? χ̣µγ BGU XVII 2727 Second half of 4th cent. business letter χ̣µγ SB XVI 12244 4th cent. (unknown) χ̣µγ BGU XIX 2780 5th cent. tax receipt χ̣µγ BGU XII 2144 5th cent. receipt χ̣µγ PSI IV 307 5th cent. account χ̣µγ P.Flor. I 78 Second half of 5th cent. tax register χµγ ϙθ: recto fr.A and B; χµγ: verso fr.B 434 XMΓ (ϘΘ) IN LATE ANTIQUE DOCUMENTARY PAPYRI ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 CPR V 26 Second half of 5th cent. tax register Atop each page χ̣µγ ϙθ or χ̣µγ (except pp. 24, 43, 47, and fr.2) SB XXII 15226 433–499 receipt χ[µγ] P.Rainer Cent. 77 5–6th cent. private letter χ̣µγ P.Berl. Monte 12 5–6th cent. list of persons χ̣µγ P.Gascou 66 5–6th cent. receipt χ̣µγ P.Jena II 22 5–6th cent. grain receipt χ̣µγ SB XII 10902 First half of 6th cent. receipt χ̣µγ BGU XII 2194 6th cent. receipt χ̣µγ CPR XXIII 34 6th cent. receipt ⳨ χ̣µγ † ϙθ P.Batav. 22 6th cent. receipt χ̣µγ P.Lond. V 1887 6th cent. private letter χ̣µγ P.Rainer Cent. 80 6th cent. business letter χ̣µγ ⳨ SB XXII 15596 6th cent. sale on delivery χ̣µγ SPP VIII 964 6th cent. receipt? † χ̣µγ SPP X 102 6th cent. list † χ̣µγ SB XVIII 13595 Second half 6th cent. list of payments χ̣µγ BGU XIX 2797 6–7th cent. receipt χ̣µγ P.Grenf. I 64 6–7th cent. official letter χ̣µγ P.Laur. II 45 6–7th cent. official letter χ̣µγ SB XXII 15595 6–7th cent. sale on delivery [χ]µ̣γ̣ ϙθ P.Lond. III 1310 (a) (S. 250) 7th cent. receipt χ̣µγ P.Lond. V 1740 7th cent. receipt χ̣µγ ANETA SKALEC 435 ————— Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 65 (2025) 410–435 SPP VIII 808 7th cent. receipt χ̣µγ P. Strasb. Copt. 14 End 6th cent.– beginning 7th letter χ̣µγ P.Köln Ägypt. II 30 7th cent. guarantee deed χ̣µγ P.Lond. Copt. I 1048 6th–8th cent. receipt χ̣µγ P.Heid. Kopt. 7 6th–8th cent. letter χ̣µγ ϙθ April, 2025 83 Warsaw, Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures Polish Academy of Sciences askalec@iksio.pan.pl 83 The research on which this paper is based is part of the ERC-2017- Advanced Grant project NOTAE (“Notae: not a written word but graphic symbols,” PI Antonella Ghignoli), which has received funding from the European Research Council under the Horizon 2020 research and innova- tion programme (Grant agreement No. 786572). This article is the second in a series dedicated to the various sections of the documents (especially con- tracts) coming from the Hermopolite nome. I would like to thank Antonella Ghignoli, Livia Briasco, and the anonymous reviewer for their insightful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Their feedback proved to be most helpful.