Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Odysseus and Melanthius Newton, Rick M Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Spring 1997; 38, 1; ProQuest pg. 5 Odysseus and Melanthius Rick M. Newton I N A BRIEF NOTE in his The Theme of Mutilation of the Corpse in the Iliad, Charles Segal classifies the mutilation of Melanthius (Od. 22.474-77) as a "significant exception" to Homeric practice. 1 In the Iliad, Segal observes, threats of abuse of a corpse occur "in contexts where there is a marked aware­ ness of cruelty and violence." One thinks readily of the many heated scenes in that poem in which a warrior, caught up in the carnage of battle, vows to leave the body of his opponent as car­ rion for birds and dogs. Likewise in the Odyssey, the suitors' threat to toss Eumaeus' body to dogs and vultures (21.363f) and their plans to send the hulking Irus to be mutilated by Echetus the ogre (18.84-87, 115f) occur in scenes that emphasize the lawless violence of these intruders into Odysseus' house. But the context of Od. 22 provides no such violent setting that would prepare the reader or listener for the sudden lopping of Melanthius' nose, ears, hands, and feet and the tossing of his severed genitals "to the dogs to eat raw." On the contrary, only 60 lines earlier Odysseus had restrained a jubilant Eurycleia from exulting over the sight of the slain suitors. "Rejoice in silence," he bids her, "for it is sacrilege to exult over the slain. It was the fate of the gods and their own wretched actions that brought these men to ruin" (22.413, 'tOua8E 8£ J.10tp' l8aJ.1uaaE SEOW Kat aXEtA-lU Epya). Following on the heels of this repri­ mand, the viciousness shown towards Melanthius is indeed puzzling. It would seem to negate W. B. Stanford's eloquent defense of this hero as "a man well integrated both in his own temperament and with his environment ... [who is] essentially self-possessed, fully able to control conflicting passions and motives. "2 I Mnemosyne Supp!. 17 (Leiden 1971: hereafter 'Segal') 14 n.2. 2 W. B. Stanford, The Ulysses Theme2 (Oxford 1962) 77. On the same page Stanford defends Homer's Odysseus against the charge that this untypical hero is -a man distracted by psychological conflicts and distressed by social tensions." According to M. FERNANDEZ-GALIANo, in J. Russo, M. Fernandez- 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 ODYSSEUS AND MELANTHIUS As curious as the execution itself, however, is the emotional distance that separates Odysseus from the atrocity. Melanthius is killed not by Odysseus but by his two loyal servants, Philoe­ tius and Eumaeus, along with Telemachus. The poem does not explicitly state that Odysseus has ordered the execution. For this reason, it has been proposed that the idea of punishing Melanthius originates with "the swineherd, the cowherd, and perhaps-one hopes not-Telemachus ... Odysseus himself ... had no part in the barbarities, which are best excused as the revenge of servants on a traitorous servant."3 On this reading, the violence done to Melanthius is an expression of the ignobil­ ity of the serving class. Such an explanation is unlikely for two reasons. First, there is no indication that Telemachus is excluded. After the three men together carry out Odysseus' orders to execute the maids, they immediately turn their attention to Melanthius. We may hope, therefore, but we may not assume, that Telem­ achus excuses himself at this point: the verbs appear in the plural, not the dua1. 4 Second, the direct manner in which the men proceed from the maids to Melanthius without discussing the matter suggests that they are still following their master's instructions. Only after killing the goatherd do they wash their hands and feet of the gore and report to Odysseus that "the task has been com­ pleted" (22.479, 'tE'tEAEO"'tO bE Ep'YOV). Although the poem does not explicitly record Odysseus' instructions to the men, his orders at 22.176 to bind Melanthius hand and foot and hoist him up a pillar in the storage room "so that he may endure agonizing pain while still alive" surely sug­ gest to Telemachus and his assistants that Odysseus has special treatment in store for him. Such binding and suspending of a captive from a beam or plank is a customary prelude to execu- Galiano, and A. Heubeck, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey, III: Books XVII-XXIV (Oxford 1992: hereafter 'Fernando-Galiano') 304, "the four lines [describing Melanthius' execution] have the look of an interpolation." 3 W. B. Stanford, The Odyssey of Homer 2 (New York 1965) ad 22.474-77. • It also bears mentioning that, pro-aristocratic biases of modern commen­ tators notwithstanding, servants in the Od. are not ipso facto of ignoble char­ acter. Odysseus' castigation of the young Phaeacian Euryalus (8.166-85) points out that the noble are not necessarily above rude and contemptible be­ havior. The lowly Eumaeus, we learn (15.413), is the son of a king. On the in­ ternally noble character of Odysseus' loyal servants, see S. D. Olson, "Ser­ vants' Suggestions in Homer's Odyssey, " Cj 87 (1992) 219-27. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. RICK M. NEWTON 7 tionary torture, in both literary and historical contexts. 5 Ho­ mer's text, therefore, quietly but clearly indicates that Odysseus initiates the punishment while literally keeping his hands clean of the violence. The hero is involved in the execution but emo­ tionally divested. His silencing of Eurycleia makes it clear to the reader and listener that he does not relish this action. The pun­ ishment of Melanthius is simply something that must be be done. 6 The Iliad provides a parallel, albeit emotionally charged, to the mutilation of Melanthius. Although that poem presents many scenes in which individuals threaten to mistreat the corpses of 5 Cf Il. 21.453ff (Laomedon's intention to torture Apollo and Poseidon); Soph. Aj. 106-10 (Ajax's treatment of the ram whom he takes for Odysseus); Plut. Per. 28 (Pericles' treatment of the leaders of the Samian revolt). 6 It remains unclear why, of the available forms of torture, Melanthius is subjected to execution by amputation of his extremities. According to Antin­ ous' account (21.295-304), the drunkenness of Eurytion the Centaur at a banquet of the Lapiths resulted in outrageous behavior, which led to his being thrown out on the porch and having his ears and nose sliced off with a knife. The story suggests that this form of punishment may be inflicted on unruly guests by a host as a means of restoring decorum to the gathering. The drunk­ en Eurytion was out of control (21.298, f.LalV6f.LEVO~ 1((ilI:' EPE~E 06f.LOV 1(u'ta nEtptiliolO), and his punishment by "tipping" may be interpreted as an act of assertion by the master of the house reclaiming control of the feast. Antinous' tale as a warning to the disguised Odysseus against trying his hand at string­ ing the bow is consistent with this suggestion. Antinous, acting as master of the feast, uses the Eurytion story as a way of keeping the begging stranger in his proper place. It is significant, therefore, that Antinous' warning to Odys­ seus is overheard and countered by Penelope, who reminds the would-be mas­ ter of ceremonies that it is improper that the guests of Telemachus (21.313, ~dvou~ TT)AEf.LUx'OU) be treated in this way. The suitors' threats to ship Irus to Echetus the ogre (18.84-87, 115f) occur in a similar context. The removal of this beggar to the porch by the disguised Odysseus restores order to the party. Antinous, acting as master of ceremonies, welcomes the new beggar with a paunch stuffed with fat and blood while threatening to send Irus for muti­ lation. This threat underlines Antinous' delusion that he is master of the feast in a house where he is actually an uninvited guest. Odysseus' execution of Me­ lanthius, interestingly, occurs within a context of restoring decorum to the house. Only after the maids have scrubbed down the blood-stained tables (a detail suggestive of preparations for a feast) and «restored order to the entire hall" (22.457, E1tel 01] 1tUV f.Ltyapov OlE1(o(Jf.L';cravw) do Telemachus and his assistants drag Melanthius through the courtyard to the porch and subject him to torture. In Book 17 Melanthius attempts to keep the begging stranger out of the palace for fear that he will ruin the suitors' feast (cf 17.219f). The punishment of the goatheard at the hands of T e1emachus and his assistants underlines that, with the slaughter of the suitors, Odysseus has regained control of his house and of the decorum within. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 ODYSSEUS AND MELANTHIUS their victims, only one character actually follows through.7 Achilles does indeed attempt to defile the corpse of Hector in a fit of rage that is both intense and protracted (22.394-404, 24.14-18).8 Scholarship on this eruption of the Achaean hero's violent nature has established that the sight of Hector in Achil­ les' armor triggers a nexus of emotional responses in Achilles. Seeing Hector before him, the hero is confronted with a vision of himself, the warrior who sent his beloved Patroclus into battle. Besides harboring visceral hatred for Hector as the slayer of his dearest companion, therefore, Achilles feels a combina­ tion of rage with Patroclus for falling victim to Hector,9 shame at not having confronted Hector himself,lO and responsibility for the death of his friend. 11 Achilles is faced with an image of the 'other' on which he projects his unbearable feelings. This 'other', however, is a literal reflection of Achilles himself, a vis­ ual reminder of the tragic error that he committed in sending Patroclus into battle.12 This interpretation is borne out by Achil­ les' own words as he mourns Patroclus at 18.82f, "I have de­ stroyed him ('tOY a1t(OA£6vou<;;) over the breast of his companion (18.316f, 23.17f) likewise suggest that these hands are responsible for Patroclus' death.14 Facing Hec­ tor, therefore, Achilles confronts his own self-image, and his defilement of his arch-enemy's corpse becomes an exercise in assuaging his conscience, directed against an 'other' who is a reflection of his own self. With this parallel as background, let us consider Odysseus and Melanthius. What about this goatherd marks him out in Odys­ seus' estimation for special punishment? If Achilles sees unbear­ ably negative aspects of himself in Hector, is it possible that Odysseus has an analogous experience when he sees Melan­ thius? The first suggestion that Melanthius may trigger such as­ sociations is to be found in Odysseus' initial encounter with him. Making his way to his palace for the first time in twenty years, the hero encounters Melanthius driving a herd of Odys­ seus' own choice goats to be slaughtered for consumption by the suitors (17.214, alya<;; a.yo)V, at 1tUOt ~E'tf1tp£1tOV ai1tOAiolcrt). Physical and verbal abuse ensues, as Melanthius taunts the ragged beggar for his unsightly appearance, kicks him on the hip, and threatens to sell him into slavery. The exchange, under­ standably, "enrages Odysseus' heart" (17.216, OptVE ~£ lci\p '~u- 0110<;;). But Odysseus' reaction may be attributable to more than Melanthius' rudeness and violence. For the hero's own past includes an experience in which he drove off someone's choice livestock and subjected his victim to physical and verbal abuse. His actions in this past episode are of pivotal importance in sealing the fate of his crew as well as the sufferings that he en­ dures alone on Ithaca. In Book 9, after escaping from Polyphemus' cave and driving off the monster's best rams (9.425f, 432, £'\>'tPECPfE<;;, 8uou~aAAol, KaAoi. 't£ ~E)'aAOt 'tE '" apvElo<;; yap EllV, ~"A(j>V ox' a.PlO'tO<;; 1ta.v'tCJ)v), Odysseus proceeds to taunt the Cyclops whom he has just blinded. It is especially interesting that the stolen rams are a special breed, "with fleece of dark-violet hue" (9.426, iO~VECP£<;; dpo<;; EXOV'tE<;;), bearing the color of "the black violet." 15 Fleece of such an unusual natural color, occurring without the application of dyes, must have made these animals especially valuable. The wool from such sheep appears, for example, in 14 Segal (49f) reads a similar accountability into this phrase at 24.479. 15 Cf Theophr. Hist. PL 1.13.2, loy 'to ).liMV; Theoc.!d. lO.28,lov J.liMV. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 ODYSSEUS AND MELANTHIUS the silver basket from which Helen, sitting in near-Olympian splendor in her palace in Sparta, spins yarn on a golden spindle (4.135). Given the unusual nature of the Cyclops' rams, the name of Melanthius in Book 17 may therefore be significant. Re­ turning to his palace, Odysseus finds a man named "Black Flower" driving off goats that are the pick of the herd. But stealing livestock and subjecting the owner to physical abuse do not suffice for this goatherd. Like Odysseus with Polyphemus, the Ithacan servant taunts his victim as well. Seeing in Melan­ thius' actions a shadow, as it were, of his own behavior with Polyphemus, the hero may well experience the sort of 'flash­ back' that Achilles experiences when he sees Hector in his own armor. For just as Achilles faces a reflection of his own culpa­ bility with regard to the death of Patroclus, Odysseus is now confronted with a visual reminder of the episode marking the beginning of the hostility that Poseidon directed against him and his companions. Melanthius, in short, inflicts on Odysseus the same abuse and violence that he had earlier inflicted on the Cy­ clops. In Melanthius, Odysseus sees the 'other' who provides a reflection of his own self. If this reading is correct, we may expect to find indications in Book 17 of a reversal, as it were, of events in Book 9. If Melan­ thius' behavior recalls the earlier behavior of Odysseus, does Odysseus now begin to resemble Polyphemus? Melanthius' taunts indeed suggest that, in his eyes, the ragged beggar has the makings of a Cyclops: "If you could only give him to me to keep my stalls, sweep my pens, and fetch fodder for my kids, he would develop a sturdy thigh muscle from drinking whey" (17.223ff), he boasts to Eumaeus.16 Odysseus' response to the kick builds on the Cyclopean nature of his sufferings at this point (17.235ff): "Odysseus pondered whether he should leap up (JlE'tutl;m;) and kill the man with his staff or lift him into the air and dash his head against the ground (1tP0C; yTjv)." In pon­ dering whether to kill Melanthius outright, Odysseus recalls the heroic endurance that he exhibited when he restrained himself 16 E. M. Bradley, "The Hybris of Odysseus," Soundings 51 (1968) 33-44, finds parallelism in the syntactic structure of Melanthius' abusive statement in 17.251ff and Odysseus' taunt of Polyphemus at 9.523ff. For a discussion of Polyphemus' rustic expertise as a dairy farmer, see N. Austin, Archery at the Dark of the Moon: Poetic Problems in Homer's Odyssey (Berkeley 1975) 143-49. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. RICK M. NEWTON 11 from killing Polyphemus in the cave. 17 He managed to curb the 'heroic impulse' that would have driven him to slay the mon­ ster outright. But his second deliberation shows him consider­ ing a distinctively Cyclopean form of violence, for at 9.288ff Polyphemus "leapt up (avai~(X(;), grabbed hold of two com­ rades and beat their heads against the ground (1tO'tl rain) as if they were puppies."18 These verbal echoes, occurring within curiously parallel contexts, invite the interpretation that Odysseus' encounter with Melanthius evokes memories of his earlier encounter with Polyphemus, an exchange disastrously marred by the hero's pride and folly. It is universally acknowledged in the scholar­ ship that Odysseus' taunting of Polyphemus and boastful declar­ ation of his name is, however deeply rooted in the world of heroic values, an act of hybris. 19 Exulting in his victory and rubbing salt, as it were, into the monster's wounded eye, Odys­ seus declares his identity and thereby enables Polyphemus to in­ voke the curse that results in the loss of Odysseus' compan­ ions, long delays in his homecoming, and subsequent trouble in his own house. 20 Indeed, Odysseus' plight on Ithaca fairly repli- 17 His deliberation to strike Melanthius with his staff (17.235f, P01tUACP) also invites the reader to recall the Polyphemus episode, where Odysseus wields the same weapon against his adversary (9.319, P61tUAov). 18 It is interesting to note that each incident ends with a curse directed against the perpetrator of the violence: Polyphemus' prayer to Poseidon at 9.526-35 is paralleled by Eumaeus' prayer to the nymphs at 17.238-46 to punish Melanthius. Both the Cyclops and the swineherd, furthermore, raise their hands to the sky as they utter their curse. 19 For Odysseus' hybris in this episode, see C. S. Brown, "Odysseus and Polyphemus: The Name and the Curse," Comparative Literature 18 (1966) 193-202; Bradley (supra n.16); K. Reinhardt, Tradition und Geist (Gottingen 1960) 47-112; E. Dolin, "Odysseus in Phaeacia," GrazBeitr 1 (1973) 272-82; and N. Austin, "Name Magic in the Odyssey," CSCA 5 (1972) 1-19; contra, S. Olson, "'Name-Magic' and the Threat of Lying Strangers in Homer's Odyssey," ICS 17 (1992) 1-7. 20 For the fullest and most recent studies of this episode from a perspective that reads the hero's culpability within the contexts of a heroic impulse that displays a proclivity toward hybris, see R. FRIEDRICH, "Heroic Man and Polymetis: Odysseus in the Cyclopeia," GRBS 28 (1987) 121-33, and "The Hybris of Odysseus," ]HS 111 (1991: hereafter 'Friedrich 1991') 16-28. Odys­ seus is initially able to quell the heroic impulse, as he refrains from slaying Polyphemus, but is unable to sail away from his victim without declaring his full name. The ferocity of Odysseus' baiting of the Cyclops is attributable to the utter self-abnegation required by the ruse of anonymity. The heroic ego cannot long endure such intense suppression and thus reasserts itself with a vengeance when Odysseus finds himself at a reasonably safe distance from Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 ODYSSEUS AND MELANTHIUS cates that of the Cyclops in his cave. Both Odysseus and Poly­ phemus enter their homes only to find them invaded by unin­ vited guests who taunt the owner, consume his livestock, and inflict physical harm on him. 21 Odysseus' victimization by Me­ lanthius in Book 17, therefore, foreshadows the 1tu81'\ that Odysseus will endure as he fulfills the final stage of the curse of Polyphemus-1tu81'\ that Odysseus has ultimately brought up­ on himself through gratuitous and mean-spirited violence. 22 The fact that Melanthius is the first abuser whom he encounters on Ithaca makes this scene ominousP When Odysseus turns to punish Melanthius in Book 22, how­ ever, he does not take sadistic delight in his victory. His heroic impulse remains in check. This dispassionate stance suggests that, by this point in the narrative, he has undergone a shift in his attitude toward the role that human beings play in their own suffering, as well as the role played by those individuals who mete out the necessary punishments. The contrast with his atti­ tude in Book 9 is telling. There, the hero remains oblivious to the monster. By this reading, the Cyclops episode demonstrates that the heroic ethos that drives behavior on the Iliadic battlefield is misplaced in the world of the Odyssey. 21 For studies of the Cyclops episode that emphasize Odysseus' violation of xeneia, see R. M. Newton, "Poor Polyphemus: Emotional Ambivalence in Odyssey 9 and 17," CW 76 (1983) 137-42; N. Austin, "Odysseus and the Cy­ clops: Who is Who?" in C. A. Rubino and C. W. Shelmerdine, Approaches to Homer (Austin 1983) 3-37. Friedrich (1991: 26) finds the hero especially hybristic in setting out to "test" (9.174) the Cyclops' degree of civilization while himself behaving in a most uncivilized manner. 22 Odysseus' measures to defend himself and escape from the monster's cave are not in and of themselves culpable: see B. Fenik, Studies in the Odyssey (Wiesbaden 1974) 210. But the hero indulges in excessive, gratuitous, and even sadistic violence while saving himself. The graphic similes describing the blinding indicate that, after Odysseus destroys the pupil, he proceeds to burn out the entire eye up to and including eyelashes and eyebrow. Odysseus subjects his victim to an unnecessary degree of pain. 23 For Odysseus' culpability in the death of his comrades, contrast the opening lines of the poem with the subsequent narrative. The proem attributes the death of the crewmen to their own folly in devouring the forbidden cattle of Hyperion. But this accounts only for the loss of the men from the last sur­ viving ship. The other eleven ships, i.e., some 92% of the original band, are destroyed by the Laestrygonians in the aftermath of the Cyclops episode. The folly of Odysseus' companions accounts for the loss of only 8% of the group. The bulk of the losses is to be attributed to the curse of the Cyclops and thus ultimately to the folly of Odysseus. For an explanation that would attribute this discrepancy to the poet's pro-Odysseus bias, see J. S. Clay, "The Begin­ ning of the Odyssey," AJP 97 (1976) 313-36, and The Wrath of Athena: Gods and Men in the Odyssey (Princeton 1983) 9-53. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. RICK M. NEWTON 13 his own accountability, despite indications from men and gods that his actions have exposed himself and his comrades to unne­ cessary danger. While taunting the Cyclops, Odysseus hears the vain pleas of his men, "Wretch (axE-tAtE, 9.494), why do you insist on provoking such a wild creature?" Odysseus' behavior here qualifies as the sort of oxEtALOV E'pyov which he will later mention in his caveat to Eurycleia. In Book 9, however, he remains blind to his recklessness: "So they spoke, but they could not persuade my high-spirited heart" (9.500, roc, 7t£p llopOV aAYE' Exo'Uatv). The hero's behavior in Book 22 is markedly different. His ex­ planation to Eurycleia that the suitors have been destroyed by the fate of the gods and their own wretched actions (22.413, TouaOE O£ 1l0tp' tOullaaaE 8ewv Kat aXETALa (pya) amounts to an accurate and precise translation of Zeus' earlier pronounce­ ment. Odysseus' own intense and protracted sufferings in the aftermath of the Cyclops episode have converted him into a spokesman for the theodicy of Zeus. This conversion allows, indeed compels, him to interpret the sufferings of the suitors, Melanthius, the maids and, most importantly, himself in a new light. The hybristic goatherd must be punished because he has violated the laws of Zeus. By the "fate of the gods" this man was born a servant and was therefore compelled to cater to the out­ landish suitors. Through his own "wretched deeds," however, he subjected his master to gratuitous verbal and physical abuse. Odysseus cannot, therefore, exult in or even claim credit for the punishment of this man. To do so would be, as he tells Eury­ deia (22.412), a sacrilege (OUX oalT,), an appropriation of some- see W. W. Merry, Homer: Odyssey I (Oxford 1899) 106. This strange interpre­ tation has been put forth again in the otherwise solid and persuasive reading of Friedrich (1991: 2M; supra n.20: 128). The Homeric text is quite 'Odyssean' in suggesting, without explicitly declaring, that the hero sacrificed and ate one of the monster's sheep: see Newton (supra n.21) 140. Odysseus' violation of the Cyclops' cave is identical in kind to the suitors' violation of the Ithacan palace: the suitors and Odysseus alike help themselves uninvited to the abundantly available meat. In the end, perhaps, it remains immaterial exactly what the hero ate in the cave. His offense against xeneia lies in his invasion of the monster's home and his subsequent overly-clever attempt to manipulate the rules and protocol of xeneia to his advantage. This accounts in large part, I posit, for Zeus' endorsement of Poseidon's wrath. Odysseus' behavior out­ rages more than one deity, but his abuse of Zeus-sanctioned xeneia marks him out for punishment by the one god who guarantees the sanctity of the host-guest relationship. Like the suitors on Ithaca, Odysseus is the first offen­ der in the exchange of incivilities in the Cyclops' cave and, like the suitors, he must pay for his crime. For expressions of the archaic notion of justice, which dictates that the first offender be punished, cf IL 4.234-39; Hes. Th. 166, 172; Gp. 265-72; Archil. 66D; Aesch. Cho. 123. Od. 20.394 expressly states that the suitors were selected for punishment· since they were the first offenders of propriety" (1tpo-n:pol yap U£l1C£U I!T]Xuvorov'to). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. RICK M. NEWTON 15 thing that rightfully belongs to the gods. 25 Odysseus is merely the agent, not the author, of Melanthius' agonizing death. 26 Had he not learned from his errors, we might expect him to vent his spleen while punishing Melanthius, protracting the torture and asserting his heroic identity to the man who had wronged him. But Odysseus, as already noted, does not even carry out the execution: he quietly delegates the task to his son and loyal ser­ vants in such a way that scholars have questioned whether he even authorized it. Thus, both the execution of Melanthius and the way in which it is carried out attest to the depth of Odys­ seus' conversion. In singling out this culprit whose actions mirror his own, Odysseus punishes his foolish and reckless former self, expunging that hybristic side of his character that had outraged the gods. By distancing himself from this deed of necessary justice, furthermore, and assigning authorship, as it were, to divine fate and the victim's own criminality, Odysseus bears the most credible witness possible to the theodicy of ZeusY As recently argued (Friedrich 1991: 27), Zeus chastises and chastens the hybristic hero 25 Cf. the elegant translation of Fernandez-Galiano ad 22.413: «It was destiny, not I, who brought death upon them, and their own wickedness." 26 It is reasonable to surmise that, had Melanthius not attacked Odysseus in Book 17, he would have been killed along with the suitors by one of Odys­ seus' arrows or perhaps in the company of the treacherous maids. The fact that he is singled out for separate torture away from the group balances the abuse to which he subjects Odysseus outside the hall. Just as Melanthius is the first Ithacan to attack Odysseus, furthermore, so is he the last to be executed. The fate of the suitor Ctesippus reveals a similar type of poetic justice: he who hurled a cow's hoof at the master (20.299-302) is slain by an arrow from the bow of the cowherd (22.287-91). 27 It is relevant to this discussion that Zeus illustrates the declaration of his theodicy in Book 1 with the example of Aegisthus, the only other individual in the poem whose corpse is violated. At 3.259ff Nestor reports that Aegisthus' body was left lying in a field outside the city walls, to be devoured by birds and dogs and left unmourned by the women of Achaea. The refusal of Aegis­ thus to heed the warnings of Hermes (1.42f, aAA' au