HARMONIA : Journal of Arts Research and Education 16 (2) (2016), 163-171 Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/harmonia DOI: 10.15294/harmonia.v16i2.8126 p-ISSN 2541-1683 e-ISSN 2541-2426 Political Practice and Its Implication on Folk Art Marginalization (Case Study of Wayang Orang/ Human Puppet Ngesti Pandhowo) Restu Lanjari Department of Drama, Dance and Music, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Semarang, Indonesia Jl. Taman Siswa, Sekaran, Gunung Pati, Semarang, Jawa Tengah 50229 E-mail: restulanjari1961@mail.unnes.ac.id Received: October 1, 2016. Revised: December 4, 2016. Accepted: December 11, 2016 Abstract The government, political practice, both reflected in the government, politics, policies and the attitude of the public figure, influences the existence of folk art that is overshadowed by changes as the results of modernization and industrialization. The aim of this research is to find out the marginalization of folk art because of political practice. This research was done using a qualitative approach while the subject of this research was Ngesti Pandhawa Human Puppet Group. The result of this research showed that folk art could be marginalized because of the influence of the changes in economic and politic that was formulated inside the modernization waves and technology development that offered new values. The attention of the government on the existence of folk art was still being questioned because of politic budget. The budget for art was extremely small compared to the budget for sport. The existence of folk art depended on the favor and interest of the local leaders, especially political interest. Keywords: political practice; folk art; marginalization; Ngesti Pandhowo How to Cite: Lanjari, R. (2016). Political Practice and Its Implication on Folk Art Marginalization (Case Study of Wayang Orang/ Human Puppet Ngesti Pandhowo). Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 16(2), 163-171. doi:http:// dx.doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v16i2.8126 INTRODUCTION Folk art can attract the interest of the public, if only the government also parti- cipates in it. Amidst the bitter news about the marginalization of folk art in 2012, the Governor of Central Java commented on Jathilan Art, “Jaran Kepang performance is the ugliest art in the world, it is so embar- rassing that the mayor of Magelang pre- sents this performance in this event” said Bibit Waluyo in his opening speech for The 14th Merapi and Borobudur Senior’s Amateur Golf Tournament Competing Hamengku Buwono X Cup at Borobudur International Golf and Country Club Ma- gelang, Sunday, September 9, 2012 (Kom- pas.com, 9 September 2012). At the event, kuda kepang performance was presented by Jathilan Art Group “Kartika Harapan” from Rojowinangun, Magelang. The statement then caused pro and contra, but it also made Jathilan perfor- mance to grow and develop in Kedu area. Getting a big attention, Jathilan, a dan- ce using a bamboo horse as the property, is a Javanese traditional dance themed a warrior dance that describes a horseman troops that was involved in supporting Prince Diponegoro’s insurrection against Netherlands. The Governor Bibit Waluyo who represented the governnment hadn’t seen the meaning of Jathilan performance for the local people especially the people 163 164 HARMONIA : Journal of Arts Research and Education 16 (2) (2016): 163-171 in Magelang. Irianto (2016) stated about the meaning and message inside Jatilan performance. Jatilan performance contains significant social values of the people such as mutual cooperation, helping each other by seeing a problem as the problem to- gether. In education world, kuda kepang tradition can be used as an expression and creation learning media at school (Ambar- wangi, 2014). Along with the pro and contra on the Central Java Governor’s statement, ap- pears a news on the media about the fall of folk art. “The folk art is dying, for example, classical gambang kromong from Betawi losses its stage and audiences. Whereas, it is the fondation of culture. the extinction of the folk art is the extinction of our cul- ture”. It was also stated on Kompas, “Folk art is getting fragile and dying”, Sunday, September 30, 2012. According to Kompas, the tragedy on folk art did not only happen in Betawi, the same tragedy happened on the case of Kubro Siswo in Mendut, Magelang, Central Java. When Bentara Budaya gave awards to the local artists by regarding them using the term “the marginalized ar- tists”. They did not receive a lot of attenti- on from the people and the policy maker, also had been marginalised from the social realization and economic. The term mar- ginalised used by Bentara Budaya (Gatra, 17 October 2012) does not only referred to those who is economically poor because their art works were under appreciated, but also to those whose art works were not popular in wider forum. The fall of folk art or traditional art was easily found on the case of puppet, ke- toprak, and human puppet in Central Java, or Ludruk and Reyog in East Java. It could be seen from the infrequent performance in the middle of the society when they held a wedding ceremony, circumcision cere- mony, ect. Ketoprak tobong and human puppet were rarely performed anymore. Dirjo Wiyono from Agung Budiaji group Yogyakarta (Suara Merdeka, 5 Oc- tober 2012) supported that nowadays the frequency of Ketoprak performance is de- teroriating. He experienced the golden era of ketoprak between 1984-1995 when there were many performances of ketoprak, the- re could be three orders in three different places a night. Now, it decreases to 4-5 ti- mes a month. Besides, as the effect of the changes in the society is not only because of the in- fluence of modernization and technology, but part of it was also influenced by the politic and policy direction about art. As mentioned by Kayam (1981, p. 17), art as a part of culture has to face open challenges that is widely opened so that foreign art elements are able to invade both through economic and politic and in the end over shadowed the art existed in the middle of the society. Meanwhile, the government politc and policy also does not favor the protection of traditional art so it increases the fall of folk art. The gap between goals to bulid a tough folk art and the fall of the folk art raised questions that became the main point of this research. The gaps are, first, the gap between the role of the govern- ment and the society in providing facilities for folk art. Second, the gap between the maintanance policy and facilities provisi- on for art field compared to other fields, for instance, if it is compared to sport field. Third, how dominant is the influence of that art politic compared to the influen- ce of the technology and modernization in the case of folk art marginalization. Fourth, what is the role of political party that reperesents the people’s aspiration in influencing the government policy practi- ce in protecting and developing folk art The marginalization process of folk art could be the result of social, culture, economic, politic changes or the develop- ment of technology, especially information technology. However, this research focus- ed on the political role of the decision ma- ker such as goverment, public figure, po- litic institution, and parlement institution. The problem of this research was the insti- tution marginalization process of folk art. Some researches on this topic that had been done before potrayed the chan- Restu Lanjari, Political Practice and Its Implication on Folk Art Marginalization 165 ging process of the traditional art existance. In the research done by Masyhuril (2008) entitled “Perubahan Apresiasi Masyarakat Terhadap Kesenian Tradisional (Studi Ka- sus Kesenian Kubrosiswo di Dusun Suro- wangsan Margorejo Tempel Sleman 1972- 2008)”, one of the conclusions derived was that in entertainment world, traditional art failed to compete with modern art. Be- sides, having general genre, modern art was easier to understand because it suited the taste of the market. It was different to the traditioal art that was simple and mo- notonous (people’s tradition) or if it came from the royal tradition (classic), it seemed complicated and difficult to be understood by the audience. Because of this competiti- ton, besides publication, the main demand of the competitor was creativity. These two things became the obstacle for showing the existance of the traditional art The researches related to human puppet Ngesti Pandhowo were quite a few. One of them was a research titled “Upaya Inovasi Bentuk Penyajian Wayang Orang Ngesti Pandawa Semarang dan Pengaruhnya Bagi Penonton (2001)” writ- ten by Subiarti, Mustikawati (2002) titled “Persepsi Pemain Wayang Orang Ngesti Pandawa Semarang dengan Kehadiran Pemain Luar, Pengambilan Keputusan Pemain Wanita Wayang Orang terhadap Keputusan menjadi Seniman (Studi Ka- sus Peran Ganda Pemain Wanita Wayang Orang)” written by Ratih (2000), and “Pola Pewarisan Pemain Wanita Wayang Orang Ngesti Pandawa Semarang” written by Anik Purwati (2005). Sainah also had ever written a research titled “Tokoh dan Fung- si Punakawan dalam Pertunjukan Wayang Orang Ngesti Pandawa di Semarang” in 2010. Sainah explained about Punakawan that was studied from its movement, text, make up and costume of Ngesti Pandhawa human puppet at Semarang. The function of Punakawan in a performance of Ngesti Pandhawa human puppet was as a nurtu- ring figure (symbolic function), the pointer or media of the story, and entertainer. The study that showed a close rela- tion between politic and the existance of traditional art had been done by Sutiyono (2010), in the reserach entitled “Pertunju- kan Wayang Kulit sebagai Media Kam- panye Pemilu 1971-1977: Studi tentang Hegemoni Negara terhadap Seni Tradi- sional”, Javanese tradional leather puppet (Surakarta and Yogyakarta Style) that was performed in Central Java, DIY, and East Java was used as the aspect of the research. Meanwhile, this research focused on the human puppet Ngesti Pandhawa group in Semarang as the subject of the research, not only it discussed about the existance of traditional art, but it also ans- wered the questions on how political prac- tice has a big role in the existence of folk art. Art is a part of a nation’s culture. Ac- cording to Kuntjaraningrat (1985, p. 2), art is build based on (1) religion system and ceremony; (2) the system and organization of the society; (3) system of knowledge; (4) language; (5) art; (6) the system to earn a living; (7) ecology and equipment system. Those elements are so strong that many people misuderstood that culture is the same as art. The order of the elements is also the order of the system from the element that is the hardest to the easiest to change. Art is in the fifth order, it is in the category of the element that is easy to change compa- red to the religion system, the organizati- on of the society, system of knowledge, or language. On the other hand, Kuntjaraningrat (1985, p. 117), mentioned that Indonesian art such as Bali and Javanese dance has reached the highest level of development so that they have special position. The con- sequence of the change is the possibility of the decline in quality. Art, according to Bekker (1984, p. 46), is part of culture that processes natural potential using sense and aesthetic approach. That process cre- ates an art as a communication media to its society. Art as part of culture is born, grown, and developed along with its social en- vironment. Kayam (1981, p. 38) said that art never stand-alone separated from its 166 HARMONIA : Journal of Arts Research and Education 16 (2) (2016): 163-171 society. Art is the expression of cultural creativity. Society as the pilar of the cultu- re gives the chance to create an art work. Society, in this case a community, that cre- ate an art work claimed it as theirs. This is then the beginning of the folk art or speci- fically folk song, folk dance, etc. Sedyawati (2006, p. 25) differentiate between art as an independent element in cultural system and art as a part of other elements such as religion element. As an independent element, art is shaped by (1) values and concepts devices that are the pointer for all the artful activities (both in creating and enjoying); (2) the artist, start from the designer, the presenter, the advi- sor (the producer included), and the audi- ence; (3) patterned and systematic action related to art such as practicing, creating, publishing, etc; (4) objects related to pro- cess of creating art, both used as media or art work. The relation between art and its so- ciety, according to Slamet Gundono (Sua- ra Merdeka, 14 October 2012), can be seen through the spirit of the folk art. Folk art that grows in coastal area will describe the coastal culture, so does the folk art in the mountainous area. The consequence of the folk art cannot be separated from the role of its society, both as the connoisseur and the protector of the folk art, for example by conserving art tradition. The role of public figure in the society as the protector of the art will also very crucial. Particularly for folk art, the peak of the asthetic is not the main goal, even though moral value still becomes the orien- tation. Art as communication media and social expression. Art is the symbol of so- lidarity and social need. Therefore, art can only exist because of social willingness. To maintain the folk art, realization of the im- portance of the tradition is needed so that the art can be the media to communicate and be creative. The character of the so- ciety is reflected in the movement, music, and fashion style. To get a clear visison on the chance of the culture field, particularly art, cannot be saperated from the social dynamic of its society, as stated in Stuctural Fungsiona- lism Theory coined by Talcott Parsons. Ac- cording to Nasikun (2012, p. 13), a society has to be viewed as a system than a corre- lated parts. Therefore, the relationship of influence-influencing between one part to another is dualism and mutualism. The political condition in Orde Baru Era or the New Order Era that is known as the authoritarian of Soeharto era, was exp- lained by Schwarz (1999, p. 1) as, “during three decades of authoritarian rule, Soeharto succeeded in restoring political stability to In- donesia and putting in place the policies that change Indonesia from economic basket case to a thriving, developmental success story”. In this kind of political setting, the influence of patronage is very central, including art field. Based on the interest of politic party, a visible position that can be understood by the society is needed. Political posi- tioning concept, according to Firmanzah (2008, p. 165), is that a party needs to cre- ate products and images to differentiate itself to other party. Each parties must try to be dominant in controlling the thought of the society. As a result the party will be remembered, become the reference, and be the choice of the society. The role of politic, at least the role of the government in nurturing the folk art will be stated by Umar Kayam. Regarding the case of human puppet of Sriwedari Solo, Kayam (2002, p. 1961) stated that as a package of art, Sudha human puppet has been proved as a good art by presenting good materials, and is still be a potential entertainment for its society. It will rely on how the maintainer, the advisor, the goverment wrapped the art work claverly and sensitively suited the taste of the au- dience. This research focused on the role of political subsystem, in this case govern- ment, in maintaining and protecting the existance of folk art because of moderni- zation and technology development. As mentioned by by Sudikan (2001, p. 68) and some previous researches, this research ai- med to answered some qusetions such as Restu Lanjari, Political Practice and Its Implication on Folk Art Marginalization 167 (1) how a nation, government, manages the politic and the policies to stengthen the existance of folk art, (2) how the political policies of the local government protect folk art from the impact of modernization and technology development. METHOD This research, just like any other so- cial science reasearch, was a qualitative research. It did not involve numbers and statistics. According to Rohidi (2011, p. 4) because art must be placed completely in the circle of society so this research used qualitative approach. The secondary data were collected through literature study while prima- ry data were collected through interview and participantory observation. Another source of the data were Ngesti Pandhawa Human Puppet Group, Central Java and Semarang local government, both regar- ding the opinion and the policies related to art in general and Ngesti Pandhawa in particular. The data were analyzed using interactive model of Miles dan Huberman (1984) that starts from the process of col- lecting data, reducing data, and drawing conclusion. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ngesti Pandhawa as Social, Cultural, and Economic Institution Several phenomena regarding folk art happened all over Indonesia can be seen cleary through the case of Ngesti Pandhawa Human Puppet in Semarang. As a picture of folk art, Ngesti Pandahawa is widely known, it even became the icon of art in Semarang and represented Cent- ral Java or Indonesia. In its golden era, ac- cording to Muhammad (2007, p. 38), Nges- ti Pandhawa had been widely known by foreign tourist from all over the world. Ngesti Pandhawa first came to Se- marang in 1952, it was not the first puppet group in Semarang. In 1935, there was Sri Wanito Human Puppet Group which de- veloped rapidly and in 1952, even owned a building in Dr. Cipto Street. But in 1995, it went bankrupt, the member left and the building was broken down. Ngesti Pandhawa became more es- tablished in 1959, when the performance was recorded by Romaco. The recording occur from 1960’s until 1970’s. That era, un- der Sastrosabdho’s leadership, was Ngesti Pandhowo golden era. They did not only deliver exceptional performance in drama dance or dance but the backsound and its gending-gendingan was also well made by Ki Nartosabdho. Even the stage technique was also well managed, for example, how they picture a flying Gatotkaca, transform Kresna into a giant, or make other charac- ter disappear, etc. The golden age of Ngesti Pandhowo started to fade when the founder Sastrosa- bdho died on Januari 8, 1966. It got even worse in 1980’s when the other founder Sastrosudirdjo died on July 9, 1984, and Nartosabdho in October 7, 1985. Besides internal changing of Ngesti Pandahwa, there was also social changing that pushed the art of Ngesti Pandhawa aside because its stategic performing loca- tion was replaced as business center such as malls and hotels. Even though, they were forced to move from their buliding in 1997, Semarang Local Goverment helped the member of Ngesti Pandhawa to find another building to perform and housing complex for the member. According to Cicuk Sastrosudirdjo (Portal Semarang, 16 December 2011), the leader of Ngesti Pandhawa, because they were relocated, the members of Ngesti Pandhawa were scattered. Half of them lived in Arya Mukti Area, Bandung Bon- dowoso Apartment, while the rest of the members lived in housing complex. However, the members of Ngesti Pandhawa did not give up to choose hu- man puppet as their choice of art. Ngesti still exists, having 85 members and fixed performing schedule every weekend at Taman Budaya Raden Saleh (TBRS). By purchasing a ticket for IDR 10,000 , the au- dience can enjoy Ngesti Pandhawa Perfor- mance for 2 to 4 hours. 168 HARMONIA : Journal of Arts Research and Education 16 (2) (2016): 163-171 Even though, Ngesti Pandhawa only performs once a week, they can still use the goverment’s building in Taman Budaya Raden Saleh Complex at Sriwijaya Street, Semarang. Besides that, they are also fun- ded by APBD of Semarang. The Need of Protection on The Existance of Art Tradition A nation must build its cultural poli- tic based on various cultural elements in- cluding the variety of the folk art from all over Indonesia (Kayam, 1981, p. 45). Daha- na (2012) mentioned that our culture will be stagnant even degradated if the folk art both modern of contemporary as the foun- dation of the art is dying. If the local art is marginalized, the producer of art will be extinct. Systematically, the effort to interpret cultural values including local culture, in- side the amandement, have a strong foun- dation in the amadement of UUD 1945. The government has the responsibility to develop the natioal art of Indonesia as sta- ted in Article 32 of UUD 1945: “Pemerintah memajukan kebudayaan nasional Indonesia.”. After the amandement, the article was di- vided in two verses that states: “(1) Nega- ra memajukan kebudayaan nasional Indonesia di tengah peradaban dunia dengan menjamin kebebasan masyarakat dalam memelihara dan mengembangkan nilai-nilai budayanya; (2) Negara menghormati dan memelihara baha- sa daerah sebagai kekayaan budaya nasional (Sadono, 2011)”. The article implied the government’s responsibility to pay atten- tion on the development of the national culture. The constitution has pointed out the politic of culture including art as the res- ponsibility of the government and the right of the society. The government policy com- bined with the society’s creativity, aspira- tion, concern, and resolve will determine the existance and development of folk art. If seen from the existing condition, inclu- ding the Malaysia’s claim on Reog Ponoro- go and Tor-tor dance can be the illustration of the nation political practice, both done by the government and the society who are ignorant when it comes to art so that folk art is becoming more marginalized. Ngesti Pandhawa is lucky because from the beginning they got the support from the Mayor of Semarang Hadisubeno Sastrowerdojo who was also, at that time, the leader of Nasional Indonesia Party to use the building of GRIS foundation at Pemuda Street, Semarang. In 1945, Nges- ti Pandhawa permanently performed at GRIS building that was renovated to meet the need of the performance. The finest moment of the group was when President Soekarno visited Semarang and watched Ngesti Pandhawa performance and then invited them to perform at Istana Negara. They even got “Wijaya Kusuma” award from the government, based on govern- ment policy 26/1960, that was given on August 17, 1962. However, it raised a ques- tion, can the president’s kindness at that time be considered as the government’s attention on the art tradition especial- ly human puppet? Is the attention of the president and the mayor enough to main- tain the existance of art tradtion especially Ngesti Pandhawa human puppet? It can be a mere kind gesture of the president by giving a place and award as the genuine expression and appreciation from a presi- dent. Though, it can also be the implemen- tation of Bung Karno’s politic regarding culture that at time become the applicati- on of his politic attititude as the president who led a nation with variety of cultures as well as became the answer regarding western culture that may become a threat to the local culture. It can be seen that in his reign, Soe- karno implied his politic regarding culture based on the diferences of Indonesia (kebi- nekaan Indonesia) that must be maintained. It was proven by some of the art tradition that were greatly appereciated and invited by Soekarno to perform at Istana. Politic Practice and Its Implication on Art (Ngesti Pandhowo Group) The role of the nation, especially the government, in managing art, particularly folk art, can be seen from the politic regar- Restu Lanjari, Political Practice and Its Implication on Folk Art Marginalization 169 ding the budget. Wisanggeni (2012) stated that art cannot be controlled only by the help of APBD (local government budget). She stated that the collapse of folk art is at least because of two things. First, the mini- mum attention from the government and the society that is reluctant in watching art performances anymore. Second, the atten- tion of the government is not as big as the government’s attention toward sport, it can be seen from the amount of the budget given to the sport area. Refering to the case of Pati Regency, the development art can- not only be supported by the small amount of the government’s budget. Pati Art Board only gets 50 million rupiahs every year. Nationally, the attention on the cul- ture including art is concerning. Dahana (2013) said that the budget for culture in 2012 is 600 billion rupiah that is only 0.5 percent given by Education And Culture Department not from APBD. It seems like the government does not do anything re- garding culture. Thus, the government must be gratefull toward the artists in In- donesia that independently create the pro- cess, dynamic, and products of culture. Based on this, the lack of the government’s attention in developing and maintaining art tradition can be seen. The role of the society and govern- ment in maintaining or developing folk art is shown by Sedyawati (1981, p. 55). Besi- des artist and the society as the supporter of its existance and development, the de- velopment of folk art is also determined by the leader of the government, religion, and the parties that give sponsor, etc. The invol- vement of the the government’s officials, such as president, king, governor, regent, etc can associate the product of art to pres- tige and luxury. Therefore those leaders can promote new art. In the context of local government, Budihardjo (2012) stated that the government must have personal inte- rest towards art so that he can say loudly “if the governor dosen’t care with art, then he is uncivilized.”. this statement is the ex- pression of concern from the observer of art tradition that is concerned toward the critical future of the art traditions. It is undeniable as Clark (1997) states that there is the complex relationship bet- ween art and politics, showing how works of art can have a political purpose, and ex- plores the ways in which art styles become associated with political systems. As well as state propaganda, discusses the protest art of Marxism, pacifism, feminism and anti-colonialism. Hariadi Saptono, Executive Director of Bentara Budaya (2012), discussed about the minimum infrastructure in accomoda- ting art nowadays, the condition is diffe- rent from the condition in Orde Lama when President Soekarno gave special attention to art and culture. In Orde Lama era, art was used by the political party as a tool to reach the society. “So there was an infrastructure to the bottom and also maintenance.” The responsibility of the govern- ment in facilitating folk art is also reflected from the statement of the the professor of Indonesia Art Institute Surakarta, Rahayu Supanggah. Supanggah (2012) stated that the existance of the artist is underestima- ted. Because of that the government must give the opportunity, appreciation, not only in the form of money but also appre- ciation. Moreover, the government must help the artist to perform at a good and strategic place. The role of the government is needed because mostly traditional ar- tists have low education background and are vulnerable in facing industrilization and modernization. It is also portrayed through the case of Ngesti Pandhawa marginalization, they were cast out from a highly valuable land and the government was also “disinclin- ed” in defending the right to live in pros- perity and strategic place. The government economic, politic is more inclined to global economic law than formal law that would grant victory regarding the land dispute that was previously occupied by Ngesti Pandhawa Group for years. Unfortunate- ly, this was only done halfway. The Puppet marginalized people also could be explo- red its existence, for example in the field of tourism. The existence of this group can be a work of art tourism as said by Adler 170 HARMONIA : Journal of Arts Research and Education 16 (2) (2016): 163-171 (1989). Semarang has been often the arri- val of cruise ships from around the world is proof that Semarang very attractive for foreign tourists. The condition of this group margina- lization was worsened by the degradation of local culture that was replaced with glo- balized and capitalist culture of its society. Capitalist culture is the enemy of local cul- ture that contains solidarity value. As a re- sult, the supporter of local culture will also be marginalized. If they are more inclined on the business strategic area, the suppor- ter of local culture will also die. A culture, including art tradition will die if its society does not embroider art as a part of their life, even only as entertainment (Ambar- wangi & Suharto, 2014, p. 41). CONCLUSION The existence and growth of folk art can be facilitated by government’s politics and policy, through the public official and budget policy, especially the budget of local government, both province and city government. The attention of the govern- ment toward the existence of folk art is still being questioned because the existence of budget policy. The budget for art is extre- mely small than the budget for sport. Local government is the extension of the orientation and perspective of the central government. The existence of the folk art depends on the favor and interest of the local government especially political interest. Local government by the existen- ce of local autonomy focused only on the improvement of infrastructure and indust- rialization and as a result marginalized the development of the culture. The existence of the art tradition like human puppet is greatly influenced by global culture that influences the life style and point of view of its society. However, the role of the government can lead the flow of globalization by marginalizing or changing the life system of art community in embroidering art tradition as a part of their life because of economic factor. Whe- reas, art tradition can build civilization that is based on local culture. REFERENCES Alfian. (1982). Politik, Kebudayaan, dan Ma- nusia Indonesia. Jakarta: LP2ES. Ambarwangi, S. & Suharto, S. (2014). Reog as Means of Students’ Appreciation and Creation in Arts and Culture Based on the Local Wisdom. Harmo- nia: Journal of Arts Research and Edu- cation, 14(1), 37-45. Bakker, J. W. M. (1984). Filsafat Kebudayaan, Sebuah Pengantar. 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