Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The Critical Element in the Embarkation Scenes of the Odyssey
Greene, Elizabeth S
Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Autumn 1995; 36, 3; ProQuest
pg. 217

The Critical Element in the 
Embarkation Scenes of the Odyssey 

Elizabeth S. Greene 

T RAVEL TO OR FROM Odysseus' homeland in Ithaca and 
throughout the Mediterranean requires a sea journey. 
Scholars from W. Arend to S. Reece have identified de­

partures, whether by land or sea, as examples of typical ele­
ments in Homeric poetry.l The nautical embarkation scenes in 
the Odyssey demonstrate the poetic dexterity of the Homeric 
author, as they provide an audience with the means to deter­
mine the outcome of an expedition from the moment that a 
crew of sailors sets out to sea. Within the motif of embarkation, 
the inclusion or elimination of elements from the extended for­
mula allows an audience to predict the success or failure of a 
voyage. For the sake of this evaluation, successful journeys are 
defined as the safe arrival at a destination without loss of vessels 
or crew. Critical among the typical elements of each successful 
expedition is a libation, in which proper prayer and offerings are 
made to the gods; all unsuccessful journeys lack this element. 
This study presents a contribution to the oral poetics of the 
Odyssey, specifically the manipulation of an extended formula 
to enhance artistic communication. 

Such formulaic scenes as arming, supplication, feasting, sacri­
fice, and departures-in addition to the embarkation motif­
are common throughout the Iliad and the Odyssey, leading 
scholars to comment on the traditional nature of the Homeric 
works.2 Recent scholarship, however, has focused on the diver­
gence from convention, "where recognized traditional ele­
ments are brought into play but where we do not get quite 
what we expected, and what we do get seems to be specially 

I W. Arend, Die typischen Scenen bei Homer (Berlin 1933) 79-91; S. Reece, 
The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric 
Hospitiality Scene (Ann Arbor 1993) 37ff. 

2 For a compilation of the works of M. Parry, see A. Parry, ed., The Making 
of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry (Oxford 1971). 

217 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

218 EMBARKATION SCENES IN THE ODYSSEY 

created for the occasion."3 Significant literature describes the 
"arming scenes" in the Iliad, the preparations for battle made by 
Paris, Agamemnon, Patroclus, and Achilles. 4 Although each 
hero follows an unvarying sequence of arming-he must put on 
or take up his greaves, corslet, sword, shield, helmet, and 
spear-the addition or subtraction of details to the formula 
personalizes each arming sequence. 

The arming of Paris as he prepares for his duel with Menelaus, 
the first in the Iliad, sets up the arming motif by providing only 
the basic elements of the formula. Later, the arming of Aga­
memnon is three times longer than that of Paris; each piece of 
armor is described in detail as if to emphasize the glory of the 
king (Armstrong 344f). With the arming of Patroclus, the 
original formula returns with a single critical embellishment. 
Patroclus puts on the armor of Achilles, but cannot lift the 
spear of his mighty friend; his failure forbodes the ultimate 
impossibility of his deception (Armstrong 354). Finally, Achil­
les, filled with wrath and rage, takes up his arms. Seven vital 
lines separate the point at which Achilles takes up his shield and 
his helmet. Lines 19.374-79 describe the great shield of the 
warrior from which 

'tou 0' amXVEUSE oEAa~ YEVE't' ,;ihE 1.l:fJVT\~. 
ro~ 0' O't' UV h: nov'tOw OEAa~ VaUtnOl <pav,;n 
KawllEVOLO nupo~, 'to 'tE KaiE'tal \njloS' Opeo<Pl 
o'taSIli!> EV oionoACfl' 'tou~ 0' OUK ESEAov'ta~ UEAAm 
nov'tov En' iXSuoEv'ta <piAoN amXVEUSE <PEPOUOW' 
~ an' 'AXlAAfio~ oaKEO~ OEAa~ aiSEp' '{KavE5 

This glimmer or flash from the weapon, Krischer's Waffen-

J J. A. Russo, "Homer against His Tradition," Arion 7 (1968) 280. 
4 Il. 3.330-38, 11.1-44, 16.131-44, and 19.369-91 respectively; G. Kirk, The 

Iliad: A Commentary I (Cambridge 1985) 313, tabulates the occurrence of the 
six stages of arming for each of the four heroes; detailed discussions of arming 
sequences in J. ARMSTRONG, "The Arming Motif in the Iliad," AJP 79 (1958: 
hereafter' Armstrong') 337-54; B. Fenik, Typical Battle Scenes in the Iliad 
(=Hermes Einzelschrift 21 [Wiesbaden 1968]); and Russo (supra n.3). See K. 
Stanley, The Shield of Homer (Princeton 1993) 372 nA, 322f n.l02 for further 
bibliography. 

5 "the light glimmered far, as from the moon. 
And as when from across water a light shines to mariners 
from a blazing fire, when the fire is burning high in the mountains 
in a desolate steading, as the mariners are carried unwilling 
by storm winds over the fish-swarming sea, far away from their loved ones; 
so the light from the fair elaborate shield of Achilles 
shot into the high air." (Tr. Lattimore.) 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ELIZABETH S. GREENE 219 

glanz, foretells the fate of a warrior in battle6 and is the critical 
element in battle preparation that allows an audience to know 
how each hero will fare in combat. In the four scenes men­
tioned above, the arms of Achilles and Agamemnon give off 
flashes of radiant light before their victorious battles, while the 
weapons of fated Paris and Patroclus are heavy and powerful 
but lusterless. 

Krischer studies the occurrence of the flash in other battle 
preparations that result in victory, including those of Diome­
des, Hector, and Idomeneus'? For Diomedes, Athena "made 
weariless fire blaze from his shield and helmet" (5.4, ()o.lE ot h: 
Kopu8oc; tE Ko.t a,O'1tL()OC; a,KaJ.l.o.tOV 1tUp); Hector's armor "glit­
tered like the thunder-flash of aegis-bearing Zeus" (11.66, AO.J.l.CP' 
roc; tE 01tEP01tTt 1to.tpOC; ~toC; o.iytOXOLO); and the bronze armor of 
Idomenaus "flashes as a portent to men and the bright glints 
shine from it" (13.244, ()EtKVUC; of\J.l.o. ~pOtOlcrtV' a,pi~TlAOt ()E Ot 
o.iryai). In each situation, the Waffenglanz foretells success in 
the battle at hand. By the subtle alteration of elements within 
the extended formula, each arming or battle preparation reflects 
the fate of the warrior it portrays. 

Another instance of poetic manipulation of a typical scene oc­
curs in the motif of supplication in which one character hum­
bles himself and requests the favor of another. 8 The first occur­
rence and classic example of this formula in the Iliad can be seen 
in Thetis' supplication to Zeus at 1.498-527. Before making her 
plea for aid to the Trojans, Thetis crouches before Zeus, 
touches his knees (Aa~E youvCJ)v) with her left hand, and takes 
his chin in her right.9 She makes her plea and clings fast to Zeus 
until the god nods his head to her request. The maintenance of 
physical contact until the granting of a request is the critical 

6 T. Krischer, Formate Konventionen der homerischen Epik (=Zetemata 56 
[Munich 1971]) 36. 

7 Krischer (supra n.6) 36ff; the scenes at 5.1-8, 11.56-66, and 13.240-45. 
These additional scenes cannot properly be called "arming scenes" as they 
lack the six definitive elements of arming; each scene, however, gives a 
description of a warrior before his entrance into battle. 

S The supplication motif is examined by J. GOULD, "Hiketeia," IRS 93 (1973: 
hereafter 'Gould') 74-103; V. PEDRICK, "Supplication in the Iliad and the 
Odyssey," TAPA 112 (1982: 'Pedrick') 125-40, esp. 125 n.1, for more extensive 
bibliography. 

9 A detailed description of these elements in Gould 75ff. 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

220 EMBARKATION SCENES IN THE ODYSSEY 

element in the fifteen instances of supplication in the Iliad. 10 

Gifts, ransom, or rewards may be offered by the suppliant to 
support his plea, but these have no bearing on the outcome of 
the event. 

Of the fifteen scenes of varying length and narrative character 
(9.581-87, 10.454-57, 11.130-42, 16.573-80,20.463-69,22.338-43, 
22.414-28), there are eight supplications accompanied by phys­
ical contact, specifically touching the knee, and seven supplica­
tions without physical contact. No supplicant who neglects to 
grasp his expected protector's knees meets with success. Of the 
eight supplicants who initiate physical contact with their 
supplicand, five (1.498-527, 9.451£f, 15.660-70, 18.457, 24.477-
508) receive the desired favor. For the remaining three scenes 
in which physical contact is initiated within the supplication 
formula but without success of the plea, Gould offers an ex­
planation: the knee-touching stands as the critical element of the 
supplication scenes. 11 In an epic based on the wrath and power 
of man, in which decisions are made by emotion rather than 
rational thought, the act of physical contact enforces the utter 
abjectivity of the supplicant and injects a sense of humanity into 
a tale of war and vengeance. 12 

10 Gould (80 n.39) lists thirty-five scenes of supplication in the Iliad and the 
Odyssey. Of those with clear outcomes, he finds that twenty-two are 
accepted, while ten meet with failure. 

11 6.45-65 (Adrastus to Menelaus), 21.64-119 (Lycaon to Achlles), 22.239-42 
(Priam and Hecuba to Deiphobus, as impersonated by Athena). Gould (80) 
points out that the supplication of Adrastus has persuaded Menelaus to spare 
him, but that he is killed by Agamemnon, to whom he has made no plea. 
Lycaon releases the knee of Achilles before he is granted mercy. The final 
case, not mentioned by Gould, describes the supplication of Hecuba and 
Priam to Deiphobus, given to Hector by Athena in the guise of his brother. 
Athena states falsely (22.239-42): 

li9d' ~ /LEv 1toi..A.a 1tu'tl]P lCUl1tiYtvlU /Lli'tT\p 
i..icrcrov9' E~ElTlC; YOUVOU/LEVOl. a/LCjll 0' E-tUlPOl 
U-i'>9l /LEVElV' 'tolov ya.p U1tO'tpo/LEoumv ii1tuv'tEC; 
aU' E/LOC; Ev009l 9u/LOc; hElpE'to 1tEv9El i..uyp<\:>. 

The wise goddess designs this statement to lead Hector to his death against 
Achilles. Pedrick (139) disagrees with Gould's explanations, citing the cases of 
Adrastus and Lycaon: "It makes no difference [in the Iliad] whether a correct 
ritual of supplication accompanies a plea." In my view, Gould's comments 
seem valid and the critical element of supplication in the Iliad remains the 
knee-touching gesture. 

12 Pedrick (129) notes: "For the heroes of the Iliad supplication operates 
strictly on a human level, commanding respect only so far as custom and 
human sanctions compel." To this end Pedrick argues that the supplication 
ceremony "exercises no binding force." It seems, however, that the act of 
physical contact specifically appeals to the humanity of the supplicand. 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ELIZABETH S. GREENE 221 

No such obvious critical element for supplication occurs in 
the Odyssey. Supplicants, strangers, and guests are tacitly gran­
ted protection under the aegis of Zeus tKE'tijcrLO<;. No longer are 
bribes or ransom offered to strengthen the plea. The knee­
touching becomes an optional element, included, excluded, or 
mentioned as a consideration with the verbs youvci~Ecr8(xt or 
YOUVElcr8at when the physcial act is impossible (Pedrick 126). 
Instead of appealing to the humanity of the supplicand through 
physical contact, the supplicant in the Odyssey presents himself 
as a \.1(£'t11<;, with an appeal to the protection of Zeus implicit and 
vital to every successful scene. 13 

An explicit invocation to the gods serves as the critical ele­
ment in the scenes of embarkation in the Odyssey. Embarka­
tion scenes precede virtually all instances of seaborne travel and 
describe the nesessary preparation for a voyage. Common de­
tails include boarding and rigging of the vessel, sitting down to 
oars, and receiving a favorable breeze from the gods. The suc­
cess or failure of the voyage at hand depends upon the inclusion 
of a sacrifice. As in the case of the arming and supplication 
scenes of the Iliad, the degree of descriptive detail may vary, 
but the critical element must be included. 

There are fifteen embarkation scenes in the Odyssey, invol­
ving Odysseus (10), Telemachus (2), Penelope's suitors (1), Nes­
tor (1), and Menelaus (1).14 The scenes may occur in Homer's 
narrative or be reported in the speeches of various characters. 

13 Scenes of supplication in the Odyssey, identified by use of At<l"OOllat and 
often l1C£'tT]<;. include: 3.92-101=4.322-31; 5.545-50; 6.146-85; 7.142-52; 9.259-
71; 10.264-69; 13.231-35; 14.276-84; 15.277f; 22.310-19, 343-54,365-70. Of 
these cases, the only examples of rejected supplication are the pleas of Odys­
seus to Polyphemus, and Leodes to Odysseus. In both cases the supplicant has 
already violated the rules of guest-friendship and does not have the right to 
protection under Zeus l1CE'tTt<Ho<;. In the case of Odysseus' supplication to 

Polyphemus, Pedrick (133) notes that the inhuman Cyclops is not constrained 
by fear of the gods. 

14 Two embarkation scenes are described in the Iliad. At 1.308-17 Aga­
memnon draws his ship down to the water and boards with Chryseis, twenty 
rowers, and a hecatomb for the gods. After setting out to sea, the sailors 
sacrifice bulls and goats to Apollo. Another passage, 1.430-83, describes the 
voyage of Agamemnon and Odysseus back to the camp of the Achaeans after 
returning Chryseis to her father. The night before embarking on their jour­
ney, the Achaeans anchor their ship in the harbor of Chryse and make 
sacrifice to Apollo. At the break of dawn, they receive a favorable wind from 
Apollo, raise the mast and sails of their vessel, and head back to camp. No 
shipwreck scenes occur in the Iliad, but the connection between sailing and 
sacrifice may be suggested here as well. 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

222 EMBARKATION SCENES IN THE ODYSSEY 

Generally, the narrated events are more detailed than the re­
ports, but all involve typical elements to be defined below (see 
TABLE 1,226£ infra). Embarkation scenes occur in Telemachus' 
journey to pylos; Nestor's return from Troy; Menelaus' 
journey home from Egypt; the suitors' attempted ambush of 
Telemachus at Asteris between Ithaca and Samos; Odysseus' 
escape from Calypso's island and arrival at Scheria; his storm­
filled journey from Troy to Ismarus, to the home of the Lotus­
Eaters, to the land of the Cyclopes; his voyage from Aeolus' 
island and back; his escape from Polyphemus' island; his voyage 
from Circe's island to Hades and back; his terrible journey past 
the Sirens and Scylla and Charybdis to the island of Helios; his 
storm-ridden, all-destroying departure from Helios' island; his 
trip home to Ithaca organized by the Phaeacians; his fictional 
sailing from Crete to Egypt and from Phoenicia to Libya; and 
Telemachus' return from Pylos to Ithaca. 

Both of Telemachus' adventures are successful: he sets out to 
Pylos to find news of his father, safely arrives at the palace of 
Nestor, and returns home with ship and crew intact. While in 
the Peloponnese, Telemachus hears of the expeditions home 
from Troy by Nestor and Menelaus. The suitors of Penelope, 
who attempt to sabotage Telemachus' return, do not achieve 
their mission, but do return safely to Ithaca. Odysseus, how­
ever, is perpetually overcome by shipwreck. More than half the 
voyages undertaken by Odysseus result in storms, shipwreck, 
or loss of crew. 

The first example of a typical embarkation scene occurs in the 
description of Telemachus' voyage to Pylos to visit the palace 
of Nestor. Telemachus reaches Pylos with his vessel and crew 
intact and finds generous hospitality there. The embarkation 
scene sets forth the basic elements of the formula (2.416-33): 

A li 0' apa Tl1AEflaxo<; VT\o<; pa'iv', apx£ 0' 'AOitvl1, 
vl1'i 0' Evt 1tpUflVn Ka't' ap' i:C£'to' anl 0' ap' a\l'tll<; 

B i:C£'to Tl1AEflaxo<;· 'tot Of 1tPUflVitOl' EAuoav, 
C liv Of Kat au'tot pav't£<; E1tt KAl1'iol KaO'iCov, 

'to'iOLV 0' tKfl£VOV o.opov 'tel 'YAa.uKCi)1tl<; 'AOitvl1, 420 
UKpall ZEcpupov, K£AaOov't' E1tt otvo1ta 1t6v'tov. 

D Tl1AEflaxo<; 0' e-rapOlOLV E1to'tpuva<; EKEA£UO£V 
01tACOV a1t't£oOm' 'tot 0' o'tpuvov'tO<; aKouoav. 
io'tov 0' dMX-rLVOV KOlAl1<; EV'tOOO£ fl£OOOfll1<; 
o'tlloav udpav't£<;, Ka'tIX Of 1tPO't6VOlOLV E0110av, 425 
i:AKov 0' io'tla A£UKIX EUO'tPE1t'tOlOl PO£UOLV. 
£1tP110ev O' afl£vo<; flEOOV iO'tlOV, UflCPt Of KUfla 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ELIZABETH S. GREENE 223 

O'teiPl1 1tOpcpu peov ~£)'w..' lUXE V'T)Os iouCJ'T)~' 
it a' EeEEV ICu'ta 1&~u alU1tPtlOOoUou ICEAEUOOV. 

E a'T)Oa~EVOl a' apu 01tAa OOl,V <iva vf\u ~EAalVOV 430 
F o'tftouv'tO ICp'T)'tf\pu~ £mo'tEcpE~ OlVOlO, 

AE'if30V a' <iOuva'tOlOl OEO'i~ uiEl 'YEVE'tl10lV, 
£IC 1tav'tCov at: ~aAlo'tu Lho~ 'YAaUICromal ICouPl1.1 s 

Six steps comprise an ideal embarkation scene: (A) boarding 
the vessel with crew, belongings, and supplies; (B) hauling the 
ship down to sea, casting off from shore, or releasing the 
anchor; 16 (C) setting out to sea (receiving a favorable breeze 
from the gods or beginning the journey with rowing); (D) 
rigging the vessel (stepping and fastening the mast and raising 
the sails); (E) making fast the rigging; (F) offering libation to the 
gods. Although the first five elements general1y occur in a set 
order, sacrifice and prayers may be offered at any point in the 
processY TABLE 1 lists the fifteen embarkation scenes and their 

15 A Telemachos went aboard the ship, but Athene went first 
and took her place in the stern of the ship, and close beside her 

B Telemachos took his place. The men cast off the stern cables 
C and themselves also went aboard and sat to the oarlocks. 

The goddess grey-eyed Athene sent them a favoring stern wind, 
strong Zephyros, who murmured over the wine-blue water. 

D Telemachos then gave the sign and urged his companions 
to lay hold of the tackle, and they listened to his urging 
and, raising the mast pole made of fir, they set it upright 
in the hollow hole in the box, and made it fast with forestays, 
and with halyards strongly twisted with leather pulled the white 

sails. 
The wind blew into the middle of the sail, and at the cutwater 
a blue wave rose and sang strongly as the ship went onward. 
She ran swiftly, cutting across the swell of her pathway. 

E When they had made fast the running gear all along the black 
ship, 

F then they set up mixing bowls, filling them brimful 
with wine, and poured to the gods immortal and everlasting 
but beyond all other gods they poured to Zeus' grey-eyed 

daughter. (Tr. Lattimore.) 
16 If the ship is not already anchored or moored in a harbor, it must be 

carried down to sea. The order of steps A and B is interchangeable, depend­
ing on the original location of the vessel. 

17 In scene 9, Odysseus' round-trip to Hades from Circe's island, sacrifice 
occurs in Hades. Circe provides Odysseus with a ram and a black ewe 
(10.572) and orders him to sacrifice them to Persephone and Hades in the Un­
derworld. Within the embarkation scene (11.4), reference is made to the load­
ing of the two sheep for future sacrifice. The animals serve a dual purpose as a 
sailing sacrifice and a bribe to the spirits of the Underworld. This single sacri­
fice is sufficient for both legs of the voyage. Sailors in scenes 4, 11, and 12 offer 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

224 EMBARKATION SCENES IN THE ODYSSEY 

inclusion of typical elements. Analysis of the table demonstrates 
that the sixth element, the making of proper libation, is vital to 
the success of the voyage. 

Successful expeditions are nos. 1-4, 7, 9, 12-13, 15, while at­
tempts that result in storms, shipwreck, or loss of crew are nos. 
5-6, 8, 10-11, 14. Each embarkation includes at least two identi­
fying elements: boarding the vessel (A) and setting out to sea 
(C). As seen in TABLE 1, the inclusion of steps B, D, and E is op­
tional; the poet may include these elements as he desires with 
no visible effect on the outcome of the expedition. Embarka­
tions resulting in successful voyages may include as few as two 
(13) or three (2, 7, 12) of the first five elements, as long as the fi­
nal element is not omitted. Only two of the embarkations (1, 9) 
include all six steps. 

The critical element of the embarkation formula, sacrifice or 
the invocation of an immortal, occurs in various forms. The 
length of the scene, the type of dedication, and the god or 
goddess to whom the prayer is directed all are subject to poetic 
manipulation. Telemachus and his companions pour wine to all 
the gods, but focus their attention on Athena who recently 
offered aid to the son of Odysseus (2.431£f): 

OTIto"Uv'to lCpT\'tllpae; Emo'tE<pEa<; OlVOto, 
Ael~OV o· <iSavu'tOlOl SEOle; aiEl'YEvETIlOLV, 
ElC 1tUV'tCOV Of j.lUAlo'ta L\loe; 'YMUlCc.OOtlOl lCOUP'll. 

Nestor too describes a general sacrifice (3.159, Ep€~aJ.l£v Lpa 
8EOlO'lV), which is later directed more specifically towards Po­
seidon (3.178f). The dedication that allows Menelaus to return 
to Sparta is described only briefly (4.582, Kat £p£~a t£A:rl€O'O'a~ 
hat6J.lf3a~); afterwards Menelaus receives a favorable wind 
from the gods. 18 

prayer or sacrifice some time before they actually embark on their voyage. In 
each case, however, mention of the upcoming journey is included in the invo­
cation to the gods. Antinous (4.667-72), as he arranges for the fast ship and 
twenty companions who will accompany him into ambush, asks Zeus for 
assistance in destroying Telemachus. The crew of Odysseus on the island of 
Helios and the Phaeacians, while their loaded ships wait in the harbor, 
combine sacrifice with a dinner feast on the night before they plan to leave. 

\8 The description of the sacrifice is brief, but follows a longer passage 
(4.472-80) in which Proteus details the ritual that Menelaus should follow. See 
229 infra for further details. 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ELIZABETH S. GREENE 225 

Similarly abbreviated descriptions of sacrifice occur in scenes 
7, 12-13, and 15. On the island of Polyphemus, Odysseus burns 
the thighs of a ram to Zeus (9.551ff, 'tOY 0' Enl SLYl ZTlVl KEAal­
vEcpfi Kpovion, oe; nacnv <lVacrcrn, pE~ae; J.lTlPi' EKaLOv). The dark­
clouded son of Cronus receives the burned thigh pieces of an 
ox as sacrifice from Alcinous before the Phaeacians carry Odys­
seus home to Ithaca (13.24f, 'tOlcrl Of f30uv lEPEucr' lEPOV J.lEVOe; 
'AAKlVOOLO ZTlVl KEAUlVECPEt Kpovion, oe; nacrlv <lVacrcrn). Later, 
Odysseus recounts to Eumaeus a fictional journey from Crete 
to Egypt. After readying nine ships, Odysseus provides his 
sailors with a six-day banquet and many victims for sacrifice to 
the gods (14.250f, au'tap Eyolv tEPilta nOAAa napdxov SEOlcriv). 
On the seventh day, he sets forth with a favorable North wind. 
Before leaving Pylos, Telemachus and his crew board their ves­
sel to begin the preparation for sailing. As Telemachus makes 
his prayers to Athena (15.222f, ~ 'tOl 6 J.lfV 'ta nOVEl'to Kal 
E'\>XE'to, SUE 0' 'ASilvn VTl'{ napa npuJ.lVn), he is approached by 
Theoclymenus who pleads for passage to Ithaca. No strict for­
mula directs these sacrifices or invocations. The descriptions 
are quite short and do not detail the ritual. 

By far the longest description of a departure sacrifice occurs 
in scene 11, Odysseus' embarkation from the island of Helios. 
From the formulaic elements in TABLE 1, the scene seems ideal. 
After a combined feast and sacrifice, Odysseus and his crew 
take advantage of a calm day for sailing; they board their vessel, 
set out to sea, raise the mast, and hoist the sails. The description 
of the sacrifice, however, is clearly improper. The unusual 
length and detail of the sacrificial passage emphasize the impro­
priety of the act (12.353-65); 

aU'tlKa 0' 'HEAiotO porov tt..acrav'w; apicr'ta~ 
EyyU9EV' OU yap 'tllAE VEO~ KUaV01tpcppOtO 

355 POcrKEcrKov9' EAlKE~ KaA.a.t POE~ EUpuIlE'tC01tOl" 
'ta~ Oe 1tEplcr't"crav'to Kat EuxnovCO'to 9EO'icrl, 
CjlUAA.a. OPEIjIUIlEVOl 'tEpEva OpUO~ UljIlKOIl0tO· 
OU yap EXOV KP'i AEUKOV EucrcrEAIlOU E1tt Vll0~. 
aU'tap E1td p' d)~av'to Kat EcrCjla~aV Kat EOetpaV 

360 Il11POU~ 't' E~€'tallov Ka'tu 'tE KV icrn EKUAUljlaV 



R
eproduced w

ith perm
ission of the copyright ow

ner.  Further reproduction prohibited w
ithout perm

ission.

SCENE A B C D E F OUTCOME N 
N 

Board Haul Set out Rig boat Fasten Prayer Cl' 

ship to to sea rigging or 
sea or sacrfice 

cast off 

(1) 2.414-33 416£ 418 419H 422-28 430f 431H Arrival at Pylos trl 
Telemachus leaves Ithaca ~ 

tTl 
C:l 

(2) 3.153-79 153-57 153 157f, 176£ 159, 178f Return to Pylos > :3 Nestor returns from Troy ~ a- ~ I'> 
579f > ... (3) 4.576-82 579 5n 578 582 Return to Sparta :;.;- ...., 

I'> Menelaus returns from Egypt ...... ... 0 o· (4) 4.667f, 778-84, 842f 778f 780 842f 781-84 667-72 Safe return to Z ::l 
t/) Suitors go into ambush Ithaca Vl 
n 

260f 269f Shipwreck 
(") 

til (5) 5.260-71 263-67 268 trl ::l ~ Odysseus leaves Calypso's Odysseus Z til > '" t:o;j island has wine, trl 
I'> t""' Vl 
::l rTl water, and ...... 
Q.. ...... supplies, Z 
~ but does ...., 
::r 

~ til not sacri-:=;. 
flee trl 

~ (6) 9.41-78 60f 63 76£ 78 Storms and loss 
0 

... 
Odysseus and crew journey Odysseus of fleet 

t:l 
n ~ 0 from Troy to the land of the and crew :3 V) 

til Cyclopes (through Ismarus drink ~ 

'" and the land of the Lorus wine and ~ 

Eaters) slay 
sheep, but 
do not 
sacrifice 

(7) 9.469-72, 552-64 469ff,561£ 562 472f, 563f 550-53 Arrival at Aeolus' 
Odysseus and crew escape 
from the land of the Cyclopes 

island 



R
eproduced w

ith perm
ission of the copyright ow

ner.  Further reproduction prohibited w
ithout perm

ission.

(8) 10.19-27 23f 19-27 Released winds 
Odysseus and crew leave cause storm 
Aeolus' island 

(9) 11.1-12,636-40 4f,636£ If,637 6ff, 638ff 3 9-12 4 Successful voyage 
Odysseus and crew make loading of to and from 
round-trip voyage to Hades sheep for Hades 
from Aeaea sacrifice 

24-33 
sacrifice in 

Hades 
144ff 145 145-50 151ff tTl (10) 12.144-53 Scylla eats six t"" ..... Odysseus and crew travel Odysseus crew members N 

from Circe's island to Helios' and crew :> 
island feast until 0;:1 

tTl 
sunset, t-i 
but do :::r:: 
not sacri- ~ 
fice 0 

(11) 12.353-404 401 401 399f 402 353--i>5 Shipwreck 
:;:c 
tTl 

Odysseus and crew make the improper tTl 
fateful trip from Helios' sacrifice Z 
island tTl 

(12) 13.18-46, 70-92 70-75 77 76-92 24-46 Return to Ithaca 
Odysseus returns to Ithaca 
with the Phaeacians 

(13) 14.248-54 252 252ff 251f Arrival at Egypt 
Odysseus' fictional account of 
his trip from Crete and Egypt 

(14) 14.295-300 295 299f Shipwreck 
Odysseus' fictional journey 
with the Phoenicians 

N 
218-21 286 286-94 287-91 222f 

N (15) 15.218-23,283-94 Return to Ithaca "-I 
Telemachus returns from 
Pylos 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

228 EMBARKATION SCENES IN THE ODYSSEY 

oi1t't\)~a 1tOt TjcraV'tES E1t' au'trov o' ro~oehllcrav' 
ouo' ElXOV ~Ee\) AE'i\j1al E1t' aieO~EVOtS lEP0'icrW. 
aAJ,: uoan cr1tEvOOV'tES E1tOl1t'tIDv E'YKa'ta 1taV'ta. 
au'tup E1tEl Ka'tu ~i1p' EKU'Tl Kal cr1tM'YXva 1tucrav'tO, 

365 ~icr't\)A.A.6v 't' (ipa 't&A.A.a Kal a~<p' O~EA.o'icrw E1tElpav.19 

The starving crew of Odysseus sacrifice the sacred cattle of He­
lios, use oak leaves in place of barley meal, and pour libations of 
water rather than wine-all incorrect sacrificial elements. Upon 
arising from his slumber, Odysseus expresses horror at the 
hideous act committed by his crew (12.370-73). 

The inappropriate sacrifice is separated from the actual embar­
kation by twenty-three lines (12.374-96) that detail Helios' cha­
grin at the slaughter of his cattle and his appeal to Zeus for ven­
geance. Zeus agrees to destroy with a thunderbolt Odysseus' 
ship and crew. Evil portents from the gods interrupt prepar­
ations for the feast (12.395f, EP1tOV J.l.EV (nvot, !CPEel 0' UJ.l.q>' 
O~EAolcrt J.l.EJ.l.UKEt, 01t'telAEel 'tE !Celt wJ.l.a· ~o&v 0' roc;, 'YtYVE'tO 
q>CI)vi). The improper embarkation sacrifice of Odysseus' men 
has not been accepted by the gods. As soon as the sailors lose 
sight of land, a stormy West wind greets their vessel with ruin. 

In no other ill-fated expedition are sacrifice and prayer at­
tempted. The crafty Phoenician merchant in scene 14 sets sail 
without a thought to the immortals. Interestingly, in all other 
scenes that introduce unsuccessful voyages, opportunity for 
sacrifice is apparent. When Odysseus leaves Ogygia, the poet 
gives a detailed description of the dark wine, water, and gen­
erous bag of provisions granted by Calypso (5.265ff), but Odys­
seus offers none of this to the gods. At Ismarus, Odysseus' 
crew drink wine and slay sheep and oxen (9.45f), but never 

19 At once, culling out from near at hand the best of Helios' 
cattle; for the handsome broad-faced horn-curved oxen 
were pasturing there, not far from the dark-prowed ship; driving 
these, they stationed themselves around them, and made their 

prayers 
to the gods, pulling tender leaves from a deep-leaved oak tree; 
for they had no white barley left on the strong-benched vessel. 
When they had made their prayer and slaughtered the oxen and 

skinned them, 
they cut away the meat from the thighs and wrapped them in fat, 
making a double fold, and laid shreds of flesh upon them; 
and since they had no wine to pour on the burning offerings, 
they made a libation of water, and roasted all the entrails; 
but when they had burned the thigh pieces and tasted the vitals, 
they cut the remainder into pieces and spitted them. 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ELIZABETH S. GREENE 229 

donate their bounty to the gods. On Circe's island, Odysseus 
and his crew feast until sunset on meat and wine (12.29f), but 
neglect a sacrifice related to their expedition. Aeolus provides 
Odysseus with an entire month of entertainment (10.13-16) 
during which the hero recounts his days in Troy, but pays no 
homage to the immortals. In each case, the sailors are provided 
with time, opportunity, and materials for a proper sacrifice, but 
do not attempt the ritual. 

If safe passage over the wine-dark sea is desired, proper offer­
ings must be presented to the gods. Menelaus reports this max­
im, as stated by Proteus in Book 4. After lingering without wind 
on the island called Pharos for twenty days, Menelaus captures 
the ancient servant of Poseidon to question him on his own 
fate. Proteus reponds to Menelaus' query with the words 
(4.472-80): 

aAM lLaA' roCPEAA.t<; L\ti 't' aAAotO"lV 'tE 8E010"t 
pE~rte; lEpa ICaA' aVrt~rttvEILEV, ocpprt 'taXtO"'trt 
aTtv Ee; 1trt'tpio' '{ICOW 1tAECOV E1tl oivo1trt 1tov'tov. 

475 OU )'lip 'tot 1tplv 1L0'iprt cpi'Aoue; iOEEtv ICul lICE0"8ut 
OtICov EUIC'tiILEVOV KulO"l)v Ee; 1tu'tpiOrt 'Yrt1.UV, 
1tpiv y' <Yr' iiv A iy()1t'totO, Ott1tE'tEOe; 1tO'tUlLo'io, 
rtime; uocop £A8ne; pE~ne; 8' lEpae; EICU'toILPUe; 
a8uva'totO"t 8E01.O"t, 'tol oupuvov rupuv £xouO"t· 

480 ICrtl'to'tE oroO"ouO"tv ooov 8EOl, ilv O"U ILEVotv~.20 

Proteus reminds the Spartan king that sacrifice to the immortals 
is mandatory for successful voyages. Menelaus heeds his warn­
ing and is enabled to return, having offered acceptable heca­
tombs. He recalls (4.585f), tCltl't(X n:A,£ut~crClC;; V£OJlllV, OiOocrClV 
Oe JlOt oupOV a9avCltOt, tOl Jl' cbKCl cpiA,llv iC;; 1tCltpiO' E1t£Jl'VClV. 

The inclusion of proper sacrifice and prayer within an embar­
kation scene foretells a successful journey; the omission of this 
element indicates the reverse. By reshaping standard elements 
in a formula, the poet introduces flexibility to the epic tradition. 
In both the Iliad and the Odyssey, typical scenes can be person-

20 But you should have made grand sacrifices to Zeus and the other 
immortal gods, and so gone no board, so most quickly 
to reach your own country, sailing over the wine-blue water. 
It is not your destiny now to see your people and come back 
to your strong-founded house and to the land of your fathers 
until you have gone back once again to the water of Egypt, 
the sky-fallen river, and there have accomplished holy hecatombs 
in honor of the immortal gods who hold wide heaven. 
Then the gods will grant you that journey you so long for. 



Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.  Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

230 EMBARKATION SCENES IN THE ODYSSEY 

alized in terms of length, detail, and the use of critical elements. 
The traditional nature of the Homeric works is defined by the 
inclusion of typical passages, but the poet demonstrates adapta­
bility by clever manirulation of these very scenes. Within the 
traditional context 0 a formula, the type-scenes of embarka­
tion, supplication, and arming are designed to let an audience 
know in advance whether each preparation will result in 
success or failure.21 

TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY 

October, 1995 

21 I am grateful to John R. Lenz, George F. Bass, Richard P. Martin, and 
the reader for GRRS for their helpful suggestions on drafts of this paper.